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The Negotiations of the Korean
War Armistice
Researched by Caleb TullossSenior Division
An American soldier stands at the southern limit of the demilitarized zone a few days
after the armistice
The diplomacy in the Korean War negotiations was a failure.
The talks stretched on for over two years, prolonging the
war, and they failed to establish adequate requirements for
the reunification of North and South Korea. The negotiators
also spent too much time discussing the repatriation of
POWs, when instead they might have ended the fighting first
to prevent further bloodshed. In this era when enmity
between Communists and Capitalists was already high, the
outcome of the Korean War as determined by the
negotiations should have lessened the tensions, but instead
raised them by allowing the beginning of a prolonged
stalemate on the Korean peninsula.
The Start of the Never-e
Context
The Start of the Never-ending War
A Hot Spot in the Cold War
The Setup
The Korean War occurred during a period of intense
competition and distrust between Communists and
Capitalists. This dislike was common both in the
governments of rival countries and in the citizens of those
countries. In 1949, the Chinese Communists had defeated
the Nationalists in the Chinese Civil War. The U.N. was
unhappy with the new regime and denied it membership. In
addition, the U.S. placed the Seventh Fleet in the Taiwan
Strait to prevent the Nationalist government (in Taiwan)
from restarting the war. However, the fundamental reasons
behind the Korean War lie not in the Cold War, but in final
stages of World War II.
Two Systems
Just days before the end of the war in the Pacific, the Soviet
Union decided to enter the fight against Japan and advanced
southward through the Japanese-occupied Korean peninsula.
When Japan surrendered, the United States was worried that
the U.S.S.R. would claim all of Korea, and so it proposed
that north of the 38th Parallel, the Soviets would accept the
Japanese surrender, while south of that line, the Americans
would do so. The 38th Parallel was chosen rather arbitrarily
simply because it was already drawn on most maps of Korea
and because it put Seoul, the capital, on the U.S. side
(Hammal, Destined to Fail? How the Division of Korea Led to
the Korea War). Though this division was initially imposed as
a military measure, it ended up defining the political
relationship between the north and the south, as each
superpower set up a different political and economic system
in its respective occupied territory. In the north, the Soviet
Union set up a Communist dictatorship, while in the south,
the U.S. tried to set up a Capitalist democracy. (South Korea
was supposed to be a democracy, but the elections held did
not actually determine government officials, and the
president, Syngman Rhee, ruled with almost absolute
power.) In addition, the leaders chosen by the superpowers
on each side, Kim Il-Sung in the north and Syngman Rhee in
the south, were selected because they were each especially
biased against the other sides (Hammal, Destined to Fail?
How the Division of Korea Led to the Korea War).
Japanese Foreign Minister Manoru Shigemitsu signs the surrender document aboard the
U.S.S. Missouri in Tokyo Bay on Sept. 2, 1945, ending WWII
South Korean President Syngman Rhee sits beside Douglas MacArthur, supreme allied com
inaguration of the Republic of Korea, 1948; Rhee was extremely anti-Communist
A parade in Pyongyang bears portraits of North Korean President Kim Il Sung and Russian
the development of North Korean Communism
The Invasion
These now-rival governments were meant to be temporary,
but attempts at unification failed due to the opposing
systems in the north and south and because of the political
polarization caused by the superpower occupation. The 1950
North Korean invasion of the south was a direct result of this
polarization, as both sides felt that they had the
responsibility to unify the country militarily in response to
the lack of success of the unification efforts. In this way, the
war was a result of the opposing systems imposed on the
two halves of the country after the Japanese surrender to
the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. and the enmity and negative bias
created in the north and south by these superpowers.
Legacy
The Korean War was not only influenced by the emerging
Cold War; it influenced the Cold War as well. The
negotiations which left the country indefinitely divided
allowed for the beginning of a long period of stalemate
between the two sides which increased tension in Asia.
Some 778,053 U.N. soldiers and as many as 1,545,822
Communist soldiers were killed in the war, and 2.5 million
civilians were killed or injured. As the war went on, public
feelings for the enemy increased due to this enormous loss
of civilian and military life.
Timeline
>>>>>>Interactive Map
Sept. 2, 1945: Japan surrenders, ending WWII; Korea
divided along 38th Parallel
Jan. 1950: Stalin secretly agrees to arm North Korea for
planned invasion
June 25, 1950: North Korea invades South Korea by
surprise and forces the latter southward, almost conquering
all of Korea
>>>>>You Tube Video News Clip
June 27, 1950: The U.N. votes to retaliate while the Soviet
Union is absent from the Security Council (it was boycotting
the U.N. because the latter had denied admission to the
newly formed People's Republic of China); North Korea
continues to push southward against the combined force of
South Korea and the U.N.
Sept. 15, 1950: The U.N.'s surprise landing at Inchon turns
the tide against the North Koreans, who quickly retreat and
are forced northward to the Yalu River
Oct. 19, 1950: Thousands of Chinese “volunteers” invade
across Yalu River after giving warnings to U.N.
July 10, 1951: First negotiations are held in Kaesong, just
north of the line of contact
Aug. 22, 1951: First negotiations end after Communists
accuse the U.N. of attempting an air raid on Kaesong
Oct. 25, 1951: Talks resume at Panmunjom
The two sides discuss the demarcation line at Panmunjom, December 1951
Nov. 4, 1952: Eisenhower is elected U.S. president
June 18, 1953: South Korean president Rhee attempts to
sabotage the negotiations by freeing anti- Communist
prisoners of war
July 27, 1953: Fighting ceases after the two sides sign
armistice agreement without South Korea
U.N. forces commander Gen. Mark Clark signs the Armistice Agreement
This current interactive map of the Korean Peninsula shows
the North and South still divided.
>>>>>Google Map Image
Negotiations
The Negotiators and Their Differing Goals
The U.N. negotiating party was originally composed of several U.S.
representatives and one South Korean, General Paek Sŏn-Yŏp. The
latter did not return when the talks recommenced at Panmunjom
because South Korean President Rhee was opposed to the armistice
(Paek, From Pusan to Panmunjom). The Communist delegation was led
by Nam Il of North Korea, but the lead Chinese representative, Hseih
Fang, appeared to be have more decision-making power (Holmes, The
Lessons of the Korean War for the "Six-Party Talks").
The first major disagreement came when the two sides began
discussing an agenda for the negotiations. The U.N. representatives
wanted to set up a general plan, while the Communist delegates tried
to build into the agenda their specific goals (Holmes, The Lessons of
the Korean War for the "Six-Party Talks"). The most challenging issue
to settle during the negotiations was over POW repatriation; most of
the debate in the armistice negotiations was over this topic.
Listed below are the main goals of the two sides, as well as those of
South Korea, which played little part in the talks.
U.N.
>>>>>>Small Images of flags of Members
∙
Establishment of demilitarized zone at line of contact
∙
Creation of supervisory committee to oversee the enactment of an
armistice
∙
Repatriation of only willing POWs (this was a violation of the
Geneva Convention, which states that a country must immediately
repatriate all prisoners at the end of a war)
∙
Significant measures taken to ensure fighting would not resume
∙
Measures taken to prevent North Korean military expansion; no
rehabilitation of North Korean airfield.
South Korea
President Rhee was opposed to the armistice and the South Korean
delegate was withdrawn from the negotiations when they resumed at
Panmunjom.
∙
Unification of Korea through increased military action
∙
Armistice only satisfactory if North Korea disarmed
North Korea and China
The North Korean and Chinese delegates tried to use the
talks for propaganda advantages as well as for ending the
war.
∙
Establishment of demilitarized zone at 38th Parallel
∙
Withdrawal of all foreign troops from Korea (except
Chinese, who were technically volunteers)
∙
Immediate repatriation of all prisoners (justified by the
Geneva Convention)
Successes
The Korean War negotiations were, in some ways,
successful. Firstly, and most notably, they temporarily ended
the fighting and prevented its immediate resumption. The
measures taken to stop conflict have so far been mostly
successful. Also, the impasse over POW repatriation was
eventually solved, and all the prisoners who wanted
repatriation were sent back soon after the armistice. The
fate of the prisoners who refused repatriation (mostly
Chinese) was decided by a neutral nations committee, and
most were sent to South Korea or Taiwan. (The few former
U.N. soldiers who refused repatriation, including 325 South
Koreans, 21 Americans, and one Briton, were sent to North
Korea or China.) South Korea was somewhat appeased by
the mutual defense treaty between it and the United States.
North Korean POWs on their way to the exchange point after the signing of the armistice
Failures
Indefinite Division
In the long run, however, the negotiations were a failure.
Though they temporarily ended the war, North and South
Korea are still indefinitely divided; indeed, the post-armistice
political conference meant to unify them accomplished
almost nothing. The primary goal of the negotiators was to
stop the combat and settle military matters. This meant that
unification was not one of the issues discussed (as it was a
political topic); however, the armistice terms still could have
included better measures to ensure that unification was
achieved. The fact that there was never a clear victory
annoyed Mark Clark, the U.N forces commander at the time
of the armistice, and he signed the document with some
degree of reluctance. The armistice also made no mention of
the maritime border between North and South, and several
clashes have resulted from this.
Casualties
The armistice also reinforced bad relations between North
and South Korea by setting up another arbitrary
demarcation line that was no better than the 38th Parallel,
making long-term unification prospects even more remote.
Also, during the negotiations, representatives from the two
Koreas had very little say, despite the fact that it was their
country; most of the decisions were made by the Chinese
and American delegates. Due to the unwillingness of both
sides to compromise during the negotiations, they dragged
on longer than they should have, prolonging the war and
causing further bloodshed. There were more soldiers who
died while the POW debate was taking place than there were
prisoners who chose not to return to their own country and
were thus “saved” (Alexander, Korea: The First War We
Lost). Instead of debating for 18 months over the fate of the
prisoners, the negotiations could have ended the fighting
quickly and prevented further bloodshed and death.
These photos exemplify that while the negotiations were
going on, the war continued, as did the bloodshed.
>>>>>Photo Montage
Tension
As the negotiations dragged on, the countries involved were
forced to continue fighting, and this strained the economies
and caused tensions between allies on both sides. Finally,
the supposed neutral inspection of the Koreas after the
cease-fire failed because North Korea was able to secretly
bring arms across the Chinese border (Alexander, Korea:
The First War We Lost).
Consequences
The major consequences of the Korean War negotiations
were:
•
Cessation of hostilities between the two sides and
establishment of the DMZ
•
Demonstration of China's emerging power and
worsening of relations between the U.N. and China
•
Republican victory in 1952 U.S. election
•
Deteriorating relations between North and South Korea
For details, click on one of the links below.
Short-Term
Long-Term
Short-Term Consequences
Cease-fire
The most obvious consequence of the negotiations and
eventual armistice is that the fighting stopped, causing the
indefinite and awkward separation of the north and south
which has continued to this day. Though the two countries
were meant to be unified in the post-armistice political
conference, this event accomplished almost nothing
(Alexander, Korea: The First War We Lost). Instead of
relations improving over time, tensions have increased since
the armistice, and war may break out again soon (see
Long-Term Consequences). The negotiations also exchanged
the 38th Parallel for the current demilitarized zone, giving
South Korea slightly more land than it had before the war.
A howitzer fires its final shot before the cease-fire after the signing of the armistice
American Marines dismantle their bunkers is preparation for withdrawal from the DMZ
after the armistice
Intransigence
In addition, the Korean War negotiations and the war in
general demonstrated that China could act as a global
superpower capable of mobilizing thousands of its citizens to
fight a battle in another country and of wringing concessions
from the United States despite its military and economic
disadvantage. Further, the relationship between China and
the United Nations deteriorated even more for a period of
time due to the bad feelings and frustration generated when
both sides were unwilling to compromise. In fact, on August
10, 1951, during the first set of negotiations at Kaesong, the
two sides were so unwilling to compromise on issues that
they stared across the table for two hours and 11 minutes
without speaking. The negotiations also increased the level
of enmity in Asia because of the way the negotiators were
unwilling to make concessions, which stretched the talks on
for longer than they should have lasted.
1952 Election
More indirectly, in the United States, the prolonging of the
negotiations and the public's frustration with the war led to
the Democratic Party’s loss of the presidency after 20 years.
It was in this spirit of hopelessness and frustration that the
armistice was rushed to completion and signed at 10:00
A.M. on July 27, 1953, starting the never-ending war on the
Korean peninsula
Long-Term Consequences
Conflicts since the Armistice
There have been several clashes between North and South
Korea since the cease-fire and withdrawal of troops. From
1966 to 1969 there were a series of armed conflicts along
the DMZ between the two after the North deployed troops to
the border. Because the armistice agreement did not
establish a maritime border between North and South, there
have been many clashes at sea to the west of the peninsula.
Both sides attempted to unilaterally define a sea border,
resulting in overlapping territorial claims. These naval
conflicts began in 1999 when North Korea asserted a
demarcation line different from that defined by the U.N. In
addition to these conflicts, there have been others, such as
in 1996, when North Korean troops entered the DMZ and
fired shots (see photos below).
In 1996, South Korean troops patrol near the demilitarized zone, highlighting the
continuing tension on the peninsula
South Koreans watch the demilitarized zone in 1996 after North Korean troops violated
the armistice by entering the DMZ and firing shots
North Korea Today
Today, North Korea has a population of over 24 million. The
regime in the so-called Democratic People's Republic of
Korea is oppressive and totalitarian. Its military of over 9
million people (including reserve and paramilitary)
represents the highest soldier-to-citizen ratio of any country.
Though not a direct consequence of the negotiations, this
government has for many years been taking steps to
prepare for the resumption of fighting between the two
sides. It most likely possess six to eight nuclear weapons
(the government claimed to have conducted their first
nuclear weapon test on October 9, 2006; this was
corroborated by seismological reports). There have also
been several border clashes in which war was especially
near, most recently the North Korean sinking of South
Korea's Cheonan in March 2010 and the shelling of the
south's Yeonpyeong Island in Novmeber 2010. For more
information on North Korea, visit the official DPRK webpage.
For interesting footage and insights of an American's visit to
North Korea, see The Vice Guide to North Korea.
The following video shows North Korean propaganda footage
composed of scenes from the Korean War, which is portrayed
a glorious struggle for the Korean people.
>>>>>>Insert Video
U.S. Policy Toward North Korea
According to the U.S. Department of State, "The United
States supports the peaceful reunification of Korea on terms
acceptable to the Korean people and recognizes that the
future of the Korean Peninsula is primarily a matter for them
to decide. The United States believes that a constructive and
serious dialogue between the authorities of North and South
Korea is necessary to resolve outstanding problems,
including the North's attempts to develop a nuclear program
and human rights abuses, and to encourage the North's
integration with the rest of the international community." For
more information, including an extensive explanation of the
United States's view on the denuclearization of the Korean
peninsula, visit the U.S. State Department's North Korea
page.
South Korea Today
Today, the Republic of Korea is a prosperous nation with a
relatively stable free-market economy and a population of
almost 49 million. Despite its stable nature, the south
continues to irritate the north and is in no way free of blame
for border clashes. The sinking of the Cheonan occurred
while the ship was patrolling a disputed maritime boundary,
and it is likely that the government has been secretly
developing nuclear weapons for several decades.
An End to the War?
Hopefully, at some point there will be a definite end to the
Korean conflict. At one end of the spectrum of possible
solutions is peaceful negotiation for reunification, and on the
other is the resumption of fighting until one side achieves
victory. In the second case, the war would have to end with
some kind of negotiation, so maybe, in either case, the
negotiators will learn from history, do a better job, and unify
the long-split peninsula.