Ancient notes – Rome: Agrippina the Younger

Survey
o Geography, topography, and resources of Rome and the Roman Empire
 The roman empire I the 1st century AD was a vast system of cities and roads
that stretched from Britain in the West through to Syria in the East,
Germany in the north and North Africa in the south.
 Such a vast territory contained many different topographies
 The Mediterranean Sea (called “Our Lake” by the Romans) was central to
the Empire, and Italy and Rome itself were the geographical heartland of the
Empire
 Other major cities included Antioch, Alexandria, Byzantium and the rebuilt
Carthage
 The population of the Empire during Agrippina’s lifetime probably
numbered around 12 million people
 The empire had been won mainly by conquest
 The climate of Rome’s northern European provinces had greater seasonal
variations in temperature and more regular rainfall than Mediterranean
countries. The higher the humidity of these regions produced heavy forests
and their mountains provided good pasturage and were a source of many
valuable minerals
 Communication and trade in many of these regions were conducted mostly
via river so cities were usually located on ricers that could be navigate for
most of the year
 Agricultural production was a major activity of these regions and included
olives, grapes, and cereals
 Rome’s empire in the south included Egypt and other African provinces
 Egypt was the biggest producer of grain and an important source of wealth
for the roman empire
 The southern empire included large areas of desert where irrigation was
used extensively for growing grain
 In more remote desert regions, life was characterised by pasturage and
nomadic lifestyles
 During the Julio Claudian period, the population of Rome is estimated to be
around 1 million; it was the largest and most populous city in the empire
 Agriculture was the basis of the economy and agricultural produce was a
measure of wealth
 Ownership of land were therefore the basis of wealth and economic
inequality in Rome
 Property could be inherited
 Poor harvest – food shortage
 Italy important food from Egypt and Sicily; its own land devastated by civil
war and the wealthy taking land for their own villas
 Slave labour farmed the land and gave the wealthy time to be involved in
politics and culture
 Rome – population of 1 million
 Grain was heavily imported from Egypt

o
Port City of Ostia was a key part of the economy. It was then transported
down the River Tiber for 24km to get to Rome
 Euergetism was an important part of the economy – the wealthy donating
food or public goods to the city demonstrate their status and
civicmindedness
 The Mediterranean was an important transport route
 Spices and silk from the East
 Animals such as monkeys, panthers, and ostriches as pets and for
tournaments
 Only the very rich could afford the luxury items – it is estimated that this
group was less than 10% of Rome’s and the wider Empire’s population
An overview of Roman social and political structures, the principate
 Social Class
 Citizenship was a male only affair – citizenship allowed a man to
stand for office, to be heard in the law courts, and to serve as a
legionnaire and officer in the army
 For a man to be free his mother had to be free
 Citizens were further ranked in a social hierarchy called the ordo –
these orders were then divided into sub groups
 Non-citizens such as slaves, freed slaves (freedmen), and women
had none of these rights
 The Imperial Family
 The Emperor and his family were at the peak of the social pyramid
 The imperial household held the reins of political power, controlled
financial resources, and was the socio-cultural personification of the
Roman state
 Agrippina was a member of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, the first
imperial family to rule over Rome
 This family was descended from Augustus, the first Roman emperor
who had established the imperial system of government called the
Principate
 This system was based on the emperor controlling the government
finances and military
 The rest of the administration of the Empire was divided between
the Senate and some Equestrians
 There was NO place for women in this system except as influential
advisers and children-bearers to the emperor.
 Augustus’ wife Livia, held such a position and Agrippina herself
realised that this was the main way in which she could hold power
and protect her family
 The Senators
 Also near the top of this hierarchy was the Senatorial Order
 This was made up of a few hundred families of magistrates who had
served in high office and had been members of the Senate
o They had to act in a moral and upright manner
o
o
o
o
o




They wore a toga with a broad purple stripe and received
special seats at the games and festivals to symbolise their
status
The senate had its own elite, the Patricians (related to
former priests) and the Nobiles (related to former consuls)
In the Early Empire, Senatorial families were increasingly
drawn from Italy and the provinces
A senatorial family could lose its rank when the emperor
conducted his census – if the family had not produced a
magistrate in three generations it lost its status
Many aristocratic families withdrew from politics and the
Senate, as It became an increasingly dangerous career under
the reign of erratic emperors
Equites
 Below the senators in rank were the Equites (also called
Equestrians), thousands of wealthy families who had not entered
the Senate
 They had to possess at least 400,000 sesterces and had to wear a
gold ring and toga with purple stripe thinner that that of the
Senators
 Tiberius stipulated that they must have two generations of free birth
 Equites were increasingly used by the emperors as military and
administrative officers and those who did became part of the
equestrian elite above other Equites
Decurions
 The final order of the elite were the Decurions or town councillors
 They ruled over the provincial cities and also had considerable
status
 The most powerful and wealthy of them were called promores viri
(‘first men’)
Plebians
 Below these elites were the mass of people, the lowest order called
the Plebians
 There seems to have been a further status division in Roman society
based on where plebians lived – those who lived in cities were
generally thought to be superior to those living in rural areas
 The plebs urbana who lived in Rome could be quite powerful is they
jointly rose against an emperor or his policies
 On the other hand, any member of the royal family or elite could
become a favourite of the ‘mob’ and thus become a dangerous rival
to the emperor
Slaves
 Slaves were at the bottom of the social ladder – The Romans did not
see them as human beings but as objects
 They had almost no legal or political rights
 Central to Roman economy – hard labour e.g., agriculture
 Property of their master – controlled them, their wives and children






Wealthy households had over a hundred slaves
Upper and lower slave - division
There is little doubt that Agrippina had numerous slaves throughout
much of her life
Freedmen
 Many slaves were granted freedom through Manumission and
became freedmen
 These freedmen became citizens if their master was a citizen, but
they had a lower status than citizens who were born free
 They could not hold political or military office, although their sons
later could
 Many freedmen became Augustales, officers in the cult of the
emperor this was one way they could expand their status and social
prestige outside of politics
 Another way was to be influential advisers to their masters – the
freedmen of Agrippina and her husband Claudius, were to play a
very important role in both their lives
 Freedmen took on the name of their former master’s family, and
they became an extended part of that family – they therefore still
held obligations to their former masters
 Although freedmen gained citizenship and family rights, they were
till a vulnerable and socially marginalised group
Patron Client Relationship
 Another important dimension of the Roman social order was
Patronage – under this system, a powerful man would look after the
interests of a less powerful person in exchange for public and
political support of the patron
 The emperor himself was the ultimate patron – he advanced and
nominated clients who were loyal to him
The Principate
 The system of government in Rome at the time of Agrippina was the
principate – today we refer to Rome’s leaders of that time as
emperors
 From its founding until 509 BC, Rome had been a monarchy and
according to tration had been ruled by seven kings – the roman
people revolted against the last king and he was overthrown and
sent to exile
 From that time Rome refused to accept monarchy
 Following the expulsion of the kings, Rome became a republic –
instead of a king, the city now had two magistrates elected annually,
called consuls
 In time other magistrate officers were created to deal with different
aspects of government these included praetors, aediles, and
quaestors
 It was expected that Roman men pursuing a political career would
move through each office on their way to becoming a consul










The key body in the Roman Republic was the senate (a group of 100
men from the patrician class)
The republic ended when Julius Caesar became a dictator for life –
Unfortunately in 44BC he was assassinated by a group of Senatorial
conspirators
Over the next 13 years, civil war continued to rage across the
empire
The new figure of the scene was Caesar’s 10 year old heir, Octavian
(later known as Augustus)
Together with Marc Anthony, he divided the Roman Empire into two
Anthony became entangled with Cleopatra
In 318 BC the context for supreme control of the empire was
decided in the battle of Actium, where Octavian finally defeated
Anthony
Most people of Rome were happy to see peace restored and were
happy to have Augustus at the helm
He wanted to be seen to be sharing power with the senate and
respecting traditional republican forms
By the time Agrippina was in her 30’s, the principate had become
hereditary monarch and family connections had become all
important
Role of imperial women in Roman Society



Patriarchal society - men dominated the public and private spheres of life
Roman family rules by ale head – control over relatives, slaves, freedmen,
children of slaves
 Girls married in mid-teens to men often twice their age
 Agrippina was married at 13
 Age difference means that it was not equal
 Divorce was common
 Women can inherit
 Ideal woman was a Matrona – quiet, dutiful, devoted mother and wife and
interested in womanly things such as weaving.
Background and rise to prominence
o Family background and status
 Agrippina’s great grandfather was Augustus, and this gave her great prestige
in Rome and contributed greatly to her rise to power
 Her grandmother Julia, was Augustus’ daughter and was banished by him for
‘unseemly’ conduct
 Her mother Agrippina the Elder, was the daughter of Julia and thus the
granddaughter of Augustus, she never lost her pride and belief in her
imperial heritage
 Agrippina’s father Germanicus was the nephew and adopted sone of
Augustus’ successor Tiberius – he was charming, good-looking, and
extremely popular in Rome

o
Many believed he should be successor to Tiberius, but he died
suddenly in AD 19 (when Agrippina was only 4), and this was the
beginning of a long period of strife for Agrippina’s family
 Agrippina had three brothers
o The older ones, Nero and Drusus were killed under Tiberius’
regime, while the youngest Gaius went on to succeed
Tiberius as the Emperor Caligula
o Agrippina had two sisters, Drusilla (who died during the
reign of Caligula) and Livilla (who died in the early years of
Claudius’ reign)
o Agrippina’s uncle, the brother of Germanicus, was Claudius
 He became emperor after the assassination of
Caligula, after the death of his wife Messalina,
Claudius married his niece Agrippina
o Agrippina had two husbands previous to Claudius, Domitius
Ahenobarbus (who she married when she was 13 and he
was about 45) and Crispus (who left substantial wealth on
his death)
o Agrippina’s son by Domitius Ahenobarbus was named after
his father but is more commonly known by his imperial
name – Nero
 Much of Agrippina’s life and efforts were spent in
keeping Nero safe and furthering his social position
Early life, ambitions, and marriages
 Early Life
 Born 16th November 15AD in a Roman army camp in Germany
 Probably received an education befitting a royal daughter
instructing a household and womanly duties
 Her Mother and Father were a popular couple in Rome during the
reign of Tiberius – Mother’s close link to Augustus and Germanicus
loved by the masses for his military success
 Germanicus was recalled from Germany by Tiberius in 17AD
(sources blame this on Tiberius’ jealousy of Germanicus’ popularity,
it was more likely done as a provident foreign policy)
o Germanicus ignored Tiberius strict adherence to Augustus’
policy of not expanding Rome’s boarder when he invaded
Pannonia – Germanicus was sent to Syria to re-organise the
Eastern Provinces
 Her father dies in the East in 19AD, rumour suggested he was
poisoned in Antioch on the orders of Tiberius, which created tension
between Agrippina’s family and the Imperial Court
 Agrippina the Elder became determined to shelter her sons and
push their own interests against the emperor
 Agrippina the Elder came up against Sejanus (prefect of the
Praetorian Guard) – elite military bodyguard of the emperor and the
Praetorian Prefect was their commander
o Sejanus was manoeuvring himself to succeed Tiberius


Agrippina the Elder and her sons were impression on charges of
conspiracy, and they died of starvation in prison around 33AD
o Whether these charges were real or just a manipulation of
Tiberius by Sejanus, these events would have had a serious
impact on 18-year-old Agrippina
 Sejanus himself did not last much longer, when Tiberius re-asserted
his control
 Agrippina’s younger brother, Gaius, succeeded Tiberius as emperor
in 37AD
 Marriages – underlined the significance of her family background and status
 Domitius Ahenobarbus
o On the orders of Tiberius, Agrippina was married in 28 AD to
Domitius Ahenobarbus
o She was 13 and he was at least 45
o Domitius had a ‘proper’ lineage being the great nephew of
Augustus
o This marriage seems to have sheltered somewhat from the
attacks that Sejanus was waging on the rest of her family
o In December 37AD Agrippina performed her most important
‘womanly duty’ – the birth of a son
 Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (Nero) perhaps
fortuitously, he was born after Tiberius’ death
o Domitius died in 40AD Agrippina was now a widowed single
mother with a 3-year-old boy
 Crispus Pasienus
o Lowkey a little irrelevant 😊
 Claudius
o Through her marriage to Claudius, Agrippina gained two
‘step-children’ Britannicus, who she used at one time as a
‘rival’ for Nero and Octavia, who married Nero thus
becoming Agrippina’s daughter-in-law
Key features and developments:
o Basis of her power and influence, patronage
 Marriage + Motherhood
 All these marriages made her extremely wealthy
 The birth of her child gave her status as a mother (matronly virtue
was an important criterion of acceptance in Roman society)
 Her child was a potential heir to the Julio-Claudian dynasty
 Like her female ancestors , Agrippina would have been aware the
importance of furthering the prospects of her offspring
 She now had a vested political interest in the dynasty beyond her
own survival and personal advancement
 Position and status was not enough – she would need to surround
herself with power and influential people to support her cause
 According to Tacitus Agrippina had murdered most of those who
stood in her way

o
Whether true or not, murder alone could not have gotten Agrippina
to the top of Roman society
 Family Background + Patronage
 Agrippina the Elder had build up at strong network of friends and
patrons to help secure her own and children’s future
 Her daughter, our Agrippina, had learned the lesson well and was a
great observer of human nature
 Agrippina the Younger used her influence and talents to cultivate
and bend people to her will – husbands, senators, freedmen, and
her own son, Nero
 These answers to how she achieved her power and influence lay in
the unique Roman social institution called Patronage
 As mentioned above patronage was a very important form of
personal relations in Roman society
 Agrippina cultivated clients and support in a number of key areas
including the Senate, Praetorian Guard, the imperial bureaucracy,
and the wider Roma populace
o She shrewdly used her ‘Bloodline’ – her lineage back to both
Augustus and Livia – to promote herself and her son to the
Roman people = this made her extremely popular
o She learnt from the experiences of her family that the
imperial court was a deathly place, so she knew when to
retreat ad when to advance her cause
 She knew she needed male support to be able to survive, let alone
wield influence therefore, she developed power male clients in the
Senate and in the Imperial court including Pallas, Seneca, and Burrus
 She knew that the Praetorian Guards were the real decision-makers
of whom should be emperor, so appointed Burrus as sole Prefect
and gave the Guard numerous benefits
 Once achieving pre-eminence in the reign of Claudius and the early
part of Nero’s reign, she presented herself as the perfect Livian
Augusta in coins, sculptures, and public festivals
 Her popularity with the Roman populace never abated, as shown in
the search for her capsized boast and the refusal of the Praetorian
Guard to have anything to do with her death
 The turning against Agrippina by former clients such as Seneca and
Burrus was probably due to shifts in power within the government,
as they removed the clients and freedmen of Agrippina in order to
persuade Nero to follow their own policies
 Men, as Roman tradition dictated, would now re-take control of the
government
 This manoeuvring unintentionally gave Nero greater licence and
daring, culminating in the probably murder of his mother
Role during reign of Gaius (Caligula), including exile
 Introduction:
 Tiberius died in 37 AD and was succeeded by Agrippina’s brother,
the 25-year-old Gaius
o


He was also called Caligula (little boots), a term that the
army have given him from his habit of wearing soldiers
boots while stationed in Germany with his father
 Gaius quickly established his popularity – he gave donations to the
troops (army), sales taxes were removed, he staged gladiatorial
matches.
 He displayed his piety (devotion) by restoring the remains of his
mother and brother to Rome and carried out a series of acts
honouring his family. He renamed the month of September as
Germanicus and honoured his parents’ birthdays with sacrifices.
 Gaius went to great lengths to promote the position of his sisters.
Barrett (modern source) points out that he wasn’t promoting them
to the status of joint ruler, but to a more symbolic recognition of the
majesty of the imperial family (domus). He may have simply be reestablishing the importance of the family of Germanicus.
 His sisters were granted many honours – which you have in your
booklet.
 His sisters were granted a lictor – attendants employed by the state
– who walked in front to clear the path.
Change:
 Our sources, such as Suetonius, state that Gaius committed incest
with all his sisters – however, such accusations are not only difficult
to prove, but were also often used as a way to smear someone of
prominence
 In the late 37 AD, Gaius suffered a major illness – afterwards he was
never the same, Suetonius calls him ‘Gaius the Monster’
 When Drusilla, his favourite; died in 38, Gaius ordered a period of
public mourning
 Then came the conspiracy of 39 – the details of the conspiracy have
always been confused.
o Basically, Gaius accused his remaining sisters, Agrippina and
Livilla and Drusilla’s husband Lepidus, of having an affair and
then conspiring to overthrow him as Emperor.
 Tacitus (ancient sources who disliked the Empire and powerful
women) suggests that this was Agrippina’s first bid for power.
Maybe she was trying to save the principate from being destroyed
by her brother’s mad behaviour.
 Lepidus was condemned to death; Agrippina was forced to carry
Lepidus’ ashes to Rome, and she was sent to exile and her property
was confiscated. Her son Nero was raised by his aunt.
What the sisters gained:
 They were made Vestal Virgins
 They were included in Annual Vows of loyalty and safety to the
emperor
 They were given prestigious seats at the games
 They were included in senate protocols




Exile:

They were made the subject of coins, a far-reaching form of
propaganda and a display of high status
In 37, Drusilla died, and not long afterwards, Gaius become mentally
unstable
 In 40, Agrippina and Livilla were exiled to the Pontine Islands on
charges of joining a conspiracy against the emperor –
 Such charges may or may not have been true, and with Gaius
gaining a new wife in Caesonia at this time, the sisters may have
feared for their futures
 The plot failed and Lepidus was executed
 Livilla, Agrippina and her young son Nero, were sent into exile on
the Pontine Islands
 Gaius sold their properties and personal items, such as clothes and
jewellery
 Once again, aged 25, Agrippina hit rock bottom and it looked like
she may undergo the same fate as her mother and older brothers
 Luck was on her side, however, and she and the others were
recalled to Rome two years later after Gaius became the first Roman
leader to be assassinated since Julius Caesar, 80 years earlier
Gaius’ reign probably left tow indelible impressions on Agrippina:
 The influence and power that went with being a woman within the
Imperial Court and how best this could be exercised
 The need to have a secure position within the court to counter the
dangers and uncertainties of intrigue and jealousy
 It must’ve been clear to Agrippina, growing up surrounded by all
these murders and plots under the reign of Tiberius and Gaius, that
her position was always tenuous
 She could easily fall victim to assassination or imprisonment
 Maintaining a low profile or getting into the key seats of power were
the only options available to her
 It seems quite clear that she realised that she could not hold power
directly under Roman political convention, but that there were
positions of influence through which she could look after her and
her son’s interests
 As we shall see, Agrippina was obviously politically astute at
knowing when to disappear from the political scene and when to
take maximum advantage of opportunities for advancement when
the political winds had shifted
Second marriage
 After the assassination of Caligula in AD 41, Agrippina was recalled
to Rome by the new emperor, her uncle Claudius
 In the same year, she married Sallustius Passienus Crispus, a very
wealthy noble who Claudius forced to divorce his own wife so he
could marry Agrippina

o
After placing Gaius’ ashes in the family mausoleum, an act that
garnered her great public sympathy, Agrippina stayed in the
background fearing the power of Claudius’ wife, Messalina
 This was a wise move – in AD 41, Messalina had Agrippina’s sister
Livilla exiled – Livilla died soon after aged 24
 Passienus Crispus held a second consulship in AD 44 – sometime
around AD 46, although the date is uncertain, he died (Suetonius
says Agrippina poisoned him)
 He was probably in his fifties – his death left Agrippina and her son
with a large fortune but as a threat to Messalina
 In AD 48, the power of Messalina came to an end when she was
executed for involvement in a conspiracy against Claudius
 On the advice of one of his chief advisers, the freedmen Pallas,
Claudius then chose his niece Agrippina as his new wife – they were
married in AD 49
Role during the reign of Claudius
 Why did Agrippina choose Claudius?
 The ancient sources characterise Claudius and Agrippina in very
unflattering ways
 Claudius is portrayed as a weak, deformed buffoon – passive,
Agrippina is presented as an ambitious seductress – active
 This was an inversion of the usual gender norms
 It was thus logical that these writers would believe that Agrippina
incestuously seduced her dim-witted uncle into marriage
 With this story they could confirm that Claudius was a weak, useless
emperor – as one historian has put it, they ‘castrated him’
 This overlooks the politically sound reasons why Claudius would
choose Agrippina as his wife:
o By marrying the great granddaughter of Augustus, and the
daughter of Germanicus, Claudius would bring great
prestige to his claim to the throne and thus shore up his
position
o Claudius would be seen to be re-joining the Julian family
with the Claudian family
o Agrippina’s sone Nero, the popular grandson of the popular
Germanicus would be seen as a likely successor and thus
bring about stability and support for Claudius’ reign – his
own son, Britannicus was 3 years younger than Nero,
publicly unknown and the son of the rebellious and
unpopular Messalina
o It would be politically dangerous to have the great
granddaughter and great, great grandson of Augustus marry
outside of the family to a potential challenger for the throne
o Agrippina was obviously desiring a secure and stable
position for herself and her son, after barely escaping the
terrors of Sejanus, Caligula, and Messalina
 But there were also problems with this choice:
o
o
o


A marriage between uncle and niece was seen as incest and
therefore illegal and immoral – Claudius had the Senate give
him special permission for his to occur
There was strong disagreement between the imperial
freedmen who advised Claudius as to who would be suitable
wife for him
Narcissus was against Agrippina and favoured another Pallas
won out
The marriage
 Claudius had had 3 ‘unfortunate’ marriages and reportedly was not
in a hurry for a fourth – but the reality was that a marriage was
desirable and politically necessary – he needed a partner to help
with the functioning and protection of the Principate
 To choose his next wife, he had influential freedmen present a case
for each eligible woman
 Pallas presented Agrippina’s case: her lineage through Agrippina I
and Germanicus made her the ideal choice to unite the Julians and
the Claudians – the principate could be made doubly secure by
promoting Agrippina’s son Nero, a descendent of Augustus, as the
successor
 Agrippina had an advantage, over her other rivals, because as
Claudius’ niece she could make frequent visits to him – according to
Suetonius “she had the nieces privilege of kissing and caressing him”
 However, the law was against Agrippina’s marriage, as Claudius was
her uncle
 Vitellus, Agrippina’s man in the Senate, argued to the Senate in 49
AD that the union was not incestuous and was common in other
countries
 The law enabling such marriages was enacted
Agrippina secures Nero’s position
 Agrippina’s foremost ambition was to ensure that her son Nero
should succeed Claudius as emperor, even though Claudius already
had a son Britannicus (who was four years younger)
 She set herself to dominate her husband and make him amenable to
her suggestions
 Agrippina persuaded Claudius to agree to the engagement of his
daughter Octavia to Nero
 There were some problems in arranging this engagement as Octavia
was already engaged to Silanus
 Agrippina overcame this obstacle by cultivating the goodwill of
Vitellus, who was censor at the time
 She persuaded Vitellius to accuse Silanus of incest with his sister
 Nero was betrothed to Octavia and was to marry her in 53 AD
 Octavia had to be adopted into another family so both bride and
groom would not belong to the same family
 Claudius adopted Nero in 50 AD – his name appeared first before
Britannicus’ on inscriptions and coins


He was given the title ‘Leader of the Youth’ which confirmed Nero’s
superior position – this was a very public recognition of his right to
inherit the empire
 He marched at the head of the parade of the Praetorian Guard –
gifts were given to the soldiers in Nero’s name
 In 53 AD, Nero gave public speeches written by Seneca in the Senate
 He was enrolled in four major priesthoods
 Thus, within 3 years of marriage to Claudius, Agrippina had used her
influence to secure the future position of emperor for Nero
 Agrippina, also used her marriage to Claudius to enhance to
promote her own position and started to accumulate the power she
devised
 She had Lollia Paulina (a rival who had wanted to marry Claudius)
charged with consulting astrologers about Claudius’ marriage – she
was exiled – Agrippina also exiled Calpurnia whom Claudius had
praised
 In 50 AD she received the title Augusta – she was the first living wife
of a living emperor to do so – her portrait also appeared on statues
dedicated to her honour
 She was represented as the essential party to the harmony of the
state
 She could use the carpentum (ceremonial carriage reserved for the
privilege of priests) at festivals
 She attended a mock battle wearing a military cloak of gold cloth,
demonstrating her royal status
 She appeared on coins with Claudius and was seen in many cities
 She accompanied Claudius when he received foreign dignitaries –
she was given the enormous distinction of being recognised by the
British chieftain
 Caractacus as equal to Claudius – Tacitus tells us the scene was
unprecedented, a woman sitting in stat on equal terms with the
emperor
 Agrippina is seated on a Dias nearby the emperor, and she is offer
the “same homage and gratitude as the emperor”
 Agrippina demonstrated much interest and concern for public
works, such as the draining of the Fecuine Lake and the construction
of the Domus TIberiana and the Temple of Claudius
 Financially, Rome was competently managed, probably by Agrippina
through Pallas, and although she was greedy for wealth, Rome
suffered no financial crisis through her greed
 Her obsession with wealth as Tacitus states, was not used for
personal indulgence – wealth was a means to an end
Patronage
 Agrippina was backed in her aims by Claudius’ adviser – they were
concerned that should Britannicus inherit the throne, he may take
vengeance on them for having caused the death of his mother
Messalina
o

So, they backed Agrippina, and encouraged her desire to
push Britannicus from his rightful position and replace him
with Nero
 She promoted Pallas, the freedman and supporter of her marriage
to Claudius, who had considerable influence on finances and
administration
 Agrippina felt the need for even more allies, and decided on Seneca
as a good investment
 Seneca was a famous as an orator, a philosopher, a writer, and a
statesman – however, at the time of Agrippina’s marriage he had
been in exile for 8 years
 Agrippina persuaded Claudius to end the exile, and Seneca landed in
Rome in 49 AD
 He was at once appointed praetor for the year 50 AD and given the
task of being tutor to the 12-year-old Nero – he was grateful for
Agrippina’s patronage, and determined to give her utmost support
 Agrippina’s consuming passion was that her son Nero succeed
Claudius as emperor, and any situation that seemed to threaten that
desired course of events quickly had her full attention
 When she realised that both commanders of the Praetorian Guard,
Geta and Crispinus, were devoted to Britannicus, she was alarmed
 In 51 AD she persuaded Claudius to dismiss them both, alleging that
there was a rivalry between the two, which was bad for discipline
 In their place, she got Claudius to appoint a single commander,
Burrus, who had the reputation of being a brilliant soldier, Burrus
appreciated the support Agrippina gave him in achieving his
promotion, and in turn she knew she could depend on him
 She also took steps to protect Vitellius when he was accused by a
senator of plotting treason
 She angrily defended Vitellius, and insisted that Claudius banish the
accuser – by this action she demonstrated her power to protect
those who served her well
Agrippina as Augusta
 The marriage to Claudius say Agrippina reach the pinnacle of her
power and influence
 It was quite clear that a woman could only exercise any political
influence by a connection to a power male
 For the ancient sources, the weak and indecisive Claudius fell under
the control of this ambitious and ‘masculine’ woman
 Agrippina is accused by these ancient sources of:
o Jealousy executing pre-eminent woman in Rome who were
rivals to her position
o Removing possible rivals to Nero’s claim to the throne
o Amassing fortunes for herself
o Sleeping with freedmen and advisers
 Tacitus, for example, portrays this as a period of
‘Masculine despotism’ stating ‘Agrippina’s intrigues

were still driving Claudius to the most brutal
behaviour’
 Agrippina certainly became an important partner in Claudius’
government:
o She had him appoint two influential advisers: Seneca to
tutor young Nero and Burrus as the sole Praetorian Prefect
instead of the standard two prefects
o She garnered the loyalty of the troops and praetorians to
herself, Claudius, and her son – she became centrally
involved in the appointment of middle ranking officers
 She received her ow bodyguard
o She treated the Senate and the old Republican traditions
with respect, including the way she dressed and presented
herself
o She brough an end to the killings and hostility of senators
and marked Claudius’ and Messalina’s reign
o She founded a colony at her birthplace, near modern
cologne in Germany
o In AD 50, she was the first living women to be given the title
August, which indicates her preeminent prestige and
influence
o She is shown holding hands with Claudius with the
people/Senate of Rome in a relief from the Sebasteion of
Aphrodisias (this implies all three were seen as equals)
o She appears on coins from this period with the emperor,
which was unprecedented
o She also appears coins wearing a diadem, a great honour
which was only reserved for goddesses, and which was
again unprecedented
o Tacitus says she was allowed to sit in front of the roman
standards with the emperor and receive homage there
o She was able to remove opposition to her and her party
within Claudius’ administration (such as the freedmen
Narcissus) and concentrate power into her supporters’
hands (the freedmen Pallas was very important here)
o Modern historians see her influence in a very different light
to that of the ancients, for example, Barret argues that
Agrippina helped stop the constant executions and
repressive nature of government, and made Claudius’ rule
more ‘benign’
Did Agrippina kill Claudius?
 Claudius’ death in AD 54 has always been a source of controversy
 Most ancient sources believed that Agrippina poisoned Claudius
because he was beginning to prefer his son Britannicus to Nero as
heir
 They also argue that she wanted Nero to become emperor whilst he
was still young enough that she could control him

o
Tacitus and Suetonius record that Claudius fell ill after eating
mushrooms (which can be poisonous if not correctly prepared), then
seemed to recover, before finally dying, insinuating that it took two
attempts by Agrippina to finally kill off her husband
 Some modern historians agree that she murdered him, while others
point out that Nero’s succession was hasty and disorganised, and
that Agrippina was dedicated to the cult of Claudius after his death
(including building a temple to him)
 Some scholars believe the symptoms of death described by the
ancients may in fact describe another illness (such as heart failure or
malaria), not poisoning
 Agrippina had Claudius’ will supressed at his death
 Nevertheless, whether at Agrippina’s urging or at their own volition,
the Praetorian Guard acclaimed Nero emperor – they were clearly
loyal to Agrippina and her son
Role of changing relationship with Nero during his reign
 Before Nero’s Accension
 On her marriage to Claudius, Agrippina pushed for her son to be in
the public light at the expense of Claudius and Messalina’s son,
Britannicus
 Claudius adopted Nero as his son the following year – he soon began
to appear on coins with the emperor
 Also in AD 50, the astute intellectual Seneca was made Nero’s tutor
(rumours emerged of an affair between Seneca and Agrippina)
 In AD 51, Nero officially entered public life when give the toga virilis,
marking his attainment of manhood
 In the same year, Agrippina had Burrus made sole Praetorian Prefect
and had the Praetorians pledge their support to Nero
 Messalina’s mother, Domita Lepida was removed to stifle support
for Britannicus in the palace
 After his proclamation as emperor by the Praetorian Guard in AD 54,
Nero then presented himself as emperor to the Senate
 This indicates that, like her great grandfather, Augustus, Agrippina
knew exactly where power lay in the Principate
 She controlled the military first, then worried about the opinion of
an obsolete Senate – Nero was 17 years old
o Claudius was defied, and Agrippina became the chief
priestess of his cult (as well as the wife of a god)
o She was given two lictors and allowed to travel in the special
carriage, the carpentum, much like a Roman Magistrate
o She was probably the most power person in Rome at this
stage
o Tacitus and Suetonius state that Nero’s password to his
guards was Optima Mater – “The Best of Mothers” 0
indicating the debt he felt to Agrippina
o Coins also depict Agrippina and the new emperor together
and on Equal terms

o
After Nero’s Accension

Relationships with other members of the imperial court: Seneca, Burrus, and
imperial freedmen
 Seneca
 Lucius Seneca was a Roman philosopher and dramatist.
 Born in Spain around 4BC and moved to Rome as a child.
 Education included being trained in rhetoric (the art of effective or
persuasive speaking or writing) and philosophy.
 Was a senator
 Depicted Gaius negatively in his writing.
 Messalina accused him of adultery with Agrippina’s sister Julia Livilla
in a move that was aimed more at Julia Lavilla and her supporters
than Seneca.
 Given a death sentence which was commuted to exile.
 Spent 8 years in Corsica
 49AD Agrippina used her influence with Claudius to have him
recalled from exile and given the position of praetor. She helped him
because she him as a tutor for Nero
 It seems Seneca may have been in Agrippina’s debt after she helped
him survive accusations of impropriety in both Gaius’ and Claudius’
reigns
 Messalina clearly had him in her sights, and it is telling that
Agrippina was the one to bring him back after Messalina’s death
 This tells us Claudius was not the one ‘gunning’ for Seneca
 Seneca’s training as a philosopher, orator, and popularity as a
writer, no doubt convinced Agrippina that he could act as ‘Aristotle’
to her young ‘Alexander’, Nero
 We can see here that Agrippina was not only aware of what sort of
education was needed to become a good emperor, but that she was
determined that Nero should have it
 Seneca became an invaluable ally to her, perhaps helping her garner
support amongst Claudius’s freedmen advisers
 He, of course, benefited also, becoming Nero’s main adviser when
he became emperor and becoming extremely wealthy
 He most likely played a part in the growing separation between
Agrippina and Nero, wanting a more independent young emperor to
rule along Stoic principles
 He seems to have been ignorant of Nero’s plans to assassinate his
mother, however, and had nothing to gain from Agrippina’s death
 He discovered too late that he had created a Frankenstein’s
monster, when he was forced to commit suicide in AD 65 on Nero’s
orders
 The type of emperor Seneca desired would not come for another
100 years in the form of Marcus Aurelius
 Burrus


Sextus Burrus was born in France, served in the army and then in
the households of Livia and Tiberius.
 Elevated to praetorian by Agrippina in 51AD after she fired his
predecessors for their support of Messalina.
 She wanted Burrus to help Nero in handling the affairs of the
princeps.
 Sextus Afranius Burrus became the new SOLO Prefect of the
Praetorian Guard in AD 51 through the actions of Agrippina
 Pointing out to Claudius that two Prefects had not been sufficient to
stop Messalina’s infidelities and plots, she had Burrus appointed as
sole Prefect and used him to stabilise her replacement of Messalina
 After Claudius’ death, Burrus presented Nero to the Praetorians as
the new emperor
 This indicates that Agrippina had correctly assessed that the
Praetorian Guard was the new arbiter of power and that having
their leader on her side only enhanced her authority
 Burrus then worked with Seneca to maintain good government in
Nero’s early years, and it is unclear if he supported the gradual
removal of Agrippina’s influence over the government
 In the past he had been a soldier posted in Livia’s bodyguard, so he
may well have judged that Agrippina was moving too far beyond the
precedent set by Augustus’ wife of how to be the imperial matron
 Whatever the case, he had no part in Agrippina’s assassination, and
Tacitus says he resolutely stated to both Seneca and Nero that the
Praetorians would never harmed a child of Germanicus
 He died in AD 62
Imperial Freedmen:
 Pallas
o Pallas had been crucial in the downfall of Sejanus in Tiberius’
reign, and may have served in Gaius’ reign, where he may
have first met Agrippina
o He rose to prominence in Claudius
o Reign as Claudius’ Treasurer, looking after Claudius’
personal fortune and the government’s finances
o Once Messalina was gone and Claudius needed a new wife,
Pallas alleged by the ancient writers to have outrageously
suggested his niece, Agrippina
o After securing this marriage for Agrippina, Pallas went on to
become wealthy and the main adviser to Claudius
o Although the ancients suggest he and Agrippina had a secret
affair, this is most likely just another part of their reduction
of her to her sexuality
o Agrippina was not stupid – she had just witnessed what
happens to a wife of Claudius who was unfaithful
o She also now had a client whom she could use to influence
finances
o

Agrippina and Pallas worked together to convince Claudius
that he adopt Nero as his son and heir
o She herself convinced Claudius to promote Pallas’ brother
Felix to the governorship of Judaea
o This perhaps indicates that, like Livia, she saw herself as an
Augusta who could influence foreign affairs
o Numerous coins have survived that were dedicated to
Agrippina by a grateful Felix
o We don’t fully understand why or how Pallas was removed
from office
o It is notable that he was not killed, indicating that his
removal was probably a subtle beginning to the side-lining
of Agrippina herself by Nero (or Seneca?)
o By regaining control over the finances, Nero could now
control policy much more effectively
o Nero had Pallas killed in AD 62, three years after he had
murdered his own mother, Agrippina
Narcissus
o Narcissus was Agrippina’s greatest enemy in the Imperial
Court and was Claudius’ most loyal adviser
o He looked after and made judgements regarding requests
and letters from the provinces
o It was he, that found out about and ended the plot of
Messalina
o In the search for a new wife, Narcissus argued that Claudius
should re-marry his worker wife, Aelia Paetina, but lost out
to Pallas’ successful promotion of Agrippina
o From then on, he was a major enemy of the Pallas-Agrippina
faction
o To hold onto power and stay close to Claudius, he joined the
pro-Britannicus group
o He and Agrippina secretly fought a “cold-war” over the
future of the principate
o When a major project he oversaw, the draining of the
Fucine Lake, went wrong, Claudius and his entourage were
almost drowned
o Agrippina saw her opportunity and accused him of taking all
the project’s money for himself
o Narcissus survived, however, with his influence in both
factions much reduced
o He may have been behind the alleged move by Claudius to
re-make Britannicus heir instead of Nero, a move that the
ancient sources blame for Claudius’ poisoning
o While Narcissus was away for medical reasons, Claudius
died (or was murdered) and Narcissus knew his influence
was finished
o He committed suicide while in custody of the Praetorian
Guard
o
o
Impact of her personality on her role and public image

Attempts on her life + Death: motives, manner, and impact of death
 Despite this good start for Agrippina, Seneca and Burrus began to assert
more control over Nero and the government throughout late AD 54 into
early 55
 In his first speech to the senate (no doubt written by Seneca), Nero
said he would not allow the excesses of Claudius’ reign to shape his
own – was this a reference to his mother? Contrary to Agrippina’s
wishes, changes were made to Claudian Legislation
 When Agrippina went to get on the dais with Nero to greet
Armenian dignitaries, Seneca and the senators present were
horrified that Agrippina clear now saw herself as co-ruler of the
Empire
 Nero fell in love with a slave girl named Acte who Agrippina sternly
disapproved of
o This created tension between them
 Agrippina may have been correct that this affair was more
infatuation than true love, however, as Acte slowly disappears from
the records
 Agrippina was accused by a former friend, Junia Silana, of plotting to
kill Nero so that she and her ‘lover’ Plautus could take over
 Nero was terrified but Burrus and Seneca stood by Agrippina and
rejected the accusation, indicating she still held their loyalty
 She was then able to convince Nero to appoint a new Prefect of the
Corn Supply, and new governors of Egypt and Syria
 She obviously had influence, even if relations with her son were
strained
 Agrippina’s image disappeared from the coins of early AD 55
 Suetonius states that Agrippina allegedly tried to seduce Nero with
sexual favours to regain her influence over him
o Tacitus and Cassius Dio reject this, however
 Instead, Nero’s advisers had Agrippina’s chief ally Pallas removed
from the administration
 Agrippina realised she needed new allies, and turned to Britannicus
and loyal Praetorians
 Agrippina slowly regained the upper hand over her enemies
 When Britannicus died in AD 55 (the ancient sources say he was
murdered by Nero, but modern scholars think he died from
epilepsy), and when Nero became infatuated with Poppaea Sabina,
her influence waned once again
 The fact that Tacitus does not mention Agrippina in the years AD 5658 suggests she retreated from the scene, and he therefore found
nothing he could report on her
 This manoeuvring by Burrus and Seneca could confirm one of five things:
 They were imposing the Traditional Roman view that women should
be ‘matrons’ in public and certainly not be acting as ‘co-ruler’’




Evaluation:
They may have been willing for her to be a power behind the
throne, but not in public – the drama over the Armenian delegation
may have been important here
 Seneca and Agrippina had had a relationship which then soured, by
which Seneca needed to convince others of Agrippina’s removal for
his own survival
 That Agrippina was truly unstable and unpredictable threat to the
government
 One or both were after more power for themselves
 Nero (and Poppaea Sabina?) wanted distance from Agrippina, but
were too afraid to confront her head on, so used Seneca and Burrus
to do their ‘dirty work’
Assassination
 Agrippina was about 45 when she died
 Her death in AD 59 is shrouded in mystery, although it is generally
agreed that Nero was involved
 He was 22 when he had her assassinated – Suetonius says he tried
to poison her three times, to no avail
 So, he then constructed a collapsible roof that would fall on her
 When this didn’t work, he had her boat sank and portrayed her
drowning as a suicide
 Tacitus also tells us that, on the advice of an ex-slave named
Anicetus who hated Agrippina and was now a naval commander,
that a mock “sinking ship” was used
 Unlike Suetonius’ version, Tacitus states that somehow Agrippina
swam to safety and managed to get her home
 Underling the popularity of Agrippina and the House of Germanicus
with the Roman populace, Tacitus says that hundreds of people with
lights began searching the sea and beach to try and rescue Agrippina
 Meanwhile Nero had sent Anicetus with a select group of men to
assassinate her
 Tacitus says she cried “Strike here!” pointing at her womb when the
soldiers surrounded her
 Modern historians doubt the use of a ‘mock ship’ and think the boat
was probably rammed instead
Why would Nero kill Agrippina?
 Poppaea Sabina wanted her out of the way so Octavia could be
removed as Nero’s wife
 Nero took a new mistress who was identical to Agrippina, so
Poppaea Sabina wanted both killed out of jealousy
 Seneca and Burrus wanted complete power over him
o This is at odds with Tacitus’ account which states that
Seneca and Burrus had no prior knowledge of the
assassination
 Nero became tired of her interference and control
o
o
o
Impact and influence on her time

Assessment of her life and career
 The impact of her family background on her career
 Her relationship with Gaius, Claudius, and Nero and with other members of
the imperial court, especially Seneca, Burrus and the imperial freedmen
 The success of her manoeuvres for power and influence
 Her success in light of the power structures and norms of the Julio-Claudian
court
Legacy
 Legacy refers to anything handed down by an ancestor or predecessor, or a
consequence
 Such a consequence may be the intended or unintended result of
the individuals policies and actions
 Legacy can include:
 The physical traces a person leaves behind – representations on
coins, cameos and in statuary (also memoirs now lost by were
available to ancient writers)
 Agrippina saw herself as a major play on the Julio-Claudian stage
 If her vision extended to herself as a matriarch in the style of Livia – through
Nero’s reign and beyond then she would have been disappointed
 Nero’s reign only lasted 10 more years after her death and ended in
humiliation and disgrace – no women in the dynasties that followed would
ever again have the prominence and the power that Agrippina had known
 Agrippina used her connections very astutely:
 She survived a number of enemies and knew how to read the
political winds – when to lay low and when to make the most of her
opportunities
 She acted cautiously and patiently to gather followers through
careful patronage
 She achieved unprecedented powers and honours as a living
Augusta during Claudius’ reign
o She had a personal guard, received foreign dignitaries, and
received her own special carriage in which to travel
 She made sure that her son Nero became emperor despite the any
obstacles in their way
 She coordinated imperial policy and brought sound government to
the later years of Claudius’ reign and the early years of Nero’s
 Coins and statues indicate that she was seen as a crucial part of the
Government of both Claudius and Nero
 She developed allegiances and created support for herself, at the
same time as divided and disorientated her enemies
 She used her illustrious family background to garner popular and
military support including articulating why she should be the new
wife of Claudius


Agrippina successfully used what resources and opportunities she
had to maximise her achievements in a context that was hostile to
powerful women
 She had a major impact on her times on her times, and was a
positive on the reigns of Claudius and the early art of Nero’s
 Her legacy was to show the clear limitations of one-man rule and
the lack of recognition of women in both the Roman form of
government and in the wider Roman society
 She highlighted that even the Roman constitution was an all-male
affair as, unlike the Ancient Egyptians and many monarchies since, it
had no public role for a Queen Mother, let alone a queen
o Ancient and modern images and interpretations of Agrippina the Younger

ONE particular source or type of source for Agrippina the Younger (e.g., Tacitus – multiple
sources, coinage etc.)
o The value and limitations of the source
 Coinage

o An evaluation of the source in the context of other available sources, including
problems of evidence
