MODULE 1 MEANING OF PHILOSOPHY “. . . the unexamined life is not worth living” - Plato’s Apology (37e) - The word “philosophy” comes from the two classical Greek words: “Philos” means “love” and “Sophia” means "wisdom.” Therefore, Philosophy is defined as “love of wisdom” ✓ Thales and his successors posed the following question: At a fundamental level is the world made out of water, or air, or fire, or earth. ✓ Thales, along with his followers, tried to give philosophical accounts of the world and humanity. These philosophical accounts had to be verified or questioned based on the ‘Homeric and Hesiodic mythologies’ of their time. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle are the greatest Philosophers of all time SOCRATES the Father of Western Philosophy, teacher of Plato. PLATO known for his Dialogues and for founding his Academy north of Athens, traditionally considered the first university in the western world. ARISTOTLE the founder of the systematic, scientific examination in literally every area of human knowledge, and was known, in his time, as "the man who knew everything" ✓ SOCRATES and PLATO can be considered as one “There is a need to have Socratic questioning abilities. Socratic questioning is a disciplined, systematic form of questioning.” - Paul and Elder ✓ Questioning skill is necessary in order to organize one’s thoughts and ideas. SOCRATIC QUESTIONING is called dialectic method of teaching or discussion. It is used by Socrates, involving a series of easily answered questions that inevitably lead the answerer to a logical conclusion foreseen by the questioner. It is also called dialectic, which is the art or practice of examining opinions or ideas logically, often by the method of question and answer, to determine their validity. The SOCRATIC METHOD, as a process of philosophizing, is a tool to make learning possible through the use of critical thinking, reasoning, and logic. This technique involves finding holes in their own theories and then patching them up. PROCESS OF DOING PHILOSOPHY THE PROCESS OF DOING PHILOSOPHY BEGINS IN WONDER Wonder, in short, realizes that our ordinary understanding and sense of the world does not capture the totality of the reality of the world. Wonder realizes that material wealth, physical beauty and status in this world do not define life’s true meaning. Through wonder, a person questions the things around. However, it eliminates one’s doubt of the world and the things around. THE PROCESS OF DOING PHILOSOPHY ENGAGES IN REFLECTION OR THINKING PRIMARY REFLECTION capitalizes the “means-end thinking.” It treats its object as a means to an end. It considers its object as ‘sacrificial lamb’ inferior to its perceived superior goal. The object, including a human person, has an inferior existence ready to be sacrificed in favor of its perceived higher goal or end. • The primary reflection “I have” tries to compartmentalize the union of human experience. SECONDARY REFLECTION treats the primary reflection as a ‘fulcrum,” or its springboard is just that massive, indistinct sense of one’s total existence. It restores the unity of the fragmented and compartmentalized experience into a logical whole. • The function of secondary reflection “I am” is basically to unite and bring into the whole what has been destroyed. THE PROCESS OF DOING PHILOSOPHY ENTAILS THE FORMULATION AND EVALUATION OF ARGUMENT Does it mean philosophers don’t find an answer to their queries? According to Pannone (2017), thinkers found the answers. Yet, the answers need to be critiqued, reformulated, and challenged and so forth. ➢ The process of philosophical inquiry or doing philosophy requires a wondering and self-critiquing skill or ability. ➢ As a child, doing philosophy is recollection of a true identity of a human person who has a wondering or questioning mind. ➢ And as a thinking being, a human person can reflect (primary and secondary reflections), formulate an argument, and evaluate its soundness and validity. “Majority Wins” - How society defines truth SOCRATES/PLATO TWO WORD THEORY • • World Of Being (Form/Ideas/Soul) – Socrates/Plato’s Reality World Of Becoming (Matter/Body) While in Aristotle’s reality, it is both the being ang becoming. ARISTOTLE known because of his INDUCTIVE METHOD DEDUCTIVE METHOD - General to Specific - Learned from Socrates/Plato. PROPOSITION - Sentence/Statement Combination of Terms Claim/Judgement Declarative Sentence QUANTIFIER - UNIVERSAL and PARTICULAR Universal – all, everybody, anyone, any, no, no one Particular – some, most, few, several, few, not majority QUALITY - NEGATIVE and POSITIVE A – UNIVERSAL POSITIVE E - UNIVERSAL NEGATIVE I – PARTICULAR NEGATIVE O – PARTICULAR POSITIVE - INDUCTIVE METHOD Specific to General Aristotle MODULE 2 DISCERNING TRUTH AND OPINION “It is through the senses that we begin to gain knowledge.” - Aristotle 384-322 BC CRITICAL THINKING is the best possible way of determining which statements are based on truth and which statements are based on opinion. SOURCE OF TRUTH Knowledge Facts Claim DESCRIPTION clear awareness and understanding of something that is based on reality. propositions or statements which are observed to be real, truthful, actual, and certain any claim can be proven by verification and experimentation. It can either be factual or judgment. We make claims when stating our opinions or sharing facts with others. EXAMPLE 1. I know that the Kadayawan Festival is celebrated every month of August. 2. I know why education is necessary for future employment. 1. The planet earth is round. 2. Your heart pumps blood through your body. FORMS OF CLAIM CLAIM Claim of Fact Claim of Value Claim of Policy DESCRIPTION Something that has existed, and will exist. Asserts judgment whether it is good or bad, more or less. Something that should be or should not be done. EXAMPLE Cancer is a common disease, but it is not contagious. The chess game is boring. You must obey regulations. rules and How do we know if something is true? ✓ A statement is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of senses, according to Aristotle. ✓ A statement is true if it is based on facts. ✓ A statement is true if it is based on a consensus or having people agree on a common belief. ✓ A statement is true if it is based on proof through action. Philosopher’s Notion on Truth 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Plato Truth - is objective, which our reason apprehends. St. Thomas Aquinas- Truth is the conformity of the intellect and things. George Hegel - Truth is its self-movement within itself. Immanuel Kant - Truth consists in the agreement of mind and rationality with its object. Soren Kierkegaard - Truth agrees on mathematics, science, and history. ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ DISTINGUISHING TRUTH FROM OPINION TRUTH IS... OPINION IS... Actuality of events ✓ Personal View or Thought Statement that can be verified with ✓ Statement that cannot be proven evidence can be proven, seen or ✓ Based on someone’s thoughts, feelings observed and understanding Based on facts, events, and happenings ✓ It tells what someone thinks It tells on specific information about a ✓ It tells what someone feels. person, place or thing ✓ It tells what someone believes Can be checked through experiment and observation Often contains numbers, dates or ages EVALUATING OPINION 1. Source – The first thing to consider when evaluating and assessing an opinion is knowing the origin of the material. 2. Reliability - Consider the reputation and the expertise of the person about the topic. 3. Purpose - Evaluate if it is intended to inform or persuade. 4. Bias - prejudice in favor of or against one person, thing or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair. 5. Assumption - ideas that one accepts as facts but makes no effort to prove. Types of Philosophy Phenomenology Existentialism Logic and Critical Thinking METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING Characteristics Reality is made up of events perceived and understood by human consciousness Existentialism believes in the subjectivity of truth since man has the free will (freedom) to decide his reality. Study of correct thinking which focuses on the analysis of arguments. Proponents Edmund Husserl – Father of Phenomenology Immanuel Kant – German Philosopher Jean Paul Sartre - French Philosopher Soren Kierkegaard – Father of Existentialism Aristotle – Father of Logic Parmenides – Ancient Philosopher Thales – Ancient Philosopher Immanuel Kant – German Philosopher FALLACIES ✓ Arguments that are based on faulty and incorrect reasoning. These are intentional and are designed to persuade or to convince people. FALLACY Ad Hominem Attack against person Ad Misericordiam Appeal to Pity and Emotion Ad Populum Appeal to People Ad Baculum Appeal to Force Ad Verecundiam Appeal to misplaced authority Ad Ignorantiam Appeal to Ignorance Fallacy of Accident CHARACTERISTICS Attacking the person presenting the argument instead of the issue itself. Pleading for mercy and sympathy while disregarding the issue or point of the question. Presumes that a proposition must be true because most/many believe it to be true. Threatening a listener on a physical or psychological force as a justification for accepting the conclusion. Making an appeal using alleged expert advice that is not in proper authority. Asserting a claim that must be accepted because no one else can prove otherwise. Sweeping generalizations cause an error in reasoning. Fallacy of Composition Fallacy of Division Fallacy of Equivocation Fallacy of Word Construction Post Hoc False Cause Petitio Principii Begging the Question Assuming that what is true of a part is also true for the whole. Assuming that what is true for the whole is also true for its parts. Using a word that has the same spelling or sound, but it has a different meaning. Infers two interpretations either because of the grammatical structure or a word/phrase can have two possible meanings, causing the entire statement to be understood in two different ways. Assuming a claim on a cause-and-effect relationship between unrelated events. An argument fails to prove anything because it somehow takes for granted what it is supposed to prove. MODULE 3 ➢ MAN used to refer to the entire human race. ➢ HUMAN refers to man as a species ➢ PERSON refers to a human being granted recognition of certain protections, responsibilities, and dignity. ➢ HUMAN NATURE distinguish humans from all other creatures. UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSON AS EMBODIED SPIRIT FROM DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES A. DUALISTIC POINT OF VIEW OF HUMAN BEING “The Body as Prison to the Soul.” - Plato in Phaedo Human beings by nature are limited. This limitation is caused by having our bodies. Plato asserted that man is composed of body and soul. However, man is a soul using a body. With this, the relationship between the two is divided. For Plato, the body is material; it cannot live and move, mutable and destructible. In contrast, the soul is immaterial and can exist apart from the body. It exists before the body. When we died, our physical body died while our soul continues to live. Hence, he called the body the prison of the soul. Our body is treated as the coffin of the soul, and it can only be freed through death. Thus, the body limits the full potentials of the soul. This doctrine is connected to Plato’s theory of Forms where the material world (our world) is just a mere illusion while the Real-world is found in the world of Ideas. B. UNION BETWEEN BODY AND SOUL Aristotle asserts that there is no division between the body and the soul. The soul gives life to the body, while the body gives the soul its material entity. Hence, the body and the soul are in the state of unity. The soul “acts as the perfect realization of the body.” It is the soul that gives life to the body. It can only possess life when it is united with the soul. Thus, soul is the principle in life; it causes the body live. The body is matter to the souls and the soul form to the body. Therefore, the two are inseparable. They constitute man as a whole. “The knowledge of the world commences by looking at and examining what exists.” (Younkins, 2003) How do we know that the apple is red? We know that the apple is red because our senses tell us so. We come to know about the reality of the world because of our body. Without this body, nothing will be known. C. MAN AS A RATIONAL BEING Man has a body. However, he is not only a walking body. Man is equipped with rationality. According to Aristotle, rationality is what separates man from all other animals. What makes us different from the animal is our ability to think and reason out. By using this intellect, man can face complex situations and even can overcome his own limitations. LIMITATIONS OF MAN This part will lead you to the topic of the weaknesses, imperfection, and limitations and how he could overcome these restraints in his being. Having a body, we could conclude that it limits man from fulfilling his full potentials. It is indeed based on our experience. By nature, man is limited. This line of thought shares to the Platonic ideas about the tension between the body and the soul. Having a body is equivalent to having a lot of limitations. Man’s limitation can be attributed to the human body from the acquisition of knowledge to our physiological aspects. A. FACTICITY - It refers to the quality or state of being a fact It points-out to the things in our life that are already given like our life, gender, parents, and status in life. At times we use our facticity as an excuse for our difficulties and failures. We don’t dream big because we think we are born from a poor parent. We are afraid to speak up because we are women. John Locke once said, “so far, man has the power to think or not, to move or not, according to the preference of his mind.” With this, despite our facticity, we have the power to define who we are and who we are to be. B. SPATIAL-TEMPORAL BEING Because of our body, we are limited by space and time. At times, we are too engrossed in our past or very anxious about what will happen to us. We failed to see the significance of the present. Because of time, our body has limits. The time comes when we leave our bodies. But do we let this thinking hinder us from enjoying life itself? C. THE BODY AS INTERMEDIARY The word intermediary means an intermediate agent or agency, a go-between or mediator Our body serves as an intermediary between us and the physical world. It imposes limitations concerning communication and expression. We communicate with others using words. But words are limited. We cannot tell other people what we have in mind or what we feel. When we say I miss you, I love you and I care for you, does it capture the feelings right now? Words are limited so is our body. POSSIBILITIES AND TRANSCENDENCE Transcendence is the quality of being transcendent. Transcendent means exceeding usual limits, surpassing, or extending or lying beyond ordinary experience. Man, though limited, can overcome his own limit. Unlike the bird which can fly because of its wings, man can do the same. By using his intellect, he can innovate, invent and recreate to surpass his limitation. MODULE 4 THE UNITY OF THE COSMOS The verse GENESIS (1:27-28) seems to promote hierarchy, an anthropocentric (man-centered) view of the natural world. It gives humanity a justification to exploit and abuse nature, which is the effect of superiority in the hierarchy. THE MILESIANS (from Miletus), thought of nature as without boundaries, infinite. “Boundless,” as called by Anaximander. PYTHAGORAS, another thinker in antiquity, thought of the world as the embodiment of nature’s order, harmony, and beauty. Our relationship with the cosmos, according to him, involves the love of other things (biophilia) and the love of other beings (cosmophilia). Nature’s grand design working according to its purpose. Since the time of conception, the world is organized by GOD, THE GREAT DESIGNER. Modern thinkers like IMMANUEL KANT thought of man’s relationship with nature. Beauty, according to him, is a symbol of morality. Thinkers like HERBERT MARCUSE thought that nature is under the dominance of humanity. What do you think of our world? Is our domination over nature a right? Let us think deeply, then, of what ties us with the cosmos. ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY: DEFINING HUMANITY’S RELATIONSHIP WITH THE ENVIRONMENT It is the discipline in philosophy that studies human beings’ moral relationship with the environment and its non-human contents. • • • All nonhuman elements of the world, including animals and natural resources, have intrinsic value and should be preserved. The preservation of the environment will benefit humans by providing for the needs of present and future generations. Humankind has a responsibility to safeguard the planet as stewards of creation. HUMANITY AND ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP: THREE MAJOR VIEWS 1. ANTHROPOCENTRISM man is the most important species among all the living and non-living beings in the cosmos. 2. BIOCENTRISM human life is equally important with all life forms in the ecosystem. 3. ECOCENTRISM places intrinsic value on all living organisms and their natural environment, regardless of their perceived usefulness or importance to human beings. HUMANITY AND THE ORDER OF NATURE ENVIRONMENTAL AESTHETICS could help us understand with profundity the value of an ordered and harmonious environment. ENVIRONMENTALISM addresses the perennial problems or issues in our environment. With their commitment to heighten awareness among individuals, several ideas and perspectives are framed to alleviate, if not eradicate, the problems experienced. ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS to uphold the welfare of the environment and everything living therein. • • • Social ecology - seeks to provide plausible solutions to problems emanating from the environment. Climate ethics and climate justice – arose from the growing concern with climate change, and consider it a significant ethical, social, and political issue. Environmental justice –emphasize equity and meaningful involvement of communities and governments in addressing, through planning and implementing environmental policies, problems arising from the environment THE CARE FOR THE ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. ENVIRONMENTAL INTEGRITY maintain the environment’s state without being destroyed by human activities. ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY calls us to avoid wastes. EQUITY the efficient use of the natural resources conserving the latter for the future. PRUDENCE to regulate our actions and behavior. FRUGALITY is to be mindful of what we need. It means to be thrifty.
