See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323014375 Geographical Indications on Coffee Conference Paper · February 2018 CITATIONS READS 0 4,757 1 author: Akundi Santaram Dodoma University 33 PUBLICATIONS 65 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Coffee Genetics View project All content following this page was uploaded by Akundi Santaram on 08 February 2018. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Paper presented to 2017 First Dali Binchuan Zhukula International Coffee Forum 15-17 June, 2017. Zhukula, China Geographical Indications on Coffee A. Santa Ram* Head, Division of Genetics and Plant Breeding (Retd.) Central Coffee Research Institute, India Abstract Coffee is produced mostly in the developing countries of the world and was traded mainly through regulatory organizations like marketing boards of the respective countries until recently. Most of the coffee produced in these countries was exported to the developed countries of the west as local consumption was very low. Thus, coffee was just a commodity being produced for consumption elsewhere, for most of the producing countries. This scenario underwent a change with the liberalization of coffee trade in many of the producing countries in the last quarter of 20th Century. As the producer community took over marketing, they started perceiving new ideas of marketing and adopted the models of successful marketing by some other producing countries. In this flux of events, geographical indications as a means of promoting and marketing coffee produced in unique environments and processed by special techniques and many such other natural elements and/or interventions emerged to prominence and such coffees came to be sold as specialties. With the WTO‟s recognition of these geographical indications as full-fledged intellectual property rights these coffees of unique nature gained an enhanced value. Forerunning examples of geographical indications on coffee are Colombian “Cafe de Colombia” and Jamaican “Blue Mountain Coffee”. But, there are many others that developed in the recent times. Besides producer efforts at developing/attributing uniqueness to their coffee, consumers also sought specialties like organic coffee, high grown coffee, bird-friendly coffee, eco-friendly coffee etc. that also helped in the development of coffees that came to be described as so because of their geographical origins. As a consequence, single origin coffees also gained value. Geographical indication certification helps to protect producers against unfair competition and counterfeiting and adds value to the product that gains competitive advantage. Other gains of GI certification include enhanced regional economic development through increased international market competitiveness, customer loyalty and related improved profits and strengthening of production chains that leads enhanced negotiating power. This presentation gives an overview of geographical indications in the coffee sectors of some producing countries. Key words: GI . Coffee ____________________________________________________________________ *Present address: # 234, 1-A Main, Bapuji Layout, Bogadi, Mysore 570021, India E-mail: santaram009@gmail.com Introduction Coffee is a very important commodity in international trade, occupying a position next to oil with an annual turnover of around US$ 70 billion[1]. Most of the world coffee is produced in the third world countries by small growers and it is consumed in the affluent countries of the west[2]. Consumption of coffee in most of the producing countries is very low and thus exports are very important for grower incomes[3]. Coffee production and processing sectors support the lives of millions of people involved in coffee cultivation, processing and trade. Earnings from coffee sale and export are the mainstay of the economies of most of the producing countries[2]. Coffee production in most of the producing countries is small grower dominant and these growers are resource poor and sometimes not educated enough to negotiate the best price for their coffee. With the intention of protecting their interests, in many countries regulatory organizations were instituted to take care of marketing. These statutory organizations had the power to collect the entire coffee produced by growers and arrange for marketing through a system of auctions. In this process, there is no possibility of distinguishing unique or special coffees as the whole lot of collected coffee gets pooled according to size grades and sold in bulk. In the last quarter of the 20th Century coffee trade was liberalized in many coffee producing countries and the growers got the freedom to sell their produce on their own[4,5]. Initial years after liberalization have seen the growers perceiving some set-backs in marketing their produce[5]. But, gradually they came to understand the value of their produce by observing how the coffee of different origins was sold in the international markets. This led to the recognition for specialty coffees grown in special and unique environments like shade-grown coffee, bird-friendly coffee, highgrown coffee, organic-coffee and many such other coffees that are sought by consumers of different classes in specialized niche markets. These events led to the development of a new scenario in which coffee quality is attributed to the environment in which it is grown or the processing techniques adopted in specific locations of coffee production. These developments led to the establishment of geographical indication tags to these special coffees. Now, special coffees of different origins are sought to be recognized as geographical indications. Unique products of different geographical origins have been in existence in all the countries and coffees of distinction were also known for a long time. However, protecting them as geographical indications is a relatively recent phenomenon as already described. These initiatives were particularly more in all the member countries of WTO on account of the mandatory requirement of implementing the TRIPs agreement[4]. According to the TRIPs agreement, “geographical indications are indications that identify a good as originating in the territory of a member (state), or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin”. TRIPs agreement also demands that all the member countries establish some minimum standards for protection of GIs through national law[6]. In this context, it is important to recall that almost all the coffee producing countries are developing countries of the third world and they are also members of the WTO and signatories of the TRIPs agreement. But, in most of these countries, intellectual property protection through IPR laws is either non-existent or very weak before the WTO[7]. Another important aspect of coffee trade is that it is mostly consumed in the developed countries where the intellectual property rights are well established and the GIs were mainly used to differentiate products of unique nature and origin. In Europe GIs are well known since, at least, 13th Century and there were a lot of studies on them. In the developing countries the GIs are a post-WTO development and there are not many studies. Even so, several studies exist and some of them are focused on coffee. Most of these studies were by the researchers of the western consuming countries. A point to be recognized is that these studies and the development of GIs for coffee are closely linked. Present study is focused primarily on enumerating the different special coffees of different countries sought to be recognized as geographical indications. This recognition is expected to result in higher prices for these unique coffees as established by some studies. Consumers are willing to pay 10% to 30% higher prices for specialty coffees[8]. Even so, it is also possible that small coffee growers may not be able to meet the standards set for production and processing protocols and lose their value on account of their poverty. It is also possible that they can be sidelined by the multinational companies involved in coffee tertiary processing and denied their due share in the profits generated[4]. Transaction costs of developing and maintaining GIs are also very high for some of the developing countries producing coffee. Colombian Coffee Colombia is considered the second largest producer of Arabica coffee in the world producing around 700000 tons annually. Consumption of coffee in Colombia is only about 5% of this production and thus most of the produced coffee is exported. Volatility of coffee prices in the international markets and low home consumption led the Colombian growers to develop new strategies of marketing. The idea of marketing on the basis of uniqueness was thus conceived. To qualify as a geographical indication in the European Union and other international markets this uniqueness has to be established. Cafe de Colombia was defined[3,9] as Arabica coffee produced from six varieties viz. Typica, Caturra, Colombia, Bourbon, Maragogype and Tabi at an altitude of 400-2500 meters above sea level in a limited production area. Temperature in these areas ranges between 17˚C and 23˚C. Only 12% of the total coffee producing area of Colombia is included in this. Even so, this area includes all the districts of Colombia‟s central coffee belt and some others also. In order to allow all coffee regions to be included in the GI, the product specification was very basic and generic[4] and the link between coffee quality and production territory is based on climatic conditions, soil characteristics and on coffee producing culture of the country. The specified locations are most suitable for coffee production. Colombia also includes tropical, mountainous and coastal zones and has diverse climatic conditions. The natural conditions prevailing in the area of production of Cafe de Colombia are: 1. Two rainy seasons per year providing a continuous production possibility with two growth cycles in a year. 2. Unique edaphic factors like the volcanic Andean soils with special texture and high organic matter content. European Commission‟s recognition of Colombian coffee as a GI is on the basis of.. “Cafe de Colombia is that coffee grown in the Colombian coffee growing area defined in the specifications which satisfies the export standards laid down by the National Committee of Coffee Growers and which, when processed, has the following characteristics: mild, clean cup, of medium/high acidity and body and full and pronounced aroma”. Even so, the commission also recognizes that “these conditions may be applicable to many other coffee producing countries or regions of the world”. But, “the existence at the same time, of the natural, human and traditional factors and reputation mentioned, as well as of the inspection arrangements and processes discussed in the subsequent chapters, cannot be replicated in any coffee growing area or region other than the Colombian coffee growing area” was taken into account to award the GI certification. Recently, FNC registered more specific GIs for two of their coffees, Cafe de Nariño[10] and Cafe de Cauca[11,12] produced in different regions within Colombia. These GIs are also justified on the basis of quality characters that are attributed to specific climatic conditions of the production areas like hours of sunlight per year, rainfall per year, rainfall pattern, organic matter in the soil and altitudes. But, there is no mention of details of local resources like human tradition and culture and local know-how. This is interpreted to be aimed at marketing these coffees as single origin coffees, particularly in US markets. The methods of production are also described, including the different processing stages: production, harvesting and hulling. Roasting need not necessarily be carried out in the geographical area but the process must bring out the intrinsic organoleptic qualities of the green “Cafe de Colombia”. The proof of origin and the traceability of the product are carried out at various stages like parchment production and hulling and final green coffee being monitored by an administrative body, Sistema de Informacion Cafetero (SICA). Exports are monitored by customs authorities of Colombia and ALMACAFE an organization entrusted with carrying out checks by the National Federation of Coffee Growers. All exporters are registered by the Ministry of Foreign Trade Decisions of Colombia. Even roasted coffee is monitored inside and outside Colombia by different mechanisms to ensure high quality. The inspection body responsible for quality checks is ALMACAFE. The blue and yellow label to be used for the GI bears the stars of EU and the title: P.G.I. CAFÉ DE COLOMBIA. Colombian coffee growers also use a domestic denomination of origin (DO) to differentiate and ensure that only coffee of appropriate standard gets into the exports. Costa Rica Coffee Coffee production in Costa Rica started in the late 18th Century and coffee became an important source of foreign exchange by the early 19th Century itself. Now Costa Rica is the third largest producer in Central America with an annual production of ~96000 tons. As a matter of policy, Costa Rica grows only Arabica coffee. Domestic consumption of coffee in Costa Rica is only about 18% of its production and the remaining crop is exported to Europe and US[3]. Since coffee earnings are an important contribution to the exchequer, exporting to specialty and niche markets became very important. Uniqueness of Costa Rica coffee is also because of the tropical rainy climate, volcanic and slightly acidic soils rich in organic materials which are ideally suited for coffee cultivation. Over 70% of country‟s coffee is produced in the mountain ranges between 1000-1700 meters above sea level with temperatures ranging from 17-23˚C[3]. Instituto del Cafe de Costa Rica (ICAFE) is a private company supporting the coffee industry in such aspects as technology transfer and quality control. ICAFE has divided the country into seven coffee growing areas on the basis of altitude, soil type and coffee flavour (Project: Seven Regions, Seven Coffees): Tarrazu, Brunca, Orosi, Tres Rios, Turrialba, Valle Occidental and Valle Central. Tarrazu is famous for its quality and is one of the most favourite coffees in the international markets. ICAFE launched a coffee quality improvement program in 2001 (National Coffee Plan) in which all the seven coffee producing regions signed a Quality Improvement Agreement. Owners of coffee processing units committed to receive only ripe fruits for processing according to this agreement. Only wet processing method is used and the fruits received on any day are processed on the same day to maintain the best quality. The classification of beans is also done immediately after pulping before fermentation to reduce the defective beans significantly in the produce. Sun drying adopted in Costa Rica reduces the moisture of clean coffee to 12% within 7 days after washing. Mechanical dryers are also used to hasten the process and it takes only 24 hrs to achieve the 12% moisture level. Registration, verification, control and follow-up of commercialization system was established for the batches of coffee with unique quality characteristics to encourage the highest quality. The processing units are committed to receiving, processing, drying, storing and marketing these beans separately from the others which are processed conventionally. These unique coffees also receive higher prices through a differential payment system. The goal of Costa Rica coffee sector is to improve sales while adhering to the strategy of “quality, not quantity”. To develop geographical indications for coffee, Costa Rica has identified eight growing regions with unique environmental profile and coffee quality. Even now, these growing regions are still informal but efforts are being made to formalize them through legal means and the requisite laws are already passed. Two possible GIs are contemplated, one is a nation-wide geographical indication for quality Costa Rica coffee (Cafe de Costa Rica) and the second is specific geographical indications linked to the unique areas of coffee cultivation[17,18]. This situation is similar to the case of Colombia where also there is a national GI, Cafe de Colombia and regional GIs Cafe de Nariño and Cafe de Cauca. Guatemala Coffee Geographical indications on Guatemala coffee are different from the above two. Here, a nation-wide GI is an umbrella mark covering all the regional coffees[4]. Guatemala government and the Guatemalan National Coffee Association (ANACAFE) defined the country‟s coffee producing regions on a scientific basis and eight regions were identified and delimited [13,14]. These regions present specific characteristics with regard to climatic and pedological conditions suitable for coffee production and reflect in the high coffee quality profile. Fertile volcanic soils, low humidity, sunny days and cool evenings characterize the coffee areas of Antigua. With small or large variations these climatic conditions are found in all other areas also. One common aspect is that all the areas are in close vicinity of volcanoes. Thus, a link between coffee quality and territorial identity was established. These regions enjoy different reputations also on account of natural and historical reasons. Two of these regions, Antigua and Acatenango are already recognized as GIs and the others are being promoted. Coffee of Antigua and Acatenango are typically shade grown and the shade is mostly provided by Grevillea and Inga trees. Inga trees are leguminous trees that fix atmospheric nitrogen that reduces the necessity of chemical fertilizer. Bourbon, Caturra and Catuai are the coffee varieties grown. These three varieties are genetically closely related and are thus linked to the fine quality of Antigua coffee. The regional GIs are collectively validated and promoted as the national “Guatemalan Coffees”[4] trade mark aimed at developing a world-wide recognition for Guatemalan Coffee with a single brand name. Efforts are also made to preserve the identities of specific coffee growing territories as seen in the marks used for each of the coffees from diverse regions. Jamaica Blue Mountain Coffee Jamaica produces a very small quantity (~1800 tons) of coffee that commands a very high price. Jamaican coffee supply chain is well structured and strongly regulated by law and managed by the Coffee Industry Board (CIB). Over 7000 farmers produce this world famous coffee on ~5000 ha of land at an elevation of 600-1500 meters above sea level[4]. About 70% of produced coffee is exported to US, Canada, Japan and UK. Blue mountain region of Jamaica has a very suitable climate for growing coffee. Cool mountain climate with mists, high rainfall, shaded mountain slopes with luxurious vegetation providing shade for the coffee plants, volcanic soils with high drainage and rich organic content[4,16]. Thus, Blue Mountain Coffee grows in a very unique ecosystem that allows the variety Typica of Arabica coffee to develop very special flavour and aroma in the cup. Hand harvesting, wet processing and sun drying were identified as the important steps in preserving and enhancing quality[4]. The main purpose of registering Blue Mountain Coffee as GI is to obtain better protection against imitations and abuses as well as to explore the markets beyond the ones already exploited, especially European markets where consumers are accustomed to GI protected goods and confident about their quality. Café Marcala of Honduras Marcala coffee of Honduras enjoys a certain reputation for its quality in the internal market of the country. It was usurped by other coffees of Honduras that led to a loss of revenue to the coffee growers of Marcala region[4]. This stimulated the growers to seek the path of GI to protect their product and this was the first geographical indication in the Latin America, registered in 2005. In this GI, pedological, climatic and human factors have all been relevant to the quality of coffee of this region. In this small region coffee cultivation began in the 18th Century and some specific techniques were developed by the people[19]. Product specifications concentrated on technical aspects like delimitation of the area of cultivation and agro-climatic conditions as related to the beverage quality. An important aspect is the strong link with the local coffee production system and the people of the territory who manage the initiative[19]. The consortium holding the GI comprises of about 2400 members including coffee farmers, exporters, brokers and roasters. They develop joint actions on many aspects such as compliance with the product specifications, collective promotion initiatives and development of new niche marketing channels like coffee shops, small roasters etc. They also support growers groups in accessing new markets in association with some NGOs. The consortium also supports growers with technical assistance to comply with traceability and maintain quality standards as stated in the GI. Four other areas producing distinct and unique coffees were identified in Honduras and efforts are on to obtain recognition for them also through GI or DO path. Pico Duarte Coffee of Dominican Republic An interesting case of GI on coffee is from the Dominican Republic. Pico Duarte initiative was launched in 2006 to solve the problem of lack of incentives for quality in the coffee trading system. Target area is Jarabacoa on the north slopes of Cordillera Central, the main mountain chain of Dominican Republic. The stimulus for seeking a GI for this coffee has come from a scientific study that has brought out the quality characteristics of coffee produced in these areas of Dominican Republic[4,20]. This study identified a number of potential GIs for coffee grown in the inner part of the island. These areas meet all the standard climatic conditions such as high elevations (700-1400 meters above MSL), high rainfall (1600-2400 mm/annum), slight acidity of the soil (pH 5.5-6.5), 4-7 hrs of sunlight per day and temperatures ranging from 17˚C to 24˚C, needed to produce high quality coffee. The primary goal of the GI was to achieve homogeneity in the coffee quality of the area based on the need of local as well as outside buyers who are looking for stable quality characteristics in the green coffee. Thus, the product specifications for this GI was not aimed at protecting an existing reputation, but to achieve a higher level of reputation and thus the GI was sought on the basis of setting up quality controls and a traceability system that was meant to achieve a higher standard of quality[20]. Particularly, the production and processing aspects were given greater importance and innovation in techniques was proposed to achieve the stated quality for the international markets. Even so, the product specification is made in such a way as to include the production areas inside the delimited areas. Buon Ma Thout Coffee of Vietnam Coffee was first introduced to Buon Ma Thout region of Vietnam by the French. Since then it has come to be cultivated widely in the Dak Lak province. Robusta coffee from this region is known for its good quality and distinct taste. This coffee is now recognized as a geographical indication and Buon Ma Thout is considered the coffee metropolis of Vietnam[21]. This region comprises the central highlands of Vietnam with an average elevation of ~450 meters above sea level, with basalt rocks and volcanic soils and a distinct rainy season from May to October every year and the dry season from November to April. These conditions are ideally suited for coffee cultivation. The long lasting rainy season and plentiful water resources provide ideal conditions for the region‟s coffee plants to flourish. Local ethnic people (Ê-dê tribe) enhanced the specificity of this coffee through a variation of dry processing technique. After dry processing, the coffee is mixed with salt, rice and alcohol and allowed to ferment; put in a cloth bag with aromatic herbs and mushrooms and then immersed in boiling water. This process, however, is not improving or preserving the quality and has not got included in the product specification of BMT Coffee GI[22,23]. New methods are being developed using enzyme techniques that may lead to an enhancement of quality[24]. In Vietnam, GIs were protected as appellation of origin (AOs) between 1995 and 2005. Definition of an AO was strictly on the basis of quality or characteristics of a product attributable to the geographical origin. This system was revised in 2005 in preparation to join the WTO and GI designation can be given to agro-food and handicraft products in accordance with the TRIPs agreement. Detailed regulations laid down in the revised intellectual property law made it readily operational and GI registrations got accelerated[22]. A preference for GIs was observed even as the AO regulations were not nullified. In 2005, Buon Ma Thout Robusta coffee was identified for GI registration and by October 2005, the registration decision was announced. Tenom Coffee of Malaysia Tenom coffee is a popular coffee drink that originated in Tenom, Sabah, Malaysia. Robusta coffee was first planted on this island by the British when this area was under their administration. However, those plantations were abandoned in 1910. Afterwards, the coffee production shifted to the west coast area. Initial plantations were established by the British North Borneo Chartered Company (BNBCC)[26]. Now, Tenom is known as an agricultural site with large coffee production and has been dubbed the „Sabah Coffee Capital‟[25]. Tenom produces about 60000 to 75000 kg of coffee annually. Coffee is the second largest contributor to the economy of Tenom. Coffee cherries are laid for sun drying immediately after harvest and the drying process is completed in 10-14 days. Then these dried cherries are dehusked in a mechanical husker. The green beans are then size-graded and defective beans are removed. Then, the selected beans are subjected to roasting by the traditional firewood and drum rotation method that is believed to bring out the best aroma and taste. Tenom coffee is now well recognized in Malaysia as a top quality coffee offering the ultimate and “Authentic Borneo Taste”[46]. Yit Foh Tenom Coffee is the main coffee producing company and considered the oldest: in operation since 1960. It still produces the coffee grounds in a traditional way by roasting beans on wood fire to bring out the true and fine aroma[26]. The biggest competitor to this company is the Fatt Choi Tenom Coffee that also comes from the same district but established more recently in 1986[27]. Café Veracruz of Mexico Veracruz is the oldest coffee producing state in Mexico. During the colonial times, all goods coming into Mexico via Atlantic Ocean, entered through Veracruz. The earliest coffee planting in this region was in 1780 at Coatepec area. In the latter half of 19 th Century coffee became an important crop. The regions soil and climate are very suitable for producing high quality coffee that displaced all other crops towards the late 19th Century and mid 20th Century. This was considered the mildest coffee in the world[28]. World War II brought a change in the coffee market situation and producing more volume at lower cost became important to meet the war time demand. Consumption behaviour developed during the time continued and lasted for the rest of the Century. These developments had a strong impact on the situation at Veracruz also. Coffee cultivation expanded to new areas of Mexico with focus on producing large volumes rather than high quality that gradually led to a decline in quality. Still, Veracruz remained Mexico‟s coffee capital and by early 1980s, produced over a million bags of average quality green coffee. Termination of ICOs economic clauses was catastrophic to Veracruz coffee. In 1992, a group of growers attempted to launch a new initiative, “Genuine Coatepec Veracruz” coffee. Even this failed because the group lacked the resources and operational capability and there was no support from the State. In 1998, State government picked up the idea of denomination of origin (DO) and registered “Cafe Veracruz” that became official in 2001. A regulatory board was established and the Mexican Official Standard was also published in the same year. This DO is a geographical indication that includes all the coffee growing areas in the state of Veracruz and thus, is more inclusive than exclusive. Even so, to meet the basic standard quality, the producing farms must be at altitudes above 750 meters from MSL and also meet various regulatory standards. This includes ~50000 farmers cultivating about 85000 ha producing half a million bags of 60kg coffee. Cost of production in this region was found to be about US$ 0.77 per pound of coffee and the selling price is US$ 1.25, leaving the farmer at an average gain of only about US$ 200 per ha. The purpose of increasing farmer‟s income through GI route has not been very successful in this case, so far. Mexican Industrial Property Law recognizes appellations of origin that are names of geographical regions of the country used to designate various products whose characteristics or quality are wholly due to the natural and human factors of the environment of that geographical location[29]. This legislation regulates the use of AOs and allows their registration. A registration of AO is declared by the Mexican Institute of Industrial Property when a product meets the requirements established by law, upon the request of an individual or private or public institution that has a proven interest in the production and marketing of the particular product. All Mexican AOs are owned by the Mexican Federal Government which can license them by granting authorizations for use for a period of ten years and can be renewed after that. Mexico now has three AOs on coffee: Café Veracruz, Café Chiapas and Café Pluma[29]. Ethiopian Perspective on Geographical Indications Everyone agrees that Ethiopia is the homeland of Arabica coffee and there is enough evidence and scientific proof to prove this fact[30,31,32]. The name coffee originated from the name of a South-western province in Ethiopia namely Kaffa. Within Ethiopia, there are several regions that produce coffee and there are three different modes of production viz. garden coffee, plantation coffee and forest and semi-forest coffee. Most of the coffee producing regions are located at altitudes ranging from 550 to 2400 meters above sea level with temperatures from 5˚C to 28˚C. Soils of these areas are red, loamy soils rich in mineral and organic matter. Annual rainfall in these areas is above 900 mm. These climatic conditions of the homeland of Arabica coffee (tropical upper montane evergreen forests) are the best suited for producing high quality coffee[33]. Coffee industry is a critical component of Ethiopia‟s agricultural economy and thus in the overall economy of the country. About 25% of the population depends on coffee production directly or indirectly for their livelihood[36].Total Ethiopian production of coffee is around 450000 tons per annum and about 40% of this is consumed locally. About 30% of Ethiopian exports may reach the specialty grade, but not necessarily price and only about 10% of these exports could achieve a modest higher price. Only 8% of the total coffee area of Ethiopia gets certified as organic, fair-trade etc.[34] Ethiopia‟s specialty coffees, Sidamo, Yirgacheffe and Harrar[35] are sold at US$ 5-6 per kg in exports, but at about US$ 50 per kg in retail in the US. Thus, what the farmer receives from the retail price paid by the consumers is very small and to increase the farmer‟s share Ethiopian trade-marking and licensing initiatives have taken birth[34]. Ethiopian Intellectual Property Office (EIPO) has registered trademarks for the three specialty coffees and made efforts to establish partnerships between Ethiopian growers, exporters and buyers in the international market with the aim of improving the grower‟s share in the consumer‟s dollar[36]. These trademarks were also registered in over 30 countries, around 60 national exporting companies and ~70 international coffee buying companies. There are also strong recommendations to embrace the GI system for specialty coffees of Ethiopia. However, Ethiopia chose to proceed ahead with the trademark system considering the costs involved in the development of geographical indications and maintaining them for their fine coffees. Special Coffees of Indonesia Specialties of Sumatra Indonesia is another country producing unique coffees from its various islands known for the diverse environments and great biodiversity. Its geographical location with many mountainous regions in the different islands is ideally suitable for producing high quality Arabica coffee. This is also the first country outside Arabia and Ethiopia where coffee was grown. Coffee cultivation in Indonesia began in the early 18th Century[37]. Present coffee production of Indonesia is around 680000 tons and local consumption is about 200000 tons (~29%) and the balance is exported[39]. Three unique coffees Mandheling, Lintong and Gayo are well known and produced from the island of Sumatra, the main producing area[38]. These are known for smooth, sweet bodied, balanced and intense cup. Depending on the region of origin or blend of regions, the flavours of land and processing can be very pronounced. Notes of cocoa, tobacco, smoke, earth and cedar wood can show well in the cup. Mandheling is a trade name derived from the name of the Mandailing people who produce coffee in the Tapanuli region of Sumatra[37]. Lintong coffee comes from Lintong Nihuta district. The coffee growing area is a high plateau known for its diverse tree ferns. About 15000 to 18000 tons of coffee is produced from this area annually. The unique processing by “giling basah” method (wet hulling) is also considered responsible for the quality of these coffees. Green coffee from these areas has a distinct bluish colour that is attributed to this processing technique and lacking of iron in the soil[37,40]. Gayo is the region on the hill sides surrounding the town of Takengon and Lake Tawar at the northern tip of Sumatra in the region of Aceh. Coffee of this area is grown under shade trees. Gayo mountain coffee is described as higher toned and lighter bodied than Lintong and Mandhelin coffees[37,40]. Sulawesi Coffees: Toraja, Kalosi, Mamasa and Gowa Sulawesi island of Indonesia (earlier known as Celebes) is also home to some of the high quality coffees. Main region of Arabica coffee production is in the Toraja highlands and the district of Enrekang right on the equator. After the closure of coffee plantations in this area during war, Key Coffee Company of Japan revived this legendary coffee by involving directly in operating a plantation here[47]. Coffee of this area is traded through the town of Kalosi that is a well known specialty coffee. Mamasa region to the west of Toraja and Gowa to its south also produce Arabica coffee[34,40]. These coffees are described as: clean and sound in the cup, display nutty or warm spicy notes like cinnamon or cardamom, sometimes with a hint of black pepper. The sweetness is said to be closely related to the body of coffee as is the case with other Indonesian coffees. The after-taste that coats the palate is smooth and soft. These coffees are also processed by the method of „giling basah‟[37,38]. These four varieties of Indonesia are considered „single origin‟ in the international markets. Java The earliest coffee plantations of Indonesia were planted on this island by the Dutch East India Company in the 17th Century. Old colonial plantations are still in production and in 2015 produced about 15 tons of Arabica coffee. Of this, 2.5 tons is Luvak Coffee or Civet Coffee. Main coffee production of Java is concentrated on the Ijen Plateau at an altitude of 1400 meters. Production is largely from the estates developed by the Dutch in the 18th Century. Some important estates are Blawan (also spelt Belawan or Blauan), Jampit (or Djampit), Pancoer (or Pancur), Kayumas and Tugosari covering an area of over 4000 ha. They process their coffee by the wet method and the quality of Java coffee is described as heavy bodied with sweet overall impression, sometimes rustic in flavour profile but displaying a lasting finish. They are smooth and supple and sometimes have a herbaceous note in the after-taste. This is prized as one component of the traditional “Mocca Java” blend made from Yemen and Java coffees. Some estates age their coffee up to five years in burlap sacks that are regularly aired, dusted and flipped. With aging the beans turn brown and their flavour gains strength and lose some acidity. Aged coffees display flavours of cedar and spices like cinnamon or clove and develop a thick and syrupy body and are named as Old Government, Old Java or Old Brown[37,39]. Another unique coffee of Java is the Kapi Luvak or Civet Coffee that is recognized well as an Indonesian specialty. This is coffee produced from the beans coming out of the digestive system of the civet cat that consumes the ripe coffee fruits. Thus, this coffee is enzyme processed indirectly[38]. This is one of the most expensive coffees. Even so, its specialty is not accepted by all. Some believe the process involved is unethical and cruel. Western slopes of Mount Tambora on the Sumbawa island also produce Arabica coffee that is sold as Tambora Coffee. Coffee cultivation in this area began in 1815 after the eruption of Tambora. Today it is marketed in the name of Tambora Red Bean Coffee and is considered a specialty. Flores is another island of Indonesia that also produces Arabica coffee on its volcanic soils at altitudes of 1200-1800 meters. Flores coffee is grown under shade trees and wet processed. It is known for sweet chocolate, floral and woody notes. Part of Flores coffee is traditionally processed by the method now named as „pulped natural‟ to produce the floral notes in flavour as this was highly sought after by some buyers[37,39,40]. New Guinea is the second largest island in the world. Western half of this island is a part of Indonesia and is known as Papua. There are two important regions of Papua that grow coffee: Baliem Valley in the central highlands of Jayawijaya region and the Kamu Valley in the Nabire region. Both these areas are at elevations of 1400 to 2000 meters ideally suited for Arabica coffee production. All coffee of this area is grown under shade and processed by a wet-hulling method. Chemical fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides and herbicides are unknown in this very remote area that makes this coffee rare and valuable. Some companies are getting fair-trade and organic certification for these coffees to help growers realize better incomes. This area produces about 230 tons of coffee annually[37]. Kintamani Bali Highlands between the two volcanoes, Batukaru and Agung are the main area of coffee production on the island of Bali that is known as Kintamani. Balinese growers produce coffee in accordance with Hindu philosophy of “Tri Hita Karana” which means that the three main sources of happiness are good relations with God, other people and the environment. Thus, they produce organic coffee in a very eco-friendly manner without any agrochemicals in a farming system that they named „Subak Abian‟. The first geographical indication of Indonesian coffee was established for the Kintamani Coffee in 2008, jointly by all the stakeholders of this area including the members of Subak Abian. Balinese coffee is processed by the wet method and is known for its sweet and soft taste with good consistency and typical lime and other citrus notes in flavour[38,39,40]. These are only some of the specialty coffees of Indonesia. There are still more being produced in the 17000 island archipelago that may come to be considered unique and special. Indian Coffee Coffee has been in cultivation for over two centuries in India and the forerunning research on disease resistance was pioneered by the Mysore Coffee Experiment Station (now Central Coffee Research Institute) founded in 1926. Current production of coffee in India is around 350000 tons and local consumption is about 70000 tons. India produces both Arabica and Robusta and the present proportions of these coffees are 30% and 70% of the total. Main export destinations for Indian coffee are the several countries of Europe and US[43]. Indian coffee is typically shade grown in an ideal climatic regime with temperature ranging from 23-28˚C, rainfall of 1500-2000 mm and rainy season followed by dry season of 2-3 months. Arabica is grown at higher elevations of over 1000 meters while Robusta is preferred at lower elevations[42]. There are two specialties of India recognized as geographical indications: Monsooned Malabar Arabica and Monsooned Malabar Robusta. Monsooned coffee had its origins in an accidental exposure of stored/transported coffee beans to the moisture and monsoon winds of the West coast of India. In the colonial times, coffee was carried in wooden vessels across the seas that also contributed to a part of the process as the sailing time was considerably long. This made the coffee beans to swell and change colour as well as acquire a much mellower flavour. It is said that these specialty coffees are heavy bodied, pungent, dry with a musty, chacolatey aroma and notes of spices and nuts[41]. The process of monsooning is now standardized to produce considerable quantities for export[44]. Indian Coffee Board has identified thirteen unique environments of different regions of the country: Araku Valley, Anamalais, Bababudan Giris, Biligiris, Brahmaputra, Chikmagalur, Coorg, Manjarabad, Nilgiris, Pulneys, Shavaroys, Travancore and Wayanad in the various agro-climatic zones producing unique Arabicas and Robustas. Two other specialties are Mysore Nuggets Extra Bold and Robusta Kapi Royale. All these special coffees are still informal and efforts are going on to create geographical indications for them[45]. Apart from the various GIs and potential GIs described above, many other coffees are also grown in the diverse locations of this great planet that is home to many unique ecosystems. To name a few Doi Tung and Doi Chaang Coffees of Thailand and Bolaven Coffee of Lao, Kalinga Coffee of the Philippines, Kilimanjaro Coffee from Tanzania, Kenya Coffee and Chipinga Coffee from Zimbabwe. In not too far a future, we may be seeing many other countries, particularly the grower communities seeking to establish GIs for their coffees that have not yet been known so well. The foregoing discourse narrated the different backgrounds, diverse philosophies and varied approaches adopted by the stakeholders in the many coffee growing areas of the planet. Chinese coffee growers of Zhukula region can draw inspiration from these developments and seek to establish the uniqueness of their coffee and its reputation by taking the appropriate steps to develop a GI for their specialty coffee. References [1] Osario N. 2009. Evolution of the world coffee market. www.ico.org. [2] Ram AS. Coffee Breeding. 2013.Lambert Academic Publishers, Saar Brücken, Germany. [3] Benni NE, Reviron S. Geographical Indications: Review of seven case-studies Worldwide. 2009. Working Paper # 2009/15. NCCR Trade Regulation, Swiss National Science Foundation, Berne, Switzerland. [4] Marescotti A, Belletti G. 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