ETHICS REVIEWER (PAGES 35-67)
Lesson 1: How Culture Shapes Human Behavior
Culture
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According to Emile Durkheim, it has the power over individuals to create beliefs, such as the belief in God.
Stated by Edward Taylor, it is the way of life of a group of people that “includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals,
law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”
A complex phenomenon.
Contains nearly all aspects of shared human experiences.
 Emile Durkheim – Father of Sociology
 Edward Taylor – Father of Cultural Anthropology
 Plato – wrote ‘The Republic’ concerning about the power of culture and its control to people. And, one of the revered
founders of Western philosophy.
 Karl Marx – Father of Communism, and major contributor to Conflict theory
In a memorable passage in The Republic, Plato warned:
“Whenever the populace crowds together at any public gathering, in the Assembly, the law courts, the theatre or the
camp, and sits there clamoring its approval or disapproval, both alike excessive, of whatever is being said or done.... In
such a scene what do you suppose will be a young man's state of mind? What sort of private instruction will have given
him the strength to hold up against the force of such a torrent, or will save him from being swept away down the stream,
until he accepts all their notions of right and wrong, does as they do, and comes to be just such a man as they are? And I
have said nothing of the most powerful engines of persuasion which the masters in this school of wisdom bring to bear
when words have no effect. As you know, they punish the recalcitrant with disenfranchisement, fines, and death.”
Plato offers the social psychological insight that the overwhelming majority of individuals will prove incapable of
resisting the voice of the culture that surrounds them: in the typical case, their values, their beliefs, indeed, their very
perceptions will tend to mirror those of the surrounding culture. To be sure, some individuals may at times find
themselves in social contexts (like certain educational or religious settings) that enable them to take a step back from the
culture's norms and to apprehend and affirm moral values that diverge from the culture's drift; but such counter-cultural
values are unlikely to survive in a meaningful way when these individuals re-enter day-to-day life in the culture.
Power and control on people also did not sit well with Karl Marx. According to Marx, culture served to justify inequality
because the ruling class determines what is right and wrong while the rest merely follow.
“The ruling class, or the bourgeoise produce a culture that promotes their interests, while repressing the interest of the
proletariat.”
Five Basic Elements of Culture:
1. Symbols – anything that a group of people find meaningful.
2. Language – a complex symbols system that enabled human beings to communicate either verbally or through
writing.
3. Beliefs – assumption or convictions held to be true by an individual or a group of people.
4. Values – culturally acceptable standards of behavior. It is what a person considers important or beneficial in life.
5. Norm – an informal guideline by a particular group of people or social unit about what is considered normal or
correct/ incorrect social behavior.
The Republic cited three critical elements that jointly influence the human person’s moral development:
1. Native traits – genetic characteristics
2. Early childhood experience
3. Cultural surroundings
Plato expressed the power of culture over an individual and it is more potent in children because they do not have any preexisting values. A child’s cultural surrounding should “express the image of a noble character.”
Lesson 2: Cultural Relativism
Cultural Relativism
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Explains why one behavior or practice is completely acceptable by a particular group of people, while taboo in
another.
Refers to the idea that values, knowledge, and behavior of people must be understood within its own cultural context,
and not by the standards of other cultures.
Makes us understand that what we think as truth may actually be just the result of Cultural Conditioning.
 Franz Boas first articulated the idea in 1887: "civilization is not something absolute, but...is relative, and... our
ideas and conceptions are true only so far as our civilization goes."
 Alain Locke – first to use the term “cultural relativism” in 1924.
Five claims of cultural relativists
By: Dr. James Rachels (The Elements of Moral Philosophy)
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Different societies have different moral codes.
The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society.
There is no “universal truth” in ethics; that is, there are no moral truths that hold for all peoples at all times.
The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is merely one among many.
It is arrogant for one culture to judge another culture.
Two positive lessons:
1. Warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational standard.
2. Teaches us to keep an open mind and be more amendable in discovering the truth.
Dangers of cultural relativism:
1. We cannot call out societal practices that promote harm.
2. We cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s harmful practices.
3. The idea of social progress becomes doubtful.
Peace – a set of beliefs, values, attitudes, traditions and modes of behavior and ways of life based on (UNESCO):
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Respect for life
Respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms
Rejection of all forms of violence
Adherence to the principles of justice, democracy, tolerance, solidarity, cooperation, diversity, dialogue and
understanding in all levels of society
Three phases to accomplish peace:
1. Cognitive phase – understanding and being aware to the happenings in the society.
2. Affective phase – being concerned and responsible learning to value peace since rational beings are species of
social interaction.
3. Active phase – taking practical action in which a course that will lead us to what is good for the benefit of the
majority.
Two types of peace:
1. Negative peace – absence of direct/ physical abuse (both macro and micro)
a. Direct violence – war, torture, child and woman abuse
2. Positive peace – presence of conditions of well-being and just relationships:
a. Economic, political, and ecological
b. Structural Violence – poverty, hunger
c. Socio-cultural Violence – racism, sexism, religious intolerance
d. Ecological Violence – pollution, overconsumption
“Why is building difficult to achieve? Signing a peace accord may mark the end of a conflict on paper, but the impact on
the ground is often minimal. Transitioning from war to peace is not a technical exercise but a highly political process
where different principles, priorities and approaches need to come together. There is no one-size-fits-all template or
solution: what works in one place may not work in another because every person, community or society deals with the
aftermath of conflict differently.” – Sara Pantuliano, 2017
Six Dimensions and Operative Values
By: Archbishop Antonio Ledesma
 Personal and Family (Spiritual)
o Values formation starts in the family.
o Family is the basic unit of the society.
 Human Rights & Democracy (Justice)
o Political respect is the key towards human viability and sustainability.
 Poverty Eradication (Compassion)
o Poverty might be inevitable, however with the help of lowering poverty borderline, peace can somehow
be attainable.
 Intercultural Understanding & Solidarity (Dialogue)
o Dialogue is one of the important factors towards attainable peace. It serves as the foundation for
consideration towards respect.
 Disarmament & Cessation of Hostilities (Active/ non-violence)
o We must share the same idea of cease fire towards active non-violence.
o The absence of war is the absence of conflict, the absence of conflict, is the presence towards a culture of
peace.
 Environmental Protection (Stewardship)
o Stewardship must be universal to all regardless of the status, influence, and power.
Peace education
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Education that seeks the transformation of people’s mindsets, attitudes and behaviors towards peace, justice and
environmental care.
An ethical imperative since it upholds core ethical principles such as value of life, love and human dignity.
Philippines’ E.O. 570 (September 2006)
“Institutionalizing Peace Education in Basic Education and Teacher Education”
Lesson 3: Universal Values
Three universal values shared by all cultures (Rachels, 2004):
1. Caring for the young
2. Murder is wrong
3. Tell the truth
“There are some moral rules that all societies will have in common, because those rules are necessary for society to
survive” (Rachels, 2004)
Lesson 4: The Filipino Way
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The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures.
The beliefs and traditions of pre-colonial Philippines was mainly indigenous Malay heritage (Baringer, 2006).
The Hispanic culture of the Philippines was because of the Spanish colonization.
Americans shaped the modern Filipino culture and this is primarily manifested by the wide use of English
language.
 The brief occupation of Britain (1762-1764) and the Japan (1942-1945) had no cultural influence in the
Philippines.
The strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character are rooted in factors such as:
By: Dr. Patricia B. Licuanan
1. The home environment
 Filipino children are taught to value family and give primary importance to it.
 The Filipino social environment is characterized by depending on one another to survive. Thus, making the
Filipinos group oriented.
2. The social environment
3. Culture and language
 Depict openness to foreign elements with no basic consciousness of our cultural core (Licuanan, 1994)
4. History
 Our colonial history is the culprit behind our colonial mentality.
5. The educational system
 Instrumental in molding the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character.
 Schools are highly authoritarian.
 Children learn that well-behaved and obedient students are praised and rewarded – this teaches passivity and
conformity.
6. Religion
 Teaches optimism and resilience.
 Instilled fatalistic attitude.
 Since religious communities are highly authoritarian, this reinforced our being passive and conformist.
7. Economic environment
 Hard life drove Filipinos to work hard and take risks, such as leaving our families to work abroad developing
in us our ability to survive.
 One of the elements of the culture of corruption in the Philippines.
8. Political environment
 The Philippine government is fraught with problems.
 Political power is mainly in the hands of the elite and the absence of a strong government presence enhanced
the Filipino’s extreme family centeredness.
9. Mass media
 Greatly based on American pop culture.
 The emphasis on the superiority of an imported brand or product through mass media reinforced our colonial
mentality.
10. Leadership and role models
 Filipinos highly respect authority that is why when someone of power violate the Law, the Filipino mentality
is hugely affected.
Strengths of the Filipino Character:
1. Pakikipagkapwa-Tao
 Demonstrated in the Filipino’s openness, helpfulness, and generosity
 The practice of bayanihan or mutual assistance
 The famous Filipino hospitality
2. Family Orientation
 Genuine love for the family.
 A love that encompasses all members of the family and is shown by showing honor and respect.
 Give Filipinos a sense of belonging and security.
3. Joy and Humor
 Filipinos are cheerful and fun loving.
 This pleasant disposition contributed to our ability to overcome life’s challenges.
4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity
 Filipinos are tremendous in adjusting and adapting to any circumstances.
 The reason why many Filipinos thrive in various parts of the world.
5. Hard work and industry
 This trait is most noticeable in our willingness to take risks and work in other countries.
6. Faith and Religiosity
 Can be related to our “bahala na” mindset.
o There is also a positive side to this fatalistic trait.
o Could serve as a “Kickstarter” or a “pampalakas loob’ to move into action.
7. Ability to survive
 The sum of all strengths of the Filipino characters contribute to our ability to survive.
 “matutong mamaluktok habang maikli ang kumot” depicts our survival instincts.
 This trait is the reason why Filipinos continue to carry on even through our harsh economic and social
circumstances.
Weaknesses of the Filipino character
 Enables the Filipinos to identify the areas that need improvement in order to grow and develop as a person.
1. Extreme Personalism
 Filipinos function in the world by personally relating to things, events, and people.
 Where “palakasan system” springs from.
 An element that let to the prevalence of graft and corruption in the country.
2. Extreme Family-Centeredness
 Family is valued above anything and everyone else.
 Concern for the rest of the community and for the common good is less important.
 Manifested in our political system wherein political dynasties lord over our elected government posts.
3. Lack of Discipline
 Characterized by our idiomatic expression “ningas cogon”.
 A related character is Filipino time – Filipinos are known for being late.
4. Passivity and lacking initiative
 Filipinos have very high respect and reliance towards the authority that initiative and contribution is already
not a part of the need.
5. Colonial Mentality
 Filipinos love anything foreign.
 Foreign elements are adapted and incorporated in our image.
 Connected to our general feelings of inferiority, where we think foreigners – especially Westerners, are
superior.
6. Kanya-kanya syndrome
 Related to the Filipino traits of extreme personalism and extreme family-centeredness.
 Personal and in-group interests are supreme and the drive to fulfill these interests is completely insensitive to
the common good.
 Dampened our sense of community and cooperation.
 Crab mentality – tend to pull others down to climb up.
7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection
 Filipinos have a tendency to be superficial and somewhat flighty.
 “Madaling makalimot” as a nation we easily forget the mistakes we made; hence we make the same mistakes
again.
Lesson 5: How is Moral Character Developed
 Moral – concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior or the goodness and badness of the human
character.
 Character
– the mental and moral qualities distinct to an individual.
– usually denotes to the moral dimension of a person.
 Moral character
– the existence (or lack of) virtue such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty.
– (as disposition) the tendency to act or think in a particular way for which a person can be held morally
responsible.
– Withhold the traits of being rational, informed, stable, and has a reliable disposition.
Philosophical Views on Moral Character
 Confucian Traditions
 Attributed to “Four beginnings” of the human personality.
 “Four beginnings” were considered as seeds of human personality that will naturally unfold to become human
activities.
 Personality – an achieved state of moral excellence.
 When the “Four beginnings” are put together, it may be perceived in the Western understanding as the “pre-self”
or “potential self”
Four beginnings in Confucian tradition:
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Jen – heart of compassion
Yi – heart of righteousness
Li – heart of propriety
Zhi – heart of wisdom
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Jen means goodwill, sympathy towards others, and generosity.
Yi means righteousness and the respect of duty towards nature and humanity.
Li deals with outward behavior such as etiquette, customs, and rituals.
Zhi means wisdom, and this wisdom is a product of practicing Jen, Yi, and Li.
 Aristotle & Virtue Ethics
 Virtue ethics
o An approach that reduces the emphasis on rules, consequence, and particular acts.
o Focus on the quality of the person.
o Concerned with whether the person is acting as a virtuous person should act in the situation.
o Largely identified with Aristotle.
 Aristotle’s discussion on moral character, particularly virtue, is the most influential view on the topic.
 Aristotle argued that each person has the built-in desire to be virtuous and if that person is focused on being a
good person the right actions will follow effortlessly and you will do good things.
 Aristotle believed that humans have essence.
o He called this essence “proper functioning” – everything has a function and the thing that performs as
intended is called good when it is able to fulfill this function.
 A person is a “rational animal” and a “social animal” – using reason to live and get along with other people is a
human person’s function.
 A “good” person is one who fulfills its functions.
Virtue
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For the Greeks, it is equivalent to excellence.
A person of virtue is someone who performs the distinctive activity of being human well.
Can be developed by practicing the golden mean.
The choice of behaving the right way, at the right time, with the right people, and this choice is determined by
rational principle and practical wisdom.
Virtuous man
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The kind of man who is able to satisfy both inclinations and rational desires because his/her inclinations and
desires are aligned.
Wants to do what is good and does it because he/she derives pleasure from choosing and doing what is moral.
*Man, in Aristotle’s writing, is equated with person
“Doctrine of the Golden Mean”
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Principle of being virtuous
Moral behavior is the one that is in the middle of two extreme behaviors (or what he called vices).
Extreme behavior
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The act that was either excessive or deficient.
o Eating – is a human function as demanded by nature.
 Excessive: gluttony
 Deficient: starvation
 Virtue: temperance – to eat just the right amount at all times. This is also the golden mean
between gluttony and starvation.
Eudaimonia
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Generally translated as “happiness”, “well-being” or the “good life” and that this is the goal of human life.
To practice the virtues in your everyday activity through your life is a way to achieve eudaimonia.
Lesson 6: Stages of Moral Development
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Lawrence Kohlberg
– a 20th century developmental psychologist and moral philosopher.
– studied morality using a very interesting (if controversial) technique.
– in his research, he would ask children and adults to try solve moral dilemmas in short stories and asked the
participants to think out loud so he could follow their reasoning.
– Kohlberg was interested in knowing how the person got his or her answer instead of having a specific answer to
the dilemmas.
– asserted that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that the process goes
on throughout the individual’s lifetime.
Moral reasoning – the basis for ethical behavior.
Six Stages for Moral Development
Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality
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Judgement at this level is solely focused on the self.
Common among children although some adults would also exhibit such behavior.
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Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation
 Also called the “pre-moral” stage.
 Decisions and actions are determined by immediate physical consequences and not the true moral
value.
 Overall goal: avoid punishment
Stage 2: Reward Orientation
 As children grow older, they begin to see that there is actually room for negotiation because other
people have their own goals to meet and wants that must be satisfied too.
Level 2: Conventional Morality
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To reason in a conventional (something that is generally accepted) manner.
Accepting the rules and standards of one’s group.
Decisions and morality of his/her actions are based on society’s views and expectations.
The focus on this level is the “significant others” or what is also called “Tyranny of the They”
This level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults.
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Stage 3: Good Boy/ Good Girl Orientation
 The child tries to seek approval from other people by living up to their expectations.
 Understands the concept of loyalty, trust, and gratitude.
Stage 4: Authority Orientation
 Individuals have reached adulthood and they consider society as a whole when making judgements.
 The focus at this stage is following the rules, maintaining law and order, doing one’s duty, and
respecting authority.
Level 3: Post conventional
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Also known as the ‘principled level’.
Marked by a growing realization that people are unique and are independent part of the society.
The individual’s own perspective is more significant over what the rest of the society thinks and that this would
sometimes lead to disobeying the law for personal principles.
Post conventional individuals view rules and laws to be important in maintaining peace and order but it only
serves as a guide that needs to be weighted against personal principles.
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Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation
 The individual is aware that much of what is considered to be moral or good mainly based on
personal belief as well as on the social group they belong.
Stage 6: Ethical – Principle Orientation
 Social contract takes a clear back seat and the person makes a personal commitment to uphold
universal principles of equal rights and respect.
Chapter 2: The act
Lesson 1: Feelings as Instinctive and Trained Response to Moral Dilemmas
Hume and the Philosophy of Mind
 David Hume (1711-1776) – a philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist who famously placed himself in the
opposition to the most moral philosophers, ancient and modern, who argued to regulate actions using reason and
that reason has dominion over feeling emotions.
Assertions of Hume:
1. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather is the “slave of the passions”.
2. Moral distinctions are not derived from reason.
3. Moral distinctions are derived from the moral sentiments: feelings of approval (esteem, praise) and disapproval
(blame) felt by spectators who contemplate a character trait or action.
4. While some virtues and vices are natural, others (including justice) are artificial.
Theory of the Mind (David Hume)
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Humans have passions (which Hume used to describe emotions or feelings)
o Two types of passion:
 Direct passions – caused directly by the sensation of pain or pleasure; the passion that “arises
immediately from good or evil, from pain or pleasure” that we experience or expect to experience.
 Indirect passions
– caused by the sensation of pain or pleasure derived from some other idea or impression.
– Pride- a passion emanated from the pleasure you get for possessing something admirable. It is a
result of the person, the object of the passion, and the quality of the object.
– other indirect passions: humility, ambition, vanity, love, hatred, envy, pity, malice, generosity.
Hume acceded that there are instances wherein the passion can be unreasonable.
o However, Norton & Norton (2007) said that it is not passion to be blamed but the judgement or opinion.
Once judgement or opinion is corrected, “passion yields to reason without any opposition”
Scheler and the Philosophy of Feelings
 Mas Ferdinand Scheler
– an important German Ethical philosopher distinguished for his contributions in phenomenology, ethics, and
philosophical anthropology.
– As a phenomenologist, he sought to know what comprised the structures of consciousness.
– his philosophy placed importance on emotions in the aspect of human existence.
– Asserted that emotions/feelings are inherent, objective, and it exists even if you have not experienced it before.
– claimed that feelings are independent of the mind; that it corresponds to the divine plan.
– Human feelings are not chaotic. It is actually strict, exact, and objective. – rejected the idea that feelings are in
the subconscious and asserted that it is actually the “purest sphere” of human consciousness.
Stratification Model of Emotive life (four strata of feelings)
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Sensual feelings – involve bodily pleasure or pain.
Vital feelings – life functions such as health, sickness, energy fatigue, etc.
Psychic feelings – about aesthetics, justice, and knowledge
Spiritual feelings
– deal with the Divine.
– out of the four, spiritual feeling alone is intentional.
– directed to a particular special object or a higher being.
– Scheler believed that values of the holy are the highest of all values because it has the ability to endure through
time.
– Scheler philosophized that among four levels, spiritual feeling is the most important.
Difference Between Response Based on Reason and on Feelings
 Professor Dr. James Rachels asserted that in moral reasoning, you could not rely on your feelings no matter how
powerful these feelings may be.
 Feelings can be irrational and merely a product of your prejudices, selfishness, or cultural conditioning.
 The morally right thing to do is one that is supported by rational arguments.
An argument is reasonable if:
a. The facts are correct.
b. The moral principles are correctly applied.
c. Each individual’s well-being is treated equally important.
What is the Role of Feelings in Decision Making?
 Reason plays a role in making a moral decision. However, it should be noted too that our moral compasses are
also powerfully influenced by feelings.
 David Hume claimed that in any given situation a person would act based on emotions rather than reason.
 On several instances, reasoning in moral decisions is preceded by an initial intuition or gut-feel (Haidt, 2012).
 Alfred Jules Ayer described two elements in moral judgement:
 Emotive element: expressing positive feelings towards a particular act.
 Prescriptive element: an instruction or prescription of a particular behavior.
Why feelings can be obstacles to making the right decisions?
Three central features:
1. Its non-deliberate nature
2. Its partial nature
3. It is capricious