Pompeii Study
DP: 1
a. Geographical features and natural features of Campania
b. The eruption of 79AD and its impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum
c. Early discoveries and the changing nature of excavations in the 19 th and 20th
centuries
d. Representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time
DP: 2
a.
b.
c.
d.
The economy: role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupations
The social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves
Local political life: decuriones, magistrates, comitium
Everyday life: housing, leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths,
water supply and sanitation
e. Religion: household gods, temples, foreign cults and religions, tombs
f. The influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art and architecture
DP: 3
a. Changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies
b. Issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions
and responsibilities
c. Ethical issues: excavation and conservation, study and display of human remains
d. Value and impact of tourism: problems and solutions
Sources and Examples for Exam
https://dc.edu.au/ancient-history-pompeii-herculaneum/
DP 1: Survey
a) Geographical setting and natural features of Campania
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Coastal region, access to sea, good for trade, use of resources from the sea
Volcanic proximity provided fertile soil
Ideal for growing grapes
Water from River Sarno
Ideal resort towns
Sources: written sources, frescoes, agricultural evidence including livestock and
plants, sewer systems
b) The eruption of AD79 and its impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum
Best Evidence
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Stratigraphy – layers in the ground
Mount Vesuvius
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Erupted in 1631, killing 4000 people, and during the restoration after the eruption,
they discovered Pompeii and Herculaneum ruins
Pliny the Younger
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Wrote a first-person account of the eruption
Detailed the voyage of his uncle Pliny the Elder
Watched the eruption from Misenum
Leaves Misenum with his mother
Said that tremors were common in the area
Only eyewitness of the event to have survived
Effect on Rome
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Pompeii and Rome had a history of being at odds (Social War of 90BCE), eruption
stops any further conflicts and takes out one of Rome’s adversaries
Roman control of Pompeii was limited, allowed to keep language and culture but did
not have status as Roman citizens
Social War of March 90BCE
o Pompeii joins with other Samnite towns in Italy in uprising
o Demands full Roman citizenship and rights
o Roman army (more experienced) overtook Pompeiians
o Pompeii loses virtually all its independence
c) early discoveries and the changing nature of excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries
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Discoveries of bits and pieces were taken and used to decorate homes
Early Excavators
Name
Charles VII and Rocque
Joachim de Alcubierre
Year(s)
1734
Karl Weber
1750
Description
Began excavations at
Herculaneum
Dug 20 meters down into
the volcanic rubble
Worked by the light of
torches, sometimes would
go out and risked
suffocation
Dug through house walls
and destroyed artifacts
Best of the artifacts were set
aside for the king’s
collection
Common artifacts destroyed
and holes filled back in
Rocque Joachim “knew as
much of antiquities as the
moon does of lobsters” –
Winckelmann (1771), art
historian
Attempted to dig up Pompeii
but found it too difficult and
returned to Herculaneum
Appointed by Charles VII
Believed that the site should
be excavated systematically
and document
Discovered the Villa of
Papyri in Herculaneum
(1800 carbonized scrolls)
Fiorelli
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Divided Pompeii into 9 regions
Numbered insulae and buildings
Precise locating of finds
Helps give a better overall picture
Worked methodically, top down, room by room, one building at a time
Systematic, prevented collapse
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Better timeline of artifacts, less destruction of the site
Published findings
Allows other historians to access finds
Increased academic debate, permanent records, increased study
Went from treasure hunting to academic excavation
Spinazzola
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Excavated half Via dell’Abbondanza
Reconstructed streetscape and facades of buildings
Gave visitors a “snapshot” of Pompeian street
Looks with no substance, multiple collapses from unexcavated interiors
Reconstructed upper stories
Often incorrect, radically altered our concepts of streetscape
Maiuri (1924-1961)
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Brought Pompeii to life
Increased public interest
Extensive excavations
Much of which fell into decay
Revealed Villa of Mysteries
Instantly famous
Studied a stratigraphic section
Revealed layers of deposit of eruption
Studied pre-Roman occupation
Was responsible for Herculaneum
Guzzo (1995 +)
 Negotiated keeping funds from site to $9 million
 Site maintenance is costly, helps fund various projects
 Attracted international teams of experts to conduct investigations and
conservation projects
 More scholarly research, spread the cost of conservation, also give other
countries much needed fieldwork
Fausto Zevi (1977 +)
 Halted excavations, concentrated on conservation
 No new discoveries, safeguarding both excavated and unexcavated
areas for future study and enjoyment
 Photographed site, over 1800 pics
 Permanent record
 Identified poor security and incorrect conservation
 Prevent theft and repair poor
August Mau
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Published typology of 4 painting styles
Chronological dating of decorations
Problematic, too subjective
Works well with styles 1 & 2
Breaks down on styles 3 & 4
Also published work on principal buildings
Was instrumental in creating an atmosphere of international study
d) changing representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time
Name
Jakob Phillipp Hackert
Year(s)
1799
Francois Mazois
1812
Description
Official royal painter of
Naples
Painted ruins of Pompeii
with romantic surroundings
Romanticism period
Highlighted the idyllic parts
of the view, probably not a
completely accurate picture
of the time
Architect/artist
454 paintings
The Ruins of Pompeii
Attempts to document his
observations overshadowed
by his romantic style
Early excavations in Pompeii and Herculaneum were hijacked by looters, treasure
hunters and those with no real knowledge or interest in preserving the past. One of the
earliest excavators at Herculaneum, Rocque Joachim, is the perfect example of the
destruction caused by the ignorance of these excavations. Appointed by Charles VII of
Naples, his only aim was to bring treasure for his king and therefore disregarded any artifacts
that were common in nature and wouldn’t please the king. His methods were also
questionable. His workmen often worked in darkness due to torches going out and risked
suffocation in the tunnels they dug. Johann Winkelmann described Joachim as “[knowing] as
much of antiquities as the moon knows of lobsters.” In Source A, it is clear that
Winckelmann is critical of the early methods used by excavators in Pompeii and
Herculaneum. His mention of how the brass letters “were torn from the walls, without first
taking a copy of them and then [threw them] pell mell into a basket” shows the careless
nature in which early excavators handled artifacts and the lack of documentation that they
provided. This is further solidified in Source B in which Goethe states that the site was
“casually ransacked as if by brigands.” Goethe takes a similar stance to Winckelmann in that
he is extremely critical of the methods used by these excavators. His lamentation of the loss
of many artifacts that were destroyed in the reckless process of these excavations shows how
incompetent men like Joachim really were.
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Tells us more about time period than Pompeii
DP 2: Investigating and interpreting the sources for Pompeii and Herculaneum
a) the economy: role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupations
Herculaneum
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slower paced resort town
fishing
craftsmen
after earthquake in AD62, increased
demand for bricks
prostitution, but little evidence of
brothels
Pompeii
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bustling center of commerce
600 or so excavated private shops,
bars, inns
Markets around the forum
20 or so maritime warehouses
Paintings of cargo vessels on the
Sarno river
Images of Mercury – god of
commerce
Wine and oil an integral part of
society
Agriculture the most respectable
way of earning a living
Land ownership translating to status
Pottery industry spawning from the
need to store goods (foods and
wines)
Wealthy owned vineyards because
of long wait between profits
Estates not maintained by owners
rather by hired help and trusted
dependents
Had rooms for pressing grapes
(torcularia) and fermentation (cellae
vinariae)
Massive capacities, thousands of
liters
Several different varieties of wines
Olive oils produced in same places
as wines
Produced garum (fish sauce used as
condiment in Roman cuisine)
Fishermen sold their catches in the
markets around the Forum, but
some garum makers sourced their
fish more directly
Foul stench of garum meant that it
was probably manufactured outside
the city walls
Salt plants
Wool was important
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Dyeing of wool, washing and
creation of fabric and cloth
Cloth manufacture took place at an
officina (workshop) and sold to
cloth merchants
Fulleries or laundries were
businesses (Fullery of
Stephanopoulos)
Bakeries produced different sorts of
breads
Bread is hard and deteriorates
quickly
Most bakeries sold their products to
different shops, few had adjoining
shops to sell their own bread
Carpenters
Plumbers
Wheelwrights
Tanners
Tinkers
Ironmongers
Goldsmiths and silversmiths
Marble workers
Stone masons
Gem cutters
Glass makers
Prostitution, 26 brothels found
Emeralds found in Oplontis cave
not native to Pompeii, suggests
trade with Egypt
Wine, olive oil, wool, fulleries, prostitution, blacksmiths, smiths, gem cutters,
tanners, tinkers
Forum:
http://ermakvagus.com/Europe/Italy/Pompeii/pompeii_forum.html
Religious: worship of Jupiter
(Zeus), Juno (Hera) and
Minerva (Athena)
Religious:
sanctuary for Lares
(household gods
and city-wide
gods) and deified
emperor Augustus
Religious: debated use,
some believe it’s
dedicated to Genius
(family protector) of
Octavian Augustus, cult of
Vespasian
Religious: used for
worship of Apollo
Political: “court”,
used for civil justice,
commercial life in
Pompeii, business and
financial deals
Commercial: food markets,
included shrine to the
Imperial family
Commercial: dedicated to
rich and influential
priestess, Eumachia,
trading fabrics and linens,
warehouse for fabrics and
linens
Political: offices for
aediles in the west,
center offices were for
the council, east wing
was for the duumvirs
Political: used for
People’s Assembly
and town meetings
b) the social structure: men, women, freedmen, slaves
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Diverse
mix of cultures
Relatively healthy, but some indications of age related and dental diseases
There were fluid relationships between freeborn, freed slaves and slaves
Freed slaves could become very wealthy
Women were an active part of society – economic, political and religious (could not
vote)
Julia Felix, Eumachia and Mamia were three prominent female figures
c)local political life: decuriones, magistrates, comitium
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Political system modelled on Republican Rome
Democratic election
Magistrates
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Elected for a period
of one year
Commanded a
council of men who
had all previously
been magistrates
Councilors
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Aediles
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Two aediles appointed in election
each year, started term in office on
July 1
Began term alongside magistrates
“Junior magistrates”
“Duumvirs in charge of streets,
sacred and public buildings”
Made up of freeborn
males
Reputable character
Respectable jobs
(not actors,
executioners or
gladiators)
Privileges: best seats
in theaters and
Amphitheater
Had to live in the
town or
surroundings
Unknown minimum
land requirement
Life appointment
Controlled finance
and religion
Control of Forum
and streets of tombs
(granted honorific
tombs to major
benefactors)
Supervised building
public buildings
Implemented
standard weights
and measures
Duumvirs
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Two duumvirs appointed in election
each year, started term in office on
July 1
Began term alongside magistrates
“Senior magistrates”
Position of aedile was prerequisite
Oversaw the council and
implemented decrees passed by the
council
Pompeiian Governmental Structure
Executive Branch
Quattuorviri:
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Two duumvirs
o Electoral rolls
o Civil and criminal
cases
o Became the
quinquennial
every five years
to conduct
census
Two aediles
o Sacred and
public buildings
o Roads and
sewerage
o Markets
o Public order
o Sponsored
theater and
spectacles
Legislative Branch (decuriones)
City council:
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100 members (decurions)
o Ex-magistrates
o Influential
o Elite
Freeborn citizens
o Not actors or
innkeepers
Life-long position
o Came available
after death or
disgrace of former
holder
Advised the Quattuorviri
People’s Assembly
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Used for the election of
magistrates
City divided into voting
precincts
Could vote individually or
as part of a group (guild)
Priesthood
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Integral to political life
Expected to use own
funds to maintain
imperial cults
o Therefore, had to
be rich
Both wealthy freeborn
and freedmen eligible
Many magistrates were
part of this group
d) everyday life: housing, leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths,
water supply, sanitation
Housing
Wallace-Hadrill has identified four general types of houses:
Type I: one or two roomed houses, used as both residence and shop or workshop.
Type II: from two to seven rooms, with larger workshops and living areas.
Type III: the average Pompeian residence of between eight and thirteen rooms with a
combination of public and private spaces.
Type IV: the largest houses, designed for entertaining. They may have been created from a
number of smaller houses remodeled to make a singly building. They included quarters for a
number of slaves.
Latin Term
fauces
vestibulum
atrium
compluvium
impluvium
tablinum
peristyle
cubiculum
triclinium
lararium
Definition
the entrance corridor
entrance hall
Reception room, generally with compluvium
and impluvium
opening in the roof which allowed light and
rainwater into the atrium
shallow pool which collected rainwater
from the compluvium
room off the atrium, used for receiving
clients and conducting business
colonnade or covered walkway around a
courtyard or garden
a small windowless bedroom
a dining room with space for three long
couches around a serving table
family shrine of the lares, the spirits of the
entry of houses
Limitations of architectural evidence
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Difficult to determine function of houses
Size of house doesn’t necessarily line up with status
Difficult to determine if the house was occupied by one family or several
Townhouses
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Wallace-Hadrill (ancient historian at Cambridge) – “interlocking jigsaw of large,
medium and small houses” (on first impressions of Pompeii
Flimsy houses suggest boom in population (e.g. House of Trellis)
Exterior – not indicative of status or wealth, open out into raised streets, bland and
not decorated, wooden doors
Vitruvius (Roman author, “De architectura”) – “buildings having magnificent
interiors [should also have] elegant entrance courts to correspond: for there will be
no propriety in the spectacle of an elegant interior approached by a low, mean
entrance.” (fauces and vestibulum)
Earliest houses have no compluvium (opening in roof), shows progression and
evolution of Roman architecture.
Peristyles – favored way of bringing light into house, some grander houses had more
than one (House of Citharist – three)
Leisure Activities
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Athletics
o Palestra (adjacent amphitheater)
Drinking
Gambling
Spectator sports
Blood sport, gladiators and hunts
o Numerous inscriptions announcing blood sport events:
 “the gladiatorial troupe of Certus, aedile, will fight at Pompeii on 31
May. There will be a hunt and awnings.”
 “Good fortune to Gnaeus Alleius Maius, the leading games-giver.”
Music
Theater
Executions
Food and Dining
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Food and Dining
o Cereal: barley, millet, wheat
o Pulses: peas, beans, lentils
o Meat: goat, sheep, cattle, poultry, game birds
o Seafood: fish, scallops cockles, lobster, cuttlefish, garum
o Nuts and Seeds: walnuts, almonds, chestnuts, poppyseeds
o Vegetables: cabbage, onion, garlic, lettuces, asparagus, cucumber, leek,
radish, turnips
o Fruit: figs, prunes, dates, pears, peaches, apples, cherries, olives, grapes,
pomegranates
Clothing
Very little actual clothing survives, and although there is plenty of visual representation in
frescoes – there is an issue with reliability;
 Only the upper classes commissioned works of art
 Individuals posed, and so they most likely dressed up – the painting is idealized
 Very little day to day life
 Doesn’t account for style changes
What we do know is;
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Most males wore a knee-length tunic made from wool, worn with a belt
Only citizens were allowed to wear a toga
Women, both freed and freeborn, wore full length tunics (tunica). But married
women wore a stola, a sleeveless tunic suspended from the shoulders by short
straps
Many women wore a palla, a long cloak, when they went outdoors.
Health
o Evidence of dental problems and age-related diseases
o Not a good idea to go into the baths with open wound because of gangrene
risk
o Twins found in cellar at Oplontis show signs of Syphilis, which supposedly
wasn’t introduced to Europe until Columbus
Baths
o Social occasion
o Wellbeing of body and spirit
o Archaeologists have discovered four in Pompeii
 Stabian (oldest)
 Forum
 Central (under construction during the eruption)
 Sarno
o Archaeologists have discovered two in Herculaneum
 Suburban (best preserved of either city)
 Forum
o Different sections or hours for men and women
o Layout:
 Vestibule: often an exercise yard
 Apodyterium: changing rooms
 Frigidarium: one circular cold bath
 Tepidarium: transition room so people’s bodies could adjust to
temperature changes, sometimes accompanied by laconicum (sweat
room heated by brazier)
 Caldarium: hot room with alverus (hot, rectangular bath, capacity
approx. 10) and labrum (cold, circular bath for washing
o Suburban Bathhouse
 Supposedly financed by Marcius Nonius Balbus
 Elegant
 Faced sea
 Vestibule: four red columns, fountain, bust of Apollo
 Back room for sex
o Lively places
o Open nights as well as day
o Snacks, stroll, reading
o Sexual activities
Water Supply and Sanitation
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Aqueducts – covered to keep water pure
Utilized the arch
Running water
Castellum Aquae – water tower, at the high point of Pompeii with three holes that
emptied into three tanks
o Private homes
o Public baths
o Public water fountains
e) religion: household gods, temples, foreign cults and religions, tombs
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Religion was essentially a political affiliation
Capitoline Triad
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Juno (Hera)
Jupiter (Zeus)
Minerva (Athena)
Games held in their honor on the first day of September
Temple based off a similar one in Rome, represents Rome’s power in Pompeii
Hercules, Apollo, Venus and Mercury
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Hercules
o Greek Herakles
o Regarded as the founder of Herculaneum
o Popular with sailors and traders because of his journeys
o Images and statues of him in Pompeii (statuette in Temple of Isis)
o Statue in the peristyle (walkway around the courtyard) of House of the Deer
Apollo
o Emerged in the 6th century BCE
o Temple rebuilt in Hellenistic style in the 2nd century BCE
o Augustus accepted Apollo as his patron god
o Nero embraced him as god of music
Venus
o Believed to have been born in the waters and is therefore often depicted
nude in a seashell surrounded by water nymphs
o Sailors sought her protection
o Patron goddess of Pompeii
o Worshipped by people of all classes
o Urged through graffiti to endorse and sabotage political candidates – political
presence
o Blamed for misfortune
Mercury
o God of commerce
o Messenger god
Imperial Cult
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Cult of the emperor’s genius (household god)
Set up by Augustus
21 part time priests called Augustales (connects to politics)
Temple of the Genius of Augustus also known as Temple of Vespasian
Public Ritual
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Sacrificial banquet
Sacrifice animals
Rigid ritual with no deviation
Mystery Cults
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Cult of Isis
o Temple of Isis
o Shows strong trade links between Pompeii and Egypt
o Possibly could have been introduced through prostitutes (who were usually
foreign slaves)
o Inscriptions indicate one third of worshippers were women
o Julia Felix was one of the worshippers
o Chapel dedicated to Isis, Serapis and Anubis – House of the Gilded Cupids
o Two daily services
o Isis – happiness, salvation and consolation from suffering
o High-quality wall paintings provide evidence
Dionysus
o God of wine and fertility
o Later became cult of Bacchus
o Originated as women only but Annia Paculla (priestess) admitted men
o Celebration of rites five times a month
o Spread quickly
o Wine and feasts were part of celebrations
o Committed debaucheries while under the influence of alcohol
o Secretive nature worried Roman senate because of potential political
conspiracy
o Suppressed in Rome and continued to flourish in Pompeii and Herculaneum
o Light-hearted
o Paintings in the Villa of Mysteries depict rituals of this cult
Household Guardians
Lares
Penates
Genius
Vesta
Bacchus and Mercury
Agathodaemon
Death and Burial
Description
Protector of the household, protector of
farms and boundaries, depicted as two
dancing youths, lararium
Store of food, reside in the recesses of the
house
Force or spirit of the head of the house
Goddess of hearths and altars, prayers and
sacrifices addressed to her
God of money and patron of commerce
Snake wrapped around the altar to protect
the hearth and bring fertility
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Most, aside from those within mystery cults, had no clear concept of life after death
Tombs lined the streets leading to the city gates
Herculaneum has shops
and villas interspersed
with tombs
8 necropolises
outside the city gates
Two most impressive
outside the Nucerian
and Herculaneum gates
Those without families
belonged to “funeral
clubs”, paid a fee while
alive and ensured they
would be cremated
Necropolises
Paterfamilias responsible
for seeing to the proper
burial of everyone in his
family including slaves and
freedmen
Family tombs
Most people were
cremated by 1st
century CE
Kept in glass or
terracotta urns
Public
Temple of Apollo
Temple of Isis
Temple of Capitoline Triad (aka Temple of
Jupiter)
Temple of Vespasian
Private
The Lares (household god) was kept in a
Lararium and prayed to and made sacrifices
to in the home
There might also be paintings of the main
gods in the home
Jews have their personal shrines
Egyptians had their personal gods
Temple of the Lares
Temple of Venus
Temple of Asclepius
It is believed there was some Christianity
(questionable).
Tombs were a public display of private
interment, and wealth
Many foreign cults were only celebrated in
the home, i.e. The Dionysiac Rituals (House
of the Mysteries), also cults of Herakles and
Isis
Temple of Fortuna Augusta
(Herakles/Hercules was the patron of both Pompeii and (especially) Herculaneum, found in
Herculaneum: libation bowl, devotional lamp, sacred oil container, statues all suggest cult of
Hercules.)
Pompeian Temples
Roman Temples
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Temple of the Capitoline Triad (aka Temple of Jupiter)
Temple of Vespasian
Temple of the Lares
Temple of Venus
Temple of Fortuna Augusta
Greek Temples
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Temple of Apollo
Temple of Asclepius
Egyptian Temples
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Temple of Isis
Other religions
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Judaic adherents
Various cults from Mesopotamia
Cult of Dionysus
Cult of Herakles
f) the influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art and architecture
Greek
House of Vettii:
Doric
Ionic
Picture
Corinthian
Description
N/A
“The punishment of Ixion”
House of Vettii
“The sacrifice of Iphigenia”
(Trojan War)
“The Alexander Mosaic”
House of the Faun
Peristyle in the House of Vettii
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Found in frescoes, statues, architecture
“Sound mind, sound body” attitude comes from the Greeks
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Herculaneum named after Hercules
House of the Faun – Greek tragic masks with curly wigs, depictions of Greek theater
Greek architect Hippodamus created the grid structure for the city of Pompeii
Egyptian
Picture
Description
“The Nile Mosaic”
House of the Faun
“Isis (left) welcoming Io (right)”
Temple of Isis
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Temple of Isis was one to be reconstructed after the earthquake of AD62, suggesting
its significance and importance in Pompeii
DP 3: Reconstructing and conserving the past
a) changing interpretations: the impact of new research and technologies
General Health (connects to DP:2, everyday life)
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Health is a combination of genetic and environmental factors
Health and nutrition can be identified by the growth of bones
Can draw conclusions about diet and lifestyle of an individual through CT scan, DNA
and coprolite analysis
Pathology (disease) (connects to DP:2, everyday life)
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Analysis of bones (and soft tissue where available) affords the identification of such
diseases as: porotic hyprostis, HFI (Hyperostosis frontalis interna), Brucellosis,
Tuberculosis, Respitory disease and lice infection
Draw conclusions on the health of an individual and of a population as a whole
Soft tissue is extremely rare P&H, and bone analysis is dependent on the sample and
not all diseases make into the bone until last stages
Cause of Death
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PLASTER CASTS
o Preserved impressions of soft tissue
o Some positioning reveals manner of death
o Peter Baxter studied 41 casts, 50% displayed the pugilist pose – exposed to
very high temps at death or soon after (Muscular contraction is a result of
heat on protein) 200-250C
o Cadavic spasm = total muscle contraction caused by thermal coagulation,
accounts for the unusual positioning of some of the bodies
SKELETONS
o Have no soft tissue which is what makes scientific analysis next to impossible
o They do display the same poses as plaster casts, by do NOT maintain that
pose once excavated
DNA
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Can reveal the relationship between individuals and groups, info about sex, inherited
diseases etc.
Less than 2% of the DNA that can be found in fresh bones is extractable from ancient
skeletons
Development of polymerase chain reaction technique has enabled minute quantities
of DNA to be amplified for study
High temperature the bodies were exposed to destroyed much of the genetic
material
Example
Description
Italian Central Institute for Cataloguing and
Documentation (1970)
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The Houses in Pompeii Project (1978 –
1986)
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The Via dell’Abbondanza Project (2004)
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The Herculaneum Conservation Project
(2000)
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18000 photos of painted walls and
mosaic floors
Only 20% of everything that had
been revealed
Documented before 1980
earthquake that destroyed many
buildings
German Archaeological Institute
Salvage and investigate
architectural finds
Recorded two houses: House of the
Ancient Hunt and House of Colored
Capitals
New state of the art technology –
surveying, photographic and
computer
Archaeological Superintendency of
Pompeii
Created photomosaic of 900-meter
street (Via dell’Abbondanza)
Useful digital resource for future
Packard Humanities Institute
Aim to halt the decay of
Herculaneum
Solved groundwater problems by
restoring ancient underground
sewer systems
House of Relief of Telephus had a
previously unknown floor, which
they discovered
b) issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions
and responsibilities
Four basic issues:
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Natural threats
o Sun bleaching
o Rain
o Damp
o Algae
o Lichens
Human threats
o Trampling
o Graffiti
o Rubbish
Museum displays
o National Archeological Museum in Naples is “inadequate” - Deiss
Failed conservation
http://www.pompeii-sustainable-preservation-project.org/?lng=en
International Efforts
Italian Efforts
https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/818
c) ethical issues: excavation and conservation, study and display of human remains
THREE POINTS OF VIEW
Past Romans
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Present Italians
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Consider their
rituals
surrounding
death
How would they
feel about their
remains being
used for scientific
research?
How does their
religion tie in?
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Scientists,
archaeologists,
historians
Lack of outcry can
be seen as
acceptance of
current practices
Long held
tradition of
displaying bodies,
especially in
Christian sense
Viewer
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Is it educational
or immoral?
How will they feel
upon learning the
horrors of
Pompeii’s
downfall?
Do they soil it by
denying these
people the rites
of their culture?
It has been accepted in scientific circles to collect and study human remains, especially in the 19th and 20th
Centuries. Museums have extensive collection and displays of bodies, skeletons, skulls etc. in various stages
of preservation.
Keeping remains HAS come under scrutiny, often from indigenous groups seeking repatriation of the bones
of their ancestors. (A case in particular is indigenous Australians, wanting the bones of their ancestors back
from the British and Ashmolean Museums for proper burial. In a rare case, their cultural artefacts and
skeletal remains were returned to the Aboriginal community)
The assembling or positioning of human remains for dramatic effect, a common practice during early
Pompeian excavations, is not acceptable today.
Over the past 50 years attitudes have changed as cultural sensitivity about the display of human remains
varies from community to community.
The Italian view is that there is a long tradition of displaying the bodies and body parts of dead saints,
bishops and priests in religious context, such as a church. Therefore, their beliefs will be at odds with other
communities.
The International Council of Museums (ICOM founded 1947 and which works closely with UNESCO)
hasn’t banned the display of human remains, but rather it encourages sensitivity to community reactions.
The plaster casts in Pompeii give us valuable information about the general health of the population, and
also reveal information about the circumstances of their deaths, which has contributed to our understanding
of what happened. But what then should happen to the body within?
Archeologists believe that it is important to dig NOW before the site is lost to decay and seismic activity,
however there are wealthy landowners that do not wish to give up their land for the sake of Pompeii’s
excavation and conservation.
d) value and impact of tourism: problems and solutions
Awareness
Money
Interest
Broken curbstones, worn
roads
Numbers contribute to wear and
tear of the site
Theft
Rubbish
Vandalism
Possible Solutions:
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Blocking off sections of the site
Channeling tourist money into conservation projects
Using technology, cameras, to police theft, vandalism and breakage
Sources and Examples for Exam
The eruption:
Example
Pliny the Younger
Description
First-person account of the eruption
Changing nature:
Example
Rocque Joachim
Karl Weber
Description
Dangerous working conditions
Stolen artifacts
Destroyed buildings
“knew as much about antiquities as
moon does of lobsters” - Winkelmann
Systematic approach
Discovered Villa of Papyri
(thousands of scrolls)
Changing representations:
Example
Jakob Phillipp Hackert
Pompeii (movie)
The economy:
Description
1799
Painting of Pompeii
Romanticism
Idyllic nature
2014
Dramatized
Hollywood
Example
Building of Eumachia
Fullery of Stephanopoulos
Emeralds at Oplontis
Public weights and measures table at
Forum
Description
Commercial
Linen
Fullery business
Suggests trade with Egypt
Commerce, trading system
Social structure:
Example
Skeletons at Oplontis
Building of Eumachia
26 brothels
Description
Variety of races
Variety of genders
Variety of social class
Green bone discoloration suggests
wealth because of jewelry
Suggests prominent female figure
Eumachia
Show prostitution
Politics:
Example
Political graffiti
Basilica
Municipal offices
Description
Campaign slogans
“Court”, civil justice
Offices for aediles, duumvirs and
council members
Everyday life:
Example
House of Trellis
Vitruvius
Palestra
Description
Flimsy house suggests population
boom
“buildings having magnificent
interiors [should also have] elegant
entrance courts to correspond: for
there will be no propriety in the
spectacle of an elegant interior
approached by a low, mean entrance”
Athletics activities
Inscriptions
Skeletons in Oplontis, twins
Suburban Bathhouse
Announcing blood sports like
gladiators
Suggest dental problems, age-related
diseases and Syphilis
Elegant, faced sea, bust of Apollo
Religion:
Example
Temple of Apollo
Temple of Jupiter
Temple of Isis
House of Deer
Villa of Mysteries
Description
Greek religions as well as Roman
Roman religions
Egyptian religion
Statue of Hercules in peristyle
Paintings of Dionysus cult
Greek influences:
Example
House of Vettii
Temple of Apollo
House of Vettii – The punishment of
Ixion
House of the Faun – The Alexander
Mosaic
Description
Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns
Greek religion
Reference to Greek mythology
Reference to Greek hero
Egyptian influences:
Example
House of the Faun – The Nile Mosaic
Temple of Isis – Isis welcoming Io
Description
Depiction of Egypt shows connection
between Pompeii and Egypt
Reference to Egyptian mythology
Impact of new technologies:
Example
CT scan, DNA analysis and coprolite
analysis
Description
Reveals details about diet and
lifestyle
Bone analysis
Via dell’Abbondanza Project
Identifies diseases such as lice
infection, respiratory disease and
tuberculosis
New technology used to create
photomosaic of 900-meter street
Italian and international:
Example
Pompeii: Sustainable Preservation
Project
Italian government
Description
German initiative
Conservation and education
campaigns
Cooperating with others conservation
efforts