Lesson 3: Autorotation, CFIT, Wings
AC No: 61-140A Autorotation Training
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Purpose is to provide enhanced training guidelines for helicopter autorotation’s
FAA found it necessary to bring awareness to autorotation’s, especially 180-degree autorotation
This AC is not mandatory and doesn’t constitute as a regulation
Helicopter Incidents revolving around Autorotation:
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JHSAT – Joint Helicopter Safety Analysis Team – shows training to be one of the top operational
categories of helicopter accidents, 17.9 percent
Of these 523 Helicopter Incidents 68 incidents or 13% were in Autorotation Training Failures
6 accidents within the previous 8 years of the issuance of this AC involved a National
Transportation Safety Board probable cause as “180-degree autorotation”
The awareness brought to this advanced maneuver required attention so that it would help
reduce all helicopter accidents and reduce the accident rate by 80% by 2016
A review by NTSB reports the prime cause of incidents during autorotation training occur when
there is failure to maintain main rotor revolutions per minute (rpm) (Nr) and airspeed within the
Rotorcraft Flight Manual (RFM) or Pilots Operating Handbook (POH) specified range, resulting in
unrecoverable rate of descent.
Autorotation Recommendations:
1. Instructor should teach the entry, descent (with and w/o turns), the go-around, and the flare
recovery SEPARATELY
2. The initial training for a 180-degree autorotation should be introduced over a number of flight
lessons and start with a much higher altitude as the entry point, progressively reducing altitude
3. Before the student attempts this maneuver the instructor should demonstrate the 180-degree
autorotation with an entry from above 1,500 feet AGL using at least 1,000 feet to complete the
turn by noting all relevant points. The maneuver should be concluded by performing a power
recovery and go0around no lower than 500 feet AGL.
4. Once student is proficient in performing this maneuver to the go-around point at 500 ft., the
instructor should demonstrate the 180-degree AR from a lower entry point, like 1000 feet AGL.\
a. This new maneuver should introduce the flare and power recovery
b. The student should then be given the opportunity to practice with an entry at 1,000 feet
AGL, terminating in a flare and power recovery at a safe hover altitude.
The 300-Feet AGL Decision Check:
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The 300-Feet AGL decision check is used to create a decision point at which the pilot or
instructor, based on specific parameters, make a decision to either continue the autorotation or
abort
It is IMPORTANT to impress upon the pilot the need to have the helicopter in a steady states at
approximately 300 feet AGL in order to ensure a safe landing
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Prior to the decision point, all maneuvering is done to accomplish one thing; to place the
helicopter in a position so that it can arrive at 100 feet above the ground with the proper rpm,
airspeed, and altitude
“Rotor RPM within acceptable range”
“Airspeed”
“Aircraft in Trim”
“Normal rate of descent”
Technique for 180-Degree Turning Autorotation to Touchdown:
1. Establish the aircraft on a downwind heading at the recommended airspeed and parallel to the
touchdown point
2. Take wind into account, establish ground track at distance laterally from desired course line to
touchdown point. In strong crosswind conditions, prepare to adjust the downwind leg closer or
farther out
3. Use autorotation entry airspeed recommended by RFM or POH. When abeam the intended
touchdown point, smoothly reduce collective, then reduce power to engine to show a split
between rotor RPM and engine RPM. Apply appropriate anti-torque pedal and cyclic to maintain
altitude
4. After descent and autorotation airspeed are established, initiate 180-degree turn
5. Initially roll into a bank of at least 30 degrees, but no more than 50-60. It is important to
maintain proper airspeed, rotor rpm, and trim ball centered
6. Do not allow the nose to pitch up or down excessively during maneuver
7. Pitot-static airspeed indications may be unreliable or lag during an autorotative turn.
8. Approach 90-degree point, check position of landing area. Second 90-degrees of the turn should
end with a rollout on a course line to the landing area. If the helicopter is too close, decrease the
bank angle (to increase the radius of turn); if too far out, increase the bank angle (to decrease
radius of turn).
9. A bank angle of 50-60 degrees may be encountered during this turn, Rotor rpm control will
require fast corrective measures
10. ALWAYS monitor trim ball
Minimizing Altitude Loss:
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Once collective has been lowered and engine set to parameters outlined, the helicopter will lose
altitude
A delayed turn will result in a lower altitude when arriving on course line
Any form of increased rate of descent may become unrecoverable
Maintaining Rotor RPM Range throughout Maneuver:
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A combination of down collective, cyclic inputs, and maneuvering (as required) to increase the
airflow through the rotor system may be required to regain rotor rpm. Sufficient altitude may
not be available to perform these items, so extreme care must be taken to immediately react to
decreasing rotor rpm
In an autorotation, rotor rpm is the most critical element. It provides the lift required to stabilize
an acceptable rate of descent and the energy necessary to cushion the landing
Effects of Aborted Autorotation:
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Higher rate of descent
Reduced rotor rpm build in autorotation
Low initial rotor rpm response in AR
The requirement for a higher flare height
Reduced engine performance
Pilot Currency:
1. To lower the likelihood of an accident, pilots who are not proficient in straight-in autorotation’s
should not be expected to perform a 180-degree autorotation with an entry point below 1000
feet AGL in a training environment without first practicing the maneuver at a higher entry point
2. If a Pilot has not flown at all for a number of days (e.g., 10 days or more) or has not recently
flown a 180-degree autorotation (e.g., within the last 30 days), flight instructors should
reintroduce this maneuver.
CFIT Awareness:
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Controlled Flight Into Terrain
AC No: 61-134 General Aviation CFIT Awareness
As a general rule of thumb, whether an air carrier type aircraft or a GA aircraft, the crewed aircraft is
generally better equipped with more safety equipment, such as an autopilot, radar altimeter, or ground
proximity warning system (GPWS) onboard, than a typical single-pilot, small GA aircraft.
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CFIT accounts for 17% of all general aviation fatalities
Controlled Flight Into Terrain, Education, and Training Aid:
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The CFIT, Education and Training Aid, is a good example of research done by industry and
government. Produced by Safety Foundation, the International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) and the FAA.
Top 10 Recommendations:
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Increase pilot awareness on accident causes
Improve safety culture within the aviation community
Promote development and use of a low cost terrain clearance and/or a look ahead device
Improve pilot training (i.e., weather briefing, equipment, decision-making, wire and tower
avoidance, and human factors.
Improve the quality and substance of weather briefs
Enhance the flight review and/or instrument competency check
Develop and distribute mountain-flying technique advisory material
Standardize and expand use of markings for towers and wires
Use high visibility pain and other visibility enhancing features on obstructions
Eliminate the pressure to complete the flight were continuing may compromise safety.
Scud Running: Operating in marginal VFR/IMC conditions
According to NTSB and FAA data, one of the leading causes of GA accidents is continued VFR flight into
IMC
Risks with VFR-ONLY pilots operating in Marginal VFR/IMC Conditions:
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Loss of aircraft control
Loss of situational awareness
Reduced reaction time to see and avoid rising terrain or obstacles
Inability of pilot to operate aircraft at its minimum controllable airspeed
Getting lost or being off the preplanned flightpath and impacting terrain or obstacle
Reduced pilot reaction time in the event of an aircraft maintenance problem because of a low or
lowering altitude.
Failure to adequately understand the weather conditions that resulted in the reduced
conditions
Breakdown in good aeronautical decision making
Failure to comply with appropriate regulations
Failure to comply with minimum safe altitudes
Increased risk of hitting one of many new low altitude towers installed for cellular telephones
and other types of transmissions.
Failure to turn around and avoid deteriorating conditions when first able
Lesson 4:
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Radio communications are vital to ATC system
Radio Technique:
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Listen –
o Listen before you transmit
Think –
o Think before keying your transmitter
The microphone should be close to your lips, a slight pause might be necessary for the first word
to be transmitted
When you release the button, wait a few seconds before calling again
Be alert to the sounds or the lack of sounds in your receiver
Initial Contact:
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The terms initial contact or initial callup means the first radio call you make to a given facility or
the first call to a different controller or FSS specialist within a facility. Use the following format:
o Name of the facility being called;
o Your full aircraft identification as filed in the flight plan or as discussed in paragraph
4−2−4, Aircraft Call Signs;
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o When operating on an airport surface, state your position.
o The type of message to follow or your request if it is short; and
o The word “Over” if required.
Initial Contact When Your Transmitting and Receiving Frequencies are Different.
o If you are attempting to establish contact with a ground station and you are receiving on
a different frequency than that transmitted, indicate the VOR name or the frequency on
which you expect a reply.
Subsequent Contacts and Responses to Callup from a Ground Facility.
o Use the same format as used for the initial contact except you should state your
message or request with the callup in one transmission.
Acknowledgement of Frequency Changes
o When advised by ATC to change frequencies, acknowledge the instruction.
o If you select the new frequency without an acknowledgement, the controller’s workload
is increased because there is no way of knowing whether you received the instruction or
have had radio communications failure.
Compliance with Frequency Changes
o When instructed by ATC to change frequencies, select the new frequency as soon as
possible unless instructed to make the change at a specific time, fix, or altitude. A delay
in making the change could result in an untimely receipt of important information.
Aircraft Call Signs:
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Improper use of call signs can result in pilots executing a clearance intended for another aircraft.
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Call signs should never be abbreviated on an initial contact or at any time when other aircraft
call signs have similar numbers/sounds or identical letters/number.
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Examples: Cessna 6132F, Cessna 1622F, Baron 123F, Cherokee 7732F
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Pilots, therefore, must be certain that aircraft identification is complete and clearly identified
before taking action on an ATC clearance.
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ATC specialists may initiate abbreviated call signs of other aircraft by using the prefix and the
last three digits/letters of the aircraft identification after communications are established.
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The pilot may use the abbreviated call sign in subsequent contacts with the ATC specialist.
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Pilots should use the phrase “VERIFY CLEARANCE FOR (your complete call sign)” if doubt
exists concerning proper identity.
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Pilots, when calling a ground station, should begin with the name of the facility being called
followed by the type of the facility being called as indicated in TBL 4−2−1.
Figures:
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Figures indicating hundreds and thousands in round number, as for ceiling heights, and upper
wind levels up to 9,900 must be spoken in accordance with the following.
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EXAMPLE−
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500 . . . . . . . . five hundred
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4,500 . . . . . . four thousand five hundred
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Numbers above 9,900 must be spoken by separating the digits preceding the word “thousand.”
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EXAMPLE−
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10,000 . . . . . one zero thousand
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13,500 . . . . . one three thousand five hundred
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When a radio frequency contains a decimal point, the decimal point is spoken as “POINT.”
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EXAMPLE−
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122.1 . . . . . . . . . one two two point one
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NOTE−ICAO procedures require the decimal point be spoken as “DECIMAL.” The FAA will honor
such usage by military aircraft and all other aircraft required to use ICAO procedures.
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Altitudes and Flight Levels
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Up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL, state the separate digits of the thousands plus the
hundreds if appropriate.
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EXAMPLES−
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12,000 . . . . . one two thousand
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12,500 . . . . . one two thousand five hundred
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At and above 18,000 feet MSL (FL 180), state the words “flight level” followed by the separate
digits of the flight level.
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Directions
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The three digits of bearing, course, heading, or wind direction should always be
magnetic. The word “true” must be added when it applies.
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EXAMPLE−
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(Magnetic course) 005 . . . . . . zero zero five
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(True course) 050 . . . . . . . . . . zero five zero true
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(Magnetic bearing) 360 . . . . . three six zero
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(Magnetic heading) 100 . . . . . heading one zero zero
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(Wind direction) 220 . . . . . . . . wind two two zero
Speeds
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The separate digits of the speed followed by the word “KNOTS.” Except, controllers may
omit the word “KNOTS” when using speed adjustment procedures; e.g.,
“REDUCE/INCREASE SPEED TO TWO FIVE ZERO.”
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EXAMPLE−
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(Speed) 250 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . two five zero knots
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(Speed) 190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . one niner zero knots
Emergency Procedures:
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General
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Pilot Responsibility and Authority
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The pilot−in−command of an aircraft is directly responsible for and is the final
authority as to the operation of that aircraft. In an emergency requiring
immediate action, the pilot−in−command may deviate from any rule in 14 CFR
Part 91, Subpart A, General, and Subpart B, Flight Rules, to the extent required
to meet that emergency.
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If the emergency authority of 14 CFR Section 91.3(b) is used to deviate from the
provisions of an ATC clearance, the pilot−in−command must notify ATC as soon
as possible and obtain an amended clearance.
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Unless deviation is necessary under the emergency authority of 14 CFR Section
91.3, pilots of IFR flights experiencing two-way radio communications failure are
expected to adhere to the procedures prescribed under “IFR operations, twoway radio communications failure.”
Emergency Condition – Request Assistance Immediately:
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An emergency can be either a distress or urgency condition as defined in the Pilot/Controller
Glossary.
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Pilots do not hesitate to declare an emergency when they are faced with distress conditions
such as fire, mechanical failure, or structural damage.
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However, some are reluctant to report an urgency condition when they encounter situations
which may not be immediately perilous, but are potentially catastrophic (or possibly
embarrassing).
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An aircraft is in at least an urgency condition the moment the pilot becomes doubtful about
position, fuel endurance, weather, or any other condition that could adversely affect flight
safety.
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This is the time to ask for help, not after the situation has developed into a distress condition.
Emergency Services Available to Pilots:
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Radar Service for VFR Aircraft in Difficulty (Lost)
o Radar equipped ATC facilities can provide radar assistance and navigation service
(vectors) to VFR aircraft in difficulty when the pilot can talk with the controller, and the
aircraft is within radar coverage.
o Pilots should clearly understand that authorization to proceed in accordance with such
radar navigational assistance does not constitute authorization for the pilot to violate
CFRs.
o In effect, assistance is provided on the basis that navigational guidance information is
advisory in nature, and the responsibility for flying the aircraft safely remains with the
pilot.
o Experience has shown that many pilots who are not qualified for instrument flight
cannot maintain control of their aircraft when they encounter clouds or other reduced
visibility conditions.
 In many cases, the controller will not know whether flight into instrument
conditions will result from ATC instructions.
 To avoid possible hazards resulting from being vectored into IFR conditions, a
pilot in difficulty should keep the controller advised of the current weather
conditions being encountered and the weather along the course ahead.
Vector Operations:
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If a course of action is available which will permit flight and a safe landing in VFR weather
conditions, noninstrument rated pilots should choose the VFR condition rather than requesting
a vector or approach that will take them into IFR weather conditions; or
If continued flight in VFR conditions is not possible, the noninstrument rated pilot should so
advise the controller and indicating the lack of an instrument rating, declare a distress condition;
or
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If the pilot is instrument rated and current, and the aircraft is instrument equipped, the pilot
should so indicate by requesting an IFR flight clearance.
o Assistance will then be provided on the basis that the aircraft can operate safely in IFR
weather conditions.
Transponder Emergency Operation:
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When a distress or urgency condition is encountered, the pilot of an aircraft with a coded radar
beacon transponder, who desires to alert a ground radar facility, should squawk Mode 3/A,
Code 7700/Emergency and Mode C altitude reporting and then immediately establish
communications with the ATC facility.
Radar facilities are equipped so that Code 7700 normally triggers an alarm or special indicator at
all control positions.
Pilots should understand that they might not be within a radar coverage area. Therefore, they
should continue squawking Code 7700 and establish radio communications as soon as possible.
Intercept and Escort:
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The concept of airborne intercept and escort is based on the Search and Rescue (SAR) aircraft
establishing visual and/or electronic contact with an aircraft in difficulty, providing in-flight
assistance, and escorting it to a safe landing.
If bailout, crash landing or ditching becomes necessary, SAR operations can be conducted
without delay.
For most incidents, particularly those occurring at night and/or instrument flight conditions, the
availability of intercept and escort services will depend on the proximity of SAR units with
suitable aircraft on alert for immediate dispatch.
In limited circumstances, other aircraft flying in the vicinity of an aircraft in difficulty can provide
these services.
If specifically requested by a pilot in difficulty or if a distress condition is declared, SAR
coordinators will take steps to intercept and escort an aircraft.
Steps may be initiated for intercept and escort if an urgency condition is declared and unusual
circumstances make such action advisable.
It is the pilot’s prerogative to refuse intercept and escort services.
o Escort services will normally be provided to the nearest adequate airport.
o Should the pilot receiving escort services continue onto another location after reaching
a safe airport, or decide not to divert to the nearest safe airport, the escort aircraft is
not obligated to continue and further escort is discretionary. The decision will depend
on the circumstances of the individual incident.
Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT):
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General
ELTs are required for most General Aviation airplanes.
REFERENCE−14 CFR SECTION 91.207.
ELTs of various types were developed as a means of locating downed aircraft.
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These electronic, battery operated transmitters operate on one of three frequencies. These
operating frequencies are 121.5 MHz, 243.0 MHz, and the newer 406 MHz.
ELTs operating on 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz are analog devices.
The newer 406 MHz ELT is a digital transmitter that can be encoded with the owner’s contact
information or aircraft data.
o The latest 406 MHz ELT models can also be encoded with the aircraft’s position data
which can help SAR forces locate the aircraft much more quickly after a crash.
o The 406 MHz ELTs also transmits a stronger signal when activated than the older 121.5
MHz ELTs.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) requires 406 MHz ELTs be registered with the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) as outlined in the ELTs
documentation.
In the event that a properly registered 406 MHz ELT activates, the Cospas−Sarsat satellite
system can decode the owner’s information and provide that data to the appropriate search and
rescue (SAR) center.
In the United States, NOAA provides the alert data to the appropriate U.S. Air Force Rescue
Coordination Center (RCC) or U.S. Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center.
o That RCC can then telephone or contact the owner to verify the status of the aircraft.
o If the aircraft is safely secured in a hangar, a costly ground or airborne search is avoided.
o In the case of an inadvertent 406 MHz ELT activation, the owner can deactivate the 406
MHz ELT.
406 MHz ELTs permit the Cospas−Sarsat satellite system to narrow the search area to a more
confined area compared to that of a 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz ELT.
406 MHz ELTs also include a low−power 121.5 MHz homing transmitter to aid searchers in
finding the aircraft in the terminal search phase.
If “armed” and when subject to crash− generated forces, ELTs are designed to automatically
activate and continuously emit their respective signals, analog or digital.
The transmitters will operate continuously for at least 48 hours over a wide temperature range.
o A properly installed, maintained, and functioning ELT can expedite search and rescue
operations and save lives if it survives the crash and is activated.
o Pilots and their passengers should know how to activate the aircraft’s ELT if manual
activation is required.
They should also be able to verify the aircraft’s ELT is functioning and transmitting an alert after
a crash or manual activation.
The Cospas−Sarsat system has announced the termination of satellite monitoring and reception
of the 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz frequencies in 2009.
The Cospas−Sarsat system will continue to monitor the 406 MHz frequency.
What this means for pilots is that after the termination date, those aircraft with only 121.5 MHz
or 243.0 MHz ELT’s onboard will have to depend upon either a nearby Air Traffic Control facility
receiving the alert signal or an overflying aircraft monitoring 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz detecting
the alert.
To ensure adequate monitoring of these frequencies and timely alerts after 2009, all airborne
pilots should periodically monitor these frequencies to try and detect an activated 121.5/243.0
MHz ELT.
Emergency Procedures – Lost Communications:
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Communications with Tower when Aircraft Transmitter or Receiver or Both are Inoperative
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Arriving Aircraft.
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Receiver inoperative.
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If you have reason to believe your receiver is inoperative, remain outside or
above the Class D surface area until the direction and flow of traffic has been
determined; then, advise the tower of your type aircraft, position, altitude,
intention to land, and request that you be controlled with light signals.
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When you are approximately 3 to 5 miles from the airport, advise the tower of
your position and join the airport traffic pattern. From this point on, watch the
tower for light signals. Thereafter, if a complete pattern is made, transmit your
position downwind and/or turning base leg.
Transmitter Inoperative:
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Remain outside or above the Class D surface area until the direction and flow of traffic has been
determined; then, join the airport traffic pattern.
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Monitor the primary local control frequency as depicted on Sectional Charts for landing or traffic
information, and look for a light signal which may be addressed to your aircraft.
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During hours of daylight, acknowledge tower transmissions or light signals by rocking your
wings. At night, acknowledge by blinking the landing or navigation lights.
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To acknowledge tower transmissions during daylight hours, hovering helicopters will turn in the
direction of the controlling facility and flash the landing light.
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While in flight, helicopters should show their acknowledgement of receiving a transmission by
making shallow banks in opposite directions. At night, helicopters will acknowledge receipt of
transmissions by flashing either the landing or the search light.
Departing Aircraft:
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If you experience radio failure prior to leaving the parking area, make every effort to have
the equipment repaired.
If you are unable to have the malfunction repaired, call the tower by telephone and request
authorization to depart without two-way radio communications.
If tower authorization is granted, you will be given departure information and requested to
monitor the tower frequency or watch for light signals as appropriate.
During daylight hours, acknowledge tower transmissions or light signals by moving the
ailerons or rudder. At night, acknowledge by blinking the landing or navigation lights.
If radio malfunction occurs after departing the parking area, watch the tower for light
signals or monitor tower frequency (return to parking).