Psychology of Women Exam 4 Review Physical Health - Differences in Lifespan ★ ★ ★ ★ Women are sicker, men die quicker. Women outlive men in virtually every country. However, women get more diseased. This could be explained because they live longer to experience more diseases. Why? A biological explanation for women living longer than men could be because they have an x chromosome and estrogen is also helpful in living longer. Some social explanations are that men are more likely to partake in risky jobs/activities, women are much more likely to seek health care when they have medical needs. Women and Medical Research ★ ★ ★ ★ Up until the 1990s, very little was known about women's health. Women were excluded as research participants in large studies that were designed to examine risk factors and potential treatments for various diseases. A lot of this is because of the male- as normative assumption. Because of the growing recognition that a number of ailments affect men and women in dramatically different ways, women are now beginning to be included into studies. However, men still continue to be the main focus for much of the research on the leading cause of death among both men and women: heart disease. Bernadine Healy was the first women to head the national institute of health and she was also the president of the american heart association Heart Disease ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ The number one killer of both men and women There is very little awareness of heart disease for women The symptoms are different for men and women Women are often misdiagnosed and are not as likely to receive treatment More women die from heart disease than all forms of cancer combined The Physician-Patient Relationship ★ Feminist analyses describe the interaction between female patients and male physicans as paternalistic, with female patients treated as subordinates. Women tend to feel less satisfied with a male physician. Male physicians may belittle women’s health complaints by attributing them to psychosomatic factors ○ ★ ★ For example womens pain reports are more likely to be dismissed as emotional and not real Both men and women alike feel more satisfied with a woman physician Women are twice as likely as men men to report negative feelings about the patient physician relationship Type and Quality of Care ★ ★ Women often receive less adequate care even when the severity of their condition is the same as a mans. This starts in childhood. For examples, girls who are growing too slowly are referred to a specialist half as often as boys Ageism also presents a problem. Health care professionals tend to emphasize an older women's dependence. Older women are less likely than younger women to receive pap smears, mammograms, or tests for colon cancer. In addition, an older womens chronic ailments are often attributed to aging and overlooked. Ethnicity, Poverty, and Health Care ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ Low income individuals are more likely to have poorer health Women of color are more likely to have low income and be uninsured Latinas have the highest uninsurance rate followed by native americans Because of this, women of color and poor women are less likely to the medical care they need (lack of insurance) They are also less likely to be able to take preventive healthcare measures When they do receive health care, it is often of lower quality. Women With Disabilities and Health Care ★ 20% of all women in the united states have some level of disability ○ ★ ★ Native american and black women have the highest incidence followed by white women, latinas and asian american women Women with disabilites are faced with several health barriers (limited info, lack of transportation, physical inaccesibility to medical offices, discrimination) Women with disabilities are more likely than other women to be poor with further limits access to needed medical care Sexual Minority Women and Health Care ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ Might be at an increased risk for certain health problems Increased risk of breast and ovarian cansers because they are less likely than heterosexual women to experience the protective hormonal changes associated with pregancy and they are more likely to smoke, consume alcohol, and be overweight, They also avoid going to the doctor for routine checkuos because they feel uncomfortable talking about issues that might reveal their sexual orientation They might avoid going to the doctor because of reduced access to health care, this can result in fear of discrimination and from financial barriers. Transgender individuals have the greatest difficulty when it comes to accessing health care, they are more likely than other sexual minorities to be denied care or recieve infeior care. Overview of STIS ★ ★ ★ ★ Chlamydia is the most commonly reported STI HPV is found in nearly half of young american women and it increases the risk of cervical cancer. STIs have a disproportionate impact on women. They are transmitted more easily and more difficult to diagnose. Factors that increase a woman's risk for contracting a STI include: ○ ○ ○ ○ Being under 25 Using condoms consistently Being sexually active at a early age Having sex frequently and with multiple partners One factor behind the rapid increase in STIs is that the majority of American women have relatively little knowledge of STIs and even less concern about contracting one AIDS ★ ★ ★ The most devastating of all STIs For women aged 15-44, it is the leading cause of death worldwide Women of color are the fastest growing group of americans with aids (69%) ○ ★ Women die more quickly and are sicker from the disease, women are also diagnosed at a later stage ○ ★ ★ Why? Poverty, inadequate access to prevention services, etc Women generally seen as being low risk so physicians could overlook signs, women also serve as caregivers so they may delay seeking healthcare until they are very very ill, in addition many hiv positive women live in poverty and fewer have access to healthcare. The best way to avoud HIV infection is to practice safer sex 6% of AIDS cases are in older women, they often get a late diagnosis or misdiagnosis because doctors do not expect to see this ○ ○ women of this age group do not think of themselves as at risk for AIDS Thinning of vaginal tissues and the decrease in lubrication is one of the main reasons for this Benign Conditions ★ Endometriosis: a chronic and sometimes painful condition in which the lining of the uterus migrates and grows on pelvic structures, such as the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and bladder ○ ○ ○ ★ Effects 6-10 women of the reproductive age in the US each year. Can cause pelvic and menstrual pain and heavy bleeding Severe endometriosis is a major cause of infertility Uterine fibroid tumors: noncancerous growths of the uterus ○ ○ ○ ○ ⅔ women will develop in their lifetime Not dangerous Can cause sever pelvic and menstrual pain, heavy bleeding, and psslibly infertility and miscarriage Occur more often in black women than white women Cancers ★ Endometrial (uterine) cancer is the most common cancer of the female reproductive tract and is often characterized by vaginal bleeding. Risk factors: ○ ○ ○ ★ Cancer of the cervix is the 3rd most common cancer of the female genital system. Risk factors: ○ ○ ○ ★ Estrogen replacement therapy, obesity, early menarche, late menopause, never having children. More common in white women,, but black women are more likely to die from it One of the most curable cancers of the reproductive system Smoking, being overweightm early age at first intercourse, multiple sex partnersm extended use of oral contraceptives, and infection with HPV Pap smear used to determine cancer here, slashed cervical cancer deaths by 70% and saved thousands of live. Start getting test by 21 Only 80% of women have pap smears at least once every 5 years Ovarian cancer is the number one killing cancer of the reproductive system ○ Silent killer because symptoms do not appear until advanced stage Hysterectomy ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ The removal of the uterus Over 600,000 women in the US have one every year Rates are higher in black women Common reasons for one are endometriosis, uterine fibroid tumors heavy menstrual bleeding chronic pelvic pain Considered appropriated in cases of cancer, however these removals only account for a small amount of the surgeries Osteoporosis ★ ★ ★ ★ The extensive loss of bone tissue in older adults, which results in the bones become thinner, brittle, and more proud Affects about 10 million americans, 80% women Seeds are sown in adolescence because bone building is most rapid Risk factors: ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ★ ★ ★ Gender Age (after age 30) Menopause Thin, small framed body Ethnicity (white and asian more at risk) Family history Diet Lack of physical activity Smoking Alcohol intake of 2 or more drinks a day Arthritis Eating disorders Certain medications Increasing calcium and vitamin d intake during childhood, adolescence and young adulthood is one of the most effective ways of building denser bones and reducing the risk of bone fracture Exercise is also very important Estrogen replacement therapy has starting in perimenopause & continuing after menopause slows bone loss, increases bone mass, and reduces the incidence of fractures. However this can increase the risk of heart attack stroke and breast cancer so it is no longer considered a treatment option for osteoporosis. Breast Cancer ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ Age is the greatest risk for breast cancer, four in five breast cancers are diagnosed in women over 50 and the average age is 61 Ethnicity and social class are risk factors. Black women are just as likely as white women but are more likely to die from it, one reason is that they are poorer, low income women, regardless of race, tend to delay screen, follow up, etc and tend to receive low quality of care. Family history is another risk factor. This accounts for 5-10% of breast cancers, inherited breast cancer occurs at younger ages Age, ethnicity, and family history are factors that cannot be changed. The risk can be reduced by making lifestyle choice such as not smoking, cutting down on alcohol and drinking green tea, Most health organizations recommend a yearly mammogram starting at age 40, the cancer society recommends age 45 Lung Cancer ★ ★ ★ The leading cause in cancer deaths among women The increase is linked to womens increase cigarette smoking. Women are more likely than men to be diagnosed at an earlier stage. Women tend to survive longer than men Smoking ★ ★ ★ ★ One in six women smokes in the US Increases for women, decreases for men Could be because linked to appetite control etc Seen as glamorous Physical activity and exercise ★ ★ ★ ★ Regular exercise controls weight gain and it is linked to improved overall health, quality of life, and increase longevity It is associated with decreased incidence of heart disease and stroke It helps maintain muscle strength, balance, and flexibility needed to perform daily activities of daily living, provide mobility, and decrease falls Regular exercise promotes a sense of well being Mental Illness Overview ★ ★ ★ ★ Rates of mental illness almost identical for both men and women Gender differences are striking Females have higher rates of eating disorders,depression, and anxiety disorders Males have higher rates of impulse-control, anti-social, and substance abuse disorders. Social Support ★ Both receiving and giving social support play an important role in maintaining good physical and mental health and helping people cope with stressful life events ○ ★ ★ ★ This is especially strong for females Girls are more likely than boys to seek social support following stressful events and this support plays a more protective role for girls than boys Women who feel more loved and supported by their friends, relatives, and children are less at risk for major depression, Among men, level of social support is less strongly related to the risk of depression Tend And Befriend ★ ★ ★ Women use social support as a coping aid more readily than men do Women often respond to stress by tending to themselves and their children and by foring ties with others Men are more likely to show aggression and escapes Optimism: “The Power of Positive Thinking” ★ ★ ★ ★ Optimism can be good for your health Expectation that good rather than bad things will happen It has been linked to variety of positive mental and physical health outcomes including longer life Pessimism is associated with poorer health outcomes and high mortality. Mental Health In Childhood and Adolescence ★ ★ ★ Girls shower fewer serious emotional and behavioral problems in childhood Girls are more likely than boys to first manifest psychological difficulties during the adolescent years Stress levels increase for both genders during these years ○ The patterns of stress girls encounter may leave them more vulnerable to emotional disorders like anxiety and depression opposed to boys Internalizing Disorders in Girls ★ Adjustment problems more common in girls and women ○ ★ Harder to detect, so they are more overlooked than the externalizing problems that are shown by boys and men ○ ★ Depression, anxiety, social withdrawal Externalizing problems: aggression, conduct disorder, antisocial behaviors, adhd Early socialization of girls and boys into gender types behaviors may be responsible for these differences in the expression of distress Externalizing Disorders in Girls ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ Boys are more likely than girls to show externalizing behaviors Girls with externalizing behaviors are rarely studied because of the notion that these are male problems Girls who show externalizing problems exhibit deficits in social, emotional and communication skills and elevated rates of substance use, depression, anxiety, and risky sexual behavior. These girls are also more likely to have difficulties as adults Girls with externalizing problems in childhood and early adolescence were at greater risk of all types of maladjustment in late adolescent and adulthood than were those without such problems (sweden longitudinal study) ○ Higher rates of educational failure, juvenile crime, substance abuse, mental health problems, suicde attempts, etc Anorexia Nervosa ★ ★ ★ ★ A significantly low body weight, intense fear of gaining weight, a distorted body image. Diet, fast,exercise excessively to lose weight May lose 25% of original body weight Girls and women account for 95% of cases Bulimia Nervosa ★ ★ ★ Recurrent episodes of uncontrolled binge eating, followed by purging activities aimed at controlling body weight Often maintain normal body weight Young women account for 90% of cases Binge Eating Disorder ★ ★ ★ ★ Recurrent binge eating in the absence of compensatory weight control efforts. Most common of the eating disorders Later onset Female to male ratio 3:1 Biological Causes of Eating Disorders ★ An identical twin is much more likely than a fraternal twin to develop an eating disorder if her co-twin also has the disorder ○ ★ ★ Esp true for anorexia Anorexias are more likely to have a mother or sister with the disorder Anorexics have disturbances in their levels of serotonin (mood and appetite regulating chemical in the brain). Psychological Causes of Eating Disorders ★ ★ Low self esteem, high levels of anxiety, depression, perfectionism, conscientiousness, competitiveness, obsessive-compulsive thoughts and behaviors, difficulty in separating from one's parents, strong need for approval from others, and perceived lack of control in one’s life. Eating disorders may reflect family problems ○ ○ ★ Parents of anorexics are overly nutrient and overprotective and place undue emphasis on achievement and appearance Parents of bulimics tend to be highly critical, controlling, overprotective, and low in nurturance and support Another risk for eating disorders is sexual or physical abuse Cultural Causes of Eating Disorders ★ ★ ★ Femist scholars view eating disorders as drastic attempts to attain the red thin ideal of beauty that has been socially constructed by a particharcal society. The effect of cultural pressures to be thin can be seen most commonly in sports. The female athlete triad: the combination of low energy with or without disordered eating accompanied by amenorrhea and premature bone loss or osteoporosis ○ ○ Prevalence grown along in dance and performance sports Varsity athletes at highly competitive levels are at the greatest risk Treatment of Eating Disorders ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ Difficult to cure Cognitive behavioral therapy is the most effective therapy for bulimia and binge eating disorder Antidepressants also help with bulimia Family therapy shows promise in helping adolescents with anorexia Typically fewer than half fully recover (anorexia) Alcohol - Incidence ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ Females are less likely to use alcohol and be heavy drinkers Telescoping: while women's alcoholism starts later than mens, it tends to develop quicker White women have the highest rates of alcohol use Problem drinking in young women has reached an alarming rate Binge drinking: having 5 drinks in a row for men, 4 for women during a 2 hour period ○ Women are as likely as men to do this ( college aged) Alcohol- Health Consequences ★ Women have more body fat, less water, and less of the enzyme that breaks down alcohol than men do ○ ★ ★ Bc of this, they have more alc in their blood even when they consume the same amount of alc per body weight Prolonged heavy drinking can lead to breast cancer, osteoporosis, and infertility Fetal alcohol syndrome: a disorder characterized by mental retardation, growth deformities, and social, emotional, learning, and behavioral problems ○ Leading preventable cause of mental retardation Alcohol- Risk Factors ★ ★ ★ Children of alcoholic parents or siblings have increased rates of alcoholism Genetics appear to play about as strong of a role for daughters as for sons Divorced and single women are more likely to drink heavily and have alcohol related problems Alcohol- Treatment ★ ★ ★ ★ Society has set up double standards for women and men Heavy drinking is often expected with men and seen as normal, however women are criticized for it. Because of this, women tend to deny or hide their alcohol use which makes them less likely to seek help and be more seriously ill before their disease is diagnosed Physicians are less likely to counsel female patients Alcohol problems in older women are often mistaken for other aging conditions Illegal Substances - Incidence ★ ★ ★ ★ The highest use of illegal substances among women are Native Americans Males generally have higher rates of use and use them more heavily A reason for the gender gap is that drug use among girls and women is less acceptable in society Illegal substance abuse in girls and women is compounded because they are more likely than men to both use and misuse prescription drugs, such as tranquilizers, antidepressants, and sleeping pills Illegal Substances - Treatment ★ ★ ★ Women in drug abuse treatment programs have different needs than men in treatment A successful program depends on meeting these different needs There are advantages for women only programs Anxiety Disorders and Depression ★ ★ More than one in four americans will have an anxiety disorder in their lifetime Nearly one in five will develop major depression Anxiety Disorders ★ ★ ★ Almost everyone feels anxious from time to time When anxiety is irrational, excessive, and persists for several months, it is called an anxiety disorder Most anxiety disorders occur twice as frequently in women than in men ○ ○ ★ Generalized anxiety disorder: excessive worry and anxiety about a variety of life situations or events ○ ○ ○ ★ One of the most common anxiety disorders 7% of women develop it at some point in their life The difference between ordinary worrying and GAD is that the level of concern is excessive, resulting in distress and interfering with everyday functioning Panic disorder: sudden, unpredictable attacks of intense anxiety accompanied by a pounding heart, dizziness, sweating, shortness of breath, and trembling ○ ○ ★ Why? Girls are socialized to adopt a feminine gender which supports fearful negative responses to adversity that contribute to an increased risk for anxiety. Affiliation is emphasized more in raising girls leaving them more vulnerable in the face of relational stress Sense of impending doom, losing control, or dying Women twice as likely to develop this disorder A panic disorder can lead to agoraphobia: a fear of being in public places where escape might suddenly be difficult (7% of women, 4% of men) it is a specific phobia. Specific phobias usually start in childhood. 12% of women will experience one. Depression - Incidence ★ ★ Depression: characterized by prolonged sadness or irritability and loss of pleasure in most activities, often accompanied by fatigue and feelings of worthlessness Higher rates of depression among females first appear in early adolescence and continue into adulthood ○ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ 1 in 5 adolescents has experienced an episode of depression Women with disabilities have higher rates of depression than abled bodied women Women are twice as likely to suffer from depression Because girls have closer more intimate relationships, conflicts in these relationships can lead to depression and distress Another stressor linked to girls depression is concern about weight and body image. Girls are more likely to be victims of cyberbullying which is also linked to depression Depression - Theories ★ ★ Biological: linking depression to hormonal changes that occur during the menustral cycle, the postpartum period, and menopause. These are proven to be weak links. One biological factor that is proven to be a strong link is having a low level of the neurochemical serotonin. Women produce less than men which makes them at risk for depression Silencing the self: based on the assumption that women are socialized to place a high value on establishing and maintaining close relationships. Women defer to others, censor their self-expression, repress anger and restrict their own initiatives which increases their vulnerability to depression Depression in Later Life ★ Clinical depression affects approximately 10% of older men and 16% of older women ○ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ Higher rates among medically ill,unmarried, socially isolated, homebound, or functionally impaired Having an ill spouse linked to depression for women but not men Depression can contribute to heart disease and the early onset of death Many depressed older people are underdiagnosed and undertreated When older patients are clearly depressed most doctors do not adequately diagnose or treat the condition Older adults might not show typical signs of depression, they might show anxiety, confusion, or physical complaints It is highly treatable in older adults, but they are less likely to receive treatment Suicide - Incidence ★ ★ ★ ★ Boys and men four times as likely to commit suicide Girls and women two to three times more likely to attempt it Native american women have the highest suicide rates, black women have the lowest Older white males have the highest suicide rates ○ Most privileged group earlier in life, experiences the greatest loss of status in old age , contributing to ill health and depression Gender Differences in Suicide Across Cultures ★ ★ Higher divorce rates are associated with higher suicide rates Where womens status is low,their suicide rates are higher than that of boys and men Suicide in Adolescene and Young Adulthood ★ Nearly half of suicides among females occur between the ages of 15 and 44 ○ ○ ★ Risk factors: ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ★ ★ Fourth leading cause of death for women these ages Second leading cause of death 10-24 Depression Exposure to sucide or attempts Stressful life events substance/alcohol abuse Having guns in the home Social factors are more strong associated with having suicidal thoughts for girls than for boys Girls who are socially isolated from peers are more likely to think about suicide Suicide in Later Life ★ Risk factors: ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ★ ★ Death of a loved one Physical illness Uncontrollable pain Specter of dying a prolonged death that harms family members emotionally and financially, fear of institutionalization Social isolation Loneliness Elder abuse Major changes in social roles Most older people with health and other problems cope well with the changes of later life and do not become depressed or suicidal Many continue to lead active and productive lives Mental Health of Sexual Minority Women Stresses and Problems ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ Homophobia can cause considerable stress in the lives of sexual minorities and increase their risk of physical and psychological problems Lesbian, gay and bisexual adolescents have higher rates of substance abuse, poor school adjustmentm truancy, running away frim hime, risky sexual bheavior, conflicts with the law, depression, and suicidal thoughts. In adulthood, they report higher rates of alc and substance abuse They show poorer mental health and higher rates of anxiety disorderk deppression, suicide attempts, and suicide. Bisexual and transgender indviduals show particualry high rates of mood and anxiety disorders and of substance and alchol abuse Mental Health of Sexual Minority Women-Coping Mechanisms ★ Many develop effect coping mechanisms that are linked to good mental health ○ ○ ○ ○ Accepting one's mental health Good social support network Being in a satisfying relationship Actively participating in the lesbian and gay community Mental Health of Older Women - Gender Differences ★ ★ ★ Psychological health tends to improve for women as they age Older women show fewer negative emotions, less depression greater well-being, and more emotional control Older women are still more depressed compared to older men Gender Bias in Diagnosis ★ Similar descriptions given for a healthy unspecified gender adult and a healthy male. However a healthy women was seen as less healthy in several ways: ○ ★ More submissive, more excitable in minor crisis, more emotional, more illogical, more easily hurt, more sneaky, less independent Professionals were more likely to diagnose and treat anxiety when it occurred in women. Likewise with men and antisocial Feminist Therapy ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ Emphasizes the role of social, political, and economic stresses facing women as a major source of their psychological problem Focus on issues of oppression Empower clients in all spheres of life Encouraged to become psychologically and economically independent and try to change a sexist society rather than adjust to it Counselor self disclosure: the imparting of personal info about the life experiences of the therapist to the client Sexual Harassment at School ★ Sexual harassment in an educational setting: unwelcome verbal or physical behavior of a sexual nature when: ○ ○ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ A. submission to or rejection of the behavior forms the basis for decisions about the student (admissions or grades) B. The behavior creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive study environment. Sexual harassment at school is widespread in the united states. In most cases, boys harass girls. Ethnic minority girls, girls with advanced pubertal status, students with disabilities, and lgbtq+ students are more likely to be sexually harassed than their peers. Sexual harassment by peers is more common than sexual harassment by teachers. However students are more distressed when the sexual harassment comes from a teacher. Sexual Harassment at School : Elementary and Secondary ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ Half of girls in school said that they had received sexual comments or looks either in person or electronically 1 in 10 girls reported being touchedm grabbed, or pinched in a sexual way Girls were more upset after being harassed Girls who are harassed are more likely to experience academic difficulties, physical symptoms, interpersonal relationship problems, and negative psychological outcomes, and feeling self conscious, embarrassed, anxious, afraid, less confident, and unpopular Teachers often do not intervene even when they are aware of serious incidences of sexual harassment ○ Most of the time it is dismissed as “boys being boys”” Sexual Harassment: The College Campus ★ ★ Women perceive more situations as harassing and they are harsher in their judgements of their harasser Whether an individual perceives a behavior as harassment also depends on the role relationship between the harasser and the target ○ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ When students are targets, behaviors are more likely to be seen as harassment if they are performed by a professor rather than another student Women more likely to experience subtle forms of harassments (like jokes etc) Women who identify as feminists are more likely to confront their harassers The most common response to sexual harassment is ignoring the behavior Avoidance of the harasser and talking to others about the harassment are other common reactions. There are very few formal complaints filed Sexual Harassment in the Workplace ★ Sexual harassment in the workplace: unwelcome verbal or physical behavior when ○ ○ A. submission to or rejection of the behavior forms the basis for work related decisions (quid pro quo harassment) ■ Promotion in exchange for sex is an example and threat of layoff if refused ■ Labeled sexual coercion in louise fitzgeralds model B. the behavior creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment (hostile environment) ■ Divided into two types of behavior: ● Gender harassment: insulting, hostile, and degrading bheavior but not for the purpose of sexual activity ● Unwanted sexual attention: unwelcome and offensive behavior of a sexual nature Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Incidence ★ ★ ★ ★ A large proportion of women around the world experience some form of sexual harassment at work It commonly takes the form of sexual remarks and jojes Sexual coercion is rare but it does still occur The victims are relatively uneducated and in desperate need for work Occupational Characteristics Related to Sexual Harassment ★ ★ ★ Sexual harassment is more common in male0dominated blue-collar occupations Women in these jobs have been subjected to isolation, work sabotagem severe verbal abuse physical violence, and intentional exposure to hazardous work conditions The military also has a high incidence of sexual harassment and abuse ○ One in three women among all branches of the US military has been sexually assulated. Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Who is Harassed? ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ Tends to target certain groups more than others Women more likely than men to be tarfest Women more likely to feel frightened and degraded by these behaviors, while men are more likely to feel flattered. Younger or unmarried women more likely to be harassed Sexual minority women at higher risl Women of color more likely to experience sexual harassment (racialized sexual harassment) ○ ★ More likely to occur in blue collar and other male dominated setting Characteristics of offenders: ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Negative attitudes towards women Traditional gender attitudes Percieve sexual relationships as manipulative and exploitative Have high levels of hostile sexism Traditional men who do not view women as equals Consequences of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace ★ Associated with psychological and physical consequences for women: ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ★ ★ Decreased self esteem Lowered life satisfaction Anger Fear Depression Anxiety Ptsd Interpersonal difficulties Headaches Gastrointestinal problems Sleep problems High blood pressure Disordered eating Substance abuse Sexual problems Also experience undesirable job related outcomes (reduced job satisfaction, decreased morale, increased absenteeism, decline in organizational commitment) More frequent and ongoing sexual harassment is, more distressing it is Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Explanations ★ sex -role spillover theory: in occupations with few women, mens traditional gender roles spill over into the workplace and influence their interactions with female workers ○ ★ High incidence of sexual harassment among blue collar workers supports this theory Power theory: sexual harassment is an abuse of power to gain sexual favors or to reinforce mens sense of power or privilege in the workforce ○ Men generally have more power in the workforce and some men abuse this for sexual ends Dating Violence - Incidence ★ ★ ★ 6 - 30% of adolcescnets report having at least one experience of physical aggression in a dating relationship Sexual minority students are more likely to report dating violence In some studied males are more likely to report being the victims Who Engages in Dating Violence ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ Believing that physical violence is justifiable is a strong predictor (both genders are more accepting of dating violence in females) Holding traditional gender role attitudes is also linked to dating violence for both sexes Dating violence is more prevalent among individuals who were abused as children and who were exposed to family or community violence Females victims of dating violence are more likely than non-victims to show risky sexual behavior, depression, low self esteem, disordered eating behavior, substance abuse, and binge drinking Teen dating violence can lead to negative health problems Rape ★ Federal definition: the penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or objec or oral penetration by a sex organ of another oerson without the consent of the victim ○ The old definition did not include oral and anal assualt or rape of men Rape - Incidence ★ ★ ★ ★ One out of five women has been a victim of rape or attempted rape Nearly half of victims are under 18 and 4 in 5 are under 35 Sexual minority women are more likely than heterosexual women to experience sexual violence Women with disablities have an elevated risk Acquaintance Rape ★ ★ ★ 9 out of 10 cases of rape are acquaintance rape The perpetrator and the victim know each other An estimated 10-14% of women are raped by their husbands each year (marital rape) ○ ★ Most women do not count their experience as a rape especially if it was by an acquaintance ○ ★ ★ ★ This is treated more leinatly than any other sexual assault Why? Women blames herslef or feels responsible for protecting rapist Many woman are not aware of the broad range of behaviors that constitute rape Victims of rape are less likely to report incidencts to the police than victims of other violent crimes At least 2/3s of all instances of rape are not reported to formal authorites Characteristics of Sexually Agressive Men ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ More likely to have witnessed or experienced family violence Hold stereotypical attitude about gender roles Feel hostility toward women Be high in the need to dominate Be physically agressive in other situations More likely to believe in rape myths: false beliefs about rape that are widely held and that serve to justify male sexual agression aganist women ○ Belifs that forced sex by an intimate partner is not really rape, women lead men on and deserve to be rape, women make false accusations of rape, and women secretly want to be raped Characteristics of Survivors ★ ★ Adolescents, young women, those with disabilities, black and native american women, sexual minority womenm poor and homeless women, and those living in war zones are especially vunerable to rape Women who are raped are more likely to have been sexually abused in childhood Theories of Rape: Evoluntionary Theory ★ ★ ★ ★ Applies the principles of natural selection and its goal of reproductive survival to understand social behaviot Rape evolved because it was a strategy males vould use to ensure their genes would be passed on to future generations From this view it is to males reproductive advantage to mate often and with numerous partners. Cristiscms: ○ ○ Rape victims include victims too young or old to reproduce Instances of same sex rape are ignored Theories of Rape: Feminist Theory: ★ ★ ★ ★ Rape is rooted in the longstanding and pervavsive power imbalance between women and men Men have greater legal, economic, and political power which provides them with more power in interpersonal situations Men use rape as one mechanism to control women and maintain their dominance Support ○ ○ Cultural areas with greater gender equality have lower rape rapes A mans endorsement of male dominance and restricted rights for women is strongly connected to his acceptance of rape myths
