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Geographical Indications on Coffee
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Paper presented to 2017 First Dali Binchuan Zhukula International Coffee Forum
15-17 June, 2017. Zhukula, China
Geographical Indications on Coffee
A. Santa Ram*
Head, Division of Genetics and Plant Breeding (Retd.)
Central Coffee Research Institute, India
Abstract
Coffee is produced mostly in the developing countries of the world and was traded
mainly through regulatory organizations like marketing boards of the respective countries
until recently. Most of the coffee produced in these countries was exported to the
developed countries of the west as local consumption was very low. Thus, coffee was just
a commodity being produced for consumption elsewhere, for most of the producing
countries. This scenario underwent a change with the liberalization of coffee trade in many
of the producing countries in the last quarter of 20th Century. As the producer community
took over marketing, they started perceiving new ideas of marketing and adopted the
models of successful marketing by some other producing countries. In this flux of events,
geographical indications as a means of promoting and marketing coffee produced in
unique environments and processed by special techniques and many such other natural
elements and/or interventions emerged to prominence and such coffees came to be sold as
specialties. With the WTO‟s recognition of these geographical indications as full-fledged
intellectual property rights these coffees of unique nature gained an enhanced value.
Forerunning examples of geographical indications on coffee are Colombian “Cafe de
Colombia” and Jamaican “Blue Mountain Coffee”. But, there are many others that
developed in the recent times. Besides producer efforts at developing/attributing
uniqueness to their coffee, consumers also sought specialties like organic coffee, high
grown coffee, bird-friendly coffee, eco-friendly coffee etc. that also helped in the
development of coffees that came to be described as so because of their geographical
origins. As a consequence, single origin coffees also gained value. Geographical indication
certification helps to protect producers against unfair competition and counterfeiting and
adds value to the product that gains competitive advantage. Other gains of GI certification
include enhanced regional economic development through increased international market
competitiveness, customer loyalty and related improved profits and strengthening of
production chains that leads enhanced negotiating power. This presentation gives an
overview of geographical indications in the coffee sectors of some producing countries.
Key words: GI . Coffee
____________________________________________________________________
*Present address: # 234, 1-A Main, Bapuji Layout, Bogadi, Mysore 570021, India
E-mail: santaram009@gmail.com
Introduction
Coffee is a very important commodity in international trade, occupying a position
next to oil with an annual turnover of around US$ 70 billion[1]. Most of the world coffee is
produced in the third world countries by small growers and it is consumed in the affluent
countries of the west[2]. Consumption of coffee in most of the producing countries is very
low and thus exports are very important for grower incomes[3]. Coffee production and
processing sectors support the lives of millions of people involved in coffee cultivation,
processing and trade. Earnings from coffee sale and export are the mainstay of the
economies of most of the producing countries[2].
Coffee production in most of the producing countries is small grower dominant and
these growers are resource poor and sometimes not educated enough to negotiate the best
price for their coffee. With the intention of protecting their interests, in many countries
regulatory organizations were instituted to take care of marketing. These statutory
organizations had the power to collect the entire coffee produced by growers and arrange
for marketing through a system of auctions. In this process, there is no possibility of
distinguishing unique or special coffees as the whole lot of collected coffee gets pooled
according to size grades and sold in bulk. In the last quarter of the 20th Century coffee
trade was liberalized in many coffee producing countries and the growers got the freedom
to sell their produce on their own[4,5]. Initial years after liberalization have seen the growers
perceiving some set-backs in marketing their produce[5]. But, gradually they came to
understand the value of their produce by observing how the coffee of different origins was
sold in the international markets. This led to the recognition for specialty coffees grown in
special and unique environments like shade-grown coffee, bird-friendly coffee, highgrown coffee, organic-coffee and many such other coffees that are sought by consumers of
different classes in specialized niche markets. These events led to the development of a
new scenario in which coffee quality is attributed to the environment in which it is grown
or the processing techniques adopted in specific locations of coffee production. These
developments led to the establishment of geographical indication tags to these special
coffees. Now, special coffees of different origins are sought to be recognized as
geographical indications.
Unique products of different geographical origins have been in existence in all the
countries and coffees of distinction were also known for a long time. However, protecting
them as geographical indications is a relatively recent phenomenon as already described.
These initiatives were particularly more in all the member countries of WTO on account of
the mandatory requirement of implementing the TRIPs agreement[4]. According to the
TRIPs agreement, “geographical indications are indications that identify a good as
originating in the territory of a member (state), or a region or locality in that territory,
where a given quality, reputation or other characteristic of the good is essentially
attributable to its geographical origin”. TRIPs agreement also demands that all the member
countries establish some minimum standards for protection of GIs through national law[6].
In this context, it is important to recall that almost all the coffee producing countries are
developing countries of the third world and they are also members of the WTO and
signatories of the TRIPs agreement. But, in most of these countries, intellectual property
protection through IPR laws is either non-existent or very weak before the WTO[7].
Another important aspect of coffee trade is that it is mostly consumed in the developed
countries where the intellectual property rights are well established and the GIs were
mainly used to differentiate products of unique nature and origin. In Europe GIs are well
known since, at least, 13th Century and there were a lot of studies on them. In the
developing countries the GIs are a post-WTO development and there are not many studies.
Even so, several studies exist and some of them are focused on coffee. Most of these
studies were by the researchers of the western consuming countries. A point to be
recognized is that these studies and the development of GIs for coffee are closely linked.
Present study is focused primarily on enumerating the different special coffees of different
countries sought to be recognized as geographical indications. This recognition is expected
to result in higher prices for these unique coffees as established by some studies.
Consumers are willing to pay 10% to 30% higher prices for specialty coffees[8]. Even so, it
is also possible that small coffee growers may not be able to meet the standards set for
production and processing protocols and lose their value on account of their poverty. It is
also possible that they can be sidelined by the multinational companies involved in coffee
tertiary processing and denied their due share in the profits generated[4]. Transaction costs
of developing and maintaining GIs are also very high for some of the developing countries
producing coffee.
Colombian Coffee
Colombia is considered the second largest producer of Arabica coffee in the world
producing around 700000 tons annually. Consumption of coffee in Colombia is only about
5% of this production and thus most of the produced coffee is exported. Volatility of
coffee prices in the international markets and low home consumption led the Colombian
growers to develop new strategies of marketing. The idea of marketing on the basis of
uniqueness was thus conceived. To qualify as a geographical indication in the European
Union and other international markets this uniqueness has to be established.
Cafe de Colombia was defined[3,9] as Arabica coffee produced from six varieties
viz. Typica, Caturra, Colombia, Bourbon, Maragogype and Tabi at an altitude of 400-2500
meters above sea level in a limited production area. Temperature in these areas ranges
between 17˚C and 23˚C. Only 12% of the total coffee producing area of Colombia is
included in this. Even so, this area includes all the districts of Colombia‟s central coffee
belt and some others also. In order to allow all coffee regions to be included in the GI, the
product specification was very basic and generic[4] and the link between coffee quality and
production territory is based on climatic conditions, soil characteristics and on coffee
producing culture of the country.
The specified locations are most suitable for coffee production. Colombia also
includes tropical, mountainous and coastal zones and has diverse climatic conditions. The
natural conditions prevailing in the area of production of Cafe de Colombia are:
1. Two rainy seasons per year providing a continuous production possibility with two
growth cycles in a year.
2. Unique edaphic factors like the volcanic Andean soils with special texture and high
organic matter content.
European Commission‟s recognition of Colombian coffee as a GI is on the basis
of.. “Cafe de Colombia is that coffee grown in the Colombian coffee growing area defined
in the specifications which satisfies the export standards laid down by the National
Committee of Coffee Growers and which, when processed, has the following
characteristics: mild, clean cup, of medium/high acidity and body and full and pronounced
aroma”. Even so, the commission also recognizes that “these conditions may be applicable
to many other coffee producing countries or regions of the world”. But, “the existence at
the same time, of the natural, human and traditional factors and reputation mentioned, as
well as of the inspection arrangements and processes discussed in the subsequent chapters,
cannot be replicated in any coffee growing area or region other than the Colombian coffee
growing area” was taken into account to award the GI certification. Recently, FNC
registered more specific GIs for two of their coffees, Cafe de Nariño[10] and Cafe de
Cauca[11,12] produced in different regions within Colombia. These GIs are also justified on
the basis of quality characters that are attributed to specific climatic conditions of the
production areas like hours of sunlight per year, rainfall per year, rainfall pattern, organic
matter in the soil and altitudes. But, there is no mention of details of local resources like
human tradition and culture and local know-how. This is interpreted to be aimed at
marketing these coffees as single origin coffees, particularly in US markets.
The methods of production are also described, including the different processing
stages: production, harvesting and hulling. Roasting need not necessarily be carried out in
the geographical area but the process must bring out the intrinsic organoleptic qualities of
the green “Cafe de Colombia”.
The proof of origin and the traceability of the product are carried out at various
stages like parchment production and hulling and final green coffee being monitored by an
administrative body, Sistema de Informacion Cafetero (SICA). Exports are monitored by
customs authorities of Colombia and ALMACAFE an organization entrusted with carrying
out checks by the National Federation of Coffee Growers. All exporters are registered by
the Ministry of Foreign Trade Decisions of Colombia. Even roasted coffee is monitored
inside and outside Colombia by different mechanisms to ensure high quality. The
inspection body responsible for quality checks is ALMACAFE. The blue and yellow label
to be used for the GI bears the stars of EU and the title: P.G.I. CAFÉ DE COLOMBIA.
Colombian coffee growers also use a domestic denomination of origin (DO) to
differentiate and ensure that only coffee of appropriate standard gets into the exports.
Costa Rica Coffee
Coffee production in Costa Rica started in the late 18th Century and coffee became
an important source of foreign exchange by the early 19th Century itself. Now Costa Rica
is the third largest producer in Central America with an annual production of ~96000 tons.
As a matter of policy, Costa Rica grows only Arabica coffee. Domestic consumption of
coffee in Costa Rica is only about 18% of its production and the remaining crop is
exported to Europe and US[3]. Since coffee earnings are an important contribution to the
exchequer, exporting to specialty and niche markets became very important.
Uniqueness of Costa Rica coffee is also because of the tropical rainy climate,
volcanic and slightly acidic soils rich in organic materials which are ideally suited for
coffee cultivation. Over 70% of country‟s coffee is produced in the mountain ranges
between 1000-1700 meters above sea level with temperatures ranging from 17-23˚C[3].
Instituto del Cafe de Costa Rica (ICAFE) is a private company supporting the
coffee industry in such aspects as technology transfer and quality control. ICAFE has
divided the country into seven coffee growing areas on the basis of altitude, soil type and
coffee flavour (Project: Seven Regions, Seven Coffees): Tarrazu, Brunca, Orosi, Tres
Rios, Turrialba, Valle Occidental and Valle Central. Tarrazu is famous for its quality and
is one of the most favourite coffees in the international markets.
ICAFE launched a coffee quality improvement program in 2001 (National Coffee
Plan) in which all the seven coffee producing regions signed a Quality Improvement
Agreement. Owners of coffee processing units committed to receive only ripe fruits for
processing according to this agreement. Only wet processing method is used and the fruits
received on any day are processed on the same day to maintain the best quality. The
classification of beans is also done immediately after pulping before fermentation to
reduce the defective beans significantly in the produce. Sun drying adopted in Costa Rica
reduces the moisture of clean coffee to 12% within 7 days after washing. Mechanical
dryers are also used to hasten the process and it takes only 24 hrs to achieve the 12%
moisture level.
Registration, verification, control and follow-up of commercialization system was
established for the batches of coffee with unique quality characteristics to encourage the
highest quality. The processing units are committed to receiving, processing, drying,
storing and marketing these beans separately from the others which are processed
conventionally. These unique coffees also receive higher prices through a differential
payment system. The goal of Costa Rica coffee sector is to improve sales while adhering
to the strategy of “quality, not quantity”.
To develop geographical indications for coffee, Costa Rica has identified eight
growing regions with unique environmental profile and coffee quality. Even now, these
growing regions are still informal but efforts are being made to formalize them through
legal means and the requisite laws are already passed. Two possible GIs are contemplated,
one is a nation-wide geographical indication for quality Costa Rica coffee (Cafe de Costa
Rica) and the second is specific geographical indications linked to the unique areas of
coffee cultivation[17,18]. This situation is similar to the case of Colombia where also there is
a national GI, Cafe de Colombia and regional GIs Cafe de Nariño and Cafe de Cauca.
Guatemala Coffee
Geographical indications on Guatemala coffee are different from the above two.
Here, a nation-wide GI is an umbrella mark covering all the regional coffees[4]. Guatemala
government and the Guatemalan National Coffee Association (ANACAFE) defined the
country‟s coffee producing regions on a scientific basis and eight regions were identified
and delimited [13,14]. These regions present specific characteristics with regard to climatic
and pedological conditions suitable for coffee production and reflect in the high coffee
quality profile. Fertile volcanic soils, low humidity, sunny days and cool evenings
characterize the coffee areas of Antigua. With small or large variations these climatic
conditions are found in all other areas also. One common aspect is that all the areas are in
close vicinity of volcanoes. Thus, a link between coffee quality and territorial identity was
established. These regions enjoy different reputations also on account of natural and
historical reasons. Two of these regions, Antigua and Acatenango are already recognized
as GIs and the others are being promoted. Coffee of Antigua and Acatenango are typically
shade grown and the shade is mostly provided by Grevillea and Inga trees. Inga trees are
leguminous trees that fix atmospheric nitrogen that reduces the necessity of chemical
fertilizer. Bourbon, Caturra and Catuai are the coffee varieties grown. These three varieties
are genetically closely related and are thus linked to the fine quality of Antigua coffee.
The regional GIs are collectively validated and promoted as the national
“Guatemalan Coffees”[4] trade mark aimed at developing a world-wide recognition for
Guatemalan Coffee with a single brand name. Efforts are also made to preserve the
identities of specific coffee growing territories as seen in the marks used for each of the
coffees from diverse regions.
Jamaica Blue Mountain Coffee
Jamaica produces a very small quantity (~1800 tons) of coffee that commands a
very high price. Jamaican coffee supply chain is well structured and strongly regulated by
law and managed by the Coffee Industry Board (CIB). Over 7000 farmers produce this
world famous coffee on ~5000 ha of land at an elevation of 600-1500 meters above sea
level[4]. About 70% of produced coffee is exported to US, Canada, Japan and UK.
Blue mountain region of Jamaica has a very suitable climate for growing coffee.
Cool mountain climate with mists, high rainfall, shaded mountain slopes with luxurious
vegetation providing shade for the coffee plants, volcanic soils with high drainage and rich
organic content[4,16]. Thus, Blue Mountain Coffee grows in a very unique ecosystem that
allows the variety Typica of Arabica coffee to develop very special flavour and aroma in
the cup. Hand harvesting, wet processing and sun drying were identified as the important
steps in preserving and enhancing quality[4].
The main purpose of registering Blue Mountain Coffee as GI is to obtain better
protection against imitations and abuses as well as to explore the markets beyond the ones
already exploited, especially European markets where consumers are accustomed to GI
protected goods and confident about their quality.
Café Marcala of Honduras
Marcala coffee of Honduras enjoys a certain reputation for its quality in the internal
market of the country. It was usurped by other coffees of Honduras that led to a loss of
revenue to the coffee growers of Marcala region[4]. This stimulated the growers to seek the
path of GI to protect their product and this was the first geographical indication in the
Latin America, registered in 2005. In this GI, pedological, climatic and human factors have
all been relevant to the quality of coffee of this region. In this small region coffee
cultivation began in the 18th Century and some specific techniques were developed by the
people[19]. Product specifications concentrated on technical aspects like delimitation of the
area of cultivation and agro-climatic conditions as related to the beverage quality. An
important aspect is the strong link with the local coffee production system and the people
of the territory who manage the initiative[19]. The consortium holding the GI comprises of
about 2400 members including coffee farmers, exporters, brokers and roasters. They
develop joint actions on many aspects such as compliance with the product specifications,
collective promotion initiatives and development of new niche marketing channels like
coffee shops, small roasters etc. They also support growers groups in accessing new
markets in association with some NGOs. The consortium also supports growers with
technical assistance to comply with traceability and maintain quality standards as stated in
the GI. Four other areas producing distinct and unique coffees were identified in Honduras
and efforts are on to obtain recognition for them also through GI or DO path.
Pico Duarte Coffee of Dominican Republic
An interesting case of GI on coffee is from the Dominican Republic. Pico Duarte
initiative was launched in 2006 to solve the problem of lack of incentives for quality in the
coffee trading system. Target area is Jarabacoa on the north slopes of Cordillera Central,
the main mountain chain of Dominican Republic. The stimulus for seeking a GI for this
coffee has come from a scientific study that has brought out the quality characteristics of
coffee produced in these areas of Dominican Republic[4,20]. This study identified a number
of potential GIs for coffee grown in the inner part of the island. These areas meet all the
standard climatic conditions such as high elevations (700-1400 meters above MSL), high
rainfall (1600-2400 mm/annum), slight acidity of the soil (pH 5.5-6.5), 4-7 hrs of sunlight
per day and temperatures ranging from 17˚C to 24˚C, needed to produce high quality
coffee. The primary goal of the GI was to achieve homogeneity in the coffee quality of the
area based on the need of local as well as outside buyers who are looking for stable quality
characteristics in the green coffee. Thus, the product specifications for this GI was not
aimed at protecting an existing reputation, but to achieve a higher level of reputation and
thus the GI was sought on the basis of setting up quality controls and a traceability system
that was meant to achieve a higher standard of quality[20]. Particularly, the production and
processing aspects were given greater importance and innovation in techniques was
proposed to achieve the stated quality for the international markets. Even so, the product
specification is made in such a way as to include the production areas inside the delimited
areas.
Buon Ma Thout Coffee of Vietnam
Coffee was first introduced to Buon Ma Thout region of Vietnam by the French.
Since then it has come to be cultivated widely in the Dak Lak province. Robusta coffee
from this region is known for its good quality and distinct taste. This coffee is now
recognized as a geographical indication and Buon Ma Thout is considered the coffee
metropolis of Vietnam[21].
This region comprises the central highlands of Vietnam with an average elevation
of ~450 meters above sea level, with basalt rocks and volcanic soils and a distinct rainy
season from May to October every year and the dry season from November to April. These
conditions are ideally suited for coffee cultivation. The long lasting rainy season and
plentiful water resources provide ideal conditions for the region‟s coffee plants to flourish.
Local ethnic people (Ê-dê tribe) enhanced the specificity of this coffee through a
variation of dry processing technique. After dry processing, the coffee is mixed with salt,
rice and alcohol and allowed to ferment; put in a cloth bag with aromatic herbs and
mushrooms and then immersed in boiling water. This process, however, is not improving
or preserving the quality and has not got included in the product specification of BMT
Coffee GI[22,23]. New methods are being developed using enzyme techniques that may lead
to an enhancement of quality[24].
In Vietnam, GIs were protected as appellation of origin (AOs) between 1995 and
2005. Definition of an AO was strictly on the basis of quality or characteristics of a
product attributable to the geographical origin. This system was revised in 2005 in
preparation to join the WTO and GI designation can be given to agro-food and handicraft
products in accordance with the TRIPs agreement. Detailed regulations laid down in the
revised intellectual property law made it readily operational and GI registrations got
accelerated[22]. A preference for GIs was observed even as the AO regulations were not
nullified. In 2005, Buon Ma Thout Robusta coffee was identified for GI registration and by
October 2005, the registration decision was announced.
Tenom Coffee of Malaysia
Tenom coffee is a popular coffee drink that originated in Tenom, Sabah, Malaysia.
Robusta coffee was first planted on this island by the British when this area was under
their administration. However, those plantations were abandoned in 1910. Afterwards, the
coffee production shifted to the west coast area. Initial plantations were established by the
British North Borneo Chartered Company (BNBCC)[26]. Now, Tenom is known as an
agricultural site with large coffee production and has been dubbed the „Sabah Coffee
Capital‟[25]. Tenom produces about 60000 to 75000 kg of coffee annually. Coffee is the
second largest contributor to the economy of Tenom.
Coffee cherries are laid for sun drying immediately after harvest and the drying
process is completed in 10-14 days. Then these dried cherries are dehusked in a
mechanical husker. The green beans are then size-graded and defective beans are removed.
Then, the selected beans are subjected to roasting by the traditional firewood and drum
rotation method that is believed to bring out the best aroma and taste. Tenom coffee is now
well recognized in Malaysia as a top quality coffee offering the ultimate and “Authentic
Borneo Taste”[46].
Yit Foh Tenom Coffee is the main coffee producing company and considered the
oldest: in operation since 1960. It still produces the coffee grounds in a traditional way by
roasting beans on wood fire to bring out the true and fine aroma[26]. The biggest competitor
to this company is the Fatt Choi Tenom Coffee that also comes from the same district but
established more recently in 1986[27].
Café Veracruz of Mexico
Veracruz is the oldest coffee producing state in Mexico. During the colonial times,
all goods coming into Mexico via Atlantic Ocean, entered through Veracruz. The earliest
coffee planting in this region was in 1780 at Coatepec area. In the latter half of 19 th
Century coffee became an important crop. The regions soil and climate are very suitable
for producing high quality coffee that displaced all other crops towards the late 19th
Century and mid 20th Century. This was considered the mildest coffee in the world[28].
World War II brought a change in the coffee market situation and producing more
volume at lower cost became important to meet the war time demand. Consumption
behaviour developed during the time continued and lasted for the rest of the Century.
These developments had a strong impact on the situation at Veracruz also. Coffee
cultivation expanded to new areas of Mexico with focus on producing large volumes rather
than high quality that gradually led to a decline in quality. Still, Veracruz remained
Mexico‟s coffee capital and by early 1980s, produced over a million bags of average
quality green coffee. Termination of ICOs economic clauses was catastrophic to Veracruz
coffee. In 1992, a group of growers attempted to launch a new initiative, “Genuine
Coatepec Veracruz” coffee. Even this failed because the group lacked the resources and
operational capability and there was no support from the State.
In 1998, State government picked up the idea of denomination of origin (DO) and
registered “Cafe Veracruz” that became official in 2001. A regulatory board was
established and the Mexican Official Standard was also published in the same year. This
DO is a geographical indication that includes all the coffee growing areas in the state of
Veracruz and thus, is more inclusive than exclusive. Even so, to meet the basic standard
quality, the producing farms must be at altitudes above 750 meters from MSL and also
meet various regulatory standards. This includes ~50000 farmers cultivating about 85000
ha producing half a million bags of 60kg coffee. Cost of production in this region was
found to be about US$ 0.77 per pound of coffee and the selling price is US$ 1.25, leaving
the farmer at an average gain of only about US$ 200 per ha. The purpose of increasing
farmer‟s income through GI route has not been very successful in this case, so far.
Mexican Industrial Property Law recognizes appellations of origin that are names
of geographical regions of the country used to designate various products whose
characteristics or quality are wholly due to the natural and human factors of the
environment of that geographical location[29]. This legislation regulates the use of AOs and
allows their registration. A registration of AO is declared by the Mexican Institute of
Industrial Property when a product meets the requirements established by law, upon the
request of an individual or private or public institution that has a proven interest in the
production and marketing of the particular product. All Mexican AOs are owned by the
Mexican Federal Government which can license them by granting authorizations for use
for a period of ten years and can be renewed after that. Mexico now has three AOs on
coffee: Café Veracruz, Café Chiapas and Café Pluma[29].
Ethiopian Perspective on Geographical Indications
Everyone agrees that Ethiopia is the homeland of Arabica coffee and there is
enough evidence and scientific proof to prove this fact[30,31,32]. The name coffee originated
from the name of a South-western province in Ethiopia namely Kaffa. Within Ethiopia,
there are several regions that produce coffee and there are three different modes of
production viz. garden coffee, plantation coffee and forest and semi-forest coffee. Most of
the coffee producing regions are located at altitudes ranging from 550 to 2400 meters
above sea level with temperatures from 5˚C to 28˚C. Soils of these areas are red, loamy
soils rich in mineral and organic matter. Annual rainfall in these areas is above 900 mm.
These climatic conditions of the homeland of Arabica coffee (tropical upper montane
evergreen forests) are the best suited for producing high quality coffee[33].
Coffee industry is a critical component of Ethiopia‟s agricultural economy and thus
in the overall economy of the country. About 25% of the population depends on coffee
production directly or indirectly for their livelihood[36].Total Ethiopian production of
coffee is around 450000 tons per annum and about 40% of this is consumed locally. About
30% of Ethiopian exports may reach the specialty grade, but not necessarily price and only
about 10% of these exports could achieve a modest higher price. Only 8% of the total
coffee area of Ethiopia gets certified as organic, fair-trade etc.[34]
Ethiopia‟s specialty coffees, Sidamo, Yirgacheffe and Harrar[35] are sold at US$ 5-6
per kg in exports, but at about US$ 50 per kg in retail in the US. Thus, what the farmer
receives from the retail price paid by the consumers is very small and to increase the
farmer‟s share Ethiopian trade-marking and licensing initiatives have taken birth[34].
Ethiopian Intellectual Property Office (EIPO) has registered trademarks for the three
specialty coffees and made efforts to establish partnerships between Ethiopian growers,
exporters and buyers in the international market with the aim of improving the grower‟s
share in the consumer‟s dollar[36]. These trademarks were also registered in over 30
countries, around 60 national exporting companies and ~70 international coffee buying
companies. There are also strong recommendations to embrace the GI system for specialty
coffees of Ethiopia. However, Ethiopia chose to proceed ahead with the trademark system
considering the costs involved in the development of geographical indications and
maintaining them for their fine coffees.
Special Coffees of Indonesia
Specialties of Sumatra
Indonesia is another country producing unique coffees from its various islands
known for the diverse environments and great biodiversity. Its geographical location with
many mountainous regions in the different islands is ideally suitable for producing high
quality Arabica coffee. This is also the first country outside Arabia and Ethiopia where
coffee was grown. Coffee cultivation in Indonesia began in the early 18th Century[37].
Present coffee production of Indonesia is around 680000 tons and local consumption is
about 200000 tons (~29%) and the balance is exported[39].
Three unique coffees Mandheling, Lintong and Gayo are well known and produced
from the island of Sumatra, the main producing area[38]. These are known for smooth,
sweet bodied, balanced and intense cup. Depending on the region of origin or blend of
regions, the flavours of land and processing can be very pronounced. Notes of cocoa,
tobacco, smoke, earth and cedar wood can show well in the cup. Mandheling is a trade
name derived from the name of the Mandailing people who produce coffee in the Tapanuli
region of Sumatra[37].
Lintong coffee comes from Lintong Nihuta district. The coffee growing area is a
high plateau known for its diverse tree ferns. About 15000 to 18000 tons of coffee is
produced from this area annually. The unique processing by “giling basah” method (wet
hulling) is also considered responsible for the quality of these coffees. Green coffee from
these areas has a distinct bluish colour that is attributed to this processing technique and
lacking of iron in the soil[37,40].
Gayo is the region on the hill sides surrounding the town of Takengon and Lake
Tawar at the northern tip of Sumatra in the region of Aceh. Coffee of this area is grown
under shade trees. Gayo mountain coffee is described as higher toned and lighter bodied
than Lintong and Mandhelin coffees[37,40].
Sulawesi Coffees: Toraja, Kalosi, Mamasa and Gowa
Sulawesi island of Indonesia (earlier known as Celebes) is also home to some of
the high quality coffees. Main region of Arabica coffee production is in the Toraja
highlands and the district of Enrekang right on the equator. After the closure of coffee
plantations in this area during war, Key Coffee Company of Japan revived this legendary
coffee by involving directly in operating a plantation here[47]. Coffee of this area is traded
through the town of Kalosi that is a well known specialty coffee. Mamasa region to the
west of Toraja and Gowa to its south also produce Arabica coffee[34,40]. These coffees are
described as: clean and sound in the cup, display nutty or warm spicy notes like cinnamon
or cardamom, sometimes with a hint of black pepper. The sweetness is said to be closely
related to the body of coffee as is the case with other Indonesian coffees. The after-taste
that coats the palate is smooth and soft. These coffees are also processed by the method of
„giling basah‟[37,38]. These four varieties of Indonesia are considered „single origin‟ in the
international markets.
Java
The earliest coffee plantations of Indonesia were planted on this island by the
Dutch East India Company in the 17th Century. Old colonial plantations are still in
production and in 2015 produced about 15 tons of Arabica coffee. Of this, 2.5 tons is
Luvak Coffee or Civet Coffee. Main coffee production of Java is concentrated on the Ijen
Plateau at an altitude of 1400 meters. Production is largely from the estates developed by
the Dutch in the 18th Century. Some important estates are Blawan (also spelt Belawan or
Blauan), Jampit (or Djampit), Pancoer (or Pancur), Kayumas and Tugosari covering an
area of over 4000 ha. They process their coffee by the wet method and the quality of Java
coffee is described as heavy bodied with sweet overall impression, sometimes rustic in
flavour profile but displaying a lasting finish. They are smooth and supple and sometimes
have a herbaceous note in the after-taste. This is prized as one component of the traditional
“Mocca Java” blend made from Yemen and Java coffees. Some estates age their coffee up
to five years in burlap sacks that are regularly aired, dusted and flipped. With aging the
beans turn brown and their flavour gains strength and lose some acidity. Aged coffees
display flavours of cedar and spices like cinnamon or clove and develop a thick and syrupy
body and are named as Old Government, Old Java or Old Brown[37,39].
Another unique coffee of Java is the Kapi Luvak or Civet Coffee that is recognized
well as an Indonesian specialty. This is coffee produced from the beans coming out of the
digestive system of the civet cat that consumes the ripe coffee fruits. Thus, this coffee is
enzyme processed indirectly[38]. This is one of the most expensive coffees. Even so, its
specialty is not accepted by all. Some believe the process involved is unethical and cruel.
Western slopes of Mount Tambora on the Sumbawa island also produce Arabica
coffee that is sold as Tambora Coffee. Coffee cultivation in this area began in 1815 after
the eruption of Tambora. Today it is marketed in the name of Tambora Red Bean Coffee
and is considered a specialty. Flores is another island of Indonesia that also produces
Arabica coffee on its volcanic soils at altitudes of 1200-1800 meters. Flores coffee is
grown under shade trees and wet processed. It is known for sweet chocolate, floral and
woody notes. Part of Flores coffee is traditionally processed by the method now named as
„pulped natural‟ to produce the floral notes in flavour as this was highly sought after by
some buyers[37,39,40].
New Guinea is the second largest island in the world. Western half of this island is
a part of Indonesia and is known as Papua. There are two important regions of Papua that
grow coffee: Baliem Valley in the central highlands of Jayawijaya region and the Kamu
Valley in the Nabire region. Both these areas are at elevations of 1400 to 2000 meters
ideally suited for Arabica coffee production. All coffee of this area is grown under shade
and processed by a wet-hulling method. Chemical fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides and
herbicides are unknown in this very remote area that makes this coffee rare and valuable.
Some companies are getting fair-trade and organic certification for these coffees to help
growers realize better incomes. This area produces about 230 tons of coffee annually[37].
Kintamani Bali
Highlands between the two volcanoes, Batukaru and Agung are the main area of
coffee production on the island of Bali that is known as Kintamani. Balinese growers
produce coffee in accordance with Hindu philosophy of “Tri Hita Karana” which means
that the three main sources of happiness are good relations with God, other people and the
environment. Thus, they produce organic coffee in a very eco-friendly manner without any
agrochemicals in a farming system that they named „Subak Abian‟. The first geographical
indication of Indonesian coffee was established for the Kintamani Coffee in 2008, jointly
by all the stakeholders of this area including the members of Subak Abian. Balinese coffee
is processed by the wet method and is known for its sweet and soft taste with good
consistency and typical lime and other citrus notes in flavour[38,39,40].
These are only some of the specialty coffees of Indonesia. There are still more
being produced in the 17000 island archipelago that may come to be considered unique
and special.
Indian Coffee
Coffee has been in cultivation for over two centuries in India and the forerunning
research on disease resistance was pioneered by the Mysore Coffee Experiment Station
(now Central Coffee Research Institute) founded in 1926. Current production of coffee in
India is around 350000 tons and local consumption is about 70000 tons. India produces
both Arabica and Robusta and the present proportions of these coffees are 30% and 70% of
the total. Main export destinations for Indian coffee are the several countries of Europe and
US[43].
Indian coffee is typically shade grown in an ideal climatic regime with temperature
ranging from 23-28˚C, rainfall of 1500-2000 mm and rainy season followed by dry season
of 2-3 months. Arabica is grown at higher elevations of over 1000 meters while Robusta is
preferred at lower elevations[42].
There are two specialties of India recognized as geographical indications:
Monsooned Malabar Arabica and Monsooned Malabar Robusta. Monsooned coffee had its
origins in an accidental exposure of stored/transported coffee beans to the moisture and
monsoon winds of the West coast of India. In the colonial times, coffee was carried in
wooden vessels across the seas that also contributed to a part of the process as the sailing
time was considerably long. This made the coffee beans to swell and change colour as well
as acquire a much mellower flavour. It is said that these specialty coffees are heavy
bodied, pungent, dry with a musty, chacolatey aroma and notes of spices and nuts[41]. The
process of monsooning is now standardized to produce considerable quantities for
export[44].
Indian Coffee Board has identified thirteen unique environments of different
regions of the country: Araku Valley, Anamalais, Bababudan Giris, Biligiris, Brahmaputra,
Chikmagalur, Coorg, Manjarabad, Nilgiris, Pulneys, Shavaroys, Travancore and Wayanad
in the various agro-climatic zones producing unique Arabicas and Robustas. Two other
specialties are Mysore Nuggets Extra Bold and Robusta Kapi Royale. All these special
coffees are still informal and efforts are going on to create geographical indications for
them[45].
Apart from the various GIs and potential GIs described above, many other coffees
are also grown in the diverse locations of this great planet that is home to many unique
ecosystems. To name a few Doi Tung and Doi Chaang Coffees of Thailand and Bolaven
Coffee of Lao, Kalinga Coffee of the Philippines, Kilimanjaro Coffee from Tanzania,
Kenya Coffee and Chipinga Coffee from Zimbabwe. In not too far a future, we may be
seeing many other countries, particularly the grower communities seeking to establish GIs
for their coffees that have not yet been known so well.
The foregoing discourse narrated the different backgrounds, diverse philosophies
and varied approaches adopted by the stakeholders in the many coffee growing areas of the
planet. Chinese coffee growers of Zhukula region can draw inspiration from these
developments and seek to establish the uniqueness of their coffee and its reputation by
taking the appropriate steps to develop a GI for their specialty coffee.
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