Building technology 1
The History of Building Materials
Summarized:
Stone Age
Similar to Egyptian Civilization, Greek and Hellenestic people
also used stones for their buildings, they used more from local
marble and limestones, since stones available in their place are
not as massive as those in Egypt, they pursued new stone
technology like corbelling and construction of arches staggering
pieces of stones precisely to form radial segments.
Roman Civilization
During this time, primitive people live thru the principle of
hunter-gatherers, they moved from a place to another in search
for food. The earliest documented materials used for a “house”
was excavated in Europe which dated around 12,000 BCE used
wooden poles that are assumed to be frames for animal skins
used as walls for a tent.
Romans contributed the use of concrete as building material
which was derived from the basic mortar mixture made by sand,
lime and water until 2nd century B.C.E. when pozzolana was
discovered and the new material called “pulvis puteoli”, natural
cement was then formed with this material.
Bronze Age and early Urban Cultures
Romanesque and Gothic Era
This can be recalled as the time when Middle eastern
civilizations existed along great river valleys like the Nile, the
Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus, and the Huang Ho. Given this
geographical advantage, people during this time (around 3000
BCE) people were able to develop a building material made from
mud and formed using straw with four sides, this materials is
what we call “bricks”, these bricks were made from sun-drying
the mud found along the aforementioned bodies of water.
“ceramic” where also developed during this time wherein more
intricate decors were added, thus giving Architecture more
vibrance.
During around the 5th century, the Iron Age started wherein new
building technology was applied in construction, this is thru using
log construction, packed clay walls, mud brick and wattle and
daub- which is the method of constructing walls in which vertical
wooden stakes, or wattles, are woven with horizontal twigs and
branches, and then daubed with clay or mud.
Egyptian CivilizationEverybody knows the building material used during this erastones. Massive blocks of stones such as limestone, sandstone,
and granite that are strong and durable were mined and cut by
early Egyptians to construct monumental structures like
Pyramids, mortuaries, and mastabas.
Greek and Hellenestic cultures
Renaissance Period
Construction of domes is a significant contribution of builders in
this era, moreover, the use of timber trusses with king posts is a
major Roman building technique revived in this period. The use
of clear glass was also manifested in many Romanesque
buildings which is also called as the “crown glass method” which
is a process handmaking glass out of soda-lime composition.
The First Industrial Age
at around 18th century, the Industrial Revolution emerged
wherein mass production of Iron was done to contribute to the
development of machinery which then lead to the “puddling
process” or the process of production wrought iron in 1769.
Because of this advancement, machines were created, and the
simple sun-dried bricks were upgraded into “pressed” bricks
which were mass produced by a mechanical extrusion process.
The Second Industrial Age
This was the time when steel and electricity were first used for
advancement. Steel were mass produced to build railroads and
soon building frames which lead to construction of early
skyscrapers. Concrete was then also reformulated adding
powdered brick and pebbles (which soon evolved into the
aggregates we use today) to the original mixture of lime, sand
and water. After that, the use of reinforced concrete was evident
all over the houses in Paris which started when a French
gardener named Joseph Monier uses the concrete mixture for
his pots with cage iron wires as reinforcement. More
technologies emerged during this time such as lighting, heating
and cooling systems, more use of glass, and use of other metals
as building material.
Modern Era
The modern era implies more change in building technology,
most of them aims to reduce the building construction’s cost.
More research nowadays are being done to upgrade the building
technology with the common aim which is to make construction
faster and economical.
BUILDING MATERIALS
SPECIFICATIONS WRITING
16 Divisions of Construction Materials based on Construction
Specifications International’s Master Format
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Div 00 Requirements of Bidding and
Construction
Div 01 General Requirements
Div 02 Siteworks
Div 03 Concrete
Div 04 Masonry
Div 05 Metals
Div 06 Woods and Plastics
Div 07 Moisture and Thermal Protection
Div 08 Doors and Windows
Div 09 Finishes
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Div 10
Div 11
Div 12
Div 13
Div 14
Div 15
Div 16
They are classified under the United Soil Classification
System (USCS) as:
Specialties
Equipment
Furnishings
Special Construction
Conveying Systems
Mechanical and Plumbing
Electrical
•
o
▪
GW, GM, GP – Gravels with > 50%
retained on No.200 sieve, and 50%
of coarse fraction retained on No.
40 sieve.
•
o
▪
•
Site Construction
ATTERBERG LIMITS are tests performed on soils passing
the No. 40 sieve as follows:
1. Liquid Limit (LL) – the moisture content at which a soil
changes from the liquid state to the plastic state, measured
when soil in a shallow dish flows to close a 12.5 mm grove
after 25 drops from 1cm.
2. Plastic Limit (PL) – the water content at which a silt or clay
material will just begin to crumble when rolled into a tread
approx 3.2 mm (1/8 inch) in diameter.
3. Plastic Index (PI) – is defined as the Liquid Limit minus the
Plastic Limit: LL – PL = PI, that is the range of water
content over which sediment behaves.
FILL MATERIALS
•
Fill materials - soil, crushed stone, and sand used to raise an
existing grade, or as a man-made-deposit, generally used
under spread footings, pavers, or concrete slabs on grade.
•
•
SW, SM – Sands with > 50%
retained on No.200 sieve and 50%
or more of coarse fraction passes
the No.40 sieve.
Granular Fill or Filters - soil materials conforming to above
General Fill requirements and to ASTM C33, size 67, with a
sand equivalent of not < than 50%, used to prevent the
movement of fine particlesout of soils and other natural
materials through seepage.
Borrow Fill – soil materials suitable as fill or sub-grade,
selected laboratory-approved pit-run gravel, disintegrated
granite, sand, shale, cinders or other similar materials with
not more than 35% fraction passing the No.200 sieve.
Base Course Materials are hard durable fragments of stone
and a filler of sand or other finely divided mineral matter,
free from vegetable matter and lumps of clay, complying
with the following AASHTO METHODS T-11 and T-26
Grading Requirements.
Soil Protection Systems
•
•
•
RIPRAP -Also known as rock lining is a constructed layer of
stone, placed to prevent erosion, scouring or sloughing of a
structure or embankment.
GABION SYSTEMS-In simplest terms, gabions are stonefilled wire baskets used to stabilize soil and prevent
erosion.
PAVEMENTS-Paving is a material that provides a wearing
surface for pedestrian or vehicular traffic in the
environment.
PAVEMENT TYPES
Pavement is a material that provides a wearing surface for
pedestrian or vehicular traffic in the environment.
1. Flexible Pavements – pavements that consist of concrete,
brick or stone unit pavers laid out on a sand setting bed
that is somehow resilient and which distributes loads to the
sub-grade in a radiating manner. In order to restrain its
horizontal movement, it will require wood, steel, stone or
concrete edging.
2. Rigid Pavements – pavements made of reinforced concrete
slabs or paving units mortared over a concrete slab. It
distributes the loads internally, transferring them to the
sub-grade over a large and broad area. This type of
pavement requires reinforcements and extension of the
base materials along their edges.
3. Turf Pavements – pavements made of unit pavers with
spacing in between to accommodate grass or ground
covers over a top soil mix.
Cement and Concrete
CEMENTING MATERIALS
Lime
Lime is one of the oldest manufactured building materials which
is used both as a mortar and plaster by early civilizations. The
Greeks used it extensively for mortars and plasters in their
structures and sculptures. However, the Romans were the first
to develop the first real cement by mixing lime putty and
volcanic ash.
Hydraulic Lime - A type of lime which will set under water.
Stalking or Hydration- The process of mixing quicklime with
water during which water is absorbed and heat is energetically
evolved, driving off much of the excess water in the form of
steam.
Cement
Cement was first developed by the Romans by mixing slaked
lime with pozzolana (volcanic ash) which hardened under the
water, but the art was lost with the fall of the Roman Empire. In
1756, Smeaton, an Englishman, rediscovered hydraulic cement,
but it was not until 1824 that Aspdin, an English bricklayer and
mason, invented and patented Portland cement.
Portland Cement
Portland Cement is made from materials which must contain the
proper proportions of lime, silica, alumina and iron components.
Blended Cement
In the Philippines, this is the type of bagged cement sold
commercially in hardwares, and is not pure portland cement
because pure portland cement is distributed in bulk.
Special
Cements:
1. White Portland cement – same materials as normal
Portland except in color (also called stainless
cement because it is free of iron impurities which stain
porous marbles, some granites and limestone and other
light-colored stones).
2. Masonry Cement – designed to produce better mortar
than that made with normal Portland cement or with a
lime-cement combination.
3. Air-entraining Portland Cement – small amounts of this is
added to the clinker and ground with it to produce airentraining cements, effective use for resistance to severe
frost.
4. Oil Well Cement – special Portland cement used for sealing
oil wells.
5. Waterproofed Portland Cement – normally produced by
adding a small amount of stearate, usually calcium or
aluminum to the cement clinker during the final grinding.
6. Alumina cement - Utilizes bauxite, the ore from which
aluminium is made, as the major raw material and is also
known as a quick-setting cement.
7. Masonry cements - these are prepared mixtures of
Portland cement with hydrated lime, granulated slag, silica,
etc. Small additions of calcium stereate, petroleum,
colloidal clays and other admixtures with the ingredients
and proportions varying widely and usually patented.
8. Natural cements - these are cements made of natural raw
materials found mixed in the correct proportions, needing
only grinding and burning in a kiln to produce a cement.
Their use today has largely been replaced by Portland
cement. Natural cements sets more rapidly than Portland
cement and are slower in developing strength.
9. Pozzolanic cement - is the type of cement made of lime
mortar and pozzolanic material. Various natural materials
contain active silica, among them pozzolan (volcanic ash),
granulated slag and pumice. Slag cement is a pozzolanic
cement.
Warehouse set occurs from the tendency of cement at bottom
layers to harden due to the pressure above when cement is
stored in high piles for long periods.
Types of Aggregates Used in Concrete:
Aggregate – sand, gravel crushed stone, cinder, crushed furnace
slag, burned clay, expanded vermaculite, and perlite.
Sand – found in riverbends, free of salt and must be washed.
Fine aggregate – smaller than ¼” diameter stones.
Coarse aggregate – bigger than ¼” diameter stones.
Concrete
Concrete – the resulting product when a large aggregate of more
than 6mm (1/4”) in size is added to cement, water and fine
aggregate.
Reinforced Concrete - concrete strengthened by having steel
embedded in it.
Plain or Mass Concrete - Concrete without reinforcement.
Concrete Mixes and
Additives
Concrete Mixes:
Class “AA” - 1:1 ½ :3 - concrete under water, retaining walls
Class A - 1:2:4 - footings, columns, beams, RC slabs
chemical called surface active agents, materials that have the
property ofreducing the surface tension of water intended for
use when better resistance to frost action is concerned.
Concrete Hardeners – applied on concrete surface to increase
hardiness and toughness.
Waterproofing (permeability-reducing) compounds – these
reduce the capillary attraction of the voids in the concrete or
mortar.
Class C - 1:3:6 - concrete plant boxes, etc.
Colored pigments - are mainly used to give color to concrete
floors. Two types, the Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on, for
surface coloring and Integral colors used for body coloring
and are incorporated in the mortar topping.
Control of Concrete Mixes:
Two Types of Concrete hardeners and admixtures:
Class B - 1:2 ½:5 - slab on fill, non-bearing walls
Slump Test – when freshly mixed concrete is checked to ensure
that the specified slump is being attained consistently. A
standard slump cone is 12 inches high (0.30) and 8 inches (0.20)
in diameter at the bottom and 4 inches (0.10) on top which is
open on both ends.
Compressive Strength Test – common quality-control test of
concrete, based on 7 and 28 day curing periods.
Concrete Additives – materials often added to the concrete or
applied to the surface of freshly placed concrete to produce
some special result.
Accelerators – an admixture which is used to speed up the initial
set of concrete. Such a material maybe added to the mix to
increase the rate of early-strength development for several
reasons.
Retarders – to delay or extend the setting time of the cement
paste in concrete.
Air-entraining agents – air-entrained concrete contains
microscopic bubbles of air formed with the aid of a group of
1. Chemical Hardeners – liquids containing silicofluorides or
fluosilicates and a wetting agent which reduces the surface
tension of the liquid and allows it to penetrate the pores of
the concrete more easily.
2. Fine Metallic Aggregate – are specially processed and
graded iron particles which are dry-mixed with Portland
cement, spread evenly over the surface of freshly floated
concrete, and worked into the surface by floating.
3. Water Reducing Admixtures – material used to reduce the
amount of water necessary to produce a concrete of given
consistency or to increase the slump for a given water
content.
4. Damproofers – materials used to reduce or stop the
penetration of moisture through the concrete. Reduces
permeability.
Bonding Agents:
Paste Slurry – often applied to such an old surface immediately
prior to pouring new concrete to increase the amount of paste.
Two Types of Bonding Agents:
1. Metallic Aggregate – iron particle are larger, but with same
materials as the permeability reducer. Bonding takes place
through the oxidation and subsequent expansion of the
iron particles.
2. Synthetic Latex Emulsion – consists of highly polymerized
synthetic liquid resin dispersed in water.
3. Set-Inhibiting Agents – prevent the cement paste from
bonding to the surface aggregate but will not interfere with
the set throughout the remainder of the pour.
4. Pozzolanic Admixtures – materials sometimes used in
structures where it s desirable to avoid high temperature or
in structures exposed to seawater or water containing
sulfates. Pozzolans maybe added to concrete mixes-rather
than substituting for part of the cement to improve
workability, impermeability, and resistance to chemical
attack.
Water-Cement-Ratio
The water-cement ratio - the amount of water used per bag of
cement.
Traditional materials used for form construction are Lumber,
Plywood, and Steel.
Metal Reinforcements
1. Steel Bars or Rods
Reinforcement for concrete construction is mostly in the form of
steel bars and rods of round or square cross section. The bars
may be plain or deformed (with lugs or projections for better
bonding to the concrete). They are called billet-steel bars or railsteel bars
2. Wire Fabric
Wire fabric made of cold-drawn steel wire is widely used for the
reinforcement of concrete slabs and floors, as well as for
stuccoed work.
3. Welded Wire Fabric
Fabric consists of a series wires welded together to form a grid
pattern. It comes in various sizes and spacings and gauges, e.g.
4”x4” – 6/6, 6” x 6: - 8/8 etc. Welded wire fabric is available in
rolls 5 or 6 ft. wide, 150, 200, and 300 ft. long
4. Triangle-mesh Wire Fabric
This is built up of either single or stranded longitudinal wires
with cross wires or bond wires running diagonally across the
fabric. The longitudinal wires are spaced at 4inches on centers
and the cross wires 4” or 8” apart.
5. Expanded Mesh
This is manufactured from solid steel sheets, where the sheet is
first cut or pierced in staggered slots or patterns; then the sheet
is held by the two sides parallel to the slots and stretched by
pressure until the desired openings of forms are obtained.
Expanded mesh is therefore free from mechanical and welded
joints. e.g. "Steelcrete"
6. Laths
Permanent centering or self-centering laths are produced in
many forms. These laths are furnished either in flat or segmental
sheets, pressed into a series of solid ribs, between which the
metal is stamped, perforated or deformed into an open meshwork. These laths are furnished painted or galvanized, and in
open-hearth mild steel or in special copper-bearing or alloy
steels, e.g. “RIBPLEX” , “HYRIB”.
Types of Processed Concrete
1. Aerocrete
This is a light–weight, expanded structural concrete produced by
adding a small amount of metallic aluminum powder to the
mixture of Portland cement and sand of cinders. On the addition
of water, a gas is generated which expands the wet mix and
forms small air cells throughout the material. It is used for
structural floor and roof slabs, partition blocks for sound
proofing, wall insulation, in rooms of refrigerator plants,
lightweight fill on top of structural floor and roof slabs. In
addition to its light weight, it has excellent fire-resistive qualities.
Lightweight aggregates can be divided into four general
classifications :
1. Aggregates of volcanic origin
1.
o
o
2. Gunite
This is the mixture of sand and cement deposited under high
pneumatic pressure with a machine manufactured under the
trade name CEMENT GUN, to which the required supply of
water is added just before the dry constituents emerge from
nozzle. GUNITE is used for encasing structural steel, when
reinforced, for floor and roof slabs and curtain walls. Ideal for
swimming pool construction.
2. Micaceous minerals
1.
o
3. Porete
A Portland cement concrete to which a chemical foam is added
to generate gases in the process of deposition, resulting in light
weight precast or shop-made unit in both hollow and solid
forms. It is manufactured in solid slabs for short spans roofs and
siding of industrial buildings.
4. Haydite
This is processed concrete added with lightweight aggregate.
Pumice, weighing from 25 to 60 lbs.per cu. ft. is
well qualified as a lightweight aggregate when
dry and well graded. Undesirable feature,
however, is its water absorption. This can be
mitigated by wetting the aggregate before it is
mixed with cement .
Perlite is composed of stable silicates, and is
inert and thus durable for use as a lightweight
aggregate or for insulation and is use in precast
slabs and blocks and in floor fill, fireproofing
and plaster.
Vermiculite is a micaceous mineral which
expands on application of heat to as much as 30
times its original volume. It is used as an
aggregate in concrete fireproofing steel, for
floor and roof fill, and for acoustic and fireproof
plaster.
3. Expanded shales and clays
1.
o
Lightweight aggregates from shales and clays
require heating the material in a kiln to a
temperature near its fusion point. The material
softens and coalesces to a sticky mass; escaping
gases are trapped, forming cellular structures
and expanding the volume of the material about
50%. Examples of clay, shale aggregates are
“AIROX”, “ROCKLITE”, Diatomite, “HAYDITE”.
4. By-product Aggregates
•
o
o
Expanded Slag. Expanded Slag or “foamed”
slags are made by treating molten blast furnace
slag with controlled quantities of water or
steam.
Foamed slag has been used for precast blocks,
cast-in-place walls of houses and for panel
filling of steel-framed buildings.
5. Cinders are composed of the ash components of the coal
along with the various quantities of unburned or partially
burned combustible matte
BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 1 MODULE 3-4
2. Cellular Concrete Blocks – lightweight block which is outstanding
in thermal and sound
3.1 Concrete Products
insulation qualities. Basic ingredients are cement-made from silicarich sand and lime-water, and aluminum powder.
Concrete Products
These are made of lightweight and heavyweight materials for use in
exterior and interior load-bearing walls, firewalls, curtain and panel
walls, partitions etc.
1. Concrete Block:
1. Hollow load-bearing concrete block – an 8” x 8” x 16” will
approximately weigh 40 to 50 lb. Made with heavyweight
aggregate and 25 to 35 lb. when made with lightweight
aggregate.
2. Solid load bearing block – defines as one having a core area
of not more than 25 percent of the gross cross-sectional area.
3. Hollow; non-load bearing concrete block – one in which the
core area exceeds 25 percent of the cross-sectional area.
4. Concrete building tile
5. Concrete brick
3. Brick – basic ingredient is clay.
Three Principal Forms:
1. Surface Clay – found near the surface of the earth
2. Shales – clay which have been subjected to high pressure
until they have become relatively hard.
3. Fire Clay – found at deeper levels and usually have more
uniform physical and chemical qualities.
Two Classes of Clay:
1. Calcareous Clays – contains about 15 percent calcium
carbonate and burn to a yellowish color.
2. Non-calcareous Clays – composed of silicate of alumina,
with feldspar and iron oxide. These clays burn buff, red or
salmon depending on the iron oxide content which vary
from 2 to 10 percent.
Standard Clay Brick Size is 2 ¼ x 3 ¾ x 8 inches
Common Sizes:
4” x 8” x 16” – for non-load bearing partitions
6” x 8” x 16” – for load bearing walls
Quality:
1.Hand made – backyard industry
2. Machine made – commonly sold
3. Steam cured – manufactured by big and nationally known
factories for load bearing walls. They are usually specified for
government and multi-storey buildings.
4. Structural Clay Tiles – are hollow units as opposed to brick which
is sold. Tiles are made from the same material as brick, but all clay
tiles are formed by extrusion in the stiff-mud process.
Types of Tiles:
1.Load bearing wall tile – used for bearing walls of light
buildings, the height usually restricted to four stories.
Structural load bearing wall tile are made in 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12
inches thickness.
2. Partition tile – non-load bearing
3. Back-up tile – intended for use in both bearing and nonbearing walls which will be faced with brick or facing tile.
4. Furring tile – used on the inside of exterior walls to provide
air spaces for insulation to prevent the passage of moisture
and to provide a suitable plastering surface. Classified as nonload bearing.
5. Fireproofing tile – structural steel must be insulated in
fireproof construction. One method of doing this is to cover it
with fire-proofing tile.
6. Floor tile – manufactured in both load-bearing and non-load
bearing grades in standard thickness raging from 3 to 12
inches in standard length and widths of 12 inches.
7. Structural Clay Facing tile – unglazed tile and may have
either a smooth or a rough textured finish. They are designed
to used as exposed facing material on either exterior or interior
walls and partitions.
8. Structural Glazed Facing tile – produced from high-grade
light burning clay which is suitable for the application of
ceramic or salt glaze.
5. Terra Cotta – means “fired earth” is a clay product which has been
used for architectural decorative purposes, since ancient Greece and
Rome. Modern terracotta is machine-extruded and molded or
pressed. The machine-made product is usually referred to as ceramic
veneer, and is a unit with flat face and flat or ribbed back.
Two Types of Ceramic Veneer:
Adhesion Type – held to the wall by the bond of the mortar to
the ceramic veneer back and to the backing wall.
Anchor type – are held y mortar and by wire tiles between the
terracotta and the wall behind.
3.2 Building Stones
Building Stones
These materials are usually of blocks or pieces of the basic
material which is rock.
Three general categories:
1. Igneous – formed as a result of the cooling of
molten matter.
2. Sedimentary – formed by the action of water either
by depositing materials at the bottom of a water
body or depositing them on the earth’s surface.
3. Metamorphic – rocks changed from their original
structure by the action of extreme pressure, heat,
or various combinations of these factors.
Classified according to form:
1. Rubble – includes rough fieldstone which may
merely have been broken into suitable sizes, or it
may include irregular pieces of stone that have
been roughly cut to size, usually used for and filling
material. (escombro and lastillas)
2. Dimension (Cut stone) – consists of pieces that
have been cut or finished according to a set or
drawing. (for facing walls)
3. Flagstone (Flat slabs) - consists of thin pieces
(1/2 in. and up which may or may not have had
their face dimensions cut to some particular size.
(for walks and floors)
4. Crushed rock – consisting of pieces varying I size
from 3/8 to 6 in. and is used to a large extent in
concreting.
Types according to origin:
1. Argilite – one formed d\from clay, commonly darkblue with faint shades of green, used for floor tile,
stair treads, coping stones, interior wall base,
interior window stools of exterior window sills.
2. Granite – igneous origin and composed of quartz,
feldspar, hornblende and mica. Its generally very
hard, strong durable and capable of taking a high
polish.
3. Limestone – a sedimentary rock which is either
oolitic, or calcite cemented calcareous stone
formed of shells fragments, particularly noncrystalline in nature, it has no cleavage lines and
uniform in structure and composition.
4. Travertine – a sedimentary rock, composed mainly
of calcium carbonate. It has been formed at the
earth’s surface through the evaporation of water
from hot springs.
5. Marble – metamorphic rock, one that has been
changed from its original structure in this case,
limestone and dolomite have been recrystallized to
form marble.
6. Serpentine – igneous rock with the mineral
serpentine. The mineral is olive green to greenish
black, but impurities may give the rock other colors.
7. Sandstone – a class of rock composed of
cemented silica grains. Colors include gray, buff,
light brown and red.
Slate rock – formed by metamorphosis of clays and 8.
shales deposited in layers. A unique characteristic of
the rock is the relative ease with which it may be
separated into thin tough sheets, called slates, ¼” or
more thick.
8. Gypsum – a soft mineral consisting of a hydrated
calcium sulfate from which gypsum plaster is made
(by heating); colorless when pure used as a
retarder in Portland cement.
Stone Construction:
1. Paneling – consists of using slabs of stone cut to
dimension and thickness to cover backup walls and
provide a finished exterior.
2. Ashlar – work requires the use of cut stone and
includes broken ashlar, irregular coursed ashlar,
regular coursed ashlar.
3. Rubblework – used as random when no attempt is
made to produce either horizontal or vertical course
lines. Small spaces are filled with spalls, small
stones and used as course rubble work, horizontal
course lines are maintained but no vertical course
lines used.
4. Trim – involves use of stones cut for a specific
purpose and include Quoin – stones laid at the
intersection of two walls.
5. As jambs – stones which form the sides of window
and door openings.
6. As sills – stones which form the bottom of window
and door openings
7. As belts – special stone courses which are built
into a wall for a particular purpose. One reason is to
provide architectural relief to a large wall of one
material or to provide a break I the vertical plane of
the wall, another reason is to hide a change in the
wall thickness.
8. As copings – one which is cut fit on the top of a
masonry wall. It prevents the passage of water into
the wall, sheds water to either inside or outside,
and gives a finished appearance to the wall.
9 .As cornices – specially cut stones which are built into and
project from a masonry wall near the top to provide the
appearance of a cave.
10.As lintels – stones which bridge the top of door and
window openings.
11. As stone steps – made to fit over an inclined concrete
slab or to cap steps cast in concrete.
12. As an arch stone – cut to form some particular type of
arch over a door or window opening.
13. As stone flooring – walks and patios, made by covering a
base of stone concrete brick or tile with flagstones, trimmed
flagstone, trimmed rectangular and square.
3.3 Masonry
Masonry
Is a common building material which is a built-up construction
or combination of building materials as clay, concrete, or stone
set in mortar; or plain concrete.
The following terms are commonly used in masonry work:
1. Bed – The horizontal surfaces on which the stones
or bricks of walls lie in the courses.
2. Course – A continuous layer of bricks, stones, or
other masonry units
3. Wythe or Tier – A continuous, vertical section of
the w
all, one masonry unit thick.
4. Bond – That connection between bricks, stones or
other masonry units formed by lapping them one
upon another carrying up the work, so as to form an
inseparable mass of building, by preventing the
vertical joints falling over each other (also called a
breaking joint).
5. Stretcher – A brick or block masonry laid
lengthwise of a wall
6. Header – A brick or block masonry extending over
the thickness of the wall.
7. Heading course – A course in which the bricks or
other masonry units are all headers.
8. Soldier – A unit laid on its end with its face
perpendicular to the face of the wall.
9. Quoins – The corner stones at the angles of
buildings, usually rusticated so as to project from
the normal surface of the wall.
10. Bond Stones – Stones running through the
thickness of the wall at right angles to its face, in
order to bind it together.
11. Blocking or Blocking Course – A course of
stones placed on top of cornice crowning the walls.
MASONRY WALLS
Walls that consist of modular building blocks or units bonded
with mortar to form walls that are fire-resistant, durable and
structurally efficient in compressive action. They can be
constructed as solid walls, cavity walls or veneered walls.
Masonry walls are classified according to the following:
Unreinforced masonry walls (also known as plain
masonry walls) – incorporate horizontal joint
reinforcement and metal wall ties to bond the wythes of
a solid or cavity walls.
Reinforced Masonry Walls – are walls that utilize
steel reinforcing bars embedded in grout filled joints
and cavities to aid the masonry in resisting stresses.
3.4 Metals
ypes of Metals
•
o
Ferrous – metal in which iron is the principal element
o
Nonferrous – containing no, or very little iron.
Ferrous Metal:
1. Steel – a malleable alloy of iron and carbon
produced by melting and refining pig iron and/or
scrap steel, graded according to the carbon
content.
2. Pig Iron – used to make cast iron which is high
in compressive strength but low in tensile
strength, and has little use for construction.
3. Wrought Iron – produced when pig iron is
melted in such a way as to remove nearly all of
the carbon and other impurities.
4. Alloy Steels – made by containing other
elements with the molten steel. Nickel,
chromium copper and manganese are used.
5. Nickel Steel – stronger than carbon steel and is
used to make structural members for building
chromium steel is very hard and corrosionresistant.
9. Stainless Steels – made with chromium or a
combination of nickel and chromium used in
buildings for exterior wall panels, frames for
doors, expansion joints, flashings, copings,
fascia and gravel stops.
10. Copper – bearing steel has high resistance to
corrosion and is used for making sheet steel
and metal lath.
11. Manganese Steel – offers great resistance to
abrasion and finds important use in the cutting
edges of heavy digging tools.
12. Weathering Steel – recently developed grade
of steel. It forms its protection against
atmospheric corrosion and thus requires no
painting.
Nonferrous Metal:
1. Aluminum – a lustrous, silver-white
nonmagnetic, lightweight metal which is very
malleable; has good thermal and electrical
conductivity; a good reflector of both heat and
light.
2. Aluminum Foil – used as a vapor barrier on
walls and ceilings and as reflective insulation.
3. Copper – a lustrous reddish metal, highly
ductile and malleable; has high tensile strength;
is an excellent electrical and thermal conductor;
is available in a wide variety of shapes; widely
used for downspout, electrical conductors,
flashings, gutter, roofing, etc.
4. Lead – a soft, malleable, heavy metal; has low
melting point and a high coefficient of thermal
expansion. Very easy to cut and work, enabling
it to be fitted over uneven surfaces, used for
roofing, flashing and spandrel wall panels.
5. Tin – a lustrous white, soft and malleable metal
having a low melting point; relatively unaffected
by exposure to air; used for making alloys and
solder and in coating sheet metal.
▪
STEEL
Steel refers usually to plain carbon steels, which is defined as alloys
of iron and carbon which do not contain more than 2% carbon and
which are made in malleable or ingot form. In the plain or straight
carbon steels, the iron is always in excess of 95%. Phosphorus,
sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen are present, the last three as impurities.
Manganese, silicon, aluminum, copper and nickel may also be
present either as residual impurities or as elements deliberately added
in small quantities to control the properties of the steel. Carbon steel
can be wrought, rolled, cast, and welded, but not extruded.
1. Wrought Carbon Steels:
▪
Structural steel
This is a medium carbon steel with its carbon content
controlled to give both the strength and ductility
necessary for its use. Structural steel is available in
angles, channels, I-beams, H columns, T shapes, Z
shapes, plates, round pipe columns, sheet piling, open
web joists, and light steel framing shapes.
▪
This is rigidized sheet fabricated from low-carbon cold
or hot-rolled steel sheets which are either galvanized or
covered with some type of bituminous coating. If
galvanized, corrugated steel is silvery in color and has
a glittering frosted surface. It is generally available in
18, 20, 22. 24, and 26 gauge sheet and strip.
▪
Steel Mesh and Wire Cloth
They are used for concrete reinforcement, lath for
plaster, stucco, and cement, fence, insect screens.
▪
Steel Windows and Doors
They are used for windows and doors for residential,
commercial, industrial, institutional and other types
such as for fire-rated materials.
▪
Hardware
They are used for finish hardware and other
miscellaneous accessories such as nails, screws,
rivets, etc.
Reinforcing Bars
These are usually used for reinforcing concrete and are
available in commercial
sizes.
▪
Corrugated steel
Sheet and Strip
Steel sheet is made from low carbon steels generally
containing about 0.15% carbon and not exceeding
0.25% carbon. Strip by definition is sheet material that
is 12” or less wide. It is used in fabricated form as
decking galvanized sheet, expanded metal, panels and
sandwich panels, and as a base metal for porcelain
enamel.
2. Alloy Steels:
These are steels to which various elements such as
manganese, silicon, aluminum, titanium, and
molybdenum have been added in sufficient quantity to
produce properties unobtainable in carbon steels in
cast, rolled or heat-treated form.
▪
High-strength low-alloy steels are a group of
trade name steels with improved mechanical
properties and resistance to atmospheric
corrosion, They are being increasingly used as
reinforcing for pre-stressed concrete, high
strength bolts, special structural steels and
cables for elevators, etc.
▪
Stainless steels generally used in architecture
are highly alloyed steels that contain more than
10% chromium. They are characterized by their
resistance to heat, oxidation and corrosion.
They are used where corrosion resistance,
durability, and minimum of maintenance is
necessary principally for exterior and interior
wall finishes, doors, windows, trims, railings,
signs and letters, appliances, etc.
Methods of Joining Metals
The four methods of joining metals are:
1. Soldering
Soldering is a method to join metals, to make electrical
connections, to seal joints hermetically with another
lower melting metal or alloy called the solder.
Metal Bath Dip
Metal Bath Dip defined as a metal-joining process
where the workpieces to be joined are immersed in a
pot of molten solder and because of the relatively low
melting temperature of the solder (between 350 and
600 degrees F), only adhesion between the solder and
the workpieces results. Typically, dip soldering is an
automated process used extensively in the electronics
assembly industry.
Soldering Iron
In this method the iron piece is preheated and applied
to the joint along with the solder and the flux (the flux is
a substance used in soldering to clean the surfaces of
the metals to be joined and to aid fluidity); the heat
from the iron forms the soldered joint.
Torch
The parts to be soldered are heated by the torch flame
and then the solder and flux are applied. This method
is limited to metals which can be heated without
altering their characteristics.
2. Sweat Method
The heating of the metals to be joined causes the
solder to run into the joint. This is the method used for
joining copper tubing and fittings. Fluxes for soldering
are generally of three types: corrosive, neutral and noncorrosive.
Corrosive fluxes are known as acid type and salt type
fluxes and include chlorides of zinc, ammonium,
calcium, magnesium, aluminum and other metal. Care
should always be taken with the corrosive fluxes. The
residue must be quickly removed, as it is not only
corrosive to the metal being joined, but it is also
electrically conductive as a rule and therefore cannot
be used for most electrical work.
Neutral fluxes are mild in type and are used for easily
soldered metals such as copper, brass, lead, and tin
plate. St
earic acid is a typical neutral flux.
Non-corrosive fluxes leaves residues which are
noncorrosive and nonconductive and therefore need
not be removed. Rosin is the principal flux of this type.
Noncorrosive fluxes are weak with their fluxing action
and their use are limited to the easily soldered base
metals.
3. Brazing
Brazing is a type of soldering in which the operating
temperatures are higher (but lower than in welding) and
in which stronger and higher-melting alloys are used to
fill the joints, which consequently are stronger than
ordinary soldered joints. The bond is obtained by
alloying between the brazing material and the surface
of the joined metals. Brazing is generally used where
the shape and position of the joint or the composition of
the metal or metals are not adaptable to welding. In
brazing the type of metal to be joined, the brazing
material, and their color are equally important because
galvanic action, strength of the joint, matching of colors
play a significant part in the finished product.
4. Welding
Welding is the process by which two metals are so
joined that there is an actual union of the interatomic
bonds. This may be brought about by close contact,
heating, pressure, adding molten metal, or
combinations of these methods. The resulting joints are
as strong or stronger than the metals joined. Welding
may be divided into two general types: pressure
welding in which pressure and heat make the weld; and
fusion welding, in which the heat and added metal
make the weld. In fusion welding the methods of
heating are gas flame and electric arc. The gas flame
now generally used is acetylene mixed with oxygen. It
will deliver about 5500˚F of heat which is sufficient to
melt the welding rod and the surrounding metal and
then fuse them together. In electric-arc method, when
the welding rod (or electrode) is brought near the joint
of the metals to be welded, an electric arc is formed
which melts and fuses the metal and the welding rod.
Aluminum Finishes
Aluminum products can and are often given a wide
range of finishes for both decorative and/or protective
purposes. Aluminum can be surface finished in four
types:
▪
Mechanical Finishes
▪
Chemical Finishes
▪
Electrolytic Oxide Finishes
▪
Organic Finishes
3.5 Wood
3. Structural Lumber – in intended for use in
heavy construction for load-bearing purposes
and is cut into timbers of large size than yard
lumber, 3 inches or more thick and 4 inches or
more wide. It is made from the heartwood of the
log.
Wood
It is a traditional building material, it is easily worked,
has durability and beauty. It has great ability to absorb
shocks from sudden load. In addition, wood has
freedom from rust and corrosion, is comparatively light
in weight, and is adaptable to countless variety of
purposes.
Finishes of Wood:
Classification of Trees:
1. Hardwoods – ‘deciduous’ trees that have broad leaves
which are normally shed in the winter time.
2. Softwoods – ‘conifers’ trees that have needles rather
than leaves and that bear their seeds in cones.
Moisture Content of Wood – expressed as a
percentage of the oven-dry weight and can be
determined by the oven-dry method or by an electricmoisture meter method.
Three categories of Lumber:
1. Yard Lumber – used for ordinary light
construction and finishing work and consists of
1 and 2 inches material manufactured into
common boards, shiplap, shelving dimension
lumber, center match, flooring, roof plank,
siding, v-joint, trim and molding of all kinds.
These are usually found in retail lumberyards.
2. Shop Lumber – usually left in 1 and 2 inches
rough thickness often containing knots or
defects not ordinarily permissible in other
categories. It is intended for use in shops or
mills making sash, doors and cabinets where it
will be cut into relatively short pieces and the
defective material discarded.
▪
S1S – surfacing or planning of one side
▪
S2S – two sides planed
▪
S4S – four sides planed
▪
Rough – as sawn and not planed
Wood Grain:
1. Edge Grain – annual rings run approximately at right
angle to the face.
2. Flat Grain – when the annual rings run more or less
parallel to the surface.
3. Angle Grain – when the annual rings are at about 45
degrees to the face.
Seasoning of Lumber:
1. Air-Drying – lumber is strip-piled at a slope on a solid
foundation. This allows air to circulate around every
piece while the sloping allows water to run off quickly.
2. Kiln-Drying – more expensive lumber which is
required for more refined uses so as wood will not
move, such as furniture. Flooring and general interior
use.
Pressure treated lumber is when lumber is
subjected to pressure and injected with chemicals or
salts to insure it from rots.
Specification when buying lumber:
Indicate no. of pieces, thickness, width, length, total bd.
Ft. kind of lumber and finish.
Recycled Waste Products, Building Boards and Papers
Building Boards – a group of sheets of building
materials often faced with paper or vinyl, suitable for
use as a finished surface on walls, ceiling, etc.
Kinds of Building Boards:
Example: 6-2” x 8” x 14’-0” = 112 bd. Ft. tanguile S4S
Glue laminated timber – term used to describe a wooden member
built up of several layers of wood whose grain directions are all
substantially parallel, and held together with glue as fastening
commonly used for beams, girders, posts, columns, arches, arches,
bowstring truss chords, usually softwoods are commonly used
because of their low cost, lightness and strength.
Glue use in laminating:
1. Casein glue – satisfactory for use in dry
locations not exposed to rain or water.
2. Urea-formaldehyde-resin – cheap and well
cure at from 70 degrees Fahrenheit up. Will
withstand soaking in cool water.
3. Phenol-formaldehyde-resin glues – not
usually recommended because of the high
temperature needed to cure them. Useful for
combining timber and plywood and are very
water-resistant.
1. Plywood – made by bonding together thin layers of
wood in a way that the grain of each layer is at right
angles to the grain of each adjacent layer.
▪
Veneer - each layer of plywood
▪
Rotary Cutting – a method of cutting wood
veneer in which a log is fixed in a lathe and
rotated against a knife so that the veneer is
peeled from the log in a continuous sheet.
2. Hardboard – made from processed wood chips.
Three grades of board:
Standard – flexible to be quite easily
bent
▪
Tempered hardboard – made by
impregnated standard board with a
tempering compound of oils and resin
and baking it to polymerize the
tempering material.
▪
Low-density hardboard – not as strong
and durable as standard hardboard.
4. Resorcinol-phenol-formaldehyde – resin
glues are expensive but have excellent qualities
of durability and water resistance.
3.
Insulating Fiberboard – made from three types of fiber –
wood, sugar cane, and
asbestos, and binder, formed into a board.
4. Chipboard – a large class of building board made from
wood and particles and a binder, often faced with
veneer.
5. Particle Board – a hardboard made from relatively
small particles.
6. Gypsum Board – a wall board having a gypsum core.
7. Straw Board – a hardboard made of compressed
wheat straw, processed at 350 to 400 degrees
Fahrenheit and covered with a tough kraft paper.
12. Plastic Foamboards – polystrene and polyurethane
plastics are formed by a patented process to about 40
times their original volume. Used for perimeter
insulation for concrete floor slabs, for wall and roof
deck insulation, and for roof decks when properly
supported.
Building Papers
In building construction, paper is used for sheathing,
roofing and insulation, in making asphalt shingles,
laminated and corrugated building products, and
concrete form materials, as a moisture and vapor
barrier; as cushioning material; as wallpaper; as an
envelope or sheath for other materials; and as a
fireproofing material.
Type of Wood Pulp:
8. Asbestos-cement Board – a dense, rigid board
containing a high proportion of asbestos fibers bonded
with Portland cement, resistant to fire, flame, and
weathering, has low resistance to heat flow.
1. Mechanical Pulp – or groundwood, is
produced by grinding blocks of wood against a
revolving abrasive stone or by grinding steamed
wood chips in a grinding mill.
9. Corkboard – from the outer bark of the cork oak tree,
cork granules is mixed with synthetic resin,
compressed and formed into sheet from 1 to 6 inches
thick and baked
under pressure into rigid boards.
2. Chemical Pulp – produced by digesting wood
chips in various chemicals to free the cellulose
fibers from the liquid binding.
10. Paperboard – made into two different types: a paper
pulp pressed into boards 3/16, or ¼in. thick, 4 ft. wide,
and 6, 7 or 8 ft. long. Usually one surface is primed for
easier finishing. The other is a layer of stiff paper folded
into corrugated from and faced on both sides with a
thick paper backing, cemented to the core.
11. Mineral Fiberground – thick mats of mineral fibers,
usually glass or rock wool are covered with a backing
of stiff paper on one or both sides to form rigid boards,
ranging in thickness from ½ to 2 in. The usual board
size is 24 x 48 inches.
3. Semi-chemical Pulp – wood chips are first
subjected to a mild chemical treatment and then
mechanically disintegrated in rotating disk
refiners.
Types of Paper:
1. Sheathing Paper – used to provide an airtight
barrier over walls, floors, etc.
2. Roofing Paper
▪
Roofing felts - used in making a builtup roof and are usually produced in 36
in. wide rolls, in various weights from 3
to 20 lb/square.
▪
Rolledroofing – a heavy, mineral
surfaced paper used as a final roof
covering, made 18 and 36 in. wide, in
various weights from 45 to 120
lb/square.
3. Insulating Paper – used to secure bulk and
entrapped air with as much strength as
possible. Insulating papers are made from both
wood-fiber insulating p aper and asbestos
fibers.
4. Cushioning Paper – similar to wood-fiber
insulating paper, but less attention is paid to
strength. Its chief use is for cushioning under
linoleum, carpets, or slate roofing.
5. Vapor Barrier Paper- intended to prevent the
passage of moisture vapor through walls,
ceilings and floors.
6. Laminating Paper – a special, high strength
kraft paper made for use in the production of
plastic laminates. The thin, strong paper is
impregnated with liquid plastic resin and several
sheet are laminated together under heat and
pressure to form the base for the plastic sheet.
7. Concrete Form Paper – made from strong
kraft paper in the form of a spiral tube and
boxlike from made from corrugated container
paper.
8. Wallpaper – paper from which decorative
wallpaper is made.
9. Envelope Paper – used as an outer covering or
envelope for a number of building materials.
One of these is gypsum board, composed of a
layer of calcined gypsum covered in both sides
by a sheet of kraft paper.
10. Fire Proofing Paper – made from asbestos
fibers, since this is an incombustible material.
This material maybe in the form of matted
paper, similar to asbestos insulating or roofing
paper, or it may be in the form of a cloth woven
from thread spun from asbestos fibers.
3.6 Fastening Materials
Nails
Nails are slender and straight pieces of metal fasteners with one end
pointed and the other end flared, enlarged or flattened for hammering
into wood or other materials. They are usually made of mild steel but
can also be of aluminum, copper, zinc, brass or stainless steel. For
greater strength specially in masonry construction, tempered high
carbon steel are used.
KINDS OF NAILS
Based on the process of manufacture, there are three kinds of nails in
common use. They are the cut nails, wire nails, and clinch nails.
1. Cut Nails - These are made from a strip of
rolled iron or steel of the same thickness as the
finished nail and a little wider than its length.
Machinery cuts the nails in alternate wedgeshaped slices and the heads are then stamped
on them. Cut nails have greater holding power
than wire nails.
2. Wire Nails – These are stronger for driving than
cut nails but not so pliable to bend or break
characteristics, specially when driven to
hardwoods and less likely to split the woods,
thus are generally preferred by the carpenters.
Wire nails are made from the same sectiondiameteras the shank of the nail by a machine
which cuts the wire in even lengths, heads and
points them and when desired, barbs them.
3. Clinch Nails – Nails made from open-hearth or
Bessemer steel wire and are used only in place
where it is desired to turn over the ends of the
nails to form a clinch, as in the case of battens
and cleats.
VARIOUS TYPES OF NAILS
1. Common Wire Nail (CWN) – a cut made of a
low-carbon steel wire with a slender plain shank
and medium diamond point usually used for
framing where finish is not important. Use for
general construction work and are usually
availble from 6d to 20d sizes (d is the symbol of
penny).
2. Finishing Nail – made from a finer wire than
the common wire nail, more slender with a
brad-type head that allows it to be set below the
surface of the wood, usually used in finishing
work. Its head leaves a small hole that can be
easily covered with putty.
3. Brad Nail – has a head that projects slightly to
one side almost flushed with the sides with the
same thickness. These are very light finishing
nails and are used for light, finished
construction and to hold mouldings. While most
nails are rated by their d-sizes and are sold by
the kilos, wire brads are measured by their
lengths (which varies from 5 millimeters [3/16”]
to 7.5 millimeters [3”]) and are usually sold by
the box.
4. Box Nail – a thinner version of the common
wire nail with a long shank usually barbed or
smoothed.
5. Casing Nail – a slender nail with a slightly
flared head for finishing work. These have
finishing head and are use for flooring, matched
ceiling, interior trim.
6. Ring-Shank Nail – a nail consisting of a series
of ring-like grooves around the shank for
increased holding power.
7. Roofing Nail – short nail with barbed or ringed
shank and diamond point with a large flat head
provided with neoprene, lead or plastic washer
for securing roofing felt or shingles to a roof
deck or roof boards. It is either galvanized or
bright (metal finish using a dip, usually a
mixture of hydrocloric, nitric, sulfuric acids and
water.
8. Metal Lath Nail – designed for securing metal
lath (a base fabricated either by slitting metal
and strenching it to form a diamond-shaped
mesh or by punching or forming sheet metal
classified as rib lath, diamond-mesh lath sheet
lath or wire lath).
9. Staple Nail – also known as Electrician’s Staple
Nail, it is a U-shaped piece of metal or heavy
wire with pointed ends driven into a surface to
hold a hasp or sheet of metal.
10. Concrete Nail/Masonry Nail – used for nailing
to concrete or masonry made of hardened steel
with a flat countersunk head and diamond point
with knurled or fluted shank.
11. Coated Nails – these are usually common or
box nails which have been given a coating for a
particular purpose. Usually the purpose is to
keep them from rusting. Common examples of
these are the galvanized nails, cement-coated
nails and the blued nails.
NAIL CONSTRUCTION METHODS
1. Toe-Nailing – also known as tusk or skew
nailing where one hammers the nail obliquely to
the surfaces being joined.
2. Face-Nailing – the nails are driven or
hammered perpendicular to the face of the
material.
3. Blind-Nailing – also known as secret or
concealed nailing where the nail heads are not
seen on the face of the work. The use of nails
that are not exposed to the weather when use
in finished roofing.
Screws
Metal fasteners that have tapered, externally helically-threaded
shanks with slotted heads, use for driving into wood and other
materials by turning with the use of a screwdriver. They have greater
holding strength and can be easily removed than nails. The more
number of threads per inch in a screw, the greater is its gripping
strength. It can be made of aluminum, brass, bronze, stainless steel
or steel. Its length varies from 1.3 mm (1/2”) to 15 mm (6”) with
diameters of up to 24 gauge.
Types of Drive
1. These are the basic drive design:
2. Slotted
3. Crosshead
4. Socket
5. Combination
Head Shapes
1. Countersunk Heads – can be concealed below
the wood surface.
2. Raised Heads – countersunk screws with a
slight domed head protruding from the wood
surface.
3. Round/Domed Heads - heads rest on the wood
surface.
Head Types
1. Flat (FH) – a countersunk head with a flat top
2. Oval (OH) or (OV) – a countersunk head with a
rounded top
3. Pan (PN) – a slightly rounded head with short
vertical sides
4. Round (RH) – a domed head, the most
universally used design in the past
5. Truss – an extra wide, low, large diameter head
with a rounded top. Also known as oven head,
stove head, and oval binding head
6. Hexagon [Trimmed] (HH) or (HX) – a standard
type of wrench-applied hexagonal head
characterized by clean, sharp corners trimmed to
closed tolerances, recommended for general
commercial applications
7. Hex Washer – a hexagonal head with built-in
washer
8. Slotted Hex Washer – a hexagonal head with
built-in washer and a slot
9. Socket Cap – a small cylindrical head using a
socket drive
10. Button – a low profile rounded head using
socket drive
11. Fillister – has a smaller diameter than the round
head but is higher with a deeper slot
12. Binding Head (Straight Side) – generally used
in electrical and radio work with the identifying
undercut beneath the head which binds and
eliminates fraying of stranded wire.
13. Hex Flange – similar to hex washer with the
exception that the top of the washer flange shall
be conical or slightly rounded.
14. Square Shoulder – a truss head on a square
shank which resist rotation when located or
driven into place
Thread Types
1. Coarse Threads – more commonly available
and have fewer threads per inch. They are
more tolerant to slight damage or corrosion. It is
usually specified as UNC or Unified Coarse.
2. Fine Threads – slightly stronger because the
smaller fine threads take up less of the
available area. They provide finer adjustments
since they advance less per rotation than
coarse threads. It is specified as UNF or Unified
Fine.
These thread types are available in the American inch-based
United Thread Standards designation or the ISO metric thread
designation.
KINDS OF SCREWS
1. Wood Screws – are usually used for millwork
and finishing rather than for structural framing.
They are used in fastening millwork where
resistance to withdrawal is a requirement.
Screws are designed to be much better at
resisting withdrawal than nails. Wood screws
have coarser pitch (few threads per inch) and
often have an unthreaded shank.
2. Metal Screws – usually threaded all the way to
their head and are self-tapping in that they only
require a pre-drilled hole or come with selfdrilling or self-tapping tips.
3. Drywall Screws – use to secure drywall to wood
(the coarse thread version) or metal studs (the
fine thread version). The head-to-shaft junction is
more curved to prevent tearing of the drywall.
They also come with self-drilling tips.
4. Lag Screw, Lag Bolt, Coach Screw – a bolt
with thin, coarse-pitched thread and a square
head.
5. Screw Anchors – an anchor having a metal
shell with a screw along its central axis (similar
to an expansion bolt), where a shell is placed in
a hole and a screw is driven into it thereby
expanding it and securing tightly the anchor into
the hole. It is locally called as tux screw usually
provided with a plastic shell.
6. Tekscrew – a kind of screw that is used to
fasten metal roofing sheets to the roof purlins.
Bolts
Bolts are threaded metal pins or rods with one end having the head
and with the external thread on the other end that accepts a mating
nut (a metal block with a central threaded hole to receive a bolt or
other threaded material) and is used for holding together or securing
different members or materials after being inserted through holes. The
two (2) categories of bolts used in steel frame construction are the
carbon steel bolts and the high-strength bolts. The former are known
as common bolts made of carbon steel with minimum copper content
not mor than 0.40% similar to ordinary machine bolts. While the latter
is made either of high-strength carbon steel or tempered alloy steel
meaning heat treated during manufacture in order to attain the
necessary strength. Pneumatic or Electric Impact wrench are used in
tightening these bolts.
Types of Bolts
1. Machine Bolts – a bolt having a straight shank and
a conventional head such as a square, button,
countersunk or hexagonal. They are used for heavy
assemblies such as anchoring to a post.
2. Carriage Bolts – a bolt having a circular head, an
oval or flat bearing surface with a square collar and
tightened with a nut only. The collar prevents the
bolt from turning. It is also known as a coach bolt.
3. Stove Bolt – small bolt with slotted heads, either
round or flat, which is countersunk into the work
piece with the entire length of shank threaded. It is
used for light assemblies.
4. Eye Bolt – a bolt with a looped head.
5. Plow Bolt – is a bolt similar to a carriage bolt
except the head is flat or concave, and the
underside is a cone designed to fit in a countersunk
recess.
6. Set Bolt – a bolt that is threaded all the way to the
head. Also known as tap bolt.
7. Tension Control Bolt – is a heavy duty bolt used
in steel frame constructions. The head is usually
domed and is not designed to be driven. The end of
the shank has a spline on which it is engaged by a
special power wrench which prevents the bolt from
turning while the nut is tightened. The spline shears
off once the appropriate torque is reached.
8. Toggle Bolt – a bolt having a nut with pivoted
flanged wings that close against a spring when it is
pushed through a hole and open after emerging
from the hole. It is used to fasten objects to a hollow
wall which is assessible only from one side. It is
used to fasten materials to plaster, gypsum boards
and other thin wall materials.
9. Expansion Bolts – an anchoring device having an
expandable socket (called expansion shields) that
swells as the bolt is tightened into it usually used for
attaching timber in masonry or concrete walls.
Types of Nuts
Nuts are short metal block having a central hole which is threaded to
receive a bolt or other threaded part or material.
1. Hex – a six-sided nut and also referred to as
a finished hex nut.
2. Nylon Insert Lock - a nut with a nylon insert
to prevent backing off and also referred to as
a Nylock.
3. Jam – a hex nut with a reduced height.
4. Nylon Insert Jam Lock – a nylock nut with a
reduced height.
5. Wing – a nut with “wings” for hand tightening.
6. Cap – a nut with a domed top over the end of
the fastener.
7. Acorn – a nut with a high crown used for
appearance.
8. Flange – a nut with a built-in washer like a
flange.
9. Tee – a nut designed to be driven into wood
to create a threaded hole.
10. Squre – a four sided nut.
11. Prevailing Torque Lock – a non-reversible
lock nut used for high temperature
applications.
12. K-Lock or Kep – a nut with an attached freespinning external tooth lockwasher.
13. Coupling – long nut used to connect pieces
of threaded rod or other male threade
fasteners.
14. Slotted – are used in conjunction with a cotter
pin on drilled shank fasteners to prevent
loosening.
15. Castle – similar to slotted nut but with the
slots in arounded section above the main nut.
TYPES OF WASHERS
Washers are perforated disks of metal, rubber or plastic, used under
the head of a nut or bolt or at a joint to distribute pressure, prevent
leakage, relieve friction or insulate incompatible materials.
1. Flat – a washer used to distribute load.
2. Fender – an oversize flat washer to further
distribute load specially on soft materials.
3. Finishing – a washer used to obtain a “finished
look” and usually used with an oval head screw.
4. Split Lock – the most common style of washer
used to prevent nuts and bolts from backing
out.
5. External Tooth Lock – another type of washer
with external “teeth” to prevent bolts and nuts
from backing out.
6. Internal Tooth Lock - another type of washer
with internal “teeth” to prevent bolts and nuts
from backing out.
7. Square – a square shaped washer.
8. Dock – washer that has a large outside
diameter and thicker than the standard.
9. Ogee – thick, large diameter, cast iron washer
with a curved or sculpted appearance used in
dock and wood construction.
Classification of Hinges:
1. Full Mortise Hinges – hinges that are countersunk into
both the door and jamb. Hinges that are used for most
doors
Rivets
Rivets are are short pins made of malleable metal such as steel,
copper or iron, having a head at one end. They are metal pins that are
used for permanently joining two or more structural steel members by
passing a headed shank through a hole in each piece and hammering
down the plain end to form a second head.
When a joint is accessible only from one side, explosive rivets are
used where the explosive-filled shank is hammered to detonate and
expand the shank on the other end. However, their use has been
largely superseded nowadays by bolting or welding which are less
labor-intensive methods.
Types of Rivet Heads:
2. Half Mortise Hinges – hinges that have one joint
countersunk into the door and the other attach to the
jamb.
3. Full Surface Hinges – hinges that are applied to both
door and jamb surfaces without mortise or being
countersunk.
4. Half Surface Hinges – applied to the surface of the
door without being mortise but are countersunk or
mortise into the jamb. These are used for lightweight
doors such as screen and storm doors.
Types of Hinges:
1. Countersunk, raised
2. Countersunk, flat
3. Button, coned neck
4. Button, straight neck
5. Pan, coned neck
6. Pan, straight neck
Hinges
Hinges are those finish hardware elements on which doors and
windows, cabinets, etc. turn, swing or slide, and open or close. They
are movable joints used to attach, support and turn a door about a
pivot consisting of two plates joined together by a pin which support
the door and connect it to the frame.
1. Butt Hinge – the most commonly used type. They are
referred to as butts because they are attached to the
butt edge of the door. They consist of two (2) leaves
with an odd number of knuckles on one leaf and even
numbers of knuckles on the other leaf. These knuckles
are attached with a pin. Both the knuckles and the pin
form the barrel of the hinge which is finished with a tip.
The pins are made in several styles: flat button tip, ball
tip, oval head, cone tip, steeple tip, bullet tip, hospital.
Varieties of Butt Hinge:
1. Loose Pin Hinge- also known as removable pin
hinge which allows its two parts to be separated.
2. Loose Joint Pin – hinge having two knuckles, with
one of which has a vertical pin that fits into the
corresponding hole in the other. The door may be
removed by unscrewing the hinge or lifting the door
off the vertical pin.
3. Fast Pin Hinge – a hinge in which the pin is
permanently fastened in place, either riveted, driven
in, or welded at both ends. The use of these variety
makes hanging of doors difficult.
1. Spring Butt Hinge
6. Spring Hinge – Used for swing doors containing one
or more spring in which the hinge returns to its closed
position automatically after the door is opened. It may
act on one or both directions.
Double Acting Spring
▪
Single Acting Spring
2. Spring Pivot Hinge
4. Olive-Knuckle Hinge – also known as Paumelle
Hinge in which the knuckles form an oval shape. A
type of loose pin hinge equipped with a ball bearing.
Only the knuckles are visible when the door is
closed.
5. Invisible Hinge – Also known as Soss Hinge (a
famous brand name) that is so constructed that no
parts are exposed when the door is closed.
▪
▪
Top Pivot
▪
Bottom Pivot
▪
Horizontal Type
▪
Vertical Type
FURNITURE HINGES type
1. Standard Butt – usually made of brass for general use.
2. Back Flap Hinge – hinge with wide plates for table leaves
and rabbeted full flaps.
3. Strap Hinge – hinge use for narrow sections.
4. Lift-off Butt – hinge used on cabinet doors for easy removal
without disturbing the settings.
Three (3) Types:
5. Loose Pin Hinge – also known as ball-tipped hinge.
1. Spring Tension Hinge
▪
Adjustable Tension
6. Stopped Hinge – usually used for box lids, opens at 90
degrees only.
▪
Half Surface Adjustable
Tension
7. Piano Hinge – also known as continuous hinge, having the
same length as the moving parts to which it is attached.
▪
Full Surface Adjustable
Tension
8. Clock Case Hinge – hinge where one plate is wider to allow
a projecting door.
9. Concealed Hinges
▪
Non-Adjustable Tensiom
▪
Full Surface Non-Adjustable
Tension
10. Pivot Hinge
11. Tee Hinge, T-Hinge
12. Glass Door Hinge
Cabinet Cathes
1. Friction Catch – A catch in which when it engages a
strike is held by friction.
2. Magnetic Pressure Catch – hinge held in place by
magnetic pressure.
Cabinet Locks
1. Rim Locks
3. Ball Catch – also known as bullet catch which holds a
door in place by means of projecting spring-actuated
steel ball which is depressed when the door is closed.
2. Mortise Locks
3. In-Laid Flap Locks
Cabinet Knobs
4. Lever Locks
1. Screw-in Knob
5. Locker Locks
2. Bolt-on Knob
6. Glass Door Locks
3. Flush Knob
Shelf Support
4. Flush Ring
1.
5. Pull
1. Pin Mounted
2. Plug-In
Lid Stays
3. Screw-In
4. Screw-Mounted
Drawer Runners
1. E-Single Extension – the withdrawal distance is
designed to be less than the installation length.
2. V-Full Extension – has a pull-out distance equal or
greater than the installation length.
3. T-Telescopic Extension – full extending runners.
5. Surface Mounted
6. Glass Shelf Supports
4.1 Different Types of
Waterproofing
used about ¾ gal. of soap to 1 gal. of water, and 2oz. of
alum to 1 gal. of water both substances to be perfectly
dissolved in water before using. Both solutions should be
applied with a soft, flat brush (one for each solution), the
soap boiling hot and the alum solution of 60 to 70°F. The
soap solution is applied first and allowed to dry - usually for
24 hours. Then the alum is applied and allowed to dry for the
same length of time. This constitutes one treatment, as
many treatments may be applied as necessary. The
solutions should be well rubbed in, but care should be taken
to avoid frothing when applying the soap wash.
Types of Waterproofing:
o
Torch Applied, Integral and Membrane
o
Cementitious
o
Sprayed Polyurethane Foam
o
Elastomeric
o
Alum, lye and cement washes.
o
Cement grout, with or without the addition of water –
repellants.
o
Paraffin and other mineral bases, applied cold in solution
or prepared in melted.
o
Miscellaneous materials of unknown composition sold
under various trade names.
o
Specially prepared bituminous products, e.g., “FLINTKOTE”, “JOHN-MANSVILLE”, etc.
o
Asphalt emulsions. Minute asphalt particles dispersed in
water and maintained in suspension (until applied) by a
mineral colloid emulsifying agent. The product is generally
called Asphalt Base Clay Emulsions. When the water vehicle
evaporates, resilient reinforced weatherproof film remains.
Such coatings resist passage of free water but allow
movement of water vapor through the film and are classed
as breathing films.
o
Cutback Asphalts. These are composed of a wide variety
of products from thin liquids to heavy paste. Often one or
more asphalts dissolved in solvent are filled with minerals
and fibers to meet requirements of different coating uses.
Cutback asphalts provide tough, durable films resistant to
the passage of water vapor.
Types of Damp-proofing:
o
Damp-roof Membrane
o
Asphalt & Bitumens
o
Plastic sheets
Sound Insulation
o
Types of Sound Insulation Applications & Materials:
o
SPF (Sprayed Polyurethane Foam)
o
Plaster Type
o
Fiberglass Type
Waterproofing Coatings and Washes
The materials employed as surface coatings may be classified
as follows:
o
Alum and soap mixtures applied in alternate mixtures
(known as the Sylvester process), which penetrates the
pores of the concentrate forming insoluble compounds due
to chemical action between the alum and soap solutions,
and these compounds prevents percolation. The proportions
Types of Waterproofing according to application:
1. Integral Waterproofing Compounds
These are waterproofing compounds that are
manufactured and sold under various trade names and
are available in either powder or liquid form, e.g.,
▪
“SAHARA”
▪
“POZOLITH”
▪
Truscon “ZILICON”
▪
“AQUELLA”
▪
“ANTI-HYDRO”
2. Membrane Waterproofing
The layers of waterproofing materials used in this
method range from the ordinary tar paper laid with
coal-tar pitch to asbestos or asphalted felt laid in
asphalt. In this method, all concrete surfaces to be
waterproofed should be as smooth as possible and
should be cleaned and dry. The concrete should be
allowed to set thoroughly and all uneven surfaces
should be leveled up with a coat of cement mortar. All
sharp projections on the concrete or masonry should
be removed or they will puncture the waterproofing.
4.2 Thermal Insulations
Three ways of heat transfer:
1. Conduction – the inside of a concrete wall which has one side
exposed to outside winter temperatures feels cold to the touch.
Heat is being conducted from the side of higher temperature to
that lower temperature.
2. Radiation – from this point, it is transferred to the outside air
by radiation.
3. Convection – when air is heated, it expands and begins to
circulate, during the circulation it comes in contact with cooler
surface, some of its heat is given up to them. It is therefore
important to try to prevent air currents from being set up in the
walls and ceiling of our buildings.
Kinds of Thermal Insulation:
1. Loose Fill:
o
Fibrous type – made from mineral woolrock wool,
glass wool, or slag wool – or vegetable fiber – usually
wood fiber.
o
Granular insulation – made from expanded minerals
such as vermaculite and perlite or from ground
vegetable matter such as granulated coork.
o
Fibrous loose fill – used to insulate walls of buildings
built without insulation.
o
Granules – are graded into four sizes, 1, (3/8 in. to no.
16 sieve) and sizes 2 (no. 4 to no. 30 sieve) used as
loose-fill insulation for sidewalls and ceilings over
suspended ceilings, between wood sleepers over a
concrete floor slab, as fill for the cores of concrete
blocks, and sizes 3 (no. 8 to no. 100 sieve) size 4 (no.
16 to 100 sieve).
2. Blanket Insulation – made from some fibrous materials such
as mineral wool, wood fiber, cotton fiber, or animal hair,
manufactured in the form of a mat, 16, 20 or 24 in. width, in 8
ft. lengths or put up in rolls of from 40 to 100 linear feet, with
controlled thickness of 1, ½, 2, 3 and 4 inches.
3. Batts – similar to blankets but they are restricted to 48 inches
long more or less they are always covered with paper, and
made especially for installation between stud spacings.
4. Structural Insulation Board – made from organic fiber-wood,
cane, straw or cork. The wood and cane raw material is first
pulped, after which it is treated with water proofing chemicals.
9. Corrugated Insulation – usually made from paper foamed
into shapes that produce enclosed air pockets. One type is
produced by shaping heavy paper into a series of small
regular semicircular corrugations and covering a both sides
with a sheet of flat paper to give strength and produce the air
pockets.
4.3 Glass and Glazing
Materials
Glass and Glazings
o
Strawboard – made from carefully selected straw,
fused under heat and pressure into a panel 2 inches
thick and 4 ft. wide.
Glass – a hard, brittle inorganic substance, ordinarily
transparent or translucent; produced by melting a mixture of
silica, a flux and a stabilizer.
o
Corkboard – made from granulated cork mixed with
resin and pressed into sheets of several thickness,
depending on the use to which they will be put.
Glazing - in architectural specifications is the term used for
the installation of glass. It is the setting of glass in an opening.
o
5. Block or Rigid Slab Insulation – type of insulation is so
called because the units are relatively stiff and inelastic. In
most cases inorganic materials are used in their manufactures.
6. Reflective Insulation – made from such materials as
aluminum or copper foil or sheet metal, with bright surfaces
that reflect heat rather than absorbing it.
7. Foamed-In-Place Insulation – this is polyurethane product
made by combining a polyisocyanate and a polyester resin.
8. Sprayed-on-Insulations – materials used are polyurethane
foam asbestos fiber mixed with inorganic binders, vermiculite
aggregate with a binder such as Portland cement or gypsum
and perlite aggregate using gypsum as binders.
Glazing Materials - The materials used for making a
weathertight joint between the glass and the frame into which
the glass sets.
Major types of Glass are:
1. Window and Sheet Glass – a soda-lime type of glass
used for general glazing, mirrors, insulating and
laminated glass.
Classification of Sheet Glass:
▪
Window Glass – used for glazing windows
doors and storm sash in residential buildings
where good light and vision are required at
moderate cost.
▪
Heavy Sheet Glass – used for glazing windows
and doors where greater strength is required but
where slight distortion is not objectionable.
▪
Picture Glass – used for covering pictures,
photographs, maps, charts projector slides and
instrument dials.
2. Rolled and Rough Cast Glass – used where clear
vision is not required, such as by factory roofs and
walls, windows for halls and staircases, skylights, and
partitions in offices. Cast glass diffuses light, and
because of its low reflecting and absorption index,
transmits 90 to 93 percent of light rays striking it.
2. Plate Glass – the distinguishing feature of this glass is
its surface rather than the composition and thickness. It
is formed by rolling molten glass into a plate that is
subsequently ground and polished on both sides to a
perfectly flat plane after cooling. It provides a virtually
clear and indistorted vision.
3. Cathedral and Figured Glass – manufacturing is
similar to rolled and rough-cast glasses. However, they
contain a pattern or texture impressed usually on one
surface by a patterned roller.
There are two kinds
▪
one with thickness up to 8 millimeters
(5/16”)
▪
the heavy plate glass from 16
millimeters (5/16”) to 32 millimeters (11/4”).
4. Wired Glass – simply a rolled glass into which
diamond-shaped wire mesh is inserted during the
proces of manufacture.
5. Heat –Absorbing Plate Glass – made by adding
ingredients to the mix used in making regular slate
glass so that the finished product is pale bluish-green
or gray.
▪
6. Tempered Plate Glass – three to five times as strong
as regular plate of the same thickness – and area in
resisting compressive forces and fracture due to strain
or thermal shock.
3. Float Glass – is produced by pouring molten glass into
a surface of molten tin and allowing it to cool slowly
and the resulting flat and parallel surface minimize
distortion and eliminate the use of grinding and
polishing. Float glass is manufactured for majority of
flat glass production.
7. Vitreous Colored Plate – polished plate glass can be
heat-strengthened and coated on one side with
vitreous color which is fire-fused to the surface.
8. Laminated Safety Glass (Bullet Proofing) – widely
used in the automotive industry and transportation, but
now finding some uses in the building industry, like
glass that can withstand firearm attack and explosions.
Other Types of Glass:
1. Reflective Glass – used to control glare and reduce
solar heat. It the product of a glasscoating process
which is carried out in a large, rectangular vacuum
chamber. Manufactured in two types, silver and gold,
the glass can be specified in any one of three nominal
light transmittance of 8, 14, or 20 percent.
1.
9. Insulating Glass – consists of two sheets of plate or
sheet glass, separated by an air space, and joined
around the edges to produce a hermitically sealed unit.
10. Annealed Glass – type of glass that is cooled slowly to
relieve internal stresses.
11. Heat Strengthened Glass – is annealed glass that is
partially tempered by the process of reheating and
sudden cooling. This has the about twice the strength
of annealed glass with the same thickness.
12. Heat Absorbing and Glare-Reducing Glass (Tinted
Glass) – Any type of glass that absorbs percentages of
the total radiant energy of the sun and includes glass
that has been made translucent by surface treatment.
13. Patterned Glass – is semi-transparent glass with
distinctive geometric or linear designs that was formed
during the rolling process that diffuse light and obscure
vision.
14. Structural Glass – is a specially ground and polished,
opaque colored glass obtained bythe addition of
metallic oxides. It is used for facing material for vertical
and horizontal surfaces of walls, partitions and narrow
flat surfaces.
15. Tempered Glass – annealed glass that has been
reheated to just below the softening point and then
suddenly cooled by subjecting both surfaces to jets of
air. This process induce compressive stresses in the
outside surfaces and edges of the glass (which cools
faster) with the inner portion to be under the state of
tensile stresses, the two forces/stresses being
balanced. This glass cannot be drilled or cut, that is
why all dimensions, holes, hardwares must be
designed before its manufacture. When fractured, the
glass breaks up into relatively harmless, pebble-sized
pieces.
16. Obscure Glass – has one or both sides acid-etched or
sandblasted to obscure vision. Both process, however
weaken the glass and makes it difficult to clean.
17. Spandrel Glass – opaque finish use for concealing the
structural elements in a curtainwall construction. It is
produced by fusing a ceramic frit to the interior surface
of tempered or heat-strengthened glass.
18. Low-Emissivity Glass – or Low-E glass is produced
by depositing a low emission coating either on the
glass itself or over the transparent plastic film
suspended in the sealed air space of the insulating
glass. This glass selectively reflect the longer
wavelengths of the radiant heat while transmitting
visible light.
Glass products:
1. Glass Blocks – comparable in many ways to unit
masonry but have the added feature of transmitting
light.
2. Solid Glass Brick – also made to admit light into a
building, because of its solid construction, it offers
greater protection against vandalism than conventional
window glass or glass blocks. The ability of the brick is
to allow soft passage of light.
Glazing materials in general use are as follows:
1. Wood Sash Putty – is the cement composed of fine
powdered chalk (whiting) or lead oxide (white lead)
mixed with boiled or raw linseed oil. It may contain
other drying oils such as soybean and perilla. As the oil
oxidizes, the putty hardens; and if rapid hardening is
desired, litcharge or special dryers may be added.
Putty is also used to fill up holes and cracks in
woodwork. The wood should be treated with boiled
linseed oil or a priming paint before putty is applied.
Putty should never be painted unless it is thoroughly
dry.
2. Metal Sash Putty – is made of materials that adhere to
non-porous surfaces. It should always be applied as
per recommendation of the manufacturer. In general, it
should be painted two (2) weeks after application.
Metal sash putty is made in two types: a.) exterior
glazing and b.) interior glazing.
3. Elastic Glazing Compound - is made from selected
processed oils and color pigments compounded so that
iot will remain plastic and resilient over a long period of
time. They are generally used where vibration and
twisting occurs.
4. Polybutane Tape – a non-drying mastic made in
extruded ribbon shapes of various widths and
thicknesses and must be applied with pressure for
proper adhesion. It remains plastic over extremely long
periods of time and is also used as a continuous bed
material with polysulfide sealing compound.
5. Polysulfide Elastomer Sealing Compound – is a
compound composed of two-part synthetic rubber. The
activator and the base compound are generally mixed
at the job site and applied with a caulking gun or
spatula. The use of this material requires that the
surrounding areas be protected by masking with tape
and any spillage shall be removed immediately
because once the mixture sets, it will be almost
impossible to remove.
6. Compression Materials – are extruded or molded
shapes made of rubber, neoprene, vinyl, or other
plastics. In order to achieve a weathertight joint, the
shape must be compressed not less that 15%.
7. Gaskets – are used between the glass and extruded
aluminum and wood-framed windows. They are made
of non-hardening materials such as vinyl, rubber.
8. Stabilizers and Metal Joining Units – are used
between two large glass panels, as used in glass
curtainwalls wher wind velocities are normally higher
than the glass can withstand without this protection.
Glazing Systems
1. Face Glazing – refers to the setting of small glass
panels or panes in a rabetted frame, held in place with
glazier’s points and sealed with beveled head of putty
glazing compound.
▪
Glazier’s points – these are metal points that
hold a glass pane in a sash until the face putty
has hardened.
▪
Putty – is a mixture or compound of whiting and
linseed oil, of dough-like consistency when
fresh, used in securing window panes or
patching of woodwork defects.
▪
Face Putty – is the putty or glazing compound
formed on the exterior side of a glass pane.
▪
Glazing compound – is an adhesive
compound used as putty, formulated so as not
to become brittle with age.
4. Structural Gasket Glazing – are pre-formed synthetic
rubber or other elstomeric materials to secure a glass
pane or unit in a window frame or opening. The
gaskets are held in compression by forcing a keyed
locking strip into a groove in the gasket. The glass
pane must be supported on at least two sides by the
frame or a support gasket.
2. Wet Glazing – is the setting of glass in a window frame
with glazing tape or a liquid sealant.
▪
Glazing tape – is a preformed ribbon of
synthetic rubber such as butyl or
polyisobutylene, having adhesive properties
used in glazing to form watertight seal between
glass and frame.
▪
Cap bead or sealant – an adhesive liquid of
synthetic rubber injected into the joint between
a glass pane or unit and a window frame,
forming a watertight seal upon curing.
▪
Glazing bead or stop – is the wood molding or
metal section secured against the edge of a
glass pane or unit to hold it in place.
▪
Heel Bead – is an adhesive liquid of synthetic
rubber injected between a glass pane or unit
and a glazing bead that forms an airtight seal
upon curing.
▪
Setting blocks – made of lead or synthetic
rubber placed under the lower edge of a glass
pane or unit to support it within the frame.
4.4 Doors and Door
Hardwares
Doors
These are movable panels used to open or close an
entranceway. They are the means of access or approach (ingress) to
and exit (egress) from a room, building or passage.
Kinds of doors according to operation:
3. Dry Glazing – is the setting of glass pane in a window
frame with a compression gasket instead of glazing
tape or liquid sealant.
▪
Compression gasket – a pre-formed strip of
synthetic rubber or plastic compressed between
a glass pane or unit and a window frame to
form a watertight seal and cushion for the glass
pane.
1. Swinging Doors – normally swing on hinges fixed on a
side jamb, either pulled or pushed. Some may be pivoted
from its head jamb and threshold.
2. By-pass Doors – glide on an overhead track and long
bottom guides/rails fixed on the floor. They may be used
for exterior and interior purposes.
3. Surface Sliding Doors – mounted on exposed overhead
tracks, usually used for interior and exterior purposes.
These doors usually provide access through the full width
of the doorway.
4. Pocket Sliding Doors – glides on an overhead track and
vanishes into a pocket or recess within a wall. Pockets may
be built on both sides, each to take one of thedoor panels.
They are generally for interior use only but may be
designed for exterior wall locations.
5. Folding Doors – usually used to subdivide large interior
spaces with door panels hinged to fold against each other
when opened.
Metal Doors and Frames
Types of Metal Doors
Steel Doors
Types According to Design:
1. Flush
▪
Full Flush
6. Classification of Door Frames:
▪
Flush Panel
7. Wooden Door Frame
▪
Stile and Rail Construction
8. Aluminum Door Frame
▪
Stile and Panel Construction
9. Iron Door Frame
▪
Recessed Panel
Three Types:
a). Angle Iron Door Frame – made from angle iron
40mm X 40mm X 6mm with iron hinges welded to
frame. Joints should be flushed welded and ground
smooth with grinder.
b.) T Iron Door Frame - Frames are made from T Iron
sections.
c.) Pressed Steel Door Frame – Manufactured from
mild steel sheet 1.25 mm thick.
2. Glass
▪
Half Glass
▪
Half Glass with Muntin
▪
Full Glass
3. Vision Lite
4. Narrow Lite
5. Louvered
▪
Bottom Louvered
▪
Full Louvered
▪
Full Louvered with Vision Lite
6. Dutch
Door Finishes
1. Galvanized and primed for painting
2. Baked Enamel paint
3. Vinyl Cladded
4. Aluminum or Stainless Steel Cladded (maybe polished or
textured)
Types of Door Edges
1. Beveled Edge
a. Face Welded – the joint between the head and the jamb faces
are completely arc welded along their length either internally or
externally. The remaining frame profile, like the soffit, stops,
rabbets are not welded.
b..Full Profile Welded – specified also as Fully Welded or
Continuously Welded. The joints of all the elements of the head
and jamb profiles, i.e., soffit, stops, rabbets, faces and returns are
completely arc welded internally and externally.
1. Slip-on Drywall – frames use for installation in existing drywall
construction. Not available with welded corners.
2. Double Beveled Edge
3. Overlapping Astragal
Steel Fire Doors
4. Split Astragal
o
Single Rabbet Frame
A door assembly of a fire-resistant door, doorframe and door
hardware needed to protect the openings of a fire-rated wall in a
building. The doorframe and the hardware are required to have a fireresistance rating similar to the door. The door (with a maximum size
of 1.22 meters x 3.050 meters) must be equipped with self-latching
closers.
o
Standard Double Rabbet Frame
Aluminum Doors
o
Covemold Frame
Doors generally fabricated from extrusions and rolled shapes.
o
Cased Open Frame
Wood Doors
Steel Door Frames
1. Nomenclature for Steel Door Frames
2. Types of Steel Frame Installations
Types of Wood Doors:
o
Butt-Frame Installation
1. Batten Doors
o
Wrap-Around Installation
2. Panel Doors
3. Types of Steel Frame
o
o
Knocked Down – frames that are field assembled and
shall be of rigidly interlocked frame joints so as to
maintain alignment and assure performance of
completed frames when field assembled.
Welded
3. Flush Doors
Wood Flush Doors
Doors with no visible seams on both sides or faces.
Types of Design
1. Plain flush door
2. Flush door with glass inserts
3. Flush door with louvered
inserts
Construction – there are three types of flush door according to their
construction:
1. Hollow Core Flush Door – contains a framework
consisting of stiles and rails which bordered the
expanded honeycombed core of corrugated
fiberboard or of a grid of interlocking horizontal and
vertical wood strips. This type of door is usually
covered with plywood on both faces and has little
inherent thermal or acoustic insulation
characteristics. It is lightweight and is generally use
for interior applications.
2. Solid Core Flush Door – contains a core consisting
of bonded staved lumber blocks, particle boards or of
mineral composition. It is primarily use for exterior
applications and may also be used as sound
insulation. Solid core door is also chosen whenever
increased fire resistance or stability is required. The
bonded staved lumber core is always used because
it is the most economical unlike the mineral
composition core who has a low-holding strength for
hardwares.
3. Wood Framed Flush Door – contains a framework
of stile and rail covered on both faces with veneer of
manufactured boards such as plywood.
Wood Panel Doors
Doors which consist of a framework of horizontal rails and
vertical stiles that may be either made of veneered hardwood
or solid softwood. This framework holds in place solid wood
panels, glass lights inserts or louvers.
1. The available designs for Wood Panel Doors are;
▪
Panel
▪
Panel with sash
▪
Louvered Panel
▪
French door
▪
French door with divided lights
2. Construction - A framework consisting of the rail and stiles
whose joints are doweled or dovetailed with mortices and
tenons. The rail is composed of the top rail, lock rail and the
bottom rail. The stile is made up of the hinge stile (from which
the door is hung) and lock stile which holds the lockset. Door
heights range from 2.030 meters – 2.440 meters and widths
up to 0.915 meter. Thickness is usually 35 millimeters or 45
millimeters.
Batten Doors
Are doors consisting of vertical board sheathing nailed at right angles
to ledgers or cross strips. Diagonal brace is nailed and notched
between and into the ledgers.
Sliding Doors
These doors may either be of the bypass, surface or pocket sliding
type. Their panels may be made of wood, glass or polysterene with
flush, louver or panel designs.
Special Doors
1. Types of Coiling or Rolling Door Designs;
2. Wood or Aluminum Panel Doors
1. Metal Covered Doors
3. Wood or Steel Flush Doors
2. Coiling Doors and Grilles
4. Steel or Fiberglass Ribbed Doors
3. Plastic-Faced Doors
5. Steel or Aluminum Slatted Sections
4. Folding Doors
5. Overhead Doors
6. Sliding Glass Doors
7. Tempered Glass Doors
8. Revolving Doors
3. Plastic-Faced Doors
Doors constructed of various materials and faced with melamine
plastic sheets, vinyl sheets, polyvinylflouride films, or other
special-duty or decoratrive plastics.
9. Flexible Doors
10. Hangar Doors
Description:
1. Metal Covered Doors
Doors composed of metal facings of relatively light gauge wrapped
around a core of wood or other material. It serves a decorative or
protective function rather than a structural one. Kalamein doors and
other metal-covered swinging fire doors are samples of this type.
2. Coiling Doors and Grilles
Also known as rolling doors consisting of horizontal and interlocking
metal slats that have rollers guided by a track on either or both sides
and is open by a coiling motion about an overhead drum located at
the head of the door opening. The door maybe operated manually or
through the use of hoist or lever and/or automatically through the use
of electric motor. These doors are available with vision panels,
thermal insulation and other options.
4. Folding Doors
Doors made of panels or leaves of various widths and thickness
that are hinged together that fold together when open, use to
subdivide large interior spaces. For exterior use, the most
common type is the steel accordion door which is made of steel
pleats that folds like an accordion.
5. Overhead Doors
6. Sliding Glass Doors
Doors that are constructed of one or several leaves of wood,
steel, aluminum or fiberglass and is open by swinging or rolling
up to a position above the door opening. The door may be open
manually or operated by a chain hoist or electric motor. Also
known as canopy doors
Doors of narrow stile sliding type usually made of
aluminum extrusions. Some are made of steel, wood, or other
materials.
Two types:
a.) slide at straight line or parallel straight lines and
b.) slide around corners in a building (have a hinged door at
the jamb).
Three types:
1. Canopy Door
7. Tempered Glass Doors
Operates in vertical tracks on the door side frame and
when fully opened forms a canopy of about one-third of
the door’s height above the opening.
1. Balanced - the door is
suspended at its center and
balanced throughout its
operation by counterweights.
2. Cantilevered – door supported
by bracing member on both
sides operated through
counterbalance. The three kinds
of cantilevered doors are; inward
folding, telescoping and outward
folding.
Doors made of either figured or polished tempered glass.
8. Revolving Doors
Doors that contain three or four “leaves” or “wings” that rotate
about a central, vertical pivot within a vestibule shaped like a
cylinder. It is generally chosen as entrance doors in large
commercial and institutional buildings because it provides a
continuous weatherseal, which eliminates drafts, and prevents
huge cooling loss or fluctuations in temperature whenever it is
use by a great number of people. It excludes pollution from dirt
and noise and provides security by deterring unauthorized or
undesired access
9. Flexible Doors
Doors that is flexible and made of plastic or rubber.
2. Retractable-Guided by horizontal tracks inside
and recedes completely when opened.
3. Sectional Door- Opened by vertical lift action
guided by fixed vertical and horizontal tracks.
10. Hangar Doors
Doors that are specially fabricated for aircraft hangars.
Finishing Hardware:
Hinge - a movable joint used to attach support and turn a door about
a pivot, consists of two plates joined together by a pin which the door
and connect it to its frame, enabling it to swing open or closed.
Door Hardware Functions:
1. Acts as door hangers – hinges, closers, pivots
2. Operates the door – handles, latches, pull bars and push
plates
1. Butt hinge – consists of two rectangular metal plates which
are joined with a pin. In
3. Closes the door – closers, combination pivots and closers
large hinge, the pin is removable, in small hinges, it is fixed.
4. Locks the door - locksets, dead bolts, flush bolts, electric
locks and other special devices
2. Fast pin hinge – a hinge I which the pin is fastened
permanently in place.
5. Seals the door – weatherstripping, sound and smoke seals
3. Full surface hinge – a hinge designed for attachment on the
surface of the door and jamb without mortising.
4. Loose joint hinge – a door hinge having two knuckles, one of
which has vertical pin that fits in a corresponding hole in the
other, by lifting the door up, off the vertical pin, the door maybe
removed with unscrewing the hinge.
5. Loose pin hinge – a hinge having a removable pin which
permits its two parts to be
6. Protects the door – kick plates, corner protection and similar
hardwares
Door Hand Location Specification
In specifying door hardwares specially locksets and closers, it is
important to know the door hand conventions where the terms of
reference assumes the view from the exterior of the structure/building
or room to which the doorway is heading.
1. Left Hand (LH) – the door opens inwards going to the left with
the hinges located at the left.
separated.
6. Paumelle hinge – a type of door hinge having a single joint of
the pivot type, usually of
2. Right Hand (RH) - the door opens inwards going to the right
with the hinges located at the right.
modern design.
3. Left Hand Reverse (LHR) - the door opens outwards going to
the left with the hinges located at the left.
7. Olive knuckle hinge – a paumelle hinge with knuckles
forming an oval shape.
4. Right Hand Reverse (RHR) - the door opens outwards going
to the right with the hinges located at the right.
8. Spring hinge – a hinge containing one or more springs, when
a door is opened, the hinge returns it to the open position
automatically, may act in one direction only, or in both
directions.
9. Vertical spring pivot hinge – a spring hinge for a door which
is mortised into the heel of the door, the door is fastened to the
floor and door head with pivots.
Handles, Pulls and Push Plates, Door Stops and Bumpers,
Astragals
Handles, Push and Pull Bars - are devices to hold the door in place
without provision for locking. They do not require automatic latching
and are also usually used for commercial kitchens and
hospitals.
Door Stops and Bumpers – are small metal fabrications provided
with rubber bumpers attached to a door to prevent it from harming
finishes and damaging adjacent constructions.
Closers, Combination Pivots and Closers, Panic Hardware
Closers - are door devices that automatically return the door to its
closed position after it is opened and also protect the door and the
surrounding construction from damage by controlling the distance it
can be opened. They can be either surface mounted on the door or
head frame or concealed in the frame of door itself.
Pivots are used as the alternative way to hang frameless doors
where it is impossible to make use of hinges or the visual appearance
of hinges on doors becomes objectionable or creates an unacceptable
look. They are either center hung or offset and are mounted on the
floor and head of the door.
Panic Hardware is a type of operating mechanism required for safe
egress or exit during emergency and/or panic situations. This
hardware is operated through push bars extending across the width of
the door connected to vertical rods that disengages latches at the top
and bottom of the door. The vertical rods can either be concealed or
surface-mounted.
Center Latch Bolt Type is used for:
a.) single door
b.) active door of a pair
c.) both doors of a pair with mullions
Vertical Rod Type is used for:
a.) single door
b.) inactive door of a pair
c.) both doors of a pair
Latches, Locksets, Deadbolts, Flushbolts
Latches or Latch set – are devices that hold the door in place
without a provision for locking. It contains a beveled latch which
extends from the face of the door edge which automatically engage
the strike that is mounted on the frame when the door is closed.
Thumb Latch – this is the oldest type of latch and is simple to install
but difficult to adjust. It is usually padlocked.
Locksets – are devices that have special mechanisms which hold a
door in the closed position and allow it to be locked with a key or
thumb turn.
Types of Latches and Locks:
1. Rim Locks and Latches – the case and strike are
mounted on the face of the door and trim but without
morticing.
2. Mortise Lock and Latch – this type developed
historically from rim types. This type makes for lengthy
installation in wood doors because of the large
mortise. The size of case and accessibility of
mechanism makes economically possible the
maximum number and variety of knob and lever
designs and locking options. It allows the use of dead
and latch bolts that can be extracted in a single
operation. It is considered more secure than a
cylindrical lock.
3. Unit Lock – also known as preassembled lock and
latch. It is a complete factory lock assembly that
eliminatesmuch adjustment on the job. Unit locks slid
into notch cut on job (for wood doors) or prepared at
shop (for metal doors). Dead bolt may be omitted to
make simple latch set to match but it can also have
button in inside knob to prevent outside knob from
turning (for bathrooms, bedrooms).
4. Bore-in locks and latches – also known as cylindrical
or tubular locks, are relatively inexpensive, simple to
install in wood doors and have fewer operating
functions than mortise lock. Installation needs only two
holes to bore and a shallow mortise for case front.
5. Interconnected lock – a combination cylindrical lock
and dead bolt, in which both locks are interconnected
to allow for single action to release both bolts by
turning a knob or lever handle.
6. Other door locks:
1. Entrance lockset – operated inside with a key
and a thumb turn or universal button which puts
and locks the door in place when pushed. It is
usually intricately designed and used for
entrance doors.
2. Bedroom lockset – has simple design than
entrance lockset but have the same functions.
3. Toilet lockset – operates without a key and is
lock from the inside by pushing a universal
button and is unlock only from the inside by
turning the cylindrical knob.
4. Dead Bolts – operates through the use of a key
only.
Parts of Latches and Locks:
•
Knob - a more or less spherically-shaped handle use for
operating a lock.
•
Knob Rose – is the round plate that is fastened to the face of
the door around the hole through which the door knob spindle
passes through.
•
Strike, Strike or Striking Plate – a metal box or plate set in a
door jamb that is either pierced or recessed to receive the bolt
or latch of a lock that is fixed on the door.
•
Lip Strike – projects from the side of a strike plate on which the
bolt of a lock strikes first when a door is closed. It is the
projection from the side of the strike plate to protect the door
frame.
•
Escutcheon – a protective plate surrounding the keyhole of a
door.
Door bolt or barrel bolt – a sliding rod or bar attached to a door for
locking manually.
Chain Door Fastener – a device fastened to a door and its jamb to
limit the door opening depending on the length of the chain. Use for
security purpose.
Chain Bolt – a spring bolt attached at the top of a door which is
actuated by the chain attached to it.
Foot Bolt – a device fixed at the bottom of the door operated by foot.
When the door is unbolted, the bolt is held up by a spring.
Flush Bolt – device attached to the inactive leaf of a pair of doors to
lock it in place. It is either surface-mounted or mortised into the edge
of the door.
Automatic Door Bottoms – are devices that are surface mounted to
the bottom of the door or mortised into it to provide a sound or lights
seal. The seal is up when the door is open and a plunger strikes the
jamb that forces the seal down whenever the door is close.
4.5 Windows and
Window Hardware
Windows and Hardware
Traditionally, windows were considered as apertures or openings in a
wall. In fact even today professionals still use this term. But because
of the wide use of glass, windows now form the entire wall system,
thereby the traditional distinction between wall and window no longer
holds.
Five (5) functions of windows:
1.
1. Light Admission - the most important function from a
practical, psychological and aesthetic viewpoint.
1.
2. Ventilation - the access of natural ventilation. The use
of air-conditioning has reduced the need for natural
ventilation in many types of buildings, its function
remains valid especially in the advent of green building.
3. Vision - allows visual connection to and from the
external environment.
4. Escape - sometimes, windows act as emergency exits
or escapes from dangers, fires, etc.
5. Architectural Element - windows are considered by
architects as elements of architectural composition and
are extremely important in the total aesthetic effect
created in a building.
Types of Operation:
1. Fixed Window - cannot be opened, consisting of a stationary
sash and frame It provides 0% or no ventilation.
2. Double-Hung Window - provides only 50% maximum
opening. It consists of two (2) sashes, both sliding vertically on
separate tracks.
3. Sliding Window - provides only 50% maximum opening. It
consists of two or more sashes, with at least one sliding along
a track horizontally. The sash is usually removable for easy
cleaning.
4. Awning Window - provides 100% opening. It consists of
sashes that swing outward on hinges attached to the top of the
frame.
5. Hopper Window - provides 100% opening. It consists of
sashes that swing outward on hinges attached to the bottom of
the frame.
6. Casement Window - provides 100% opening. It consists of
sashes that swing outward on hinges attached to the sides of
the frame.
7. Pivoted Window - provides 100% opening. It consists of
sashes that rotate about a vertical or horizontal axis at the
centers.
8. Jalousie Window - provides 100% opening. It consists of
horizontal glass or wood louvers that pivot simultaneously and
operated by crank or mechanical operator in a common frame.
Use commonly for residential buildings.
9. Parts of a Window:
10. Frame - refers to the part of the window that receives and
holds the sash and other necessary window hardware. It is
fixed and non-operable.
Elements of the Frame:
1. Head
- the uppermost horizontal part or member.
2. Jamb
- the two vertical side members
3. Sill
- the bottom horizontal member with the upper
surface usually sloped to shed rainwater
4. Sub Sill - an additional sill fitted to a window frame to allow
rainwater to drip further away from the wall surface
5. Casing Trim - the finishing trim work around a window
opening. It consists of head and jamb casings, window sills
and aprons.
6. Head and Jamb Casing – hides or conceals the joint or gap
between the window and surrounding wall surface.
7. Windowsill - this is the horizontal ledge formed by the flat
area upon which a window shuts down called the stool at the
base of the window opening.
8. Apron - the flat piece of trim immediately beneath the stool
of a window sill.
9. Architrave – this is the continuous casing with the same
profile that surrounds a window.
10. Plinth Block – terminates a jamb casing above the floor.
Sash and Glazing
This refers to the part of the window that holds the pane of glass or
other materials. It is either fixed or movable.
Elements of the Sash:
1. Pane
- a single unit of glass set in a sash; a
division of a window
2. Glazing
the sash
- the panes or sheets of glass set in
3. Rails
- the horizontal part framing a sash
4. Muntins - the vertical members holding the
edges of the window panes
5. Stiles - the upright or vertical members framing
a window sash.
6. Mullions - refers to the vertical member
separating a series of windows.
Operators are devices for doors and windows that are not supplied
as part of the door and window package, including both self-contained
mechanisms and those with remote pumps or power units, as well as
photocells, mats, transmitters and other actuating devices.
Types of Operators:
•
o
Lever Arm
o
Rack and Pinion
o
Hand Chain Control
5.1 Concrete Surface
Finishes
Concrete Surface Finishes (for Walls)
1. Cement Plaster Finish or Stucco
Stucco is a mortar consisting of cement, sand and water. In order
to make the mortar easier to work with, hydrated lime is added.
The mixture is applied in three coats – scratch, brown and finish
coats.
2. Rubbed Finish
The surface of the concrete is grinded a day or two after it has
set using a brick of carborundum, soft natural stone or emery.
Then a thin grout of cement and sand is applied to the surface in
a circular motion rubbing it in to fill in the surface imperfections.
Afterwards, the work is washed down with clean water. A sandfloat finish is a method using fine sand instead of grout.
3. Brushed Finish
A type of finish obtained by scrubbing or brushing the concrete
surface while still green with fiber or wire brushes and water to
remove the surface film or mortar leaving the coarse aggregate
exposed.
4. Tooled Finish
Concrete surfaces may be finished by tooling employing any
methods for the dressing or finishing of natural stone. The most
popular method used in tooling concrete surfaces is through the
use of bush hammering either manually or by using a pneumatic
tool.
5. Sand-Blast Finish
A sand-blast finish is much the same appearance as that of a
brushed finish. Sand-blasting produces a granulated finish similar
to sandstone but is not so uniform because the aggregates are
likely to be brought out irregularly. It is done through the use of
washing done top cement cover with water with a specified
nozzle gun.
6. Exposed Aggregate Finish
The color of this finish is obtained from the exposed aggregate
and not through the addition of coloring material to the mixture..
Such colored or other special aggregate used for the finish shall
be exposed by scrubbing.
5.2 Floor Finishes
Floor Finishes
1. Wood Float Finish
The concrete aggregate is forced below the surface, and the surface
is then leveled with a straight wood screed and while the concrete is
not firmly set, it is given a float finish with a straight, flat wood trowel
called floats.
2. Steel-Trowelled Finish
After the concrete aggregate is forced below the surface, the surface
is then leveled with a straight wood screed, and given a wood float
finish. The entire surface is then steel-trowelled before the concrete
finally sets.
3. Integral Colored-Cement Floor Finish
When the concrete is still green but the surface water is gone, the
surface is leveled with a straight wood screed. Then a finish coat of
1:3 mortar with color is applied. This finish coat is leveled with a wood
screed, given a float finish and then steel-trowelled.
4. Separately Applied Cement Finishes
These separate finishes are designated as non-slip, heavy duty,
colored cement, etc.
1. Granolithic Finish
This consist of a topping with a mixture of 1 part cement, 1
part sand and 1 part finely crushed stone. It is called
granolithic because fine aggregate chips were originally used
in the aggregate. Finely ground corundum may also be a part
of the aggregate to produce an enduring and non-slip surface.
2. Terrazzo Finish
Terrazzo is a mixture of cement, marble chip aggregates and water
laid as a topping or as a wall finish, and ground to a fine, smooth
surface. It is used for floors and bases where durability, resistance to
wear and minmal maintenance are necessary. It is available in either
in precast form, e.g. tile or cast-in-place, with either a smoothl;y
polished or non-slip surfaces, abrasive granules are added to the
mixture.
Tile Finishes
Cement Tile
Cement tile is manufactured by pressing in moulds a plastic mixture of
cement and sand. Surface color of the tile is achieved by the addition
of mineral oxide colors. Thickness of cement tiles is 25.4 millimeters
(1”). Common sizes are squares 8”x8”, 12”x12”, 16”x16”.
Ceramic Tile
Ceramic tiles are small surfacing units made from clay or mixture of
clay with other ceramic materialsand fired according to various
processes. Tiles differ principally in: (a) composition of the body; (b)
surface finish, that is, glazed or unglazed; (c) process of manufacture;
and (d) the degree of vitrification or fusion of the tile body after firing,
as indicated by the extent to which it absorbs moisture.
(a) Unglazed tiles are composed of the same ingredients
throughout and derive their color and texture from the
materials of which the body is made.
(b) Glazed tiles have a glassy surface of ceramic materials
fused upon their face to give them a decorative appearance
and to make the surface impervious to moisture. Glazes are
produce in a large variety of colors, ranging from pure white to
jet black. Glaze finishes are of two general classes in their light
reflecting qualities:
Bright glazes – which have a highly polished surface and reflect an
image clearly.
Matte glazes – or those which do not clearly reflect an image or are
entirely without sheen. All degrees of semi-lustrous or satin-like finish
may be produced between the two extremes of reflection and non-
reflection.In addition, glazes may have plain, textured, polychrome,
mottled, stippled or rippled surface.
material being impervious to moisture, stains and dirt and are
reistant to abrasions.
Types of Ceramic Tiles
The leading types of ceramic floor and wall tiles are:
Faience Tiles
Glazed Interior Tiles – glazed interior tiles are non-vitreous product
made by the dust-press process.
Faience tiles are generally surfaced with a highly colored
opaque glaze and are always made by the plastic method from
natural clays. The body of faience tiles may be non-vitreous,
semi-vitreous or vitreous, the degree of vitrification depending
largely upon whether the tiles are to be used forinterior and
exterior work.
Ceramic Mosaic Tiles – are tiles less than 6 square inches in
facial area, preponderantly unglazed and having fully vitrified
or fairly dense bodies. To facilitate installation, ceramic mosaic
tiles are usually mounted at the factory on sheets of paper
about 2 square feet in area, with the individual tile units being
spaced so as to allow for the insertion of grout between them
when the paper is removed and the face of the tiles is
exposed.
Glazed Weatherproof Tiles
These are durable tiles with semi-vitreous body and are
suitable for use on all walls both interior and exterior and on all
floors except those subject to heavy wear. All dull or matte
finish is recommended when these tiles are used on floors.
Ceramic Trim Tiles
Trim tiles are variously shaped units used to finish the wall tile
installation and include caps, bases, inserts, combinations,
internal and external angles, returns (finishing units for outside
corner installation).
The most widely used flux in floor and wall tiles is the mineral
feldspar.
Pavers
These are standard size unglazed tiles resembling ceramic
mosaic tiles in composition and physical characteristics but
usually having facial area of 6 square inches or more.
Because of their greater size, which usually ranges from 3”x3”
to 6”x6”, these tiles are generally not pasted onto paper but
are laid out individually.
Quarry Tiles
Quarry tile is an unglazed floor tile made from natural clays or
shales by the plastic method. They are very durable flooring
Brand names of ceramic tiles: MARIWASA (local);
EUROTILES (local); LEPANTO (local); ROCERSA;
Resilient Floor Finishes
Resilient flooring is manufactured as tile or sheet. Resilient floor tiles
include asphalt, vinyl, rubber, linoleum and cork. Resilient floor sheets
include vinyl, linoleum and rubber.
Asphalt Tile and Sheet
This consist of thoroughly bonded composition of thermoplastic binder
(asphaltic type for standard asphalt tile and resinous for greaseproof
asphalt tile), asbestos and other fibers, inert filler materials (various
stone dust, diatomite, mica etc) and inert color pigments formed under
pressure while hot and cut to size. Asphalt tile is usually made in
22.86 mm. (9”) squares and less commonly in 30.48 mm. (12”)
squares. Rectangular borders 45.75mm.x 60.96 mm. (18”x24”) are
made in limited variety of colors and patterns.
Vinyl Tile and Sheet
Vinyl resilient flooring materials are divided into three major types: (a)
solid vinyl, (b) vinyl and asbestos combined (c) a thin vinyl applied to
other types of resilient flooring materials.
Vinyl tiles are manufactured into the following thicknesses: 1.5mm,
2.0mm, 2.5mm and 3.0mm, in squares 300mmx300mm. The colors,
texture and patterns of vinyl asbestos tile cover a wider range than the
sheet.
Vinyl sheet flooring is manufacured in the same thicknesses in rolls of
6 feet wide and lengths of 50 feet. The thicker sheet is used in areas
where heavy traffic will be encountered. Vinyl flooring is
recommended where a colorful, textured, tough, durable, easily
maintained, grease-resistant type of finish flooring is required for
areas of both light and heavy human traffic. It may be used for abovegrade, on-grade and below-grade floors. Vinyl flooring shoild not be
used for exterior floor surfaces; in areas where specific chemicals that
attack vinyl are used; where economy is ofmajor importance.
Rubber Tile and Sheet
Rubber floor tiles as a rule are made of nuetral rubber for greatest
resilience. Sizes, thicknesses, as well as methods of application and
precautions to follow in installation, are much the same as for vinyl
floor tiles. Rubber sheet flooring is applied according to the general
rules given for linoleum. Advantages of rubber flooring are: (a) It is the
quietest floor possible with the exception of thick cork tile; and (b) Its
colors are more brilliant than those of other types. Rubber flooring,
however, are not resistant to soap, oil, and many household solvents
as vinyl and linoleum.
Linoleum Tile and Sheet
Linoleum is a resilient, waterproof floor covering that consists of a
backing covered with a relatively thick layer of wearing surface. This
wearing surface is a mixture that contains oxidized linseed oil
processed in a special way, combined with wood or cork flour, various
fillers, stone dusts, whiting, diatomite, resins, binders, driers and inert
color pigments. Linoleum is available in three gauges: (a) service
(1.6mm or 1/16”), standard (2.5mm or 3/32”) and (c) heavy (3.2mm or
1/8”). It comes in rolls of 2’-0” and 6’-0” wide and up to 30’-0” in length
and in 9”x9” tiles for plain and marbled.
Laminated or Engineered Flooring
Brand names of resilient floor sheet and tile: ARMSTRONG (asphalt,
vinyl, vinyl-asbestos, vinyl corlon, rubber, linoleum and cork tiles);
APO FLOORING (vinyl sheet and tile); AZROCK (asphalt tiles);
KENTILE (cork tiles)
Wood Flooring Finishes
at the edges to make one continuous piece as large as the room in
which the flooring is laid.
Wood is used in several different forms as a finish flooring material.
There are several types of wood flooring:
5.3 Ceiling Finishes
Ceiling Finishes
1 . Strip Flooring
This type of flooring consits of tongue-and-groove (T&G) boards
150mm (6”) or less in width. Nominal sizes of strips are 1”x3”, 1”x4”,
and 1”x6”; with net (face) widths of 2-1/4”, 3-1/4” and 5-1/4”
respectively. The net thickness is 7/8”. Strip flooring is often laid over
a concrete slab sub-floor. The flooring steps are nailed to 2”x3” or
2”x4” sleepers or screeds embedded or anchored to the concrete
floor. The sleepers should be treated with a suitable wood
preservative. The space between the finish floor and the top of the
concrete slab is filled with cinder concrete or other damp-proof
composition fill.
Kiln-dried (KD) T&G Flooring and Siding: MATIMCO, NALCO (Nasipit
Lumber Co.)
2. Plank Flooring
This type of flooring consists of square-edged boards 8” or more in
width as are commonly found in old Spanish-period houses. Plank
flooring is usually faced-nailed.
3. Parquet Tile Flooring
Also known as block flooring, which consists of square pieces or
blocks which have been built-up in several layers like plywood and
having a veneered surface, or consists of several parquet strips
assembled at the factory to form a tile. This type of flooring may be
nailed to a wood sub-floor or set in mastic to a concrete sub-floor.
4. Floating Flooring
Floating flooring are wood floors that are not nailed or glued to the
sub-floor, but instead “float” above it on a thin pad of resilient foam.
They are made by connecting the individual pieces of flooring together
1. Ceiling Boards
These are shiplapped boards with a bead running along the center of
the board and along the joint, hence it is often referred to as beaded
ceiling board (B.C.B). The thicknesses are 3/8” and ½” and widths of
4” and 6”.
2. Acoustic Tile
Acoustic tile is used for ceiling and wall finishes in rooms where it is
required to control sound absorption. There are several types of
acoustic tile:
Cellulose fiber tile – These are made from compressed sugar cane
or wood fibers with perforations on the surface of the tile.
Mineral wool tile – Felted rock wool with a fissured surface. Mineral
wool tile has limited vacoustic values, is flame retardant but will not
withstand rough usage and cannot be painted. It is available in ½”,
5/8”, ¼”, 7/8”, and 1” thickness and sizes of 12”x12”, 12”x24”, and
24”x24”.
Glass Fiber Tile – are made of glass fiber held together by binders.
Thickness is available in 1-1/4” with sizes of 23-3/4”x23-3/4” and 473/4”x47-3/4”.
Cork Tiles – an acoustical tile made of cork. Available in sizes of
¼”x5-3/4”x11-1/2” and 1-1/2”x11-1/2”x11-1/2
Asbestos Cement Tile – a perforated tile made of asbestos wool
fibers. Not in use anymore because of health hazards
5.4 Paint Finishes
Paint Finishes
with burlap or some other coarse material.
Paste fillers requires about 24 hours for drying
before it can be sanded.
▪
Crack Fillers – plastic wood putty, stick shellac,
etc. They are used for filling nail holes, cracks
and dents.
▪
Shellac – made by refining seed lac and its
natural color is orange; white shellac is obtained
by bleaching. Lac is a resin exuded by certain
insects in India in the twigs of trees. These
twigs with the resin attached are called sticklac
and are crushed and washed to produce seed
lac. Shellac is an under or a preparatory coat
for varnish and wax finishes, but is not
satisfactory as an independent finish because it
is not durable and turns white from contact with
water. It is also used to cover wood knots
before a priming lead and oil coat is applied
because it kills the resin in the knot and
prevents discoloration.
▪
Varnish – is a resolution of resin in drying oil
(oil varnish) or in a volatile solvent such as
alcohol or turpentine (spirit varnish). It contains
no pigment and hardens into a smooth, hard
and glossy coat by the oxidation of the oil or by
the evaporation of the alcohol. The chief resins
used in varnishes are copal or African fossil
gums; dammar or resins from Singapore and
the East Indies; rosin, the residue left under the
extraction of turpentine from pine resins and
rosin esters, obtain by treating rosin with
glycerine to make it waterproof when dry. In
general, oil varnishes are more durable than
spirit varnishes. Spirit varnishes are either
dammar varnish, made by treating dammar
resins with turpentine or shellac varnish, made
by dissolving white or orange shellac in grain
Transparent Finishing Materials
1. Wood Stains
Wood stains are composed of pigments (coloring ingredients) and
liquid solvents of water, oil or alcohol. When applied, the coloring
matter penetrates the surface, remaining transparent to display the
beautiful grain effect to advantage.
Three types of wood stains:
▪
Oil Stains – the pigments are obtained from
various earth clays. After they are dissolved in
linseed oil, the coloring particles remain
suspended between the oil molecules. For
spreading the color particles over large
surfaces, the ground oil color is thinned with
turpentine.
▪
Water Stains – made from anilyne dyes and
mineral extracts which have been dissolved in
hot water.
▪
Spirit (Alcohol) Stains – Stains that are mixed
with alcohol-solution anilyne powders and warm
alcohol.
2. Wood Fillers
▪
Paste Fillers – composed of silex (stone dust),
japan-drier, linseed oil, turpentine and
sometimes colors ground in oil by adding color
to a filler (both wood filling and staining is done
simultaneously). Filler is applied with the grain
and allowed to dry “flat” for about ten (10)
minutes. It is then wiped off across the grain
alcohol. They dry by evaporation of the solvent.
Drying time is from 4 to 24 hours. Varnish
should never be applied when the weather is
moist or humid.
▪
o
Extender pigments are inert pigments which when
mixed with the drying oils possess very little hiding
power. They are often referred to as fillers, extenders
or suspenders. They serve to prevent the primary
ingredient from setting in a hard mass at the bottom of
the paint can. The extender pigments include calcium
carbonate, silica and mica. All paints other than white
paints also contain color pigments in addition to white
pigments. A good exterior paint shoul contain not less
than 65% pigment by weight. High quality exterior
paints contain not more than 10% of extender
pigments. Example of extender pigment is
talc.
o
Vehicle – is the liquid or fluid portion of the paint which
carries the particles of the pigment in suspension and
by the oxidation deposits and hardening binds them to
the painted surface or by evaporation, deposits them
thereon. A good paints vehicle will contain from 85% to
95% drying oil and the rest thinners and driers. The
vehicle or liquid portion of the paint consists of the
following:
o
Binder – forms the film.
o
Driers – to speed up formulation of the film. Driers may
be classified into two types:
Lacquer – is made synthetically and is closely
related to rayon or nylon fabrics. It requires a
special thinner sold by each manufacturer for
his own brand. Average drying time is 1-1/2
hours. For fine lacquer finishes, a special
undercoat of lacquer sealer is applied over a
wash coat of shellac. After the sealer has dried,
it is sanded or steel-wooled to give the lacquer
a gripping surface.
Opaque Finishing Materials
1. Paint
Paint is the dry film formed from a mixture of a pigment (solids) and
a vehicle (liquids or fluids) spread on a surface as a decorative or
protective coating.
o
o
Pigment – is that solid, finely ground portion which
gives to paint the power to obscure, hide or color the
surface. Pigments may be divided
into white and colored The white pigments can in turn
be divided into active (hiding) pigments and extender
pigments.
Active (hiding) pigments are those that when mixed
with the drying oil produces an opaque finishing
material. The most widely used active pigment is
the white lead which when used alone with linseed oil,
will produce an excellent, durable paint. Other active
white pigments include zinc oxide (used with white lead
to give increased hardness, greater durability, reduced
caulking, greater color retention and elasticity),
lithopone, titanium dioxide.
(a) oil driers are used in powdered or crystalline form such as
litharge (monoxide of lead), manganese dioxide, borate and;
(b) liquid driers are inorganic compounds of lead, manganese and
cobalt, which are dissolved in turpentine or benzene and which mix
readily with the oil at ordinary temperatures.
o
Volatile Solvent – known technically as the thinner. The
volatile solvent facilitates application and contributes,
through its evaporation, the drying of the paint, but is
not a permanent part of the film.
Types of Paints
•
2. Paint Behavior and Defects
o
Oil Paint – is the principal paint for exterior wood
surfaces. It contains white lead as the white paint
pigment, together with color pigments and extenders in
a vehicle consisting of drying oil (usually linseed oils),
dryers and the solven t or thinner (turpentine).
o
Alkyd-Resin or Oil-Resin Emulsion Paints – oil and
resin emulsified in water makes a heterogeneous
finishing material by an emulsifying agent such
as casein. A great advantage of oil-resin paint is that its
viscosity can be easily reduced by the addition of
water.
o
Synthetic Latex (Rubber-Base) Paints – paints made
from synthetic latex which acts as the pigment binder
and the film forming material for the paint. A careful
balance of synthetic latex and alkyd resins gives a
solution that can thinned with water for application as a
continuous film with excellent adhesion and wash
ability. Latex paint is the preferred paint for plaster,
cement, concrete and masonry.
o
Portland Cement-Base Paints – is a water-based
paint (where the solvent is water) used for painting
concrete and masonry surfaces.
o
Enamel Paints – are generally paints which use
varnish as a vehicle. They have the ability of levelling
brush marks, are more resistant to washing and rough
usage and have a harder and tougher film. They can
have either a glossy, semi-glossy or matt finish.
o
Rust-Inhibiting Paints – are protective paints for
ferrous metal and are of two types:
o
Priming Paint: e.g. red lead, litharge, lead chromate
o
Finish Paint: e.g. lead sulfate, zinc dust
Well-formulated paint, skillfully applied over a properly prepared
surface wears by gradual “chalking” and maintains a smooth, tough
and durable film that constitutes a satisfactory surface for repainting.
Such a paint film will remain an effective protective coating for a
period of three to five years depending upon the locality and the
characteristics of the original surface. It requires little treatment
beyond surface dusting in preparation for repainting.
Defective paint behavior and surface failures are traceable to three
main causes:
▪
Improper paint formulation.
▪
Inadequate surface preparation
and careless application of
paints.
▪
Faulty construction or building
materials.
The following are the various paint
defects, their causes, prevention:
▪
Excessive or premature chalking – this is
evidenced by surface dusting and rapid thinning
of the film, sometimes to bare wood. The cause
may be due to improper formulation or paint
application. Paints containing too high a
percentage of volatile thinner forms a porous
film subject has completely worn away.
Prevention requires merely a strict adherence to
high standards of paint formulation and
application.
▪
▪
▪
Sagging and Running – is marked by irregular
wavy lines that texture an otherwise smooth
finish film. The cause is usually paint
formulation with too low a pigment volume or
too heavy and careless application of a thinconsistency paint. It occurs sometimes when
repainting an interior if an original gloss surface
has not been cut by sanding. Curing the
condition necessitates sanding the irregularities
and repainting. Prevention involves maintaining
proper proportions of pigment and linseed oil as
to formulation and careful brushing of properly
thinned paint as to application.
Storm Spotting – usually occurs after
continuous rains and electric storms are
characterized by unsightly and irregular color
changes. Rain sometimes absorbs nitrates and
peroxides firmed by electrical discharges and
penetrates the paint film, changing the
refractive index of the coating. The cure of the
condition can sometimes be accomplished by
rubbing the spots with alcohol. Subsequent
weathering usually restores the original color
within a month or two.
Washing – is characterized by streaking on the
surface, fading color, the final exposure of the
original surface and accumulation of pigment
particles below the painted area. This is caused
by water-soluble compounds which develop by
chemical reactions in the paint dissolved during
rain storms and was out of the film. Also, when
paints are applied during periods of high
humidity and low temperatures, the film
structure may be injured during the drying
period.
▪
Stains – are surface discolorations which often
disappear gradually as the paint film wears.
Sometimes, however, they go through the film
necessitating its removal and subsequent
repainting. Metal stains are sometimes caused
by water dripping from exposed metal.
Prevention involves the coating of the metal.
Galvanized iron should be painted while
metallic zinc dust in spar varnish or paint
containing zinc oxide. Mildew stains are caused
by air-borne fingi that feed on oil and multiply
rapidly. They cannot be easily removed. Old
growth should be removed before repainting by
washing with 1 lb. of tri-sodium phosphate or
sodium carbonate with 1 gallon of water. For
prevention, the paint can be treated with about
¼ ounce of mercuric chloride per gallon of
water.
▪
Checking – is characterized by minute cracks
on the surface of elastic paint films. Usually it is
not a serious film defect, for checks do not
extend through the film. The cause is improper
application or improper formulation of
undercoats. The finish film is applied over a
body coat not quite enough for a proper
foundation. Unequal tensions occur in drying
and small surface checks result. The cure of
condition involves wire brushing the affected
areas and repainting it, if checking does not
disappear under the influence of normal wear.
Prevention involves the allowance of sufficient
drying time between coats and the formulation
of the body coat with a minimum amount of oil
in order to develop a hard foundation for finish
coat.
▪
▪
▪
Alligatoring - is an advance state of checking,
varying in degree to a coarse texturing of the
finish film. The cause involves application of a
harder drying finish over soft or slow-drying
undercoats. As in checking, formulation with too
much linseed oil in the priming or body coat
may result in alligatoring. The cure of condition,
if extensive, requires the removal of the film and
repainting. Prevention necessitates precautions
noted above to prevent checking.
Cracking and Scaling – are characterized by
irregular cracks that subsequently curl at the
edge, flake and finally scale off. Over wood,
scaling is usually most marked in direction of or
across the grain. Cracking is a wear
characteristic of hard-drying paints that contain
large proportions of zinc oxide pigment. Scaling
comes from the water pressure when moisture
seeps through the crack to the original surface.
The condition is common to any surface coated
with paint improperly formulated to withstand
local conditions. The cure of the condition at an
early stage requires vigorous brushing and
recounting with a less brittle film. Prevention
involves the formulation to produce a tougher,
more elastic film. Usually this means an
increased percentage of white lead.
Blistering and Peeling – is characterized by
swelling of the entire film which is usually
followed by a break in the film and subsequent
peeling. The cause is water pressure from
behind the film due to faulty construction that
allows moisture seepage or abnormal
condensation. This is a mechanical damage
that may occur whatever the type or quality of
paint used. It sometimes also results when
damp surfaces are covered by quick-drying
paints. This type of damage may be evident on
wood, stucco or masonry surfaces. The cure of
condition requires the complete removal of the
paint and repainting as for new work.
Prevention necessitates the permanent removal
of sources, often involving extensive repairs
and waterproofing the moisture.
▪
Spot Fading – is characterized by color
changes and flatting of gloss in irregular
patches on the film. The cause is from uneven
oil absorption, usually a result of insufficient
coats or a priming coat improperly formulated to
penetrate and adequately seal surface pores. It
may be emphasized when “skimping” is
attempted, that is, application of two coats when
three are needed, or the use of a cheaply
formulated paint. The cure of the condition is
repainting. Prevention requires merely the
exercise of proper painting technique.
▪
Wrinkling – should not be confused with
alligatoring, for wrinkling is marked by a tough,
leather-like texturing. The cause is usually when
paint is put on too thickly and not well brushed
out and may be contributed to by formulation, if
too high a proportion of oil is used in finish
coats. The cure of the condition requires only
sanding and repainting if texture is slight.
Otherwise, the film removal is indicated with
subsequent painting as for new work.
Prevention requires strict adherence to high
standards of paint formulation and thorough
brushing out in application.
6.1 Construction Tools
and Equipment (Hand
Tools)
2. Measurement and Layout Tools
a. Folding Rule
ools and Equipment employed in construction are grouped into
four categories:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Hand Tools
Power Tools
Construction Equipment
Heavy Equipment
Hand Tools are the tools that use power delivered by man only.
1. Pry Bar
Tape Measure
-used to force open boards used
in forming concrete.
b. Digital Rule (Laser
Meter)- used to Measure
long distances
c. Framing Square is a
layout tool that is used to
measure 90-degree angles
at the corners of
framework and joint.
3. Hammers
a. Claw Hammer is an
ordinary Hammer used
to drive or remove nails
d. Level Bar is a long,
straight tool that contains
one or more vials of liquid
and used to determine if
the horizontal or vertical
is exact.
b. Sledge Hammer is a
heavy hammer used to
drive stakes into the
ground and to break up
concrete and stones.
e. Chalk line or Marker Ink
is used for Marking Line
6.2 Construction Tools
and Equipment (Power
Tools)
Power Tools
are tools that employ power supplied by forces other than that
coming from humans.
Different types of Power Tools are:
6.3 Construction Tools
and Equipment
(ConstructionEquipment))
Construction Equipment is a term that refers to large, complex
tools and machines that are designed to do a particular job.
1. Staplers are like nailers but loaded with u-shaped
staples instead of nails for fastening.
3. Types of Pumps
b. Laser-powered welder is used to weld materials by
employing a laser to heat the metal.
6.4 Construction Tools
and Equipment (Heavy
Equipment)
Heavy Equipment are those which are very large and very
powerful equipment used for construction.