EARTH SCIENCE
MODULE 1:
CHARACTERISTICS OF
EARTH THAT ARE
NECESSARY TO
SUPPORT LIFE
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Liquid Water
Heat Source
Atmosphere
Energy
Right Distance from the
Sun
Strong Magnetic Field
Nutrients
It is protected by plate
tectonics from the very hot
temperature of the core
LIQUID WATER
- H20
- This matter dissolves and
transports materials in and
out of the cell.
- Only earth has the right
chemical materials like
liquid water that could
support life.
- Water makes up 70% of
the earth’s surface, while
the other 29% consists of
continents and islands
- “Universal Solvent”
HEAT SOURCE
- The heart drives the
different systems
necessary to support life
on earth comes from the
two sources: Internal
Heating of the earth and
External Heating from the
Sun.
Internal
Heat coming from
the Earth is caused by
radiogenic heat from
radioactive decay of
materials in the core and
mantle and extruded via
active tectonic activities
such as volcanism and
plate movement.
▪
238U
235U
232Th
40K
External
Heat provided by the sun
in the form of radiation which
enters Earth.
As sunlight strikes Earth, some
of the heat is trapped by the layer
called the Atmosphere.
ATMOSPHERE
- The earth’s atmosphere is
composed of:
✓ Nitrogen (78%)
✓ Oxygen (21%)
✓ Argon (0.9%)
✓ Carbon Dioxide
(0.04%)
✓ And other trace
gasses.
- Greenhouse gasses
✓ Without this the
earth would be
frozen, more than
60-degree
Fahrenheit colder
✓ The atmosphere is
capable of
trapping heat
because of
greenhouse gasses.
✓ Water vapor,
methane, and
carbon dioxide
Troposphere
- The lowest layer of earth’s
atmosphere.
- Site of all-weather on
earth.
- It is bonded by a layer of
air called the tropopause,
which separates the
troposphere from the
stratosphere.
Stratosphere
- Second layer of the
atmosphere as you go
upward.
- where you'll find the very
important ozone layer.
Mesosphere
- Directly above the
stratosphere and below the
thermosphere.
-
It extends from about 50 to
85k km (31 to 53 miles)
above our planet
- Temperature decreases
with height throughout the
mesosphere.
Thermosphere
- Directly above the
mesosphere and below the
exosphere.
- Ultraviolet radiation
causes photoionization /
photodissociation of
molecules, creating ions
- Constitutes the larger part
of the ionosphere.
Exosphere
- Uppermost region of the
Earth’s atmosphere as it
gradually fades into the
vacuum of space.
- Air here is extremely thinin many ways it is almost
the same as the airless void
of outer space.
ENERGY
- Living things use light or
chemical energy to run
essential life processes.
- With the availability of
sufficient energy,
organisms can perform
different metabolic
reactions through the cells.
o Photosynthesis.
o Earth’s orbit is
called the
Goldilocks Zone
- The planet receives
enough energy to allow
water to exist as liquid on
its surface.
- Too far, water would
freeze
- Too close, water would
rapidly evaporate into the
atmosphere.
STRONG MAGNETIC FIELD
- It shields us from
electromagnetic radiation.
- Deflects the radiations that
may destroy the ozone
layer.
-
Earth's magnetic field (and
the surface magnetic field)
is approximately a
magnetic dipole.
NUTRIENTS
- These are materials that
build and maintain an
organism’s body.
- The biogeochemical cycles
and geologic processes
that facilitate the transport
and replenishment of the
chemicals and nutrients
required by biotic factors
✓ Water cycle
✓ Volcanism
- This contributes to the
flow of nutrients within the
earth’s system.
TECTONIC PLATES
- The surface is protected
from heat from the core by
the lithospheric plates.
- It is a massive, irregularly
shaped slab of solid rock,
generally composed of
both continental and
oceanic lithosphere.
- The Pacific and Antarctic
Plate are the largest.
MODULE 2: EARTH’S
SUBSYSTEM
EARTH
•
The third planet in the
solar system
• 4.56 billion years old
(according to
radiometric dating)
• Revolves the sun around
365-366 days
• The only planet to
harbor life
SYSTEM
• An interconnected set of
components are linked
through interconnections
that function to create an
outcome.
-
How does a system
work?
✓ By the
movement or
transfer of matter
and energy and
the processes
involved with
these transfers.
o Two basic kinds
of systems: Open
and Closed
system
Closed
- A system where only
energy is transferred or
exchanged with its
surroundings.
- Matter is not included.
Open
- It includes the transfer
and exchange of both
energy and matter with
the surrounding system.
- The Earth is an open
system.
ATMOSPHERE
- Comes from the Greek
word atmos which means
gas, sphaira which means
globe or ball.
- Makes up of all gasses on
Earth.
- It extends outward about
10,000 km from the
surface of the Earth.
Troposphere
- The lowest layer of the
atmosphere.
- It extends upward to about
10 km (6.2 miles or about
33,000 feet)
- Mostly clouds appear here,
mainly because 99% of the
water vapor in the
atmosphere is found in the
troposphere.
- Air pressure drops, and
temperatures get colder, as
you climb higher in the
troposphere.
Stratosphere
- 2nd layer of the
atmosphere
- From the top of the
troposphere to about 50
km (31 miles) above the
ground.
- Ozone layer is found
within the stratosphere
- Ozone molecules in this
layer absorb high-energy
ultraviolet (UV) light from
the Sun, converting the
UV into Heat.
Mesosphere
- Above the stratosphere is
the mesosphere.
- It extends to a height of
about 85 km (53 miles)
above our planet.
- Most meteors burn up in
the mesosphere.
- Temperature once again
grows colder as you rise
up through the
mesosphere.
Thermosphere
- A layer of very rare air
above the mesosphere is
called thermosphere.
- High-energy X-rays and
UV radiation from the sun
are absorbed here.
- The air in this layer is so
thin that it would feel
freezing cold to us.
- It is more like outer space
than a part of the
atmosphere.
Ionosphere
- Is not a distinct layer of the
atmosphere.
- A series of regions in parts
of mesosphere and
thermosphere.
- It is where high-energy
radiation from the sun has
knocked electrons to loose
from their parent atoms
and molecules.
Exosphere
- “Final frontier”
- Uppermost layer of the
atmosphere.
- The air in the exosphere is
very very thin, making this
layer even more space-like
than the thermosphere.
GEOSPHERE
- Portion of the Earth system
that includes the Earth’s
interior, rocks and
minerals, landforms and
the processes that shape
earth’s surface.
- The earth is an oblate
spheroid
- A radius of 6,6537 km
from the earth’s center to
the North pole and 6,378
km from the center to the
equator.
Core
- The core is divided into
two: outer core and inner
core
Outer core.
- Made mostly of iron and
nickel.
- Approximately 2300 km
thick
- It is very hot with
temperature between 4000
OC and 5000 OC.
- Earth’s molten metallic
core gave rise to a
magnetic field which is
very crucial to life on our
planet.
- It protects the planet from
the charged particles of
solar wind.
Inner core.
- About 1250 km thick
- Hottest layer
- Temperature is
approximately 5400
degrees Celsius.
- This heat is caused by the
three elements: residual
heat from the formation of
the earth, gravitational
forces from the moon and
the sun, radioactive decay
of the earth’s inner
elements.
Mantle
- Second layer
- The temperatures are so
high that the rock makes
up the atmosphere melted
into liquid.
- Two main parts: upper
mantle and lower mantle.
Upper mantle
- It is attached to the layer
above which is the crust.
- Form a fixed shell called
the lithosphere (broken
into sections called
tectonic plates.)
- Directly below the
lithosphere is a less fixed,
warmer region of the upper
mantle called the
asthenosphere.
Lower mantle
- Gutenberg discontinuity is
the boundary between the
lower mantle and outer
core.
Crust
- Is everything we can see
and study directly.
- Thinnest layer of the
Earth.
- It measures about 40 km
on average
- Ranging from 5-70 km in
depth.
- There are two types of
crust: continental crust
and oceanic crust.
Continental crust.
- Contains granite type of
rocks and sediments.
- Thicker
Oceanic crust
- It is generally harder and
deeper.
- It can be found at the
bottom of the oceans or
below the continental
crust.
- Consists of denser rocks
like basalt.
HYDROSPEHERE
- The sum of all water on
earth and the water cycle
that distributes it around
the planet.
- Earth is unique in the solar
system because of its
abundant surface water.
- Hydrological cycle
✓ Water cycle
✓ The continuous
movement of the
ater, above or
below the earth’s
surface
✓ It also involves the
transfer of energy.
✓ The sun is the
driving of this
cycle
✓ Evaporation,
Condensation,
Precipitation,
Runoff,
Infiltration.
Condensation
- Transformation of water
vapor to liquid water
droplets in the air, creating
clouds and fog.
Deposition
- Desublimation
- Thermodynamic process
- A phase transition in
which gas (vapor)
transforms into solid (ice.)
Evaporation
- Transformation of water
from liquid to gas phases.
- It moves from the ground
or bodies of water into an
overlying atmosphere.
Percolation
- Water flows horizontally
through the soil and rocks
under the influence of
gravity.
Precipitation
- Condensed water vapor
that falls to the earth’s
surface.
- It occurs as rain, snow,
hail, fog drip, graupel, and
sleet.
Sublimation
- Changes directly from
solid water (snow or ice)
to water vapor.
Transpiration
-
-
The release of water vapor
from plants and soil into
the air.
Water vapor is a gas that
cannot be seen.
BIOSPHERE
- Contains the entirety of
Earth’s living things.
- “Zone of life”
- The global ecological
system integrates all living
things and their
relationship including their
interactions with the
elements of lithosphere,
hydrosphere, and
atmosphere.
- Five major biomes:
aquatic, forest, desert,
tundra grassland.
Aquatic
- Includes freshwater
(ponds, lakes, rivers)
- Includes marine (ocean,
estuaries)
- The aquatic region houses
numerous species of plant
and animals.
Forest
-
Can be tropical, temperate,
boreal forest and tiago.
It has a distinctive feature
dominated by grasses
rather than large shrubs or
trees.
Desert
- Characterized by low
rainfall (less than 50 cm)
per year.
- Has specialized vegetation
and animals that can adapt
to its condition.
Tundra
- Coldest of all biomes
- Low biotic diversity
- Simple vegetation
Grassland
- Made of rolling hills of
various grasses and could
be divided into savannas
and temperate grasslands.
- Received enough rain to
sustain grass but not
enough to grow many
trees.
INTERACTION OF
SUBSYSTEMS
Atmosphere
- Biosphere: the atmosphere
supplies oxygen and
carbon dioxide that form
the basis of life processes
(photosynthesis and
respiration)
- Geosphere: Gasses in the
atmosphere react with
water to produce weak
acids that aid in the
breakdown of rock.
✓ Typhoon
formation
(atmosphere)
sweep across the
ocean
(hydrosphere) and
onto the land
(geosphere)
✓ damaging the
dwellings of
people (biosphere)
who live along the
coast.
Geosphere
- Atmosphere: Volcanism
spews significant amounts
of gases into the
atmosphere. For example,
volcanoes inject large
amounts of sulfur dioxide
to the upper atmosphere,
resulting in global
cooling.
- Hydrosphere: The
formation of many
minerals involves
incorporation or release of
water. Also, water speeds
up chemical reactions that
dissolves ions from the
mineral and carries them
away.
- Biosphere: Nutrients
released from rocks during
their breakdown are
dissolved in water (to be
used by aquatic plants).
Hydrosphere
- Atmosphere: Water is
transferred between the
hydrosphere and biosphere
by evaporation and
precipitation.
✓ Energy is also
exchanged in this
process.
- Biosphere: Water is
necessary for the transport
of nutrients and waste
products in organisms.
- Geosphere: Water is the
primary agent for the
chemical and mechanical
breakdown of
rock(weathering), to form
loose rock fragments and
soil, and sculpts the
surface of the Earth.
Biosphere
- Atmosphere: Life
processes involve many
chemical reactions which
either extract or emit
gasses to and from the
atmosphere
✓ photosynthesis
consumes carbon
dioxide and
releases oxygen.
✓ whereas
respiration does
the opposite
- Hydrosphere: Evaporation
of water from leaf surfaces
(transpiration) transfers
water to the atmosphere.
- Geosphere: The biosphere
is connected to the
geosphere through soils
(mixtures of air, mineral
matter, organic matter, and
water).
✓ Plant activity (e.g.,
root growth and
organic acid
production) are
also for the
mechanical and
chemical
breakdown of the
rocks.
MODULE 3: ROCKS AND
MINERALS
Earth’s Internal Structure
- Earth’s crust: about 16 km
depth.
- Soil chemical composition
is derived from the earth’s
mantle
Mineral
- naturally occurring,
inorganic solid with a
definite chemical
composition and an
ordered internal structure
(crystalline structure).
✓ Naturally
occurring
✓ Inorganic
✓ Solid
✓ Definite Chemical
Composition
✓ Ordered Internal
Structure
Composition of Minerals
- Minerals can be classified
into several classes which
are mainly composed of
elements that ara abundant
on Earth's crust
✓ Silicates
✓ Oxides
✓ Sulfides
✓ Sulfates
✓ Halides
✓ Carbonates
✓ Native metals
Silicates
- composed primarily of
silicon-tetrahedron (SiO4 2). They are the major rock
forming minerals,
including olivine
((Mg,Fe)2SiO4)
Oxides
- Consist of metal cations
bonded to oxygen anions.
Common oxide minerals
are Magnetite (Fe3O4) and
Hematite (Fe2O3)
Sulfides
- Consist of metal cations
bonded to oxygen anions.
Common oxide minerals
are Magnetite (Fe3O4) and
Hematite (Fe2O3)
Sulfates
- Consist of metal cations
bonded to oxygen anions.
Common oxide minerals
are Magnetite (Fe3O4) and
Hematite (Fe2O3)
Halides
- Consist of metal cations
bonded to oxygen anions.
Common oxide minerals
are Magnetite (Fe3O4) and
Hematite (Fe2O3)
Carbonates
- Consist of metal cations
bonded to oxygen anions.
Common oxide minerals
are Magnetite (Fe3O4) and
Hematite (Fe2O3)
Crystal Structure of Minerals
- Is dependent on the
chemical composition of
mineral. minerals that have
similar chemical
composition often share
the same crystal structure
and generally belong to the
same crystal system.
Physical Properties of Minerals
- There are around 4000
minerals, each with a
unique set of physical
properties, such as crystal
formation, habit cleavage,
fracture, luster, color,
streak, hardness, density,
magnetism, taste, feel, and
reaction to acid. These
physical properties are
useful for identifying
minerals using a
systematic method such as
Dana Classification.
Mineralogy – study of minerals
Mineralogist – scientist who study
minerals.
Petrology – study of rocks
Edaphology – study of soil in
relation to higher plants
Pedology - study of soil with
emphasis on its structure and
genesis.
LUSTER
- Appearance of minerals
when light is reflected
from its surface.
Metallic luster
- looks like a metal, such as
steel or copper; shiny and
opaque, even when
looking at a thin edge.
✓ Galena
✓ Pyrite
Vitreous
- is like that of glass, shiny
and translucent to
transparent. Remember
that glass can be almost
any color, including black,
so don’t be fooled by the
color.
✓ Quartz
Waxy
- look like paraffin, typically
translucent but dull.
✓ Chalcedony
COLOR
- most obvious properties of
a mineral but it is often of
limited diagnostic value,
especially in minerals that
are not opaque.
- While many metallic and
earthy minerals have
distinctive colors,
translucent or transparent
minerals can vary widely
in color.
✓ Never use color as
final diagnostic
property – check
other properties
before making an
identification.
STREAK
- Color of the mineral in its
powdered form.
- Streak is useful for
identifying metallic and
earthy luster, because
minerals with nonmetallic
luster generally have a
colorless or white streak
that is not diagnostic.
-
is commonly more reliable
than color for
identifications
- is obtained by scratching
the mineral on an
unpolished piece of white
porcelain called STREAK
PLATE.
HARDNESS
- resistance of mineral to
scratching or abrasion by
other materials. - Hardness
is determined using Moh’s
Hardness Scale - devised
(1812) by the German
mineralogist Friedrich
Mohs
MINERAL
HARDNESS
Talc
1
Gypsum
2
Calcite
3
Fluorite
4
Apatite
5
Orthoclase
6
Quartz
7
Topaz
8
Corundum
9
Diamond
10
CLEAVAGE
- Is the tendency of a
mineral to break along
certain planes to make
smooth surfaces.
- Minerals that naturally
breaks into perfectly flat
surfaces exhibiting
cleavage.
- Not all minerals have
cleavage
- The cleavage properties of
a mineral are described in
terms of the number of
cleavages and, if more
than one cleavage, the
angles between those
represent a single cleavage
because the surfaces are all
oriented in the same
direction.
-
The possible number of
cleavages a mineral may
have been 1,2,3,4 or 6.
- To see mineral cleavage,
hold the mineral up
beneath a strong light and
move it around some
more, to see how the
different sides reflect light.
- A cleavage direction will
show up as a smooth,
shiny, evenly bright sheen
of light reflected to one set
of parallel surfaces on the
mineral.
FRACTURE
- A break in a mineral that is
not along a cleavage plane.
- not always the same in the
same mineral because
fracture is not determined
by the structure of the
mineral
- Minerals may have
characteristic fractures.
Metals usually fracture
into jagged edges.
Splintery
- If a mineral splinters like
wood, it may be fibrous.
Some minerals, such as
quarts, form smooth
curved surfaces when they
fracture.
Conchoidal
- thick glasses break with
concentric curving edges
on the broken surfaces
Irregular fracture
- standard term for fractures
that do not exhibit any of
the qualities of the other
fracture types
CRYSTAL FORM
- a solid, homogenous,
orderly array of atoms and
may be nearly any size.
- The arrangement of atoms
within a mineral
determines the external
shape of its crystals.
- Some crystals have
smooth, planar faces and
regular, geometric shapes;
these are what most people
think of as crystals
Hexagonal prisms
- quartz with pyramid-like
shapes
Cubes or Pyritohedron
- forms with twelve
pentagonal faces.
✓ Pyrite
Dodecahedron
- twelve sided forms that
have a roughly round
shape.
✓ Garnets
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
- the weight of the mineral
divided by the weight of
an equal volume of water.
- The specific gravity of
water is 1.0, most silicates
or rock-forming minerals
have specific gravities of
2.6 to 3.4; ore minerals are
usually heavier with
specific gravities of 5 to 8.
MINERAL
SPECIFIC
GRAVITY
Gypsum
2.3
Quartz
2.6
Calcite
2.7
Dolomite
2.8
Fluorite
3.0-3.3
Siderite
3.5
Marcasite
3.8
Sphalerite
3.9-4.2
Barite
4.3-5.0
Pyrite
4.9-5.1
Hematite
4.9-5.3
Millerite
5.3-5.5
Galena
7.2-7.6
Chemical Properties of Minerals
- All minerals have a certain
arrangement of elements in
their crystal structure.
- They can be presented by
chemical formula, which
presents the proportions of
atoms that constitute them.
✓ Quartz - SiO2; its
crystal structure is
a continuous
framework of
silicon-oxygen
tetrahedral.
- The chemical properties of
minerals depend on their
chemical formula and
crystal structures.
- The following are
chemical properties
commonly used to
describe a mineral:
solubility, melting point,
crystallographic
techniques
SOLUBILITY
- Ability of substance to
dissolve in solvent at a
specified temperature.
✓ Biotite found in
igneous rocks, is
soluble in both
acid and base
solution.
✓ The dissolution
both releases the
loosely bound
potassium ions in
the mineral
MELTING POINT
- Refers to the temperature
at which solid turns into
liquid.
- Minerals composed of
atoms that are tightly
bonded within the crystal
structure have high
melting points.
✓ Quartz melts
above 1670 0C
CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
TECHNIQUES
- Performs x-ray diffraction
to determine the crystal
structure of the mineral.
Special Properties of Minerals
- Special properties help
identify some minerals.
These properties may not
be distinctive enough in
most minerals to help with
their identification or they
may be present only in
certain minerals
FLOURESCENCE
- Calcite and fluorite glow
under ultraviolent light
MAGNETISM
- Both magnetite and
pyrrhotite are natural
magnets that attract iron.
CHEMICAL REACTION
- Calcite will become
bubbly, or “fizz,” when a
drop of weak acid is
placed on it.
TASTE
- Halite has a salty taste.
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
- A thin, clear piece of
calcite places over an
image will cause a double
image.
RADIOACTIVITY
- Minerals that contain
radium or uranium can be
detected by a Geiger
counter.
Common Rock-Forming
Minerals
QUARTZ
- Quartz, which is usually
called silica
- One of the most common
minerals in the Earth's
crust.
- Quartz is made up of
silicon dioxide (SiO2)
- Quartz crystals are usually
hexagonal and prismatic in
shape.
- Pure quartz is colorless,
although the presence of
impurities may give a
range of colors, such as
violet, pink, and orange.
- Material for making glass.
FELDSPAR
Plagioclase Feldspar
- Plagioclase feldspar is a
sodium- or calcium-rich
feldspar.
-
The chemical composition
ranges from sodium
aluminum silicate,
NaAlSi3O8 to calcium
aluminum silicate,
CaAl2Si2O8.
- Plagioclase feldspar
crystals usually occur as
stubby prisms.
- Plagioclase feldspar is
generally white to grey and
has a vitreous luster.
- Plagioclase feldspar is an
important industrial
mineral used in ceramics.
Alkali Feldspar
- Alkali feldspar is another
member of the family of
feldspar minerals.
- Alkali feldspar (Potassium
aluminum silicate
(K,Na)AlSi3O8) are rich
in alkali metal ions.
- Alkali feldspar crystals
usually occur as stubby
prisms.
- Alkali feldspar is
commonly pink to white.
- Alkali feldspar is used as
raw material to make
porcelain.
MICAS
- Micas are a family of
silicate minerals.
- Micas are made up of
varying amounts of
potassium, magnesium,
iron, as well as aluminum,
silicon and water.
- Micas form flat, book-like
crystals that split into
individual sheets,
separating into smooth
flakes along the cleavage
planes.
- They are common
minerals in intrusive
igneous rocks and can also
be found in sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks.
- Biotite is a dark, black or
brown mica; muscovite is
a light-colored or clear
mica.
AMPHIBOLES
- Amphiboles are a family
of silicate minerals.
- Amphibole minerals
generally contain iron,
magnesium, calcium and
aluminum as well as
silicon, oxygen, and water.
- Amphiboles form
prismatic or needle-like
crystals.
- Amphibole is a component
of many igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
- Hornblende is a common
member of the amphibole
group of rock-forming
minerals.
PYROXENE
- Pyroxenes are a family of
silicate minerals.
- Pyroxene minerals
generally contain
magnesium, iron, calcium
and aluminum as well as
silicon and oxygen.
- Pyroxenes form short or
columnar prismatic
crystals.
- Pyroxene is a component
in many igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
- Pyroxene crystals are
commonly faceted as
gemstones.
✓ For instance,
precious jade
(jadeite) is a
pyroxene.
OLIVINE
- Olivine is a silicate
mineral.
- Olivine ((Mg,Fe)2SiO4)
contains iron and
magnesium.
- Olivine is a green, glassy
mineral.
- Olivine is common in
mafic and ultramafic rocks
but has not been found in
Hong Kong.
- Clear and transparent
olivine crystals are
commonly faceted as
gemstones.
CALCITE
- Calcite is a carbonate
mineral.
- Calcite is made up of
calcium carbonate
(CaCO3).
- Calcite is generally white
to clear and is easily
scratched with a knife.
- Calcite is a common
sedimentary mineral that is
the major component of
calcareous sedimentary
rocks such as limestone.
- Metamorphism of
limestone produces
marble.
MODULE 4: ROCKS AND
ROCK CYCLE
Earth’s Crust Composition
Oxygen - 46.6%
Silicon - 27.7%
Aluminum - 8.1%
Iron - 5%
Calcium - 3.6%
Sodium - 2.8%
Potassium - 2.6%
Magnesium - 2.1%
Trace elements - 1.4%
Rock Forming Minerals
Graphite
- C
Galena
- PbS
Magnetite
- Fe3O4
Pyrite
FeS2
Hematite
- Fe2O3
Talc
- Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
Gypsum
- CaSO4 * H2O
Sulfur
- S
Muscovite mica
- KAl3Si3O10(OH)2
Biotite mica
- K(Mg,Fe)3Al3Si3O
10(OH)2
Halite
- NaCl
Calcite
- CaCO3
Dolomite
- CaMg(CaCO3)2
Flourite
- CaF2
Pyroxene
- (Ca,
Na) (Mg,Fe,Al)
(Si,Al)2O6
Amphibole
- Ca,Na(Mg,Fe)4(Al,Fe
Ti)3SiO22(O, OH)2
Potassium Feldspar
- KAlSi3O3
Plagioclase Feldspar
- (Na,Ca)AlSi3O8
Olivine
- (Fe,Mg)2SiO4
Quartz
- SiO2
Garnet
- Fe3Al2Si3O12
The Rock Cycle
- A model that describes all
the processes by which
rocks are formed,
modified, transported,
decomposed, melted, and
reformed.
Weathering
- Breaking down of rocks
and minerals on the
Earth’s surface.
- Chemical weathering
✓ Carbonation
✓ Hydration /
Dehydration
✓ Oxidation /
Reduction
- Physical weathering
✓ Mechanical
weathering
✓ Thermal
weathering
✓ Exfoliation
Deposition
- Agent of transportation
✓ Water
▪ Alluvial
(river)
▪ Lacustrine
(lakes)
▪ Marine
(ocean)
✓ Ice
▪ Till
✓ Wind
▪ Loess
(silksized)
▪ Eolian
(sandsized)
✓ Gravity
▪ Colluvium
Rock Cycle
1. Magma
2. Solidification
a. Igneous rocks
b. Extrusive
c. Intrusive
3. Weathering,
Transportation, Erosion,
Deposition
a. Uplift and
exposure
4. Sediments
5. Lithification
a. Compacting
b. Cementing
6. Sedimentary rocks
7. Metamorphism
a. Metamorphic
rocks
b. heat
c. pressure
8. Burial
9. Melting
Processes and Products of Rock
Cycle
PROCESS
PRODUCT
Melting
Magma
crystallization Igneous rocks
Uplift and
exposure
Weathering
Transportation
Erosion
Deposition
Lithification
Metamorphism
Sediments
Sedimentary
rocks
Metamorphic
rocks
IGNEOUS ROCKS
- Formed through the
cooling and solidification
of magma and lava.
- They are either Crystalline
when form from cooled
magma or lava, or
Pyroclastic, when they are
made of consolidated
eruption products like
volcanic ash.
Texture
Crystalline Texture
- Intrusive / Plutonic
✓ Solidification of
magma below the
surface
✓ Rough
▪ Granite
▪ Gabbro
▪ Pegmatite
▪ Peridotite
▪ Diorite
- Extrusive / Volcanic
✓ Solidification of
lava on the surface
of earth.
✓ Smooth
✓ Faster
▪ Scoria
▪ Andesite
▪ Obsidian
▪ Basalt
▪ Rhyolite
▪ Dacite
▪ Pumice
▪ Tuff
Phaneritic texture
- Slow cooling forms
interlocking crystals
▪ Granite
▪ Diorite
▪ Gabbro
Aphanitic texture
- which cannot distinguish
without the use of
magnifying tools
▪ Basalt
▪ Andesite
▪ Rhyolite
Porphyritic texture
- Rocks showing at least 2
distinct crystal sizes.
▪ Andesiteporphyry
▪ Rhyoliteporphyry
Vesicular texture
- Voids created by rapid
cooling which causes
bubbles to be trapped
inside
- There’s a hole
▪ Scoria
Silica content
1. Felsic
- Granitic (>65%)
- Light colored
▪ Granite
▪ Rhyolite
2. Intermediate
- Andesitic (55-65%)
- Medium gray colored
▪ Diorite
▪ Andesite
3. Mafic
- Basaltic (45-55%)
- Dark colored
▪ Gabbro
▪ Basalt
4. Ultramafic
- <45%
- Very dark colored
▪ Peridotite
▪ Komatiite
Diorite and andesite, Granite
and Rhyolite have the same
chemical composition but different
in texture.
- Diorite (phaneritic texture)
o Coarse grained
- Andesite (aphanitic
texture)
o Fine grained
- Granite
o Phaneritic
Rhyolite
o Aphanitic
o Porphyritic
SEDIMETARY ROCKS
- Formed by deposition and
cementation
- Oceans floors and bodies
of water
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
- Mechanical weathering
▪ Breccia
▪ Conglome
rate
▪ Sandstone
▪ Siltstone
▪ Shale
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
- dissolve materials
precipitate from solution.
▪ Rock salt
▪ Chert
▪ Flint
▪ Iron ore
▪ Dolomite
Organic Sedimentary Rocks
- The built-up of plants or
animal debris
▪ Chalk
▪ Coal
▪ Diatomite
▪ Limestone
Clastic SR Classification
Grains
- Greater than sand-sized
minerals/fragments
Matrix
- Fine grained (clay to siltsized minerals)
Cement
Minerals that precipitated
from solution
- Binds the grains and
matrix together
Chemical SR Classification
Evaporites
- Evaporation of water
▪ Halite
▪ Gypsum
▪ Dolostone
Precipitate
-
-
From supersaturated
waters starts to crystallize
at the bottom of solution
▪ Limestone
s
Bioclastic
- Compacted organic matter
▪ Coal
▪ Coquina
Conglomerate has
relatively large and rounded clasts
as compared to the angular clasts
of Breccia.
Sandstone has visible
grains and prominent layering than
claystone with fine texture.
These are non-clastic
sedimentary rocks (Limestone and
Coquina)
METHAMORPIC ROCKS
- “Parent rocks”
- Formed in the process of
metamorphism
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
- Formed though the
pressure due to
compression of rocks that
create bands called
foliation.
▪ Gneiss
▪ Phyllite
▪ Schist
▪ Slate
Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks
- No foliation/bands
▪ Hornfels
▪ Marble
▪ Novaculite
▪ Quartzite
Different Common Metamorphic
Rocks
Contact metamorphism
- Pre-existing rocks that get
contact with magma
Regional metamorphism
- Occurs in areas that have
undergone considerable
amount of mechanical
deformation and chemical
crystallization during
organic event.
Origin of Metamorphic Rocks
PREMETAMORPHI
EXISTING
C ROCK
ROCK
EQUIVALENT
Granite
Gneiss
Basalt
Schists
Sandstone
Quartzite
Limestone
Marble
Shale
Slate
Conglomerat Metae
conglomerate
MODULE 5: MINERALS
IMPORTANT TO OUR
SOCIETY
Mineral Deposit
- A mineral occurrence of
sufficient size and grade to
enable extraction under
most favorable conditions.
Mineral Occurrence
- Concentration of a mineral
that is of scientific of
technical interest.
Ore Deposit
- Mineral deposit that has
been tested and known to
be economically profitable
to mine.
Ore
- A naturally occurring
mineral from which
mineral or minerals of
economic value can be
extracted.
Aggregate
- Rock or mineral material
used as filler in cement,
asphalt, plaster, etc.
- Non-metallic deposits
Metallic
- Show metallic shine in
their appearance
- Potential source of metal
(mining)
- Contains metal
composition
o
o
Ferrous
▪ Chromites
▪ Iron ore
▪ Manganes
e
Non-ferrous
▪ Lead
▪ Silver
▪ Gold
▪ Copper
Non-metallic
- Appear with a nonmetallic luster or shine
▪ Talc
▪ Fluorite
▪ Sulfur
▪ Sand
▪ Gravel
Different Mineral Resources
Magmatic ore Deposits
- Concentrated within an
igneous body through
magmatic processes
o Crystal
fractionation
▪ Pegmatites
o Partial melting
o Crystal settling
▪ Chromite
▪ Magnetite
▪ Platinum
Hydrothermal ore Deposits
- Hot aqueous fluids flowing
through fractures and pore
spaces in rocks
o Hydrothermal
solutions
Sedimentary ore Deposits
- Chemical precipitation
coming from lakes or
seawater
o Evaporite deposits
o Iron formations
Placer ore Deposits
- Flowing surface waters
either streams or along
coastlines.
Residual ore Deposits
- Chemical weathering
process
- Leaching removal of ions
from original rocks.
Household minerals
Fluorite
Toothpaste
- Comes from fluoride
Aluminum, Iron, Chromium, and
Carbon
- Kitchen utensils
Talc
- Face powder
Salt
- Enhance the flavor of food
Silicon, Silver, and Gold
- Used as components of
gadgets
Copper
- Electrical wiring (less
expensive)
Construction
Iron and Carbon
- Iron steel
Limestone, Lime, and Chalk
- Used to make concrete
cements
Quartz and Silica
- Used as windows and
aesthetic designs
Granite and Marbles
- Main constituent of
flooring tiles
Aluminum
- Window and door panels
Medicine
Titanium
- Teeth transplant
Gypsum
- Plaster casts
Iron, Chromium, and Carbon
- Alloys like stainless steel
can be found in their tools
Calcium, Magnesium, and Zinc
- Minerals supplements
Energy
Uranium
- Nuclear power plant as
source of heat energy to
run a nuclear reactor
Coal
Power plants to generate
electricity
Nickel, Copper, and Lithium
- Hand batteries for electric
cars.
Agriculture
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and
Potassium
- Components of fertilizers
Lime
- Stabilize the pH of soil and
make other nutrients
available for plant
utilization
Harmful effects of Minerals
Talc
- Might contain asbestos
that can cause certain
cancer
Uranium
- Nuclear power plants that
use radioactive minerals
may produce radioactive
waste.
Coal
- Burning of coals releases
high amount of carbon
dioxide and other gases
that contributes to the
global warming,
NPK Fertilizers
- Overusing of synthetic
fertilizers causes
eutrophication of bodies of
water.
MODULE 6: ORE
MINERALS: HOW THEY
ARE FOUND, MINED,
AND PROCESSED FOR
HUMAN USE
Major stages in Mineral
Exploration
1. Project design
- Review of all available
data
o Geologic reports
o Maps
o Mining history
2. Field exploration
- Involves physical activities
Phase 1: Regional reconnaissance
- Target mineralized zones
in and area
- Surface investigation and
interpretation
Phase 2: Detailed exploration
-
More detailed surface and
subsurface activities.
- Delineating of mineralized
zones
Phase 3: Project evaluation
- Assess market profitability
o Extensive resource
drilling
o Metallurgical
testing
o Environmental and
societal cost
assessment
3. Pre-production Feasibility
Study
- determines and validates
the accuracy of all data
and information collected
in different stages.
- For independent assessors
to satisfy interested
investors.
Core Sampling
- technique used in
underground or undersea
exploration and
prospecting.
- A core sample is a roughly
cylindrical piece of
subsurface material
removed by a special drill
and brought to the surface
for examination.
Subsurface Sampling
- used to collect viable as
well as non-viable
microorganisms from
surfaces.
Mining methods
Surface mining
- used to extract ore
minerals near the surface
of the earth.
- The soil and rocks that
covered the ores are
removed through blasting.
o A controlled use
of explosives and
gas exposure to
break rocks
Open-pit Mining
-
The most common type of
mining
- Means a big hole in the
ground
- Created by blasting with
explosives and drilling
- Used to mine gravel and
sand even rocks.
Strip mining
- Involves the removal of
thin strip of overburden
(earth or soil)
- Used for coal, phosphates,
clays, and tar mining
Dredging / Quarrying
- Mining materials from the
bottom of a body of water.
Underground Mining
- used to extract the rocks,
minerals and other
precious stones that can be
found beneath the earth’s
surface.
- In underground mining,
miners need to create a
tunnel so they can reach
the ore minerals.
- This kind of mining is
more expensive and
dangerous.
Mineral processing
- The materials extracted or
"mined" are rocks
composed of both ore and
waste material (part of the
rock which contain very
little or no element or
mineral of economic
value).
- The extracted rocks will
undergo processes of
mineral.
1. Ore
2. Crushing and sizing
3. Grinding and milling
a. Marcy Ball
Grinding Mill
4. Separation
a. Distillation
b. Magnetic
separation
c. Electrostatic
separation
d. Gravity separation
e. Floating
f. Selective
dissolution
5. Mineral concentrate
Sampling
- Removal of a portion
which represents a whole
needed for analysis of this
material
Analysis
- To evaluate the valuable
component in and ore.
Comminution
- Process where valuable
components of an ore
separate.
Concentration
- Separation of valuable
minerals
o Floatation
o Magnetic
Dewatering
- Uses the concentration to
convert it to usable
minerals
Environmental effects
Improper mining can cause
flooding, erosion, subsidence,
water and air pollution, damage to
wildlife and habitat
Measures to mitigate harmful
effects of Irresponsible Mining
- Topsoil replacement using
uncontaminated soil.
- reintroduction of flora and
fauna; neutralizing acidic
waters.
- backfilling and sealing of
abandoned underground
mines.
- stabilizing the slope of the
impacted area to reduce
erosion, etc.
MODULE 7:
GEOTHERMAL AND
HYDROELECTRIC
ENERGY
Energy
- the capacity to do work
Resource
- the general term referring
to any item which is used
for specific purpose
✓ nuclear
✓ fossil fuels
✓ geothermal
✓ hydro, wind, solar, and
biomass
Non-renewable sources of energy
- a natural resource that
cannot be readily replaced
by natural means at a pace
quick enough to keep up
with consumption.
- Fossil fuels
o Coal
o Natural gas
o Oil
Renewable sources of energy
- energy derived from
natural sources that are
replenished at a higher rate
than they are consumed.
- Solar
- Wind
- Geothermal
- Biomass
Human activities and Electricity
Electricity
- A form of energy which
can be generated from
almost any energy source.
- Earth’s resources are
mainly harnessed and
converted into electricity
for domestic and industrial
consumption
Geothermal Energy
- Internal heat
- The temperature of earth
gets warmer as you go
towards the core
-
Geothermal gradient. The
increase in temperature
with depth in the Earth
1. Geothermal Power Plant
- The use of heat from deep
inside the earth to generate
steam to make electricity.
o Hot water is
pumped from deep
underground
o At surface,
pressure drops and
turn it to steam
o Steam spins a
turbine connected
to a generator
o Steam cools off
and turns back into
water
o The cooled water
is pumped back to
Earth to begin the
process again
2. Geothermal Heat Pumps
- Which tap into heat close
to the Earth’s surface to
heat water or provide heat
for buildings.
o Water/refrigerant
moves through a
loop of pipes
o When cold, water
heats up as it
travels
underground
o Once it gets back
above the ground,
warmed water
transfers heat into
buildings
o Heat transfer cools
down the water. It
is pumped back
underground once
more
o On a hot day, the
system can run in
reverse
Rate of Production
- Geothermal power plants
have relatively little
environmental impact as
-
-
they do not burn any fuel
to create electricity.
These plants produce small
amounts of carbon dioxide
and sulfur compounds but
are far smaller than those
created by fossil fuel
power plants.
Geothermal power
contributes to about 27%
in the electricity generated
in the Philippines.
Hydroelectric Energy
- Gravity is essential to
hydroelectric energy.
- An object at rest in a
higher elevation has a
gravitational potential
energy.
- When it moves to lower
elevation, the potential
energy is transformed into
kinetic energy.
- The power generated by
the energy from falling
water or fast running water
is called hydropower.
1. Hydroelectric Power Plant
o Water enters the intake
at the bottom of the
reservoir and flows
through a tunnel or
large pipe called
penstock to reach the
turbine
o The water pressure
causes the turbine to
rotate and generate
electricity.
o The higher the dam,
and the head, the
stronger the pressure
that would cause the
turbine to generate
power.
o When a reservoir is
not in its full capacity
even in high dams, the
head is lower
o Excess water in the
reservoir is allowed to
flow through the
spillway, particularly
during rainy season to
prevent overflow or
dam breach.
2. Small Scale Hydropower
- The requirements for
small-scale hydropower
are sufficient flow and
proper height of fall of
water.
- It generates 10MW to 30
MW of electricity
- This is more common in
rugged areas since the
gradient of streams is
steeper, requiring only
smaller flows to generate
the desired power.
o Mini hydro
▪ Can
generate
<500 kW
o Micro hydro
▪ Has
<100kW
capacity
3. Tidal Power
- In areas with large tidal
range (the difference in
elevation of the high tide
and low tide) the potential
energy during high tide is
also harnessed to generate
power similar to
conventional hydroelectric
dams. Tidal power
- A dam called barrage is
built in the tidal inlet and
water is allowed to enter
during high tide.
- The water is then allowed
to be released during low
tide.
- As the water flows, a
turbine installed at the
bottom of the structure
generates electricity.
MODULE 8: HOW
FOSSIL FUELS ARE
FORMED
Fossil fuels and its different
kinds
-
-
Coal
-
-
-
Fossil fuels are formed by
natural processes such as
anaerobic decomposition
of buried dead organisms.
The age of the organisms
and their resulting fossil
fuels is typically millions
of years, and sometimes
exceeds 650 million years.
Fossil fuels contain high
percentages of carbon.
It is an important and
primary fossil fuel present
on Earth.
found predominantly
where forest trees, plants
and marshes existed before
being buried and
compressed millions of
years ago.
Philippines uses
approximately 50% coal
resource to produce energy
and electricity.
Different types of coal
Anthracite
- 86-98% pure carbon
- 3-8% volatile matter
- It is the highest rank of
coal.
- It is a hard, brittle, and
black lustrous coal, often
referred to as hard coal,
containing a high
percentage of fixed carbon
and a low percentage of
volatile matter
Bituminous coal
- 70-86% carbon
- 46-31% volatile matter.
- Usually has a high heating
value and is the most
common type of coal used
in electricity generation.
- It appears shiny and
smooth at first glance, but
when you look closely,
you will see that it has
layers.
Sub-bituminous Coal
- 70-76% carbon
- 53-42% volatile matter
- It is black in color and dull
and has a higher heating
value than lignite.
Lignite
- 65-70% carbon
- 63-53% volatile matter
- Known as brown coal.
- It is the lowest grade coal
with the least
concentration of carbon.
Peat
- consists of partially
decomposed vegetation.
- Technically speaking, it
isn’t coal.
- It has carbon content of
less than 60% and is
composed entirely of
volatile matter
- A poor fuel that once used
throughout Europe in the
form of dried briquettes for
heating, today it is used
only in few regions, such
as Ireland.
Oil or Petroleum
- Most of the oil that we are
using today started
forming millions of years
ago.
- Oil is an organic material,
mostly algae, which was
buried in mud at the
bottom of the sea and
lakes.
- It is used mainly to
produce transportation
fuels and petroleum-based
products.
-
-
Philippines imports crude
oil and petroleum from
Saudi Arabia and Russia.
The majority of the market
are Petron Corporation,
Pilipinas Shell, and
Chevron Philippines.
The formations of Petroleum
Diagenesis
- a process of compaction
under mild conditions of
temperature and pressure.
- When organic aquatic
sediments (proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates) are
deposited, they are very
saturated with water and
rich in minerals.
Catagenesis
- “cracking”
- turns kerogen into
petroleum and natural gas
- As temperatures and
pressures increase (deeper
burial) the process of
catagenesis begins, which
is the thermal degradation
of kerogen to form
hydrocarbon chains.
- Importantly, the process of
catagenesis is catalyzed by
the minerals that are
deposited and persist
through marine diagenesis.
Natural Gas
- It is a naturally occurring
hydrocarbon gas with the
mixture of methane.
- It is the Earth’s cleanest
fossil fuel and is odorless
and colorless in its natural
state.
- produced from
sedimentary rock
formation by forcing
chemicals, water, and sand
down a well under high
pressure.
- The Philippines’ main
domestic source of energy
is the Malampaya natural
gas field which is located
at Palawan Island.
How fossil fuels formed
✓ Millions of years ago the
remains of prehistoric
plants and animals are
buried beneath the Earth’s
surface.
✓ These remains were
covered by mud. The mud
sediment was buried by
more sediments and It
started to change into rock
as the temperature and
pressure increased. In that
case fossil fuels are formed
in a low oxygen
environment.
✓ The plant and animal
remains were altered
chemically by this process,
and slowly changed into
crude oil and natural gas.
✓ Through the spaces of
permeable rock, the oils
move upwards and will be
trapped if it reached
impermeable rock. Oil
companies can drill down
through the impermeable
rocks to get it out.
✓ They are then able to turn
it into products we can use,
such as petrol and diesel.
✓ On the other hand, coal
can be extracted from the
Earth through underground
mining. Once it has been
extracted, it can be used to
fuel power plants for
electricity
MODULE 9: WATER
RESOURCES
Water
- Water is a simple
compound, made of two
atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen bonded
together.
- More than any other
substance on the Earth,
water is important to life
and has remarkable
properties.
- Without water, life could
probably not even exist on
Earth. When looking at
Earth from space, the
abundance of water on
Earth becomes obvious.
Water in land
- Streams
- Falls
- Snowflakes
- In human body
Water distribution
Land 29%
Water 71%
✓ Ocean 97.5%
✓ Freshwater 2.5%
✓ Accessible for Human use
0.4%
✓ Water in Ice Caps 99.6%
Forms of water available on
Earth
- The world’s water exists
naturally in different forms
and locations: in the air, on
the surface, below the
ground and in the oceans.
- Knowing how water cycles
through the environment
can help in determining
how much water is
available in different parts
of the world.
- The Earth’s water cycle is
the global mechanism by
which water moves from
the air to the Earth
(precipitation) and
-
eventually back to the
atmosphere (evaporation).
The principal natural
components of this cycle
are precipitation,
infiltration into the soil,
runoff on the surface,
groundwater discharge to
surface waters and the
oceans, and
evapotranspiration from
water bodies, the soil, and
plants.
Hydrologic Cycle
Evaporation
- Water is found in lakes,
oceans, swamps, and soil,
as well as in all living
creatures and plants.
- When heat is applied from
the sun, through exertion,
or by artificial means, the
water molecules become
excited and spread out.
The loss of density is
called ‘evaporation,’ and it
sees the water rise into the
air forming clouds of water
vapor
Condensation
- The water vapor that has
risen into the sky cools
significantly when it
comes into contact with
the cooler air found up
high.
- The vapor becomes a
cloud, which is pushed
around the world by
moving air currents and
winds.
Precipitation
- The water that has fallen
as rain is absorbed into the
ground through a process
known as ‘infiltration.’
- Soil and other porous
materials can absorb great
deals of water this way,
while rocks and other
harder substances will only
retain a small amount of
water
Runoff
- This process is known as
‘runoff’ and it is how
water comes to rest in
lakes and returns to the
ocean.
Movement of water from the
atmosphere
- About 10% of the Earth’s
freshwater that is neither
frozen nor underground is
found in the atmosphere.
- Precipitation, in the form
of rain or snow, for
instance, is an important
form of available
freshwater.
o About 40% of
precipitation has
previously
evaporated from
the oceans, the rest
from land.
o The amount of
precipitation
varies greatly
around the world,
from less than 100
mm a year in
desert climates to
over 3,400 mm a
year in tropical
settings.
Precipitation
- Precipitation forms in the
clouds when water vapor
condenses into bigger and
bigger droplets of water.
When the drops are heavy
enough, they fall to the
Earth.
Freshwater at the Earth’s
surface
Surface waters
- including lakes, ponds,
reservoirs, rivers, streams
and wetlands hold only a
small volume of the
-
-
Earth’s total freshwater
(0.3%).
Still, they represent about
80% of the renewable
surface water and
groundwater that is
available in a given year.
These water bodies
perform many functions in
the environment and
provide people with the
prime source of drinking
water, energy and
recreation, as well as a
means of irrigation and
transport.
Underground freshwater
- Ninety-six percent of
liquid freshwater can be
found underground.
- Groundwater feeds springs
and streams, supports
wetlands, helps keep land
surfaces stable, and is a
critical water resource.
- About 60% of the water
that is taken from the
ground is used for farming
in arid and semi-arid
climates, and between 25%
and 40% of the world’s
drinking water comes from
underground.
- Hundreds of cities around
the world, including half
of the very largest, make
significant use of
groundwater.
- This water can be
especially useful during
shortages of surface water.
Aquifers
- When a water-bearing rock
readily transmits water to
wells and springs, it is
called an aquifer.
- Wells can be drilled into
the aquifers and water can
be pumped out.
-
-
-
-
Precipitation eventually
adds water (recharge) into
the porous rock of the
aquifer.
An aquifer is an
underground layer of
water-bearing permeable
rock, rock fractures or
unconsolidated materials
(gravel, sand, or silt).
Groundwater can be
extracted using a water
well.
The study of water flow in
aquifers and the
characterization of aquifers
is called hydrogeology.
MODULE 10: HOW
DIFFERENT ACTIVITIES
AFFECT THE QUALITY
AND AVAILABILITY OF
WATER FOR HUMAN
USE
Water Quality and Supply
Water Quality
-
is a measure of how clean
or polluted water is.
Whether it will become
beneficial or detrimental to
life largely depends on its
quality based on physical,
chemical, and biological
characteristics
Water Supply
-
-
-
on the other hand, refers to
the availability of water in
a particular place.
Such availability is vital in
sustaining and developing
farms and communities.
Where people do not have
water supply in their
homes, they go to local
streams, well or pump to
gather water for cooking,
cleaning, and drinking.
Threats to Water Resources
Sedimentation
- mainly as a direct response
to land-use changes and
agricultural practices
Pollution
- Disposal practices leave
most wastes inadequately
treated, thereby causing
pollution.
Climate change
- Land and mountain
glaciers are shrinking more
rapidly in recent years due
to global warming
Urban growth
- Increase in population and
development of industry
compresses the availability
of water
Landscape change
- Land use shift to
Agriculture depletes water
filters and native biomes
that conserves water
quality.
Pollutants in Freshwater
- Pure and fresh water is
essential in our daily living
because it provides a wide
scope of benefits from
health to household
activities, industrial and
agricultural activities, and
so on.
Organic matter
- When organic matter
increases in a pond, the
number of decomposers
will increase.
- These decomposers grow
rapidly and use a great
deal of oxygen during their
growth.
- This leads to a depletion of
oxygen as the
decomposition process
occurs.
- A lack of oxygen can kill
aquatic organisms.
Freshwater decomposers
o Algae
o
o
o
Plankton
Bacteria
Fungi
Pathogen
- contamination (e.g.,
bacteria, protozoa, and
viruses) poses a serious
risk in water resources.
- The transport of pathogens
from surface water to
groundwater increases the
vulnerability of
groundwater bacteria,
virus, and other
microorganism that can
cause diseases like
diarrhea, gastrointestinal
illnesses, nausea, and
possibly jaundice as well
as headaches and fatigue.
- If ingested by humans,
they can release toxins
causing sickness or even
death.
Microbial contaminants of
Freshwater
- E. coli
- Staphylococcus
- Salmonella
Nutrient pollution
- Too many nutrients,
mainly nitrogen and
phosphorus, are added to
bodies of water and can act
like fertilizer, causing
excessive growth of algae.
- Nutrients can run off of
land in urban areas where
lawn and garden fertilizers
are used.
Salinization
- the increase of salt
concentration in soil and
is, in most cases, caused
by dissolved salts in the
water supply.
- This supply of water can
be caused by flooding of
the land by seawater,
seepage of seawater or
brackish groundwater
through the soil from
below.
Acidification
- the process of becoming
acid or being converted
into an acid.
- Freshwater acidification is
harmful to various aquatic
organisms.
o atmospheric
depositions and
soil leaching of
sulfur oxides
(SOx) and
nitrogen oxides
(NOx).
Heavy metals
- When the pH in water
falls, metal solubility
increases and the metal
particles become more
mobile.
- That is why metals are
more toxic in soft waters.
Metals can become
‘locked up’ in bottom
sediments, where they
remain for many years.
Chromium
- Mining, industrial
coolants, chromium salts
manufacturing, leather
tanning
Lead
- lead acid batteries,
- paints, E-waste, Smelting
operations, coal-based
thermal power plants,
- ceramics, bangle
- industry
Arsenic
- Geogenic/natural
processes, smelting
operations, thermal power
plants, fuel
Copper
- Mining,
- electroplating
- smelting operations
Mercury
- Chlor-alkali plants,
- thermal power plants,
-
fluorescent lamps,
hospital waste
o damaged
thermometers,
o barometers,
o sphygmomanomet
ers),
- electrical appliances etc.
Vanadium
- Spent catalyst,
- sulfuric acid plant
Nickel
- Smelting operations,
- thermal power plants,
- battery industry
Cadmium
- Zinc smelting,
- Waste batteries,
- e-waste,
- paint sludge,
- incineration & fuel
combustion
Molybdenum
- Spent catalyst
Zinc
- Smelting,
- Electroplating
Toxic Organic
- Organic chemicals play an
invaluable role in the
modern lifestyle.
o They include
pharmaceuticals,
pesticides,
plastics, fuels,
solvents,
explosives, surface
coatings,
adhesives,
disinfectants, and
fire retardants
Compound Thermal Pollution
- The effects of thermal
pollution are diverse, but
in short, thermal pollution
damages water ecosystems
and reduces animal
populations.
Causes of thermal pollution
✓ Manufacturing and
industrial plants using
water as a cooling source
for power.
✓ Deforestation
✓ Domestic Sewage
✓ Soil Erosion
✓ Water runoff from paved
surfaces
✓ Natural causes such as
volcanoes, and geothermal
activity under water.
Effects of Thermal Pollution
✓ Decreased Dissolved
Oxygen
✓ Increased Toxin
✓ Migration
✓ Loss of Biodiversity
✓ Ecological Impacts
Siltation
Silt and Suspended
Particles
- loss of important or
sensitive aquatic habitat,
- decrease in fishery
resources,
- loss of recreation
attributes,
- loss of coral reef
communities,
- increase in human health
concerns,
- changes in fish migration,
increase in erosion,
- loss of wetlands,
- nutrient balance changes,
- circulation changes,
- increase in turbidity,
- loss of submerged
vegetation, and
- coastline alteration.
Increased Turbidity
- Promote regrowth of
pathogens in the water
(measure of relative clarity
of a liquid)
MODULE 11: HUMAN
ACTIVITIES THAT
AFFECT THE SOIL
Soil
-
an essential component of
Earth that has enabled life
to exist on the planet and
continues to support it.
- It forms the Pedosphere
o the foundation of
terrestrial life on
this planet.
- It is then unconsolidated
mineral or organic material
on the immediate surface
of the Earth that serves as
a natural medium for the
growth of land plants.
- “Pedon” means soil.
- a dynamic body above
Earth's crust that made up
of porous materials which
composed of organic and
inorganic (mineral)
elements whose physical
and chemical properties
affect the growth of plant.
Edaphology
- study of soil in relation to
properties that affect plant
growth
Pedology
- study of soil emphasizing
its pedogenesis and
classification
- (Soil Naming)
Components of Soil
- Soil is made from portions
of the geosphere,
atmosphere, and biosphere.
It is generally composed of
45% mineral (gravel, sand,
silt, and clay), 25% soil
air, 25% soil water, and
5% organic matter (OM) -humus, roots, and dead and
decaying organisms.
Soil Solids
Gravel - >2mm
Sand - 0.2-2.0
Silt - 0.002-0.2
Clay - 0.002
Colloids - <0.001
Soil Water
- Gravitational (water
available to plants)
- Capillary (water in soil
micropores)
- Hygroscopic (water not
available to plants)
Soil Air
Nitrogen 79.2%
Oxygen 20.6%
Carbon dioxide 0.25%
Soil OM
- undecomposed or
unaltered debris of plants
and animals
HUMUS
- stable residue of
decomposed organic
material
o macropores 0.20.02mm
o micropores 0.020.002mm
Soil Formation
There are 5 factors that
affect soil formation:
- CLORPT
PARENT MATERIAL - preexisting rock or mineral which
soil chemical and physical
properties are derived
Climate
- temperature, rainfall, and
moisture affect the pattern
and intensity of soilforming processes such as
weathering, leaching,
transportation and
distribution
Living Organism
- organisms such as plants
and animals affect soil
formation by mixing,
borrowing, and
incorporating materials
into the soil
Relief
-
gradient of the slope
affects water flow and
erosion
Time
-
the formation of soil is a
long and continuous
process which may take
hundreds to thousands of
years depending on the
climate and environment
Soil Texture
- defined as the relative
proportion of the particle
sizes in the soil--sand, silt,
and clay.
- Soil naturally composed of
mixtures of these soil
particles and proportion of
which affects the soil
properties such as porosity
and water retention.
HOW DO WE CLASSIFY
SOIL?
- Soil taxonomy is a branch
of soil science that deals
with naming soil based on
its chemical and physical
properties as observed on
its Horizon--horizontal
layers in soil profile.
Soil Profile
- is the sequence of soil
horizons from the surface
Solum
- composed of A and B
horizons, it is also termed as the
"true
soil"
Regolith
- composed of A, B, and C
horizons.
The 12 Soil Orders Soil Scientist
also developed a soil classification
system to identify, understand, and
manage soils.
Alfisols
-
are found in semiarid to
moist areas. They formed
under forest or mixed
vegetative cover and are
productive for most crops.
Andisols
- tend to be highly
productive soils. They are
common in cool areas with
moderate to high
precipitation, especially
those areas associated with
volcanic materials.
Aridisols
- are soils that are too dry
for the growth of
mesophytic plants. They
often accumulate gypsum,
salt, calcium carbonate,
and other materials that are
easily leached from soil in
more humid environments.
Aridisols
- are common in the world’s
deserts. Entisols occur in
areas of recently deposited
parent materials or in areas
where erosion or
deposition rates are faster
than the rate of soil
development; such as
dunes, steep slopes and
floodplains.
Gelisols
- are soils that have
permafrost near the soil
surface, have evidence of
frost churning, or ice
segregation. These are
common in the higher
latitudes or high
elevations.
Histosols
- have a high content of
organic matter and no
permafrost. Most are
saturated year round, but a
few are freely drained.
They are commonly called
bogs, moors, pears or
mucks.
Inceptisols
- are soils of semiarid to
humid environments that
generally exhibit only
moderate degrees of soil
weathering and
development. These occur
in a wide variety of
climates.
Mollisols
- are soils that have a dark
colored surface horizon
relatively high in content
of organic matter. The
soils are base rich
throughout and therefore
are quite fertile.
Oxisols
- are highly weathered soils
of tropical and subtropical
regions. They
characteristically occur on
land surfaces that have
been stable for a long time.
- They have low natural
fertility as well as a low
capacity to retain additions
of lime and fertilizer.
Spodosols
- formed from weathering
processes that strip organic
matter combined with
aluminum from the surface
layer and deposit them in
the subsoil. These tend to
be acid and infertile.
Ultisols
- are soils in humid areas.
They are typically acid
soils in which most
nutrients are concentrated
in the upper few inches.
They have a moderately
low capacity to retain
additions of lime and
fertilizer.
Vertisols
- have a high content of
expanding clay minerals.
They undergo pronounced
changes in volume with
changes in moisture.
Because they swell when
wet, vertisols transmit
water very slowly and
have undergone little
leeching. They tend to be
fairly high in natural
fertility.
The Philippines has a Ultisol soil
classification
Soil Services to Humans
- Arable land for agriculture
o arable lands are
plowable lands
which could be
used to grow
crops. An
important
component of
arable lands is soil
that can sustain
plant and animal.
Regulating water and filtering
potential
- pollutants in water cycle,
soil plays an important role
in absorbing water and
storing it as groundwater.
- Dissolved solutes flow
over the land or through
the soil.
Nutrient cycling
- Carbon, Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, and other
essential nutrients are
stored, transformed, and
cycled in the soil.
(Biogeochemical cycling)
Foundation and support
- soil structure provides a
base for plant roots,
provide foundation
(bedrock) and support for
human shelter such as
houses and roads.
Mineral deposits
- soils are mined for their
mineral content--whether it
be iron, nickel, or
aluminum. These soils are
called laterites
o commonly formed
in hot tropical
areas.
Soil nutrients and quality
- Soil is not a dirt
o it is a resource. It
is a main
component of land
resources,
agriculture and
ecological
sustainability.
Sixteen elements are considered
essential nutrients for plants.
These are
- carbon (C)
- oxygen (O)
- Hydrogen (H)
- nitrogen(N)
- phosphorus(P)
- potassium (K)
- calcium (Ca)
- magnesium (Mg)
- sulfur (S)
- iron (Fe)
- manganese (Mn)
- zinc (Zn)
- copper (Cu)
- boron (B)
- molybdenum (Mo)
- chlorine (Cl)
Human activities that degrade
soil Quality
-
Soil is a nonrenewable
resource, which is
generally, not recoverable
within a human lifespan.
Soil Erosion - loss of topsoil and
nutrients in the soil. Soil erosion is
a natural process but advances with
poor management practices
Soil Compaction - the amount of
water, air and space available to
roots and soil organisms.
Compaction is caused by repeated
traffic or traveling on wet soil
Desertification - the irreversible
change of land to such a state
where it can no longer be
recovered for its original use.
Characterized by droughts and arid
conditions as a result of human
activities and exploration
Intensive Agriculture - Green
revolution in early 1970s increased
food production with the use of
technologies such as intensive
farming, however this
intensification has led to heavier
machinery, deforestation, and
clearing of land for cultivation.
Urbanization - increasing
population has led to the
conversion of land to urban centers
which are generally characterized
by concrete structures, roads, and
pavements
Conservation Of Soil
Resources
- The effect of human
activities on soil can be
mitigated through
sustainable soil
management, such
increasing soil organic
matter content, keeping
soil surface vegetated,
avoiding excessive tillage,
using nutrients wisely,
promoting crop rotations,
reducing erosion, and
preventing soil
compaction.
Increasing Soil Organic Matter
- Addition of new organic
matter is important in
improving and maintaining
soil quality.
- It improves the soil
structure and enhances
water and nutrient holding
capacity.
Keeping the soil covered and
vegetated
- Ground cover and
vegetation protects the
soil. It provides habitat for
larger soil organisms and
can improve water
availability. The soil can
be covered by leaving crop
residues on the surface
(Mulching) or by planting
cover crops.
Avoiding Excessive tillage
- Tillage is done to loosen
surface soil and break up
soil structure.
- Reducing tillage
minimizes the loss of soil
organic matter and protects
the soil surface from
further erosion
Managing pests and nutrient
efficiently
- Efficient pest and nutrient
management require
regular testing and
monitoring of soil
conditions and pests, along
with the application of
only the necessary
chemicals at the right time
and place.
Promoting Crop rotation
- Changing vegetation
across the landscape over
time allows the soil to
recover, as different plants
contribute in a unique way
to soil structure and
composition. It also
increases the diversity of
plants as well as other
organisms in the area.
Reducing erosion and preventing
soil compaction
- Erosion can be prevented
by keeping the ground
covered and vegetated, and
by channeling excess
surface water runoff.
- Soil compaction can be
prevented by restricting
human activities to
designated areas and
pathways.
MODULE 12: WASTE
GENERATION AND
MANAGEMENT
Different types of waste
- Environmental Wastes generated from the natural
processes and
anthropogenic activities
which pollute the
environment and make the
earth an unhealthy planet.
o Solid Waste
o Liquid Waste
o Gaseous Waste
Solid wastes
- include solid portions of
the discarded material such
as glass bottles, crockeries,
plastic containers, metals
and radioactive wastes
1. Biodegradable Solid Wastes
- These are agricultural
wastes, food wastes, paper,
food processing by
products, manure, yard
wastes, etc.
2. Non-biodegradable Solid
- Wastes Include plastics,
metals, synthetic materials,
polythene, radioactive
wastes, etc.
Liquid Wastes
- are the liquid part of the
waste material.
o
effluents of
industries,
o fertilizer and
pesticide solutions
from agriculture
fields,
o leachate from
landfills,
o urban runoff of
untreated
wastewater and
garbage,
o mining wastes etc.
o The liquid waste
may contain
nontoxic inorganic
substances or toxic
organic substances
“Black Water” – comes from
toilets with excreta
“Grey Water/Sullage” – waste
waters that are not contaminated
with excreta
“Sewage” – Domestic wastewater
Gaseous Wastes
- The gaseous wastes are
generated into the
environment mainly due to
anthropogenic activities.
o carbon dioxide
(CO2),
o methane (CH4),
o chlorofluorocarbo
n (CFC),
o oxides of nitrogen
(NOx),
o carbon monoxide
(CO),
o oxides of sulfur
(SOx), etc.
-
These gaseous wastes can
cause serious
environmental hazards.
Therefore, it is highly
essential to take
appropriate steps for the
proper management and
control of gaseous wastes
in the environment.
Ways to lessen the emission of
gaseous wastes:
Conserve Energy
- Use Catalytic Converters
in cars
o lessens the
production of
carbon monoxide,
nitrogen oxides,
and volatile
organic
compounds.
- Engage in carpooling,
using public transportation
or bike, or walk
- Avoid burning
U.S. Solid Waste Management
Heirarchy
Source Reduction -refers to
method of designing,
manufacturing, purchasing, using,
and reusing materials so that the
amount of waste or its toxicity is
reduced
Recycling and Composting
Recycling - collecting throwaway
materials and turning them into
useful products
Composting - turning
biodegradable wastes into organic
fertilizer
Resource Cycle
- It is the process involving
the transformation of raw
material into usable or
consumable product and
its disposal.
Extraction – Processing –
Consumption
- During these stages, waste
can be generated and
affects the Earth’s
subsystems – Geosphere,
Hydrosphere, Atmosphere,
and Biosphere – which
provide the resources and
raw materials
Plastic Recycling Symbols
Symbol 1: PETG or PETE
- Also known as PETE,
- this symbol represents
polyethylene terephthalate,
o
which is
commonly used
for soft drink
bottles,
o mineral water
containers,
o fruit juice
containers,
o cooking oil
containers.
- The plastic is easily
recyclable so it’s often part
of curbside recycling
programs.
- It can be reused to make
containers, carpet, and
furniture.
Symbol 2: HDPE
- indicates one of the most
commonly used plastics in
the United States,
- High-density polyethylene
- HDPE plastic is used for a
number of different
purposes but is widely
considered the plastic of
choice for containers for
items like
o cleaning agents,
o milk,
o detergents, and
o washing soap
thanks to its low
weight and high
strength.
Symbol 3: PVC or Vinyl
- Plastic material
- The letter “V” represents
PVC plastic or polyvinyl
chloride.
- You may come across this
plastic in bubble foils, and
trays for sweets and fruit.
- Additionally, expanded
PVC foam board is used
for a wide variety of
commercial applications.
- Thanks to its lightweight
and rigid properties, PVC
plastic can be easily
stamped, sawed, punched,
nailed, riveted, or bonded
using PVC adhesive.
Symbol 4: LDPE Symbol 4
- made from LDPE plastic,
- stands for low-density
polyethylene.
- This plastic comes in the
form of shopping bags,
highly resistant sacks, and
crushed bottles.
Symbol 5: PP PP, or
polypropylene plastic,
- is appropriately marked by
the number five symbol
including the acronym PP.
- Thanks to its durability,
strength, and low weight,
this plastic is utilized in
o furniture,
o luggage,
o toys, and the
o lining and external
borders of cars.
- This is one of the safer
types of plastic making it
ideal for ketchup bottles
and medicine bottles.
- It is also increasingly
being accepted in curbside
recycling programs.
Symbol 6: Styrene, or PS
Styrene plastic
- also known as polystyrene,
- This plastic is commonly
used in
o toys,
o hard packing,
o refrigerator trays,
o cosmetic bags,
o costume jewelry,
o CD cases, and
o vending cups.
- Although not accepted in
many curbside recycling
programs,
- it can be recycled to make
egg cartons, take-out
containers, and rulers.
Symbol 7: Other Symbol 7
- stands for “other plastics,”
which include, but are not
limited to, acrylic plastic,
-
-
-
polycarbonate plastic,
polylactic fibers, nylon,
and fiberglass.
Not every plastic can be
recycled.
However, both acrylic and
polycarbonate can be
recycled and can be
repurposed for future
projects.
Since they are both
thermoplastics, they can be
reheated without a loss in
quality.
For symbol 7 plastics, be
sure to confirm with your
local recycling program.
MODULE 13: EFFECT OF
WASTE ON PEOPLE’S
HEALTH AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
Effects of Waste to the
Environment
✓ Contamination of
underground water
✓ Pollution of the
atmosphere through
burning of plastic
✓ Organic solid wastes
produce obnoxious odor
✓ Wastes that release dioxins
diffused into the air
✓ Toxic liquid chemicals
seep into water streams
✓ Gases from incineration
contribute to acid rain
Effects of Waste to People’s
Health
✓ Vectors like rats and
insects invades dumps and
spread diseases
✓ Disease transmission
through improper disposal
of hospital and clinic
wastes
✓ Water and food
contamination through
flies
✓ Contaminated water
supply with pathogens
✓ Clogging of drains with
solid wastes provides
breeding ground for
mosquitoes
✓ Mines and industrial waste
contain mercury and flows
to bodies of water
R.A. 9003 – SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000
[major provisions]
- provides the legal
framework for the
systematic, comprehensive
and ecological solid waste
management program of
the Philippines, which
shall ensure protection of
public health and the
environment.
- It emphasizes the need to
create the necessary
institutional mechanisms
and incentives, and
imposes penalties for acts
in violation of any of its
provisions (NSWMC,
2005)
National Solid Waste
Management Commission
[general provisions]
✓ Ensure protection of public
health and environment
✓ Encourage minimization of
solid waste generation, and
the recycle and re-use of
recyclable wastes
✓ Promote national research
and development programs
to improve waste
management,
conservation, reduction,
collection, separation, and
recovery
✓ Encourage participation in,
and implementation of,
solid waste management
✓ Promote environmental
awareness
5r’s
✓ Refuse
o Learn to say no
✓ Reduce
o
Don’t impulse
buy, and reduce
your general
consumption
✓ Reuse
o Stop using
disposable
products at all
✓ Recycle
✓ Rot
o Turn your kitchen
scraps into
compost
o Set up your worm
composting bin.
Padayon!
Manifesting high grades:>