SOURCE A - Gender Roles in Early Civilizations, ArcGIS StoryMaps Mesopotamia Mesopotamian civilizations each varied in the ways gender roles were handled. For instance, how women were treated under the rule of the Sumerians was much more respected than they were treated under the rule of the Babylonians. Sumerian women had roles in society that were not equal to their male counterparts, but were arguably better than many other civilizations at the time. Their roles consisted of being - wives, mothers, priestesses, housekeepers, ect. This sense of equality changes however, under the rule of the Babylonians and their leader at the time, Hammurabi. Under the strict rule of the Babylonians, social statuses of women quickly changed from that of fellow citizen to property of their male counterpart, and the freedoms they once knew were now gone. Men on the other side, were always looked at in high regards. They had the rights and abilities to be in politics and most other occupations at the time. Men's roles included that of kings, fathers, warriors, farmers, and political rule-makers giving them the highest sense of authority in the civilization. Mesopotamia was a strong patriarchal society at the time, with the men being the heads of the households in their society. Although, woman didn't have it nearly as rough under the rule of the Sumerians, they were still second class citizens behind their male counterparts. Persia One of the largest empires in the world at the time, the Persian Civilization was also one of the first civilizations to follow a monotheistic view on religion. The Persian religion of Zoroastrianism is also believed to be a major influence on gender roles in the civilizations. Because of this religion, men and women were of near equal class. Both genders could partake in the military, could own property, run businesses, and in some cases women could even be the rulers. In the Zoroastrian texts, it states, "May a good ruler, man or woman, reign in both the material and spiritual existences." (Yasna 41/2). Here it suggests that they believed that it was okay for either a man or a woman to rule. Sparta Greek society was known for their democratic ways of governing and for shaping modern day democracy, but in its social roles for men and women, for the most part, woman were still second class citizens. However, the Spartan civilization differed from most of its neighboring city-states. Women in Spartan society were treated as near equals to men, as they were the only people that could produce the powerful warriors of Sparta. Although women in Sparta were not necessarily free to do as they pleased, they were still on equal terms to their male counterparts, whom also followed a strict rule set. Spartan men were bred and raised solely for war. Considered by many as the greatest warriors to have existed, their roles mainly consisted of learning the arts of combat, but were also educated in a variety of skills and academic ways. Women were also held to a high standard to be physically fit and were required to pass a physical exam by the age of 18 to earn full citizenship. It was believed in ancient Sparta that healthy and strong woman would also produce healthy and strong children, so woman were trained in physical education as well as other types of education. Spartan women were known as the Alpha women of Greek society. They were physically strong, well educated and held equal status to their male counterparts. It is also believed that the only ones to have a ceremonial burial were men that died in combat and women that died during childbirth as they had both given their lives for the greater good of Sparta. Byzantine Empire With the rise of Christianity spreading throughout the western world, it helped influence the roles men and women played in these civilizations affected by its popularity. The Byzantine empire was one of these civilizations that was greatly influenced by the Christian Religion when it came to gender roles. The idea of virginity became a popular concept because of the spread of Christianity, and so the virtuous woman idea was popular in the Byzantine empire. Men and women in Byzantine society were generally separated from each other, even in families to help ensure that the woman remain virtuous for her future husband. Wealthier families even had a segregated part of their home reserved for the women called a "gynaikonitis." Expectations for women in Byzantine society were to marry, produce children, and manage the household such as its servants and property. Women were typically uneducated, and if they did receive an education it typically happened in the household. Women were not barred from working, and many of the lower class women typically held jobs such as, agricultural, retail, manufacturing, and hospitality industries. Jobs such as weaving, baking, midwives, and many other nonpolitical jobs were held by women and their was also no law against women owning their own business. Viking Civilization The Scandinavian conquerors known as the Vikings lived in an interesting society. Although, only the men raiders were known as Vikings in their society, women also led important roles in their communities. Surprisingly, women in Viking ruled Scandinavia, had an unusual amount of freedom for the time period. Women could own property, request for a divorce, and reclaim their dowries if their marriages ended. Viking women typically married very early, between the ages of 12 and 15 and it was usually arranged by their families, but the woman also had a say in the arrangement. The man was typically the leader of the house in Viking society, but the woman played an active role in the house as well. When the man of the house was absent or had died, Viking women would have complete control of the household. Not much is known about the Viking women outside of their households, but some believe that Viking woman were also present during some battles and fought alongside their male counterparts. Most of these ideas come from literary works of the time, one of which from the 12th century Danish Historian, Saxo Grammaticus, depicts communities of shieldmaidens, or women who devoted themselves to the art of learning swordplay and other warlike skills. It is not known how accurate these depictions were, but women in Viking society were held to a high regard compared to most civilizations of the era. SOURCE B - Fears for tears: why do we tell boys not to cry? Tue, Sep 10, 2019, by Geraldine Walsh, The Irish Times From a young age, they are encouraged down this route by a culture and environment which cheers a laddish and overtly masculine mind frame. But the male gender stereotype sticks a label on to boys that can stifle their emotional development. Phrases such as “big boys don’t cry” and “be a man” are thrown at them, damaging their self-worth and belittling their self-image. We say the adage is long gone, but traces are left of a bewildering toxic masculinity that negatively affects our youth. Boys shouldn’t cry. Where is it written on our skin and bones that crying, showing emotion, is a strictly feminine concept? Author and teacher Fiona Forman holds an MSc in applied positive psychology. She is co-author of the Weaving Well-Being programme and delivers parent and school talks on children’s wellbeing and resilience. She recounts how there are dominant elements of our contemporary culture that still value emotional toughness and restraint in men. “Traditionally, men were seen as being weak or unmanly in some way if they expressed themselves through crying,” she says, “hence terms such as ‘man up’ and insults such as ‘Mammy’s boy’. Although this view of masculinity is thankfully changing, it is still hard to shake off the entrenched cultural values that we have all absorbed. In some ways, we may feel we are protecting boys from the judgements of others and preparing them for the so-called ‘real world’ by telling them not to cry from a young age. It has always been more socially acceptable for girls to cry, so we are more likely to comfort them rather than telling them to stop.” Boys grow into men who are often seen to be less open about their feelings in comparison to women but because they may not talk, does not mean they don’t feel. Despite being culturally more accepting and hopeful that men will share their feelings, the fear of being perceived as anything other than masculine affects our understanding of their emotional state. With increased rates of depression, suicide is a leading cause of death of young males. After the age of 16, the rate increases. According to the Samaritans, in Ireland, men are four times more likely to take their own lives than women, with the highest suicide rate for men aged 25 to 34 years’ old. Research into suicide rates has recognised one reason for taking their own life is often cultural. Men are expected to be stoic, strong and non-emotional. In fact, the media’s portrayal of men often suggests that to be emotionally strong means burying emotions that appear to make you look weak, for instance crying. The alpha male paradigm is destructive. Completely normal According to Forman, the first step in healthy emotional development involves both boys and girls learning to accept that all emotions, including the so-called ‘negative ones’ such as sadness, disappointment, frustration, worry and anger are completely normal and don’t need be avoided, suppressed or feared. The second step is teaching them how to express all their emotions constructively, rather than destructively. “Crying is a very healthy expression of feelings such as sadness and disappointment. If we tell boys not to cry, they may begin to suppress, avoid or shut down these emotions, as they are not encouraged to express them,” explains Forman. “This can lead to boys becoming disconnected from these feelings and absorbing the message that it is not okay for them to have them. Over the long term, this can have a negative impact on their ability to manage these emotions and, of course, this will have a negative impact on their mental health and possibly on their ability to form close, open and honest relationships as adults. They may also begin to internalise the damaging stereotype that to be a ‘real man’ they need to be tough and invulnerable, which may be completely at odds with their authentic selves, which may be sensitive and gentle.” We tend to parent our sons and daughters differently, engaging in and encouraging their emotional development differently. We must remember that childhood is a crucial time for their emotional growth as it is in these early years that they learn to understand and regulate these new strong emotions they are attempting to comprehend. Boys have a tendency to suppress their emotions, run away from them or stomp them out. If we believe this is how our sons are managing their emotions, we are limiting their understanding of their feelings. We aim to teach our children to be resilient but, as Forman advises, there is a common misconception that being resilient means being tough or unaffected by strong feelings, which is a very unhealthy response. We need to teach children that being resilient is being able to feel and express our feelings and having the inner strength to cope with them all. SOURCE C - Stay-at-Home Dads: The Challenges and Benefits, by Alyssa Kiefer, healthline.com Are you expecting a child and trying to determine how life will function after your baby is born? Has life taken a change in direction, and the child care situation you had in place not making sense anymore? One of the most difficult things to navigate as a parent of young children is making sure that child care is in place when needed. If grandparents and other extended family members don’t live close by (or even if they do!), it can be tricky figuring out how to make it all work. With the rising costs of childcare, more parents are turning to arrangements that involve working split shifts or having one of the parents stay at home with the little ones. While caring for the kids has historically been seen as a women’s job, today more dads are the one to stay home with their little ones. How many dads are actually staying at home? Is it a good thing? Only you can decide what’s best for your family, but we’ll give you the facts about stay-at-home dads, so you’re prepared to make the best decisions. Getting the facts about stay-at-home dads In recent years, more fathers have been finding themselves manning the home front during the day. The amount of hours these dads dedicate to child care, whether they hold a part-time job in addition, and expectations around this vary greatly from family to family. Because every family functions differently, it’s nearly impossible to define the exact responsibilities of stay-at-home dad. It’s also impossible to give an exact number of stay-at-home dads, but various organizations have tried. The U.S. Census Bureau reported in 2012 that 189,000 married men with children under the age of 18 identified themselves as stay-at-home fathers. This number was restricted to those who could identify as men who had remained outside the labor force for at least one year, while their wives worked outside the home. A 2014 Pew Research Center report found 2 million U.S. fathers with children under age 18 still at home were not working outside the home. However, this report did not confirm that the dads were the primary caregiver or even providing child care for the children. The National At-Home Dad Network argues that stay-at-home dads should not be solely defined by those who don’t work at all outside of the home, since many fathers work part time or even nights while also providing regular child care. Using U.S. Census data, the National At-Home Dad Network estimates 7 million fathers are a regular source of care for children under the age of 15 in the United States. Why are men becoming stay-at-home dads? There are many reasons why a dad may be a stay-at-home dad. Some of the most common reasons are: personal choice/desire to care for the family chronic illness or disability child care costs/partner is the primary earner job loss same-sex couple relationship where one parent chooses to stay home What are the challenges associated with stay-at-home dads? Although it’s becoming much more common for fathers to stay at home with their children, there are still challenges that exist around this arrangement. Stereotypes and stigmas One common problem for stay-at-home dads is the stereotypes and stigmas they face. These can include judgments about their masculinity and work ethic. A 2013 Pew Research Center survey found that while 51 percent of Americans think a child is better off with a mother at home than in the workplace, only 8 percent say that a child is better off with a stay-athome father. It can be extremely difficult to face these negative views, and societal pressure can lead men to want to return to the workplace. Stay-at-home dads are sometimes wrongly portrayed as lazy, clueless, or lacking masculinity. These harmful stereotypes can affect your feelings about your family’s structure, and could lead to shame or anxiety. These kinds of classifications are limiting and frequently based on misconceptions. Lack of support These negative judgments can come from people who would normally be a support system, too. Grandparents and other family members or friends may express negative feelings about children being raised primarily by their father. They may be uncomfortable with this set-up or it may seem counter to their cultural expectations. As a result, the stay-at-home father and family unit as a whole may get less support from extended family and support systems then they would if the mother was staying home or both parents were working. Isolation Additionally, stay-at-home fathers may find that they don’t feel comfortable connecting with other parents who are also staying home during the day, which can lead to isolation. It can be uncomfortable to plan one-on-one playdates with stay-at-home moms or attend women and baby centered activities. Many parent groups that meet during the week offer connection, resources, and parent education, but are primarily designed for and attended by mothers. For fathers who staying home with their little ones, these groups can be uncomfortable or impossible to join. Depression At least one study revealed that it can be harder emotionally for males to shift from having a paycheck to working at home. Fathers who left the workforce to be a stay-at-home parent were found to have higher levels of depressive symptoms than women. Redefining social norms It’s not uncommon to hear people ask dads if they’re “babysitting” — a question that would never be asked of a mother. Redefining social expectations and norms means fathers are perceived as partners in parenting instead of merely bystanders who are called on only in an emergency. Stay-at-home dads can help to positively alter perceptions of masculinity, caregiving, and fatherhood. SOURCE D - How our Brains Differ by Bruce Goldman, Stanford University The neuroscience literature shows that the human brain is a sex-typed organ with distinct anatomical differences in neural structures and accompanying physiological differences in function, says UC-Irvine professor of neurobiology and behavior Larry Cahill, PhD. Cahill edited the 70-article January/February 2017 issue of the Journal of Neuroscience Research — the first-ever issue of any neuroscience journal devoted entirely to the influence of sex differences on nervous-system function. Brain-imaging studies indicate that these differences extend well beyond the strictly reproductive domain, Cahill says. Adjusted for total brain size (men’s are bigger), a woman’s hippo­campus, critical to learning and memorization, is larger than a man’s and works differently. Conversely, a man’s amygdala, associated with the experiencing of emotions and the recollection of such experiences, is bigger than a woman’s. It, too, works differently, as Cahill’s research has demonstrated. In 2000, Cahill scanned the brains of men and women viewing either highly aversive films or emotionally neutral ones. The aversive films were expected to trip off strong negative emotions and concomitant imprinting in the amygdala, an almond-shaped structure found in each brain hemisphere. Activity in the amygdala during the viewing experience, as expected, predicted subjects’ later ability to recall the viewed clips. But in women, this relationship was observed only in the left amygdala. In men, it was only in the right amygdala. Cahill and others have since confirmed these results. Discoveries like this one should ring researchers’ alarm buzzers. Women, it’s known, retain stronger, more vivid memories of emotional events than men do. They recall emotional memories more quickly, and the ones they recall are richer and more intense. If, as is likely, the amygdala figures into depression or anxiety, any failure to separately analyze men’s and women’s brains to understand their different susceptibilities to either syndrome would be as self-defeating as not knowing left from right. The two hemispheres of a woman’s brain talk to each other more than a man’s do. In a 2014 study, University of Pennsylvania researchers imaged the brains of 428 male and 521 female youths — an uncharacteristically huge sample — and found that the females’ brains consistently showed more strongly coordinated activity between hemispheres, while the males’ brain activity was more tightly coordinated within local brain regions. This finding, a confirmation of results in smaller studies published earlier, tracks closely with others’ observations that the corpus callosum-— the white-matter cable that crosses and connects the hemispheres — is bigger in women than in men and that women’s brains tend to be more bilaterally symmetrical than men’s. Many of these cognitive differences appear quite early in life. ‘You see sex differences in spatialvisualization ability in 2- and 3-month-old infants.’ “To some appreciable degree, these brain differences have to translate to behavioral differences,” says Cahill. Numerous studies show that they do, sometimes with medically meaningful implications. Trying to assign exact percentages to the relative contributions of “culture” versus “biology” to the behavior of free-living human individuals in a complex social environment is tough at best. Halpern offers a succinct assessment: “The role of culture is not zero. The role of biology is not zero.” SOURCE E Image 1 - Sinead Whelan, 2015 Image 2 – Vogue Magazine, May 2020 SOURCE F – US Sentencing Commission, 2018 Prompt – Are gender roles defined more by biology or culture? Thesis – Reason/Main Idea 1 – Evidence – Reason/Main Idea 2 – Evidence – Counterclaim – Counterclaim Evidence – Rebuttal – Rebuttal Evidence –
