Why We Do Research
Chapter 1
Ordinary Versus Systematic
 Biased Question: A question that leads to a
specific response or excludes a certain group

Nonscientific thinking leads to asking
questions that are slanted in a particular
direction
 Limited Sample: can only make conclusions
about the group that was surveyed

Tendency is to generalize to all people

Results only as good as the way the question
was framed and the responding sample
 Selective Attention: Putting emphasis on what
is important to ‘us’

Need to consider what we perceive and what
we retain

Difficulty comes in overgeneralization, based
on a few observations
Scientific Thinking
 It is common to think about in terms of
questions, observations, data, hypotheses,
testing, and theories. These are formal parts
of the scientific method.
 Most important parts of scientific thinking:



using empirical evidence
practicing logical reasoning
possessing a skeptical attitude
Empirical Evidence
 Empirical evidence: evidence that one see,
hear, touch, taste, or smell.
 It is evidence that others can experience.
 It is repeatable.
 Another name for empirical evidence is
natural evidence: the evidence found in
nature.
Authoritarian Evidence
 Authoritarian evidence: what authorities (people,
books, billboards, television commercials, etc.) tell
you to believe
 The most common alternative to empirical evidence.
 Education relies almost entirely upon authoritarian
evidence. Teachers, instructors, and professors are
generally considered to be reliable and trustworthy
authorities, but even they should be questioned on
occasion.
Rationalism
 Logic allows us to reason correctly, but it is a
complex topic and not easily learned.
 Logic is a skill or discipline that must be
learned within
environment.
a
formal
educational
 Often logical reasoning requires a struggle:
 emotions are not evidence
 feelings are not facts
 subjective beliefs are not substantive beliefs
Skepticism
 Skepticism: constant questioning of your
beliefs and conclusions.
 Good researchers constantly examine the
evidence, arguments, and reasons for their
beliefs.
 Question the truth and reliability of the
knowledge claims of others
knowledge you already possess.
and
the
Scientific Thinking
 Scientific and critical thinking require that
one reject blind faith, authority, revelation,
and subjective human feelings as a basis for
reliable belief and knowledge.
Purposes of Research
 Exploratory
 gaining some familiarity with a topic, discovering
some of its main dimensions, and possibly
planning more structured research
 Descriptive
 Political poll predicting who will win an election
 Anthropologist’s ethnographic account of a
preliterate tribe
 Census Bureau’s report on number of Americans
 Explanatory
 Take it one step further
Evaluation
 Evaluate specific outcomes and provide
explanations for why and how a particular
result occurred
Research Methods
 “In practice, survey research methods, like
many specific scientific laboratory techniques,
remain more of an art than a science.”

Lauman, etal. (1994:57)
Let’s do a little group work
 Compare/Contrast everyday experiences
and scientific thinking.
 Does correlation imply causation? Explain.
 What research method do you find most
useful, related to your research interest?
Why?
Cause and Effect
 Causal Research:
 objective is to determine which variable might
be causing a certain behavior
 Correlation is a measure of association that
tests whether a relationship exists between
two variables.
 it is never possible to prove causality, but only
to show to what degree it is probable.
Establish ‘causal relationship’
1)
Time order: The cause must have occurred before the effect
2)
Co-variation (statistical association): Changes in the value of
the independent variable must be accompanied by changes
in the value of the dependent variable
3)
Rationale: There must be a logical and compelling
explanation for why these two variables are related
4)
Non-spuriousness: It must be established that the
independent variable X, and only X, was the cause of
changes in the dependent variable Y; rival explanations must
be ruled out.
Correlation Does Not Imply Causation
 There is a statistical correlation over months of the
year between ice cream consumption and the
number of assaults. Does this mean ice cream
manufacturers are responsible for crime?
 No! The correlations occurs statistically because the
hot temperatures of summer cause both ice cream
consumption and assaults to increase.
 Thus, correlation does NOT imply causation. Other
factors besides cause and effect can create an
observed correlation.
Choosing Methods
 Must consider the pros and cons

What are you studying?

Time?

Cost?

Set of assumptions

Philosophical questions
Warning…
 Do not say ‘I want to do survey research, but I
am not sure what I am studying’
 ALWAYS start with a Research Question
Class Focus and other Choices
 Focus will be on quantitative survey methods
 Other choices include:
Experimental
 Qualitative Methods
 Content Analysis/Archival Research
 Quantitative Methods
