Prose
The Two Grandmothers by Olive Senior
Who is Olive Senior?
Olive Senior, author of ‘The Two Grandmothers’, was born in Trelawney, Jamaica.
She attended Montego Bay High School, then went on to study journalism in Cardiff,
Wales. She then studied at Carlton University in Ottowa. She currently lives in
Canada, but visits Jamaica regularly.
Summary
● The story opens with a little girl telling her mother about her experiences with
her two grandmothers; grandma Dell and grandma Elaine a.k.a Towser.
● Grandma Dell is her ‘country’ grandmother who lives in rural Jamaica, raises
life stock, caters to her community, takes her grand daughter to church and
is enamored by her grand daughter’s ‘pretty’ skin and hair.
● Grandma Elaine is her ‘town’ grandmother. She has had multiple marriages, is
a socialite who dates wealthy men, travels, and is very concerned about her
physical appearance.
● The granddaughter, initially, prefers her country grandmother, who is very
attentive to her needs and loves to ‘show her off’ to her friends and neighbours.
● However, as the story progresses, and the narrator ages and matures, she
begins to prefer her town grandmother, who is more cosmopolitan and
appreciative of material things.
● With her change in attitude to grandma Dell, also comes a change in attitude
to her country friends.
● They are no longer figures who inspire awe, but girls to look down on as ‘less
than’.
● The story closes with the teenage narrator proposing that her family should
spend a day with her country grandmother – then she would be taken care of
until next year – ensuring that they have more time to spend with Towser
(Grandma Elaine) as well as pursue more interesting exploits.
Setting
• The story occurs in three places; rural Jamaica, Kingston and Clearwater in the USA.
• The story occurs in the 1980’s.
Characters
Grandma Dell
• Traditional/ old fashion
• Christian minded and simple in her approach to life
• Altruistic
• Never married
• Never dates
• Prejudiced
• Hypocrite
Grandma Elaine (Towser)
• Non-traditional/ Socialite
• Materialistic
• Narcissistic
• Married multiple times
• Goes on dates
• Prejudiced
• Blunt and speaks her mind
Narrator (1st person)
• The reader first meets her when she is a little girl.
• She grows and matures as the story progresses, by the end of the story she appears
to be a teenager.
• She initially prefers the company of Grandma Del, but as she grows up, she begins
to show a preference for Touser.
• She reports a lot of sensitive information, for example – the ‘fall’ of grandma Del,
Pearlie’s home situation, Eulalie and Ermandine’s pregnancies – but does not appear
to understand the gravity of the various situations.
• As she grows up, she appears to become more materialistic in her desires, she wants
to be like every-one else.
• She appears, by the end of the story, to be confused about how to feel about her
physical appearance.
• She cannot be bothered with her country grandmother, grandma Dell, by the end
of the story.
• She begins to appreciate her hip socialite grandma Elaine, aka Touser, by the end
of the story.
Themes
Racial Prejudice
● This theme is highlighted by Grandma Elaine/ Towser and the Clearwater
relatives. Grandma Elaine highlights this theme by her reference to the
narrator’s hair; ‘your mother had better start to do something about your hair from
now it’s almost as tough as your father’s …. If you were my child I would cut it off to
get some of the kinks out.’ (Senior, 119) and skin tone; ‘Joyce says Grandma is sorry
I came out dark because she is almost a white lady and I am really dark.’ (Senior, 120).
The grandmother’s preoccupation with the fact that her grand daughter has
predominantly black features highlights the theme of racial discrimination.
She sees these features as flaws and passes this sentiment on to her
grandchild. We see the child questioning if being dark is a bad thing ‘Is dark
really bad, Mummy?’ (Senior, 120).
● This is in contrast to the country grandmother, Grandma Del, who re-enforces
the very opposite view of Grandma Elaine. She believes that her grandchild’s
hair is beautiful ‘Grandma loves to comb my hair she says it’s so long and thick and
she rubs it with castor oil every night.’ (Senior, 117) and her skin is beautiful as well
‘Grandma Del says my skin is beautiful like honey’ (Senior, 117). Despite this positive
reinforcement by Grandma Del, it still comes from a place of prejudice. She
too, like Grandma Elaine, believes that being too dark and having too much
‘kink’ in one’s hair is a bad thing. The two grandmothers only differ in terms of
their idea of what is ‘too dark’, or ‘too kinky’.
● The Clearwater relatives, particularly Maureen, highlights the theme of racial
prejudice. She introduces the term ‘nigger’ to the story. The narrator questions
her beauty based on what she observes as beautiful around her, and finds
herself lacking; ‘how can I be beautiful? My skin is so dark, darker than yours and
Maureen’s and Jason’s and Auntie Rita’s. And my hair is so course, not like yours or
Maureen’s but then Maureen’s father is white. Is that why Maureen called me a
nigger?’ (Senior, 124). The narrator declares that she hates Maureen, based on
the before mentioned incident, but, ironically, she wants to be like Maureen
and is even more ashamed of her hair.
Social Prejudice
● This theme is highlighted by Grandma Elaine, Grandma Dell, and the narrator.
Grandma Elaine has a distinct disdain for Grandma Dell. She believes that
‘granny Del’ is a country bumpkin from the ‘deepest darkest country’ (Senior, 118). She
sees her as irrelevant and believes that she is brainwashing her grandchild
with information that is not only irrelevant, but embarrassing as well. This
disdain comes from the fact that Elaine is a socialite whose world is the direct
opposite of the simplistic life that Grandma Del leads. Grandma Elaine dates
rich white men, travels, and ensures that she maintains her beauty. She views
Grandma Dell with scorn because she does not do the same.
● The reader receives no inkling of Grandma Del’s feelings toward Grandma
Elaine, but we are treated to the judgement that she quietly metes out to her
neighbours in the country. She views Ermandine and Eulalie as ‘a disgraceful
Jezebel-lot and dry-eye’ (Senior, 121) because they have disgraced their parents
by getting pregnant. She views them as being beneath her, despite the fact
that she also did the same, and was also shunned by the community for a
period of time.
● The narrator, in turn, adopts the prejudices of both grandmothers. She starts
to dislike going to the country because ‘there’s nobody but black people’ (Senior,
123) there. She looks down on her friends – Ermandine, Eulalie and Pearlie –
due to their multiple pregnancies and bedraggled state. She starts to literally
avoid them because she does not want them to ask her for some of her clothes.
Everything about being in the country (rural area), from the people to her
experiences, annoys her – in her teen years – because visiting the country is
shameful in relation to going to Europe or America. It is not considered to be
a socially relevant activity.
Love and Family Relationships
● Both grandmothers love their grandchild, and she loves them in return.
Grandma Del shows her love by combing her grand daughter’s hair, taking her
to church, steering her away from negative influences, and educating her
about appropriate behaviour. Initially, this education is appreciated and
accepted by the narrator, but as she grows up and matures, she views this
show of love as stifling and irrelevant. The narrator does not love her
grandmother any less, it is just that their point of views no longer align.
● Grandma Elaine, on the other hand, shows her love for her grandchild by
highlighting her flaws and seeking to improve them. Therefore, she points out
that the child’s hair is kinky and her skin is too dark. Undoubtedly, this is an
inappropriate conversation to have with a small child, however, this is her
flawed way of showing her love. She suggests activities for improving the
child’s social prospects such as finishing school and visits off the island. The
narrator returns this love by eventually placing Grandma Elaine as the
favoured grandmother. She even adopts, eventually, her materialistic
sensibility.
Women in Society
● This is a story about women, the values that they pass on, and the way that
they treat each other. There are women of different social status’ and financial
backgrounds in the , and all of them contribute to this theme. Grandma Elaine
is of a high social status and she treats grandma Del, who is of a lower social
status, with disdain. Grandma Del, in turn, treats Eulalie, Ermandine and
Pearlie with disdain for being poor, as well as victims of their financial, and
social, circumstances. The narrator joins this cycle by discriminating against
her ‘country’ friends by viewing herself as better than them. Ironically, she
suffers the same treatment at the hands of her cousin, Maureen, who treats
the narrator as ‘less than’ as well. The possible moral of this tale is that women
should try to understand and accept each other.
Innocence vs. Loss of Innocence
● As a child, the narrator reports the actions of others without understanding a
lot of what is happening. This is the definition of innocence. She also accepts
people for who they are and sees the good in them. This is seen in her awe at
Eulalee’s skills in the kitchen, as well as her acceptance of Ermandine and
Pearlie’s babies. She simply accepted without judgement. This changes as the
child matures and she starts to view herself as better than her friends. This is
because her circumstances happen to be better than theirs. This signifies a
loss of innocence that comes with maturity
Berry by Langston Hughes
Who is Langston Hughes?
James Mercer Langston Hughes (February 1, 1902 – May 22, 1967) was an American
poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist from Joplin, Missouri. He was
one of the earliest innovators of the then-new literary art form called jazz poetry.
Hughes is best known as a leader of the Harlem Renaissance.
Summary
● Berry is about a young black man called Millberry Jones who is employed at
Dr. Renfield’s Home for Crippled Children.
● He was reluctantly employed by Mrs. Osborn, the housekeeper, because the
Scandinavian kitchen boy had left without notice, leaving her no choice in
hiring Berry.
● Her reluctance to hire Berry stemmed from his race, which initiated questions
such as where he would sleep, as well as how the other employees would react
to the presence of a Negro.
● She had a meeting with Dr. Renfield and they decided to hire Millberry on a
reduced salary. He was overworked and underpaid, but took solace in the
children whom he loved.
● An unfortunate incident occurred, however, where a child fell from his
wheelchair while in the care of Berry.
● The result was that Berry was fired and given no salary for the week that he
had worked.
Characters
Millbury Jones (Berry)
• A Black male, approximately 20 years old.
• Described as good natured and strong.
• Poor and uneducated.
• Very observant and intuitive about people and places.
• Very good with children due to his gentleness.
Mrs. Osborn
• The housekeeper at the children’s home.
• Rumoured to be in love with Dr. Renfield.
• Very high handed with her staff, but docile with Dr. Renfield.
• Displays racist characteristics in subtle forms.
Dr. Renfield
• Rumoured to have romantic affairs with his female staff.
• Berry observes that the Home is ‘Doc Renfield’s own private gyp game’ (Hughes, p. 162),
meaning that he runs his establishment for his own profit, instead of a desire to take
genuine care of the children. He is blatantly racist.
Theme
Racism
● This theme is apparent when Berry was being considered for employment at
the Home.
● Mrs. Osborn was concerned about where Berry would sleep, implying that he
could not sleep with the white servants because he was considered to be
beneath them.
● His salary was also cut due to his race, and he was overworked, with no
discussions of days off, ‘everybody was imposing on him in that taken-for-granted
way white folks do with Negro help.’ (Hughes, 162).
● Even more importantly, when the unfortunate accident occurred with the
child, there was no attempt at discerning what led to the incident, but blame
was laid on the obvious person – Berry.
● As a result, he was relieved of his job in a hail of racist slurs.
Oppression
● The theme of oppression is expressed repetitively throughout this story.
● White workers and superiors kept expecting Milberry to do more and more.
Milberry’s response to these requests was a quiet acceptance without
bitterness because he was happy and thankful enough to have this job and
food. In the story Milberry found happiness in helping the crippled children at
play during his brief rest period. At first the nurses were hesitant whether they
should allow it or not. At the end of the story the nurses had changed their
mind frame about Berry and would come looking for and demanding his
immediate help.
● In his typical nature in responding to and accepting their demand he
unknowingly caused his own demise. While Berry was helping a boy in a
wheelchair down the stairs, due to know fault of Berry’s own doing, the boy
fell out of the chair onto the grass and the wheelchair onto the walk. In the fall
the boy was not hurt but the wheelchair's back was snapped off. In this scene
Langston Hughes uses the wheelchair as a symbol of Milberry’s undoing. The
wheelchair’s falling represents Berry’s falling from the grace of the white
people’s acceptance. The snapped back of the wheelchair foreshadows Berry’s
immediate termination of employment. Even though it was the white nurses
responsibility and job they quickly and gladly placed all the blame for the
accident upon Berry. This truly exemplifies the use of oppression of white
people over blacks.
Mom Luby and the Social Worker
Who is Kristin Hunter?
Kristin Elaine Hunter (September 12, 1931 – November 14, 2008) was an AfricanAmerican writer from Pennsylvania. She is best known for her first novel, God Bless
the Child, published in 1964.Commenting on her own work, she said: "The bulk of my
work has dealt—imaginatively, I hope—with relations between the white and black
races in America. My early work was 'objective,' that is, sympathetic to both whites
and blacks, and seeing members of both groups from a perspective of irony and
humor against the wider backdrop of human experience as a whole. Since about 1968
my subjective anger has been emerging, along with my grasp of the real situation in
this society, though my sense of humor and my basic optimism keep cropping up like
uncontrollable weeds."
Background Information:
Prohibition
In the USA, the Prohibition period lasted between 1920-1933. This was a national ban
on the sale, production and transportation of alcohol.
A speakeasy was an illegal establishment that sold alcoholic beverages. The name
came from the need to mention these places quietly so as not to alert police. They
became so profitable that speakeasys became a major part of American culture.
These establishments encouraged integration of races, more women entering the
business and the production of homemade or ‘bootleg’ liquor.
American Welfare system
When the Great Depression began in 1929, about 18 million elderly, disabled, and
single mothers with children already lived at a bare subsistence level in the United
States. State and local governments together with private charities helped these
people. By 1933, another 13 million Americans had been thrown out of work.
Suddenly, state and local governments and charities could no longer provide even
minimum assistance for all those in need. Food riots broke out.
The effect of the Depression on poor children was particularly severe.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt focused mainly on creating jobs for the masses of
unemployed workers, he also backed the idea of federal aid for poor children and
other dependent persons. By 1935, a national welfare system had been established
for the first time in American history. He later acknowledged that continued state
welfare was a bad thing for the country, “To dole out relief in this way is to administer
a narcotic, a subtle destroyer of the human spirit…”
Narrative Perspective:
The story is narrated (told) by a young 13-year-old boy, Elijah using the first person.
Consider the importance of this for the reader –
We see the resilience and resourcefulness of Mom Luby from one of her own charges
rather than from herself. It gives a more credible and real portrait of the character.
Characters
Miss Rushmore
• She works at the Department of Child Welfare, Bureau of Family Assistance.
• She is very thorough in her investigation of Mom Luby.
• She is awed by Mom Luby’s productivity.
• The author’s way of showing how bureaucracy often is a tedious/difficult process.
A subtle suggestion that some things, like parentage, should be overlooked if the
individual is doing the job of a parent.
• There is a disconnect between these two women as Miss Rushmore judges Mom
Luby by her extracurricular activities, when in reality she is just a poor woman who
is providing a service to other people. The government has no idea how people live
their lives.
• It is as though there are two sides of life in play in the story. Mom Luby lives in a
practical world, while Miss Rushmore lives in an impractical one. At the end of the
story, the reader realizes that neither character will end her ways. It is also
interesting that Miss Rushmore is in shock after she spends her day with Mom Luby.
It is as though she can’t believe that Mom Luby does so much and is not qualified to
do what she does. Without knowing it Mom Luby is breaking all the rules. Something
that may be alien to Miss Rushmore. Who at times in the story is as rigid in her beliefs
as she is in her appearance. It might also be a case that life will not change for Mom
Luby. She has no intention of filling out all the forms and Miss Rushmore does not
appear to be the type of woman who will bend the rules for Mom Luby. Even if she is
drinking illegally in Mom Luby’s back room. At the end of the story the reader realises
that neither Mom Luby nor Miss Rushmore are going to change their ways with Mom
Luby prepared to continue living her life without the assistance of the government.
Mom Luby
• An elderly woman who is as strong as any young woman.
• She has white hair and false teeth.
• She runs a speakeasy in the back room of her house.
• She fosters two young children.
• She is a midwife, herb doctor and ordained minister of the Gospel.
• She’s a very productive woman who helps the people in her community.
• She is very proud.
• She displays a strong sense of responsibility, duty and kindness to all in her
community. She is simply ‘Mom’ to everyone.
• Of note is the fact that throughout the story, Mom Luby is honest. She only ‘lies’ in
the issue of her being the children’s biological mother. The children would be worse
off if she did not become involved in their lives. Mom Luby does not hide anything
from Mrs. Rushmore.
Themes
Traditional versus Modern Roles
• The notion of academic qualifications to make jobs ‘official’ but Mom Luby has none,
yet the reader sees that she is extremely capable. “You’re not qualified.”
Love and Family Relationships
• The love that M.L. has for her young charges, Elijah and Puddin’, is obvious by the
simple fact that she has adopted them. She herself is an elderly, poor woman who
runs a speakeasy to survive. Strictly speaking, this is not the profile of someone who
should be taking care of two young children, as well as an entire community, but she
does.
• The act of visiting the Social Security Office is a testament to her commitment to
taking care of the children.
• The great irony** is that a poor, old lady takes better care of two little children than
the State Agency that is assigned to do so. She is able to get more done in two hours
than the agency can do in two years.
Bureaucracy
• The detailed description given to the bureaucratic process of accessing welfare/aid
to get shoes for the children highlights how burdensome and absurd these
government processes can be - not only different forms must be filled out but she
must go to a different building to fill out each one.
Devices:
Satire
The use of wit or irony to expose and ridicule human weakness. In this story, the
inefficiency of bureaucratic procedures is satirized. (The visit to the SSO).
Irony
Signals a difference between the appearance of things and reality such as statements
that convey a meaning totally opposite from their literal meaning. In situations,
actions have an effect opposite from what is intended. **
Use of colloquialism
Adds richness to the character of Mom Luby. She stands out in several ways.
To Da-duh in Memoriam | Characters
Da-duh
Da-duh is the narrator’s eighty-year-old grandmother. She has lived her whole life on Barbados and is
confident and proud of her lifestyle, surroundings, and ways of looking at the world. She dislikes the
trappings of the modern world, such as any form of machinery, and is uncomfortable in the city of
Bridgetown. When Da-duh first meets the narrator, the narrator imagines that she saw ‘‘something in me
which for some reason she found disturbing.’’ However, Da-duh also feels connected to her granddaughter,
as evidenced when she clasps her hand
“Nothing endures but change” (Heraclitus 540-480 BC). People are born, only to die again. In a neverending cycle of life and death, new ideas replace older ones and an evolution of perspectives takes place.
Paule Marshall aptly portrays this cyclical nature through her last line “she died and I lived” referring to her
grandmother. The death is not physical alone. It is the death of old ideologies, dated traditions and disparate
acceptance of modernization. In a vivid recollection of her grandmother Da-Duh’s reluctance to accept
change during Paule’s childhood visit, she narrates how the old lady loathes urbanity and finds delectation
in her little island of natural beauty. The interactions that the narrator has with her grandmother remind us
of the passage of time between generations. The demise of Da-Duh signifies the change that is inevitable,
the transition from the old to the new.
Symbolism
Paule Marshall’s work is replete with a richness of literary devices like symbolism, imagery and metaphors.
Describing the foreboding character of death, the narrator feels that the planes that bring death to the little
village are “swooping and screaming…monstrous birds”. The sugarcanes that grow in the village are DaDuh’s delight and also the reason for the exploitation in the village. The pride of Da-Duh, the sugarcanes
appear threatening to the narrator she feels that the canes are “clashing like swords above my cowering
head”. This is a description of the duality of life. Where there is joy, there is pain and when there is life,
death is bound to follow.
Imagery
The life-death antithesis is depicted in the closing lines of the book where the narrator paints “seas of sugarcane and huge swirling Van Gogh suns and palm trees [in] a tropical landscape . . .while the thunderous
tread of the machines downstairs jarred the floor beneath my easel.’’ Light is identified by the surrounding
darkness and life, by death that eventually follows. The transient nature of life is evidenced by the changes
that happen over a period of time.
Death’s morbidity invades the colorful mind. The narrator imbues the reader’s mind with images that allude
to this dark reality. “All these trees….Well, they’d be bare. No leaves, no fruit, nothing. They’d be
covered in snow. You see your canes. They’d be buried under tons of snow.”
Metaphor
With a judicious use of metaphors, the narrator has drawn us to the reality of inevitable changes that our
lives are subject to. Again, the sugarcanes are metaphorically perceived as the ominous danger that
“…would close in on us and run us through with their stiletto blades.” Later, the planes that cause the death
of her grandmother are visualized by the narrator as “the hardback beetles which hurled themselves with
suicidal force against the walls of the house at night.” She points at our dogmatism in accepting the fact
that the world is constantly changing. Those who fail to see this at first, experience it the hard way later.
Conclusion
However prejudiced we might be, towards change, the hard-hitting reality of a life-death cycle is inevitable.
Time stands testimony to this fact. Paule Marshall has illustrated this through the depiction of conflicting
ideas between her and Da-Duh and she conveys this message at the start when she writes, “both knew, at
a level beyond words, that I had come into the world not only to love her and to continue her line but to take
her very life in order that I might live.”
To Dah-Duh in Memoriam – Literature Notes
SUMMARY
This short story is about a young girl’s visit, from New York, to the island of Barbados. The protagonist,
along with her sister and mother, visit Dah-Duh. The visit is an interesting one in which Dah-Duh and the
protagonist develop a caring, yet competitive, relationship. Dah-Duh introduces her to the riches of
Barbados (nature), while the protagonist introduces her grandmother to the steel and concrete world of
New York (industrialism). There is a competitive edge to their conversations because they each try to outdo
each other on the merits of their separate homes. Dah-Duh, however, is dealt a blow when she learns of
the existence of the Empire State building, which was many stories taller than the highest thing she had
ever laid her eyes on – Bissex Hill. She lost a little bit of her spark that day and was not given a chance to
rebound because the protagonist left for New York shortly after. The story progresses with the death of
Dah-Duh during the famous ’37 strike. She had refused to leave her home and was later found dead, on a
Berbice chair, by her window. The protagonist spent a brief period in penance, living as an artist and painting
landscapes that were reminiscent of Barbados.
SETTING
The story is set in Barbados, in the 1930’s.
CHARACTERS
Dah-Duh:
A small and purposeful old woman.
Had a painfully erect figure.
Over eighty (80) years old.
She moved quickly at all times.
She had a very unattractive face, which was ‘stark and fleshless as a death mask’ (Marshall, p.178).
Her eyes were alive with life.
Competitive spirit.
Had a special relationship with the protagonist.
Protagonist:
A thin little girl.
Nine (9) years old.
A strong personality.
Competitive in nature.
Had a special relationship with Dah-Duh.
THEMES
Race:
This theme is apparent when Dah-Duh and the protagonist discuss the fact that she ‘beat up a white girl’ in
her class. Dah-Duh is quiet shocked at this and exclaims that the world has changed so much that she
cannot recognize it. This highlights their contrasting experiences of race. Dah-Duh’s experience of race
relations is viewing the white ‘massa’ as superior, as well as viewing all things white as best. This is
corroborated at the beginning of the story when it was revealed that Dah-Duh liked her grandchildren to be
white, and in fact had grandchildren from the illegitimate children of white estate managers. Therefore, a
white person was some-one to be respected, while for the protagonist, white people were an integral part
of her world, and she viewed herself as their equal.
Love and family relationship:
This story highlights the strong familial ties that exists among people of the Caribbean, both in the islands
and abroad (diaspora). The fact that the persona and her family left New York to visit the matriarch of the
family, in Barbados, highlights this tie. The respect accorded to Dah-Duh by the mother also shows her
place, or status, in the family. The protagonist states that in the presence of Dah-Duh, her formidable mother
became a child again.
Gender Issues:
This is a minor theme in this short story. It is highlighted when it is mentioned that Dah-Duh liked her
grandchildren to be boys. This is ironic because the qualities that are stereotypically found in boys –
assertive, strong willed, competitive – are found in her grand daughter. An example of this is the manner in
which the protagonist / narrator was able to win the staring match when she first met Dah-Duh, this proved
her dominance and strength.
SYMBOL
Empire State Building
This building represents power and progress. It is in the midst of the cold glass and steel of New York city
and, therefore, deforms Dah-Duh’s symbol of power; Bissex Hill. It is not by accident that the knowledge of
this building shakes Dah-Duh’s confidence. Steel and iron, the symbol of progress, is what shakes the
nature loving Dah-Duh. It can, therefore, be said that her response to the knowledge of the existence of the
Empire State Building – defeat – is a foreshadowing of her death. This is the case because it is metal, in
the form of the planes, that ‘rattled her trees and flatten[ed] the young canes in her field.’ (Marshall. p.186).
This is a physical echo of her emotional response to the knowledge of the existence of the Empire State
building. The fact that she is found dead after this incident is not a surprise to the reader.
To Da-duh in Memoriam | Characters
Da-duh
Da-duh is the narrator’s eighty-year-old grandmother. She has lived her whole life on Barbados and is
confident and proud of her lifestyle, surroundings, and ways of looking at the world. She dislikes the
trappings of the modern world, such as any form of machinery, and is uncomfortable in the city of
Bridgetown. When Da-duh first meets the narrator, the narrator imagines that she saw ‘‘something in me
which for some reason she found disturbing.’’ However, Da-duh also feels connected to her granddaughter,
as evidenced when she clasps her hand
“Nothing endures but change” (Heraclitus 540-480 BC). People are born, only to die again. In a neverending cycle of life and death, new ideas replace older ones and an evolution of perspectives takes place.
Paule Marshall aptly portrays this cyclical nature through her last line “she died and I lived” referring to her
grandmother. The death is not physical alone. It is the death of old ideologies, dated traditions and disparate
acceptance of modernization. In a vivid recollection of her grandmother Da-Duh’s reluctance to accept
change during Paule’s childhood visit, she narrates how the old lady loathes urbanity and finds delectation
in her little island of natural beauty. The interactions that the narrator has with her grandmother remind us
of the passage of time between generations. The demise of Da-Duh signifies the change that is inevitable,
the transition from the old to the new.
Symbolism
Paule Marshall’s work is replete with a richness of literary devices like symbolism, imagery and metaphors.
Describing the foreboding character of death, the narrator feels that the planes that bring death to the little
village are “swooping and screaming…monstrous birds”. The sugarcanes that grow in the village are DaDuh’s delight and also the reason for the exploitation in the village. The pride of Da-Duh, the sugarcanes
appear threatening to the narrator she feels that the canes are “clashing like swords above my cowering
head”. This is a description of the duality of life. Where there is joy, there is pain and when there is life,
death is bound to follow.
Imagery
The life-death antithesis is depicted in the closing lines of the book where the narrator paints “seas of sugarcane and huge swirling Van Gogh suns and palm trees [in] a tropical landscape . . .while the thunderous
tread of the machines downstairs jarred the floor beneath my easel.’’ Light is identified by the surrounding
darkness and life, by death that eventually follows. The transient nature of life is evidenced by the changes
that happen over a period of time.
Death’s morbidity invades the colorful mind. The narrator imbues the reader’s mind with images that allude
to this dark reality. “All these trees….Well, they’d be bare. No leaves, no fruit, nothing. They’d be
covered in snow. You see your canes. They’d be buried under tons of snow.”
Metaphor
With a judicious use of metaphors, the narrator has drawn us to the reality of inevitable changes that our
lives are subject to. Again, the sugarcanes are metaphorically perceived as the ominous danger that
“…would close in on us and run us through with their stiletto blades.” Later, the planes that cause the death
of her grandmother are visualized by the narrator as “the hardback beetles which hurled themselves with
suicidal force against the walls of the house at night.” She points at our dogmatism in accepting the fact
that the world is constantly changing. Those who fail to see this at first, experience it the hard way later.
Conclusion
However prejudiced we might be, towards change, the hard-hitting reality of a life-death cycle is inevitable.
Time stands testimony to this fact. Paule Marshall has illustrated this through the depiction of conflicting
ideas between her and Da-Duh and she conveys this message at the start when she writes, “both knew, at
a level beyond words, that I had come into the world not only to love her and to continue her line but to take
her very life in order that I might live.”
To Dah-Duh in Memoriam – Literature Notes
SUMMARY
This short story is about a young girl’s visit, from New York, to the island of Barbados. The protagonist,
along with her sister and mother, visit Dah-Duh. The visit is an interesting one in which Dah-Duh and the
protagonist develop a caring, yet competitive, relationship. Dah-Duh introduces her to the riches of
Barbados (nature), while the protagonist introduces her grandmother to the steel and concrete world of
New York (industrialism). There is a competitive edge to their conversations because they each try to outdo
each other on the merits of their separate homes. Dah-Duh, however, is dealt a blow when she learns of
the existence of the Empire State building, which was many stories taller than the highest thing she had
ever laid her eyes on – Bissex Hill. She lost a little bit of her spark that day and was not given a chance to
rebound because the protagonist left for New York shortly after. The story progresses with the death of
Dah-Duh during the famous ’37 strike. She had refused to leave her home and was later found dead, on a
Berbice chair, by her window. The protagonist spent a brief period in penance, living as an artist and painting
landscapes that were reminiscent of Barbados.
SETTING
The story is set in Barbados, in the 1930’s.
CHARACTERS
Dah-Duh:
A small and purposeful old woman.
Had a painfully erect figure.
Over eighty (80) years old.
She moved quickly at all times.
She had a very unattractive face, which was ‘stark and fleshless as a death mask’ (Marshall, p.178).
Her eyes were alive with life.
Competitive spirit.
Had a special relationship with the protagonist.
Protagonist:
A thin little girl.
Nine (9) years old.
A strong personality.
Competitive in nature.
Had a special relationship with Dah-Duh.
THEMES
Race:
This theme is apparent when Dah-Duh and the protagonist discuss the fact that she ‘beat up a white girl’ in
her class. Dah-Duh is quiet shocked at this and exclaims that the world has changed so much that she
cannot recognize it. This highlights their contrasting experiences of race. Dah-Duh’s experience of race
relations is viewing the white ‘massa’ as superior, as well as viewing all things white as best. This is
corroborated at the beginning of the story when it was revealed that Dah-Duh liked her grandchildren to be
white, and in fact had grandchildren from the illegitimate children of white estate managers. Therefore, a
white person was some-one to be respected, while for the protagonist, white people were an integral part
of her world, and she viewed herself as their equal.
Love and family relationship:
This story highlights the strong familial ties that exists among people of the Caribbean, both in the islands
and abroad (diaspora). The fact that the persona and her family left New York to visit the matriarch of the
family, in Barbados, highlights this tie. The respect accorded to Dah-Duh by the mother also shows her
place, or status, in the family. The protagonist states that in the presence of Dah-Duh, her formidable mother
became a child again.
Gender Issues:
This is a minor theme in this short story. It is highlighted when it is mentioned that Dah-Duh liked her
grandchildren to be boys. This is ironic because the qualities that are stereotypically found in boys –
assertive, strong willed, competitive – are found in her grand daughter. An example of this is the manner in
which the protagonist / narrator was able to win the staring match when she first met Dah-Duh, this proved
her dominance and strength.
SYMBOL
Empire State Building
This building represents power and progress. It is in the midst of the cold glass and steel of New York city
and, therefore, deforms Dah-Duh’s symbol of power; Bissex Hill. It is not by accident that the knowledge of
this building shakes Dah-Duh’s confidence. Steel and iron, the symbol of progress, is what shakes the
nature loving Dah-Duh. It can, therefore, be said that her response to the knowledge of the existence of the
Empire State Building – defeat – is a foreshadowing of her death. This is the case because it is metal, in
the form of the planes, that ‘rattled her trees and flatten[ed] the young canes in her field.’ (Marshall. p.186).
This is a physical echo of her emotional response to the knowledge of the existence of the Empire State
building. The fact that she is found dead after this incident is not a surprise to the reader.
SUMMARY
The story starts with a terrible sound of constant coughing of the sick mother which wakes up the little boy
and he runs downstairs to look into the matter. There he finds his mother in a critical condition collapsing
in an armchair holding her sides. Totally distressed she was trying to light a fire to make tea for the boy but
the smoke generated by the wet sticks worsened her cough. Worried son immediately takes charge of
everything. He stops her from going to work and makes her lie in the bed.
Dutiful Sullivan makes tea and toast for her. He immediately decides that instead of going to school he
would stay at home to look after his mother and mind home affairs. Systematic boy heats up another kettle
of water and cleans up the breakfast mess. Then he comes to his mother to make a list to shop for dinner.
Caring Sullivan is worried and wants to call a doctor for his mother but thrifty mother declines his wish as
she is afraid that the doctor would send her to hospital. To cheer up the frightened son the affectionate
mother tries to pretend that she is fit and fine but their neighbor Miss Minnie Ryan has all the doubts that
she might be suffering from pneumonia. She advises him to give his mother some hot whiskey mixed with
a squeeze of lemon in it to comfort her.
Determined Sullivan goes to the public house for the first time to get whiskey. Although scared he does not
lose courage and overcomes his fear. Whiskey does not work that well and whole night depressed Sullivan
could not sleep due to the terrible coughing of his mother. She keeps on rambling badly while talking. In
the morning bewildered Sullivan heads to call the doctor from the distant dispensary. Before that he goes
to get a ticket from the house of a Poor Law Guardian to save the doctor’s fees. The organized boy tidies
the house and keeps ready the basin of water, soap and a clean towel for the doctor. Much to their relief
the doctor doesn’t advise to hospitalize the mother instead he prescribes a cough syrup for her.
Reliant Sullivan’s sincerity and concern earns all the praise of Miss Ryan and the doctor for him. Again the
poor boy sets off with a bottle to get the medicine from the dispensary situated at a distant place. On the
way he comes across a cathedral. With complete devotion he prays for his mother’s quick recovery in his
heart and makes up his mind to spend his only penny to light a candle in the church when he would finish
his task. At dispensary he meets a little girl Dooley who has come to get medicine for her sister. The girl is
very clever and talkative. Anguished Sullivan enjoys her company after going through such terrible times.
On way back the innocent boy spends his penny on sweets which they both enjoyed. Dooly is a cunning
girl. She incites Sullivan to taste the sweet cough syrup of his mother. Confused boy gives way to
temptation. Both of them relish it immensely. When the entire medicine is consumed confused Sullivan
realizes his fault. He begins to panic and starts crying. Dooly misleads him to tell a lie that the cork fell out.
Repentant Sullivan is full of remorse and guilt feeling. He fears that because of his negligence his mother
would not get well. Panicked Sullivan prays the Virgin Mary to do some miracle to save his mother. He gets
back home totally broken and shattered. Mother is alarmed to see him howl. She hugs and consoles him
passionately. Truthful and honest Sullivan confesses his crime. The forgiving mother shrugs it off. The tired
boy falls fast asleep under the intoxication of the medicine. With the grace of God the miracle happens and
Sullivan wakes up to find his mother smiling and recovered.
ANALYSIS
The story is written in autobiographical mode. The language of the text is rich and descriptive. The content
of the story is based on the delicate relationship of a mother and son. The marathon efforts of the little boy
to make his ailing mother comfortable fill the hearts of the readers with compassion and sympathy. The
childish act of drinking the medicine of his mother by the kids is the climax of the story. Along with the boy
the readers too get nervous that what is going to happen now. The plot of the story is binding.
The title of the story is very appropriate. Having his mother ill the small boy takes up the whole responsibility
to attend her and mind the household. He does everything that an adult person would have done to manage
the situation. Even he goes to pub to get whiskey for his mother although he was scared to see the ruffians
there. He acts like a mature person taking all the wise decisions to help his mother get well soon. That is
why he is aptly called ‘The Man of the House’.
SUMMARY
This short story was told from the perspective of an adult and chronicles the events behind a child’s (the
adult narrator) belief that the world was about to end. The story is set on a plantation in Louisiana in 1936,
where the church was the axis around which plantation life revolved. Despite this fact, the narrator was
holding on to being a sinner because she believed that she could not ‘live upright’. One day, while she was
playing, her cousin Rena informed her that the world was coming to an end. This was based on a
conversation that Rena overheard, and misunderstood, about the eclipse. The hellfire sermons in church
did not help to stem the narrator’s mounting panic and she worried herself into a frazzle as a result. She
had a conversation with her father about this issue and he tried to quell her fears, but unfortunately, he only
managed to increase it with his statement that the world could come to an end at any time. The narrator
spent the night conjuring images of dooms day, which led to her overreaction to hearing the rumblings of
an old airplane. She ran out of her house screaming that the world was coming to an end. Her father caught
her on the road and calmed her down. She appreciated life a lot more after that incident and lived her life
to the fullest.
SETTING
The story occurs on a plantation in Louisiana in 1936.
CHARACTERS
Daddy:
• Understanding
• Has a good relationship with his daughter
1st person narrator:
• Imaginative
• Bold
• Naive
Rena:
• Naive
THEMES
Religion:
This is the central theme in this short story. Plantation life was centered on religion to the extent that even
the narrator’s father was a deacon in the church. Religious fervor, in the form of hellfire preaching, is also
the fuel for the panic that overtakes the narrator/protagonist in this short story.
Love & Family Relationship:
The love and trust between father and daughter is glaring. When the narrator/protagonist was worried about
the world coming to an end, the first person that she thought to consult on this issue was her father. His
response to her childish fears, in turn, highlights the easy relationship between the two. Daddy’s care in
covering his daughter after her mad dash through the turnrow is also an indication of the love that he has
for his child.
Innocence
SUMMARY
This short story is told from the first person perspective of a little girl called Dorian York. The focus of her
thoughts is her mother; the games that they play together, and the games that she plays with her friend,
that revolve around her mother. The first person perspective of the narrative gives the reader an intimate
view of how the little girl sees her mother, as well as how she feels about her. We are also able to garner
information about the people around her from her innocent narrative, innocent because the little girl does
not understand many of the things that she reports. The reader learns that Emma and Mr. York have a
volatile relationship that is seemingly caused by his infidelity. This infidelity is initially implied by Emma’s
constant watching of the clock and waiting for her husband to return home, as well as the fight that Dorian
reported. Grandfather’s visit, however, brings a happy atmosphere to the family unit because daddy starts
to do things with the family, hence they seem more like a conventional happy family. The audience is given
the impression that things go back to normal after grandfather leaves, however, due to the spectral
presence of the ‘lady at the train station’, as well as Mrs. Robinson’s pointed discussion about Mr. York’s
status as a ‘player’. The narrative climaxes with the death of Emma at the train station. She saw her
husband with the mysterious lady and runs away, followed closely by Dorian and Jack. Unfortunately, when
Jack caught her by the arm, she ran into the path of an oncoming vehicle and was killed. Jack and Mrs.
Robinson then get romantically involved, and they send both Maria and Dorian to St. Agnes, a boarding
school, in the country.
SETTING
• The story occurs in three places; the York residence, an unnamed mall and the old train station.
• The mood of the story fluctuates from happiness to sadness.
CHARACTERS
Jack York (Daddy)
• He is Doran’s father and Emma’s husband.
• He is characterized as a ‘player’ by Mrs. Robinson.
• He is not faithful to his wife.
• He was not ready for the arrival of his daughter, Dorian, and does not seem to have a close relationship
with her.
Emma York
• She is Dorian’s mother and Jack’s wife.
• She is a good mother who plays with her child and treats her well.
• She is a good wife who loves her husband (as seen in how she greets him when he gets home) and is
considerate of his feelings; as seen in her reasons for not having another baby.
• She is a very smart and polished lady who can handle herself with people who are coy and critical of her;
as seen in her argument with Mrs. Robinson in the mall.
Dorian York
• A very innocent little girl who is the first person narrator of the story.
• She is younger than her friend Maria, who is nine (9) years old.
• She adores her mother and her grandfather.
• She is often puzzled by the content of adult discussion.
Grandaddy
• Emma’s father.
• Brought joy into the family because daddy stayed home, came home early, and spent quality time with
the family, due to grandaddy’s implied interference.
• Loved her grandfather because he seemed to do what her dad didn’t – spent time with her – and her first
person perspective of him reflected her love.
Ruby Robinson
• She is Emma’s friend and Maria’s mother.
• She is not a good friend to Emma because she is both critical and jealous of her.
• She gets romantically involved with Jack after Emma dies.
• She’s very impatient with both girls.
• She sends Maria and Dorian to boarding school in order to enact her plan to keep the ‘player’.
Maria Robinson
• She is the nine (9) year old daughter of Ruby Robinson.
• She is Dorian’s playmate.
• She filters and explains a lot of the adult conversations that Dorian does not understand.
THEMES
Innocence
This theme is epitomized by Dorian York. The story is told from her perspective, therefore, the reader gets
a firsthand view of the innocence behind her misunderstanding of adult conversation and situations. She
senses emotions, but misses a lot of the innuendo, as is seen when she tells the audience about the fight
that her parents had. Her innocence is also seen in her expectation that her mother would come home after
the accident, but instead, she finds Mrs. Robinson in her mot her’s bed. Her growth, or advancement into
maturity, is highlighted in the end of the short story when Dorian reassures Maria that everything will be
ok, they will play adult games better.
Love and family relationship
There are two types of families in this short story, the nuclear family and the single family unit. Dorian’s
family is the nuclear family, consisting of mother, father and child. This family is a troubled one because the
father is seemingly more absent than present due to an implied ‘other woman’, who is later confirmed as
very real. He also seems uncomfortable around his only child, as is confirmed by Emma, who decides to
forgoe having another child because ‘Jack wasn’t ready for Dori’ (Cole, p.53). Emma, on the other hand,
seems to live to please both her child and husband. She is very affectionate with Dorian, and this love is
returned ten fold, as seen in the adoration that imbues the tone of the narrator. She is the same with her
husband, but the reception is less enthusiastic. It would be unfair to say that the family is dysfunctional,
because one parent is at least invested in the emotional happiness of the child, but the family has issues
because the head of the household’s concentration lies elsewhere.
Mrs. Robinson is a single mother, parenting her only child; Maria. She does not appear to be particularly
liked by both girls because no-one wants to ‘play’ at being her. She aggravates her child constantly and
appears to be unhappy with her life. This family structure can be seen as dysfunctional because the parent
does not seem to devote her energies toward making her child feel loved and comfortable, which is one of
the primary aims of any family structure.
Friendship
There are two contrasting friendships in this short story. There is the friendship between Dorian and Maria,
which is characterized by play, conversations and support of each other. Then there is the friendship
between the adults, Emma and Mrs. Robinson, which is contrastingly characterized by cattiness and
jealousy; mostly on Mrs. Robinson’s part.
MOTIF
Play
The motif of play appears to be a strong one in this short story, perhaps due to the fact that the narrator is
a young child. The children ‘play’ at being adults, imitating – and fighting over – their favourite adult. They
also literally see the life of adults as play. Dorian confirms this at the end of the story when she reassures
Maria that ‘I learned a lot about this game. When it’s our turn to play, we’ll play smarter.’ (Cole, p.58).
SYMBOL
Deck of cards
The deck of cards that Emma carries around in her purse is a powerful symbol for life. In any card game
that is being played, every-one has a chance at success, or failure, depending on how they play the game.
Mrs. Robinson gives Emma an alternate way to play the game of life, with success being the joy of keeping
her ‘player’ husband. Emma, however, chooses to play the game in an another way, one in which she
attempts to satisfy the needs of both Dorian and Jack. Emma is the loser in the game, however, because
she dies with the joker in her hand. This signifies that her future could have gone in any direction because
the joker introduces the element of chance to the game; it can be a bonus, a penalty, or both, depending
on how it is used in the game. In the game of life, Emma lost because she chose to take a chance with
pleasing both members of her family, instead of concentrating solely on her husband, as Mrs. Robinson
suggested. The game of life gives every-one chances however, just like a card game, and Mrs. Robinson
was given a chance to bag her rich man with Emma’s exit from the game.
Overview
This story is about two brothers Paul and Benjy. Both brothers can be considered to be ‘Blood Brothers’
because they are thirteen year old twins. Despite the fact that Paul and Benjy are twins; they both display
different personality traits. Paul is an introvert who loves nature and he loves to contemplate about life.
Whereas, Benjy is Paul’s polar opposite. This further reinforces that although both boys are genetically
related that is where the commonality ends. Benjy is an extrovert who is very carefree and fun loving.
However, Paul thinks his brother believes he is superior and as a result he grows to hate him. Paul is
conflicted about his feelings because deep down he wants Benjy to be his friend and confidant. The story
ends with Paul attacking Benjy. Benjy is surprised and confused because he did not know or understand
why Paul reacted in this way.
Characters
Paul:
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Paul is an introvert.
He is artistic and he paints pictures
He loves nature.
He is also very reflective. He contemplates nature as well as his feeling towards his brother.
He dislikes Benjy’s ability to accomplish simple tasks quickly.
He resents Benjy because he reminds him of his own short comings.
He envies Benjy and his envy turns to hate.
He thought Benjy feels he is superior to him.
Benjy:
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Mac:
He is an extrovert and carefree
He is confident.
He is a typical boy, very active, adventurous and always exploring.
He is ignorant to his brother’s disdain for him.
He felt he is superior to Paul.
He mocks Paul.
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He is an old shoe maker in the village. Both boys go to visit him.
Narrative Point of View:
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Third Person Narrative
Setting: The story takes place in an unnamed village.
Conflict: Paul envies Benjy carefree personality as a result of this he grew to hate Benjy. This hate
resulted n him attacking his brother.
Themes:
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Love and family relationships
Childhood Experiences
Appearance vs Reality