THE WORLDWIDE
HISTORY OF
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
THE WORLDWIDE
HISTORY OF
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
ANTON A. HUURDEMAN
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
Cover: Inauguration of the New York–Chicago telephone line by A. Graham Bell on October 18, 1892.
(Scanned with permission of the ITU from Catherine Bertho Lavenir, Great Discoveries:
Telecommunications, International Telecommunication Union, Geneva, 1990, p. 39.)
Copyright 6 2003 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Huurdeman, Anton A.
The worldwide history of telecommunications / Anton A. Huurdeman.
p. cm.
‘‘A Wiley-Interscience publication.’’
Includes index.
ISBN 0-471-20505-2 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Telecommunication—History. I. Title.
TK5102.2 .H88 2003
384—dc21
2002027240
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
xv
PREFACE
xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
xix
PART I
1
INTRODUCTION AND PERIOD BEFORE 1800
Introduction
1
3
1.1 Definition of Telecommunications, 3
1.2 Telecommunications Tree, 7
1.3 Major Creators of Telecommunications, 11
2
Evolution of Telecommunications Up to 1800
14
2.1 Evolution of Telecommunications Prior to 1750, 14
2.2 Evolution of Telecommunications from 1750 to 1800, 16
3
Optical Telegraphy
18
3.1 Tachygraphe of Claude Chappe, 18
3.2 Optical Telegraph of Claude Chappe, 20
3.3 Beginning of Optical Telegraphy, 24
PART II
4
PERIOD FROM 1800 TO 1850
Evolution of Telecommunications from 1800 to 1850
27
29
v
vi
5
CONTENTS
Optical Telegraph Systems Worldwide
34
5.1 Optical Telegraph Systems in France, 34
5.1.1 Chappe Systems, 34
5.1.2 Other Optical Telegraph Systems in France, 37
5.2 Optical Telegraphy Outside France, 45
6
Electrical Telegraphy
48
6.1 Evolution Leading to Electrical Telegraphy, 48
6.2 Electrical Telegraphy in the United States, 55
6.2.1 Morse Telegraph, 55
6.2.2 Washington–Baltimore Electrical Telegraph Line, 59
6.2.3 Pioneering Telegraph Companies, 61
6.2.4 House Direct Printing Telegraph Systems, 65
6.3 Electrical Telegraphy in Canada, 66
6.4 Electrical Telegraphy in Great Britain, 66
6.4.1 Electrical Telegraphs of Cooke and Wheatstone, 66
6.4.2 Electrochemical Telegraph of Bain, 72
6.5 Electrical Telegraphy in France, 72
6.6 Electrical Telegraphy in Germany, 74
6.6.1 Railway Telegraph Lines in Germany, 74
6.6.2 German Electrical Telegraph Equipment for Public Use, 76
6.7 Electrical Telegraphy in Austria, 83
PART III
PERIOD FROM 1850 TO 1900
85
7
Evolution of Telecommunications from 1850 to 1900
87
8
Electrical Telegraph Systems Worldwide
91
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
Telegraph Transmission Technology, 91
8.1.1 Open-Wire Lines, 91
8.1.2 Underground Cable, 94
8.1.3 Submarine Cable, 95
Electrical Telegraph Lines in the United States, 98
8.2.1 Western Union, 98
8.2.2 The Pony Express, 98
8.2.3 First Transcontinental Telegraph Line, 99
8.2.4 Collins Overland Telegraph Line and the Purchase of
Alaska, 100
8.2.5 The Hughes Direct Letter Printing Telegraph, 103
Electrical Telegraph Lines in Canada, 104
Electrical Telegraph Lines in Great Britain, 106
Summary of National Electrical Telegraph Achievements, 107
Major Terrestrial Telegraph Lines, 119
8.6.1 Australian Overland Telegraph Line, 119
8.6.2 Indo-European Telegraph Line, 124
CONTENTS
vii
8.6.3 Great Northern Telegraph Line, 128
8.6.4 Central American Telegraph Line, 128
8.7 Submarine Telegraph Cables, 129
8.7.1 European Submarine Cables, 129
8.7.2 Transatlantic Telegraph Cables, 130
8.7.3 Submarine Telegraph Cables Connecting Europe
Worldwide, 135
8.7.4 Inter-American Submarine Telegraph Cables, 138
8.8 Worldwide Electrical Telegraph Network, 139
8.9 Morse, the Father of Electrical Telegraphy, 141
8.10 Morse Codes, 143
8.11 Morse Telegraphers, 145
9
Image Telegraphy
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
10
147
Facsimile Device of Bain, 147
Image Telegraph of Bakewell, 148
Pantelegraph of Caselli, 149
Autographic Telegraph of Bernhard Meyer, 151
Telautograph of Elisha Gray, 151
Telephony
153
10.1 Evolution Leading to Telephony, 153
10.2 The Telephone of Alexander Graham Bell, 156
10.2.1 Alexander Graham Bell, the Father of Telephony, 156
10.2.2 Early Days of Bell in Great Britain, 159
10.2.3 Bell’s Telephone Experiments in the United States, 159
10.2.4 Bell’s Telephone: ‘‘It DOES Speak’’, 163
10.2.5 Bell Telephone Company, 165
10.2.6 Bell’s Honeymoon Trip to Europe, 167
10.2.7 Telephone Developments in Sweden, 174
10.2.8 Biggest Patent Battle on Telecommunications, 176
10.2.9 Battle of David Against Goliath, 178
10.2.10 Pioneers Leave the Telephone Business, 179
10.3 Companies with Common Bell Roots, 180
10.4 Worldwide Introduction of Telephony, 181
10.5 International Telephony, 181
10.6 The Art of Telephone Sets, 185
11
Telephone Switching
11.1 Manual Switching, 188
11.2 Evolution Leading to Automatic Switching, 192
11.3 Strowger System, 194
11.3.1 Strowger’s First Operating Exchange, 194
11.3.2 Strowger’s Up-and-Around Switch, 195
188
viii
12
CONTENTS
Radio Transmission
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
13
Evolution Leading to Radio Transmission, 199
Experiments of Heinrich Hertz, 201
Radio Transmission from Theory to Practice, 204
The Radio Invented by Marconi, 207
Radios of Marconi’s Competitors, 212
International Cooperation
PART IV
199
PERIOD FROM 1900 TO 1950
217
223
14
Evolution of Telecommunications from 1900 to 1950
225
15
Worldwide Telephone Penetration
229
15.1 Worldwide Telephone Statistics, 229
15.2 Telephone Penetration in the United States, 231
15.3 Telephone Penetration Outside the United States, 234
16
Electromechanical Telephone Switching
237
16.1 Worldwide Introduction of the Strowger System, 237
16.1.1 Strowger System in the United States, 237
16.1.2 Strowger System in Canada, 238
16.1.3 Strowger System in Japan, 240
16.1.4 Strowger System in Germany, 241
16.1.5 Strowger System in Great Britain, 244
16.1.6 Strowger System in Austria, 246
16.1.7 Strowger System in Sweden, 246
16.2 Automatic or Semiautomatic Switching?, 247
16.3 Electromechanical Indirect-Control Systems, 250
16.3.1 Automanual and All-Relay Systems, 251
16.3.2 Lorimer System, 252
16.3.3 Panel System, 255
16.3.4 Rotary System, 258
16.3.5 Uniselector System in France, 260
16.3.6 LME 500-Point System, 261
16.3.7 Hasler Hs 31 System, 262
16.3.8 Automatic Switching Systems in the USSR, 264
16.4 Crossbar Switching, 264
16.5 Private Switching, 266
17
High-Frequency Radio Transmission
17.1 Evolution of Radio Technology, 269
17.1.1 Spark Radio Transmitters, 269
17.1.2 Squenched Spark Radio Transmitter, 271
17.1.3 Poulsen Convertor Arc Radio Transmitter, 274
269
CONTENTS
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
18
19
Kopiertelegraph of Gustav Grzanna, 294
Telautograph of Arthur Korn, 294
Telegraphoscope of Edouard Belin, 295
Siemens–Karolus–Telefunken Picture Transmission System, 296
Facsimile Machines of AT&T and Western Union, 297
Photograph Transmission Equipment in Japan, 298
Teleprinter
Teleprinter
Teleprinter
Teleprinter
300
Development
Development
Development
Development
in the United States, 300
in Great Britain, 303
in Germany, 306
in Japan, 307
Copper-Line Transmission
20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7
20.8
20.9
21
294
Teleprinters
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
20
17.1.4 Frequency Alternator Radio Transmitter, 277
17.1.5 Electronic Radio Equipment, 279
17.1.6 Shortwave Transmission, 280
Maritime Radio, 281
Mobile Radio, 285
Intercontinental Radiotelephony, 287
RCA and C&W Created to Beat Marconi, 289
17.5.1 Radio Corporation of America, 289
17.5.2 Cable & Wireless, 290
Phototelegraphy
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
ix
308
Telegraphy Transmission on Copper Lines, 308
Telephony Transmission on Copper Lines, 314
Phantom Circuits, 316
Pupin Coils, 317
Krarup Cable, 321
Telephone Amplifiers, 322
Analog Multiplexing, 324
Digital Multiplexing, 327
Coaxial Cable, 331
Radio-Relay Transmission
337
21.1 Evolution Leading to Radio-Relay Transmission, 337
21.2 World’s First Radio-Relay Link, 342
21.3 Initial Radio-Relay Systems, 343
22
Cryptography
350
22.1 Manual Coding, 351
22.2 Automatic Coding, 352
23
International Cooperation
357
x
CONTENTS
PART V
24
PERIOD FROM 1950 TO 2000
Evolution of Telecommunications from 1950 to 2000
361
363
24.1 The Semiconductor Era, 364
24.2 Digitalization, 366
24.3 New Telecommunications Networks, 367
25
Radio-Relay Networks
369
25.1 Technological Development of Radio-Relay Systems, 369
25.1.1 All-Solid-State Radio-Relay Systems, 370
25.1.2 Digital Radio-Relay Systems, 371
25.1.3 Radio-Relay Systems for the Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy, 374
25.1.4 Transhorizon Radio-Relay Systems, 375
25.2 Radio-Relay Systems Worldwide, 376
25.2.1 Radio-Relay Systems in North America, 376
25.2.2 Radio-Relay Systems in Latin America, 376
25.2.3 Radio-Relay Systems in Europe, 379
25.2.4 Radio-Relay Systems in Asia, 381
25.2.5 Radio-Relay Systems in Australia, 382
25.2.6 Radio-Relay Systems in Africa, 383
25.3 Wireless Access Systems, 386
25.4 Radio-Relay Towers and Aesthetics, 391
26
Coaxial Cable Transmission
397
26.1 Terrestrial Coaxial Cable, 397
26.2 Submarine Coaxial Cable, 399
26.2.1 Transatlantic Coaxial Telephone Cables, 399
26.2.2 Worldwide Submarine Coaxial Telephone Cables, 404
27
Satellite Transmission
27.1 Evolution Leading to Satellite Transmission, 407
27.1.1 Rocketry Pioneers, 408
27.1.2 Passive Satellites, 410
27.1.3 Postwar Rocket Development in the United States, 410
27.1.4 Postwar Rocket Development in the USSR, 411
27.1.5 Sputnik, the First Satellite, 412
27.1.6 First Communication Satellites, 413
27.2 First Synchronous Communication Satellites, 419
27.3 Satellite Launching, 421
27.4 Satellite Transmission Systems, 426
27.4.1 Global Satellite Systems, 427
27.4.2 Regional Satellite Systems, 428
27.4.3 Domestic Satellite Systems, 431
27.4.4 Mobile Satellite Systems, 433
407
CONTENTS
xi
27.4.5 Global Mobile Personal Communication by Satellite, 435
27.4.6 Multimedia Satellite Systems, 439
28
Optical Fiber Transmission
445
28.1 Evolution Leading to Optical Fiber Transmission, 445
28.2 Terrestrial Optical Fiber Cable Systems, 456
28.3 Submarine Optical Fiber Cable Systems, 459
28.3.1 Transatlantic Optical Fiber Cables, 460
28.3.2 SEA–ME–WE Cable System, 461
28.3.3 Caribbean ARCOS Network, 463
28.3.4 Global Submarine Optical Fiber Cable Systems, 463
28.3.5 African Cable Network Africa ONE, 466
28.3.6 Various Submarine Cable Systems, 467
28.3.7 Repeaterless Submarine Cable Systems, 467
28.4 Fiber-in-the-Loop Systems, 471
28.4.1 Worldwide Testing of FITL Solutions, 472
28.4.2 Delay of FITL Deployment, 475
29
Electronic Switching
480
29.1 Continuation of Deployment of the Prewar Switching
Systems, 480
29.1.1 Crossbar Switching, 480
29.1.2 Siemens Rotary Switch, 480
29.1.3 End of the Strowger Switch, 482
29.2 Implementation of Automatic Telephone Switching, 483
29.2.1 National Automatic Switching, 483
29.2.2 International Automatic Switching, 484
29.3 Electronic Switching Systems, 485
29.3.1 Evolution toward Electronic Switching, 485
29.3.2 Preliminary Electronic Switching Systems, 489
29.3.3 Commercial Electronic Switching Systems, 494
29.4 Digital Switching Systems, 495
29.5 Data Switching, 500
29.6 Integrated Services Digital Network, 505
29.7 Broadband Switching, 506
29.8 Private Switching, 507
30
Telex
30.1
30.2
30.3
30.4
31
510
Continuation of Teleprinter Deployment, 510
Telex Service, 510
Teletex, 512
Termination of Telex Services, 512
Telefax
31.1 Technological Development of Telefax, 515
31.2 Worldwide Telefax Penetration, 517
515
xii
CONTENTS
32
Cellular Radio
519
32.1 Evolution of Cellular Radio, 519
32.2 Analog Cellular Radio, 521
32.2.1 Analog Cellular Radio in Japan, 522
32.2.2 Analog Cellular Radio in Scandinavia, 523
32.2.3 Analog Cellular Radio in North America, 523
32.2.4 Analog Cellular Radio in West Europe, 524
32.3 Digital Cellular Radio, 524
32.3.1 Global System for Mobile Communication, 528
32.3.2 D-AMPS System, 532
32.3.3 Personal Digital Cellular System, 534
32.4 Personal Communications Network, 535
32.4.1 CT1–CT3 Systems, 536
32.4.2 Japanese Personal Handyphone System, 537
32.4.3 Digital European Cordless Telecommunications, 537
32.4.4 Personal Access Communications System, 539
32.5 International Mobile Telecommunication System, 540
33
Telephony and Deregulation
33.1 Telecommunications Deregulation and Liberalization, 546
33.2 Telephony and Deregulation in the Americas, 551
33.2.1 Telephony and Deregulation in the United States, 551
33.2.2 Telephony and Deregulation in Canada, 555
33.2.3 Telephony and Deregulation in Mexico, 556
33.2.4 Telephony and Deregulation in Central America, 557
33.2.5 Telephony and Deregulation in the Caribbean, 558
33.2.6 Telephony and Deregulation in Brazil, 558
33.2.7 Telephony and Deregulation in Chile, 559
33.2.8 Telephony and Deregulation in Argentina, 561
33.2.9 Telephony and Deregulation in Peru, 561
33.2.10 Telephony and Deregulation in Venezuela, 561
33.2.11 Telephony and Deregulation in Colombia, 561
33.2.12 Telephony and Deregulation in Ecuador, 562
33.2.13 Telephony and Deregulation in Bolivia, 563
33.2.14 Telephony and Deregulation in Uruguay, 563
33.2.15 Telephony and Deregulation in Paraguay, 563
33.3 Telephony and Deregulation in Africa, 563
33.3.1 Telephony and Deregulation in North Africa, 565
33.3.2 Telephony and Deregulation in South Africa, 566
33.3.3 Telephony and Deregulation in Sub-Saharan Africa, 566
33.4 Telephony and Deregulation in Asia, 567
33.4.1 Telephony and Deregulation in India, 568
33.4.2 Telephony and Deregulation in China, 569
33.4.3 Telephony and Deregulation in Japan, 571
33.4.4 Telephony and Deregulation in Other Asian
Countries, 573
33.5 Telephony and Deregulation in Europe, 574
546
CONTENTS
xiii
33.5.1 Telephony and Deregulation in the European Union, 575
33.5.2 Telephony and Deregulation in Eastern Europe, 575
33.6 Telephony and Deregulation in Oceania, 577
34
Multimedia
34.1
34.2
34.3
34.4
34.5
34.6
35
580
Evolution Leading to Multimedia, 580
Computers and Communications, 581
Global Information Infrastructure, 581
Internet, 583
Global Village, 589
Multimedia Services, 590
International Cooperation
597
APPENDICES
A
B
C
Chronology of the Major Events in the Two Centuries of
Telecommunications
601
Worldwide Statistics of Population, Internet Users, Cellular Phones, and
Main Telephones
607
Glossary
613
INDEX
621
FOREWORD
Communication—the exchange of information—is essential both for the social life
of mankind and the organization of nature. Since human communication is restricted
to a relatively small spatial environment, due to physiological and physical conditions, human endeavor has always been directed at the enhancement of natural
communication possibilities: achieving telecommunications. The history of the development of telecommunications is therefore not only of technical interest but also of
general cultural importance.
The beginning of modern telecommunications in the nineteenth century is marked
by the discovery of electromagnetism, which initiated new e¤ective methods for longdistance information transmission. Further progress soon resulted from the application of electromagnetic wave propagation in telecommunications systems. In this
period the development was stimulated additionally by economic, political, and military requirements. In the twentieth century the introduction of electronics and
semiconductor physics led to more rapid and dramatic technical progress, followed
by widespread dissemination of telecommunications. Today, telecommunications
governs nearly all economic, social, and scientific domains of life with ever-increasing
intensity.
This book presents the fascinating story of the technical development of telecommunications. It shows the impressive scientific and technical e¤orts and the
achievements of many ingenious inventors, discoverers, physicists, and engineers
during the long journey from telegraphy and telephony—via radio, fiber, and satellite transmission—to mobile radio, Internet, and multimedia services.
This representation o¤ers a concise overview of the field based on the large professional experience and competence of the author. A special feature of the book is
the detailed documentation of the worldwide development of telecommunications,
covering various countries, thus filling a gap in the relevant technical literature.
The author treats the vast and complex matter in a well-structured and comprehensive form that avoids tedious theoretical detail. The text is enriched by many
xv
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FOREWORD
instructive graphics and photos, together with a lot of historical and technical
data and observations. The wide range of original material utilized by the author is
cited extensively at the end of each chapter. Historically and technically interested
readers—not only those with a scientific background but also persons in the fields of
economics, politics, and sociology—will find the book to be an invaluable guide to
the basic ideas and most current aspects of global communications and its sources.
The author’s opus deserves broad attention.
Prof. Dr. phil. nat. Dr.-Ing. E.h. Dietrich Wolf
Institute of Applied Physics
Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität
Frankfurt am Main, Germany
March 2002
PREFACE
This book has been written to present a comprehensive overview of the worldwide
development of telecommunications in a single volume. Ample information on the
evolution of various domains of telecommunications in specific countries is preserved
in numerous specialized books, magazines, and other publications in libraries of
universities and museums, but a single book in the English language covering the
entire field of worldwide telecommunications does not exist. To fill this gap, I have
collected, evaluated, interpreted, and cross-checked almost a hundred books and
even more journals over the last 15 years. Based on my experience and knowledge of
telecommunications, I have condensed their contents into a chronological story of
the worldwide development of telecommunications. In the interest of truly worldwide
coverage, I give information on telecommunications events that took place in over
100 countries and include statistics for over 200 countries. Writing the worldwide
history of telecommunications necessarily means using information already published by many experts in their fields. George P. Oslin spent 35 years researching
telecommunications documents and interviewing the pioneers or their descendants
before, at the age of 92, submitting the manuscript for his fascinating book The Story
of Telecommunications. Oslin’s book, which he relates to his nation’s history, was a
great inspiration and a valuable resource for me to write this book related to worldwide history. Instead of interviewing pioneers, I have endeavored to find the best
published sources available for each subject covered in my book, and thus I could
reduce the manuscript preparation time to about five years.
Numerous statements in the book are the result of combined information found in
two or more sources and occasionally, cross-checked with a third or even a fourth
source. Making reference to all those sources within the text would have a negative
e¤ect on readability, so I have cited the references at the end of each chapter. I have
mentioned the source directly in the text only in the few cases where a larger portion
was based on a single source.
I cover telecommunications starting with optical telegraphy at the end of the
xvii
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PREFACE
eighteenth century; followed in the nineteenth century by electrical telegraphy of
coded signals, images, and written text transmitted via open wires and terrestrial and
submarine cables; followed by telephony and telephone switching and by radio
transmission. Then follows the entire range of new technologies developed in the
twentieth century: intercontinental radio, mobile radio, radio-relay, cryptography,
satellites, coaxial and optical fiber, terrestrial and submarine cable networks, telex,
telefax, electronic switching, cellular radio, and the convergence into multimedia
of most of those technologies via a global information infrastructure. To enable
adequate coverage of this wide range of technologies within the scope of a single
volume, I have excluded the domains of radio and television broadcasting, navigation, telemetry, and computers. This book covers the history from the end of
the eighteenth century up to the end of the twentieth century. Some events that happened between January 2001 and December 2002 which were relevant to the status
described in the text are covered in footnotes.
I took special care to present the evolution and development of telecommunications as a human achievement attained thanks to the perseverance of many ingenious
pioneers who had the vision and capability to turn the discoveries and inventions of
contemporary scientists into new and useful applications. Wherever appropriate and
available, I include personal information about the major pioneers and protagonists.
Applications of the new telecommunication devices have been introduced by several newly founded companies, manufacturers, and service providers, which grew,
merged, and still exist or have disappeared. Those companies made telecommunications happen and, again, wherever appropriate and available, I include briefly the
relevant industrial history.
For those readers who are not familiar with telecommunications technologies and
want to obtain a better understanding of the subject matter, I have included Technology Boxes, which give a concise description of the underlying technologies in
more technical language. Numerous footnotes give additional related details.
I have written this book without sponsorship or obligation to any company.
Moreover, I have endeavored to present the history in an objective way with balanced coverage of significant events in several countries without overemphasizing the
achievements of particular companies or specific countries.
Telecommunications is a nonpolluting employment-generating industry which
plays an ever-increasing role in our human relations. It is an indispensable tool for
economic growth and better distribution of wealth. My hope is that this book will
contribute to the preservation and greater awareness of the worldwide heritage of
telecommunications and to responsible future applications.
Anton A. Huurdeman
Todtnauberg, Germany
April 2002
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I have written this book in the English language, although my mother tongue is
Dutch and I have been living in Germany since 1958. I am very grateful, therefore,
to an English friend, Peter Jones, for proofreading, removing Dutch and German
influences, and very conscientiously safeguarding the Queen’s English. I am also
grateful to my previous department director, Dipl.-Ing. Gerd Lupke, for proofreading to safeguard the historical truth and for supplying interesting photographs
from his private archive. My thanks also go to Prof. Dr. Dietrich Wolf for his valuable suggestions on manuscript improvements and, especially, for writing the foreword.
It was my objective to provide wide international coverage with historical photos,
adequately balanced among various companies and museums. Unfortunately, the
international response was not su‰cient to meet that objective. Personal contacts
proved to be important in obtaining the right information and historical photos. I am
very obliged, therefore, to those persons who supplied me generously with numerous
photos that are reproduced in the book. I thank especially Dr. Helmut Gold, Dieter
Herwig, and Jürgen Küster of the Museum für Kommunikation Frankfurt, Germany; Dr. Lanfredo Castellitte of the Musei Civici Como, Italy; Gertrud Braune,
Karin Rokita, Dr. Marie Schlund, and Dr. Lothar Schön, of Siemens AG, Munich,
Germany; and Gerhard Schränkler of Alcatel SEL, Stuttgart, Germany.
I thank Dr. Julie Lancashire of Artech House Books, London, for permission to
reuse drawings and parts of the text that I prepared originally for the book RadioRelay Systems, published by Artech House Books in 1995, and for the book Guide to
Telecommunications Transmission Systems, published in 1997. Text from those two
books has been reused for all Technology Boxes except Boxes 11.1 and 16.2 to 16.5,
which are based on information given in great detail in the two volumes of 100 Years
of Telephone Switching, by R. J. Chapuis and A. E. Joel Jr., published by NorthHolland Publishing Company, New York, in 1982 and 1990.
Finally, I thank Mrs. Marie-José Urena of the ITU, Geneva, for granting perxix
xx
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
mission to use information from the ITU Indicators Updates, and to scan photos
from the ITU publications From Semaphore to Satellite, Great Discoveries: Telecommunications, and ITU News. ITU made this permission subject to an acknowledging statement indicating that:
1. The texts/figures extracted from ITU material have been reproduced with the
prior authorization of the Union as copyright holder.
2. The sole responsibility for selecting extracts for reproduction lies with the beneficiary of this authorization alone and can in no way be attributed to the ITU.
3. The complete volume(s) of the ITU material, from which the texts/figures
reproduced are extracted, can be obtained from:
International Telecommunication Union
Sales and Marketing Division
Place des Nations–CH-1211 Geneva 20 (Switzerland)
Telephone: þ41 22 730 61 41 (English)
þ41 22 730 61 42 (French)
þ41 22 730 61 43 (Spanish)
Telex: 421 000 uit ch / Fax: þ41 22 730 51 94
E-mail: sales@itu.int / http://www.itu.int/publications
Upon request of the ITU and Artech House Books, I have given in the caption
of each figure covered by a publication permission the complete and exact source.
Figures without such a credit line in the caption are either from photos taken from
my own archive or from drawings that I made especially for this book.