SPEX208: Theorizing Sport & Exercise Reading: Lever, J. (1983). The Paradox of Sport: Integration through Conflict. In Soccer Madness. (pp. 1-23). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Social Theories § “It’s all well in theory” – something which sounds good but is practically ineffective. § Frameworks for understanding and explaining the social world § why the world is the way it is? § how it could be different? § Why use them? § They give us frameworks for: § asking research questions – directing our attention to certain ideas/aspects of society § interpreting information – how do we make sense of information? § uncovering deeper meanings § “Theory is interpretation. It gives order and insight into what is, or can be observed” (Denzin) § Theories have practical implications because they help us make choices Major Social Theories Used to Study Sports in Society § Functionalist theory § Symbolic Interactionism § Marxist theory § Feminist theories § Critical theory Functionalist Theory § Society made up of institutions – e.g., family, state, education, economy etc. which together form society § ‘Organic analogy’ § Function of any institution is to help society’s maintenance and coherence § Even deviance understood in terms of ‘function’: punishment of deviance reminds others to conform to societal norms § Functionalism is a Macro Sociological approach § Focuses on how interlocking institutions create society § The “rules” – both legal & social – which govern individual behaviour exist outside of the individual § behaviour is structured by needs of society Functionalist Theory: Consensus & Social order § Functionalism is a ‘consensus approach’ § emphasizes stability and equilibrium, explores compatibility and integration between the parts of society § Assumes shared values and agreement are the basis of social order § social order exists because individuals are integrated based on value consensus. § Socialisation helps individuals learn norms and values § “Socialization is the life-long process of learning the culture of any society. The term ‘culture’ refers to the language, beliefs, values and norms, customs, roles, knowledge, and skills which combine to make up the ‘way of life’ of any society” (Browne, 1992, p .6). § Sees society as meritocratic § social status is based on ability and how hard you work being rewarded with wealth & status § Inequality is therefore necessary and good– some people don’t work as hard as others so deserve less reward Functionalist Approaches to Sport § Sport is considered a social ‘institution’ § understood in terms of its contribution to maintaining overall societal equilibrium § Functionalism focuses on sport participation and outcomes for individuals and society § Role of sport in socialisation and learning of culturally ‘appropriate’/common values: e.g., fair play, abide by the rules § How sport helps generate normative consensus – maintenance of stability and social order § inter-relationships between sport and other institutions e.g., the economy Functionalist view of sport § Builds peace § Is a social ‘equalizer’ § Breaks stereotypes § Unites nations § Character building § Generates teamwork § Teaches discipline § Acceptable outlet for aggression § Good athletes make good citizens (Lapchick, cited in Sheard,1995) SPORT & RECREATION NZ “Our Vision, Our Direction” 2005 “Sport and other physical recreation activities make an important contribution to social cohesion at the individual, family, community and national levels. Community identity and feelings of community pride grow in a positive environment. With a nation-wide commitment to sport and physical recreation, such ties will grow.” United Nations Sport for Development and Peace: Towards Achieving the Millennium Development Goals (2005) “Sport brings individuals and communities together, highlighting commonalities and bridging cultural and ethnic divides . . . Sport can cut across barriers that divide societies, making it a powerful tool to support conflict prevention and peace building efforts” Functionalism: Case Study Soccer Madness (Lever, 1980) § Football helps Brazilian society cohere § ‘Integration through Conflict’ § Sport has a ‘divide and integrate role’ § “Sport’s paradoxical ability to reinforce social cleavages while transcending them makes soccer the perfect means of achieving a union between multiple groups” (Lever, 1980: 6) Using Functionalist Theory to act § Promote the development and growth of organized youth sports § Increase sport participation opportunities to foster individual and community development § Increase the supervision and control of athletes § To control deviance and norm maintenance § Highlight success in elite programs Investment in Elite Sports Programs § What would you spend (per medal) on ensuring New Zealand wins medals at major chamionships? § 1 million dollars? § 2 million dollars? § 3 million dollars? Weaknesses of Functionalist Theory: Weaknesses § Emphasising societal consensus ignores conflict § is society really meritocratic or is this idealistic? i.e. sport may benefit some groups more than others § ‘Dysfunction’ (Merton, 1957): modern world also consists of disintegrative tendencies which challenge the existing social order § Fail to appreciate the importance of power as a factor in sport’s development § “Functionalism has been more concerned with the theory of social order than with the reality of social inequalities” (Maynard, 1989) § Presents individuals as “over-socialised” without freedom to make their own decisions § Overstates the positive consequences of sport in society § Assumes that all social groups benefit equally from sports Summary § Functionalist theory § Consensus § Organic analogy, structure, function § Applications to sport § Forms the basis of dominant ‘common sense’ view of sport § Implicitly underpins ‘official’ understandings of sport e.g. governments, SPARC, United Nations. § Largely rejected within sociology of sport due to failure to evaluate power relations/ social division
