MODULE IN
Living in the IT Era
GIT
Computer Science & Computer Applications Department
SCHOOL OF ACCOUNTANCY, MANAGEMENT, COMPUTING
AND INFORMATION STUDIES
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Table of Contents
MODULE 1 .................................................................................................. 3
Unit 01: Information Technology and Emerging Trends ................................ 3
Unit 02: Sustainability of Productivity ......................................................... 9
MODULE 2 ................................................................................................ 14
Unit 3: Systems Analysis and Design ......................................................... 14
Unit 4: Systems Development Life Cycle - Planning .................................... 21
Unit 05: Systems Development Life Cycle - Analysis ................................... 35
Unit 06: Systems Analysis - Data Flow Diagrams ....................................... 45
Unit 07: Systems Development Strategies ................................................. 55
Unit 08: Systems Development Life Cycle - Design .................................... 60
Final Requirement: Business Case ............................................................. 73
MODULE 3 ................................................................................................ 74
Unit 09: Cybercrime Laws .......................................................................... 75
Unit 10: Computer and Data Privacy .......................................................... 75
Unit 11: Copyright Laws ............................................................................ 75
Appendix ................................................................................................... 78
2
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
MODULE 1
Unit 01: Information Technology and Emerging Trends
Objectives: By the end of this lesson, the student will be able to
1. discuss and describe the different industrial revolutions,
2. describe what is the difference between innovation and invention,
3. compute for productivity as an effect of information technology on workers or on the
organization as a whole.
We are living in extraordinary times where extraordinary technologies are within reach from
anywhere, by anyone. We almost always take these technologies for granted because they have
become part of the everyday life of people.
To start with this module, see the presentation for IT Trends: Lesson01GITTechTrends
The rise of information and communication technologies (ICT) – that is, computers,
software, telecommunications and the internet – and the large impact that these new technologies
are having on the way that society functions, have prompted many to claim that we have entered
a new era.
Industrial Revolutions
A period of development in the latter half of the 18th century, where there is change from
one economy to another.
3
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Generally, the term refers to eras when rapid and significant technological changes
fundamentally alter the way that production is carried out in society, affecting not only how people
work but also how they live their lives.
Industrial revolution involves technological, socioeconomic, and cultural aspects. It occurs
when technological change fundamentally transforms the way in which a society carries out the
production and distribution of goods.
The changes could be inventions, innovations, product innovations, or process
innovations. The term ‘invention’ refers to the discovery of new products or processes, while
‘innovation’ refers to the commercialization (bringing to the market) of new products or processes.
Invention is the discovery of new products and processes.
Machines
Telephones
Automobiles
Television
4
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Innovation is the commercialization and improvement of the existing products.
Assembly Lines
CD’s
Flat Screen TV’s
Smartphones
Product innovations result in the production of a new product, such as the change from a
three-wheel car to a four-wheel car, or the change from LP (Long Play/Playing) records to CDs
(Compact Discs). Process innovations increase the efficiency of the methods of production of
existing products, for example the invention of the assembly-line technique.
Here are the different Industrial Revolutions with their products / services,
transportation, production system, and communication.
First Industrial Revolution - 1765
Started in England during the late 18th century, concentrated in Britain and initially focused
on textile manufacturing.
●
●
●
●
●
Significant evolutions: Cort’s puddling; rolling process for making iron, Crompton’s mule
for spinning cotton, Watt steam engine
Products / Services – Vegetables, Coal, Iron, Discovery of chemicals
Transportation – Railroads, Basic farming
Production System – Manual Labor to mechanical
Communication - Printed materials
Second Industrial Revolution - 1870
●
●
Significant evolution: Development of electricity, Internal-combustion engine, Railway,
Chemical industry
Products / Services – electricity, chemicals, petroleum, steel
5
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
●
●
●
Transportation – automobiles, aircrafts
Production System – machine-aided equipment
Communication – telephone, telegraph
Third Industrial Revolution - 1969
●
●
●
Started with the development of transistors and the rise of electronics and digital
technology.
Products / Services – Internet, rise of electronics, source of energy: nuclear power
Production System - Automation
Fourth Industrial Revolution
See Lesson01Video1IndustrialRevolutions.mp4
6
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Klaus Schwab described the fourth industrial revolution as marked by an era of technological
revolution that is blurring the lines between the physical, digital and biological spheres.
Watch Lesson01Video2FourthIndustrialRevolution.mp4
IT and PRODUCTIVITY
Economists interested in the pervasive effects of technological change in different
industrial revolutions have devised the concept of a General Purpose Technology (GPT). It is a
technology of wide application used in various industries and whose impact is strong on their
functioning.
Main Characteristics of a GPT
As you read the list, consider how a new technology such as electricity or information
technology fulfils each criterion.
●
●
●
●
It must have a wide scope for improvement and elaboration - this means that the
technology does not appear as a complete and final solution, but as a technology that can
be improved through the different opportunities for technological change that surround it.
It must be applicable across a broad range of uses - this means that its use is not
restricted, for example, to only one industry but open to many different types of industries
and consumers.
It must have a potential use in a wide variety of products and processes - this means that
the new technology should not result in the creation of only one set of products (such as
a computer), but a wide set of products (such as complex new air-traffic control systems
or new inventory controls).
It must have strong complementarities with existing or potential new technologies - this
means that the technology does not only replace existing methods but also works with
them, ensuring an even broader impact on the systems of production and distribution.
Productivity
Productivity is the quality of producing something. It is a measure of the efficiency of a person,
machine, factory, system, etc., in converting inputs into useful outputs. It is an indication of the
efficiency of production or distribution.
7
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
The Effect of Technology on Productivity
Labor productivity can be measured as output produced per hour of labor. For example, consider
an automobile factory that is able to produce 10 cars per day using 100 hours of labour. If a new
invention permits those same workers to produce 20 cars in the same amount of time, their
productivity has been doubled.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) - Total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and
services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period. Total output divided by total
labour hours in the year gives us a measure of labour productivity. A 5 per cent growth in UK
productivity over a year means that the UK economy has become 5 percent more productive than
it was in the previous year. This should mean that the economy can produce 5 per cent more
output (GDP) with the same amount of inputs.
Example Computation for Productivity
Question1: If a group of workers produces 10,000 units of output in one year, and 12,000 units
the next year. Calculate the percentage increase in productivity.
Answer:
You want to know the percentage increase represented by the second year's output, 12,000,
over the first year's output, 10,000. Subtracting 10,000 from 12,000 gives us the increase.
Divide the answer by 10,000 to calculate the increase relative to the first year. Then multiply by
100 to turn the answer into a percentage.
12,000 − 10,000 = 2,000 ;
2,000
∗
10,000
100 = 20%
So, output increased by 20 percent. As the number of workers stayed the same, this is also the
increase in productivity.
Question2: Calculate the percentage increase in productivity if the output expands from 12,000
in year 2 to 15,000 in year 3.
Answer:
Division of Labor and Productivity
The division of labor refers to the degree to which the various tasks involved in the
production of a good or service are divided among different workers.
Productivity increases when the division of labor increases. Increases in productivity can
be transmitted throughout the economy for several reasons:
● Productivity – Income
Increases in productivity can lead to higher incomes for an economy's citizens. All output
must be transformed, through the process of production and sale, into someone's income (e.g.
the boss's profits and the workers’ wages). Hence, increases in productivity, which allow more
output to be produced by a given amount of inputs, also lead to more income per head, that is,
greater wealth for society. For example, if more cars can be produced due to increases in the
productivity of car production, more cars are sold, which means that the car manufacturers’
revenues increase.
● Productivity – Cost of Production
8
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
If increases in wages are linked to increases in productivity, then workers’ wages may also
rise (or, at least, their employment prospects may be more secure). Second, increases in
productivity diffused throughout the economy have an effect on prices. Increases in productivity
tend to lower the cost of production, precisely because more output can be produced with the
same amount of inputs. Since cost reductions tend to be translated into price reductions,
increases in productivity eventually tend to reduce prices. Indeed, the introduction of assembly
lines made a substantial contribution to the affordability of consumer durables such as the car.
The increase in income per head and the reduction in prices allow consumers to be better off.
Prices and Industrial Change
How can we look at price changes over time in industries in which the product undergoes
many changes, especially in early stages? We use the concept of the price index. Indices are
used a lot in economics. They are basically a simple way of measuring change.
Price index is a measure of the average level of prices for some specified set of goods
and services, relative to the prices of a specified base period. The most widely used method of
constructing an index is based on the notion of the percentage. An example is provided below.
Suppose that the price of a product is Php 500 in 2000 and Php 750 in 2001 and Php
1000 in 2002. In this simple example, our market basket consists of only one product. Selecting
year 2000 as the base year, we can express the prices in years 2001 and 2002 relative to the
price in year 2000 as follows:
The price in year 2000 (base year) is equal to 100 percent
𝑃 750
𝑃 1000
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥, 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 2001 = (
) ∗ 100 = 150, 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 2002 = (
) ∗ 100 = 200
𝑃 500
𝑃 500
Changes in Industry Structure
Industry structure refers mainly to the way in which power is distributed among firms. This
can be described by factors such as the number of firms in the industry and the distribution of
market shares.
Unit 02: Sustainability of Productivity
Objectives: By the end of this lesson, the student will be able to
1. discuss the impact of game changing technologies on work and employment,
2. summarize the concept of platform economy.
All economies fluctuate in a business cycle. For a few years, growth is quite rapid, output
and incomes rise, and unemployment falls. This is the ‘boom’. Then the cycle turns. Growth slows,
and in a true recession the total output of the economy falls. This is the down-turn of the cycle.
The industry life cycle focuses on those economic mechanisms that cause firms to be born (to
‘enter’ an industry), to grow, and to die (to ‘exit’ an industry).
Industry Life Cycle
The industry structure refers to the characteristics of an industry, such as the number of
firms operating in it, the distribution of power between them (whether some are very large and
others very small, or whether they are all very large), and the degree to which new firms find it
easy to enter the industry).
Mechanisms affecting industry structure include the dynamics of entry/exit, technological
change and falling prices. The industry life cycle is characterized by the following phases:
(examples are set in the year 2018 for reference)
1. A pre-market or hobbyist phase, in which the product is produced more as a hobby or
luxury than for commercial purposes. (e.g. self-driving electric cars)
9
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
2. An introductory phase, in which the product begins to be produced more for commercial
purposes than for hobby reasons. (e.g. self-driving cars)
3. A growth phase, in which the industry grows rapidly due to the emergence of a
standardized product. (e.g. electric cars - Tesla Model S)
4. A mature phase, in which demand slackens and fewer technological opportunities are
available. (e.g. ford focus car)
Game Changing Technologies
See Work-in-the-Digital-Age-1.pdf pages 133-140
● Advanced Industrial Robotics - Involves machines which are designed to perform
industrial tasks automatically, with high programmability and the capacity to interact with
their environment thanks to the use of digital sensors, usually seen in manufacturing or
production lines.
●
Additive Manufacturing - Involving digitally controlled devices to add layer on layer of
material(s) to create objects from 3D digital models. This is usually done in the industrial
sector such as architectural, medical, dental, aerospace, automotive, furniture and jewelry.
●
Industrial Internet of Things - the use of connected sensors attached to different objects
throughout the production process to feed live data to central computers, usually seen on
the factory floor.
10
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
●
Electric Vehicles - vehicles whose main system of propulsion depends on (externally
generated) electricity rather than fuel. (e.g. Tesla)
●
Industrial Biotech - the use of biological processes of living organisms for industrial
purposes, drawing on recent scientific insights such as systems genomics and
metabolomics. Uses enzymes and microorganisms to make bio-based products in sectors
such as chemicals, food ingredients, detergents, paper, textiles and biofuels.
Advanced Industrial Robotics, Additive Manufacturing and Industrial Internet of Things
involve innovations in the manufacturing production process, and have a very wide applicability
across most manufacturing sectors.
Electric Vehicles and Industrial Biotech concern innovations of specific products (and
related processes), and have a more narrow applicability to particular sectors
Effects of Game Changing Technologies
1. Increasing centrality of (digital) information – information as a key source value
2. Mass Customization – flexible production process with interconnecting objects
3. Servitization – technologies involve the gradual replacement of manufacturing as
traditionally understood by a type of economic activity that is closer to the traditional
concept of services
4. Increased Labor/Resource Efficiency – more efficient use of materials and energy in
production
Effects of Game Changing Technologies on Work and Employment
1. Upgrading of occupations
2. Higher level of ICT competence
3. Decline of repetitive and routine industrial work brought about by digital factories
11
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
While there are innumerable positives that can be drawn from these Game
Changing Technologies, it is imperative that we also take a look at the adverse
effects that these technologies cause.
Like many other things, there are always two sides of the story. On one end,
productivity numbers received a massive boost thanks to new technologies. On
the other end, there is a question of whether the same numbers are not telling the
whole story.
While new technologies, even new applications being downloaded, have made an
impact, some of them have caused other people to rely too much on technology
and not develop their own skills anymore. Technology, in some ways, has become
workers of our time instead of serving as a tool to help us.
Quite possibly, the worst effect of it is the accessibility of such technologies. With
only a fraction of the people in the world having the chance to know how to take
advantage of these new technologies, what happens to those who are not as
fortunate?
It matters that we look into all the effects of technology. It is only through looking
at the other side that we can actually discover how to improve what we currently
have and develop new technologies that would benefit everyone.
The Platform Economy
See Work-in-the-Digital-Age-1.pdf pages 163-174
A platform is a business that connects people through technology, making an ecosystem
that allows value to be created and exchanged. This works by matching users to each other in
order to make financial or social transactions that create value.
Platforms don’t own the resources that create value, they can grow much faster than
pipeline businesses. These businesses make up a platform-based economy. Some key features
of a platform will include:
●
●
●
●
Using sophisticated logistics software for matching and payment
Providers on the platforms are independent contractors
Very low barriers to entry for providers on most platforms
Trust is achieved via crowdsourcing of ratings and reputational data.
12
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Platform Model
The platform model shows three (03) components:
●
●
●
platform - controller of the channel or platform and arbiter of the participants in the platform
consumers/customers - buyers or users of the outputs offered through the platform
producers/providers - supplier of the outputs sold through the platform
References
●
●
NEUFEIND, M., RANFT, F., AND O’REILLY, J. (2018) Work in the Digital Age: Challenges
of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Rowman & Littlefield International Ltd
The Open University (2016). Information Technology: a new era. Walton Hall, Milton
Keynes, MK7 6AA. https://www.open.edu/openlearn/people-politics-law/politics-policypeople/ sociology/information-technology-new-era/content-section-1
GRADED Activity 1
Part 1: Unit 1(10 pts)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What do technologies look like when they are still being discovered?
How did the life of people change back then?
Are we going through a similar change right now?
What’s in store for the future?
Have we actually progressed as a result of the technologies that we have discovered
throughout time? Explain in 2-3 sentences.
Part 2: Unit 1(10 pts)
1. Which technology of the past do you think had the most impact in the way of life of people
today? Discuss in 3-5 sentences.
13
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
2. Did new technologies help in making humans more productive or have these caused a
decrease in the efficiency of work of people? Explain your answer in 3-5 sentences.
Part 3: Unit 2(15 pts)
What do you think is the way forward with the Game Changing Technologies that we
currently have? What are its flaws, and how can these be improved further? Explain your answer
in 8-10 sentences.
Part 4 (25 pts)
Take the Quiz on Lesson 02 Assessment
MODULE 2
Unit 3: Systems Analysis and Design
See video Lesson03InformationSystems.mp4
LESSON OBJECTIVES:
1. Discuss the impact of information technology on business strategy and success.
2. Define an information system and its components.
3. Explain how profiles and models can represent business functions and operations.
4. Explain how the Internet has affected business strategies and relationships.
5. Identify various types of information systems and explain who uses them.
Going over the technologies in the past and how it has evolved to the technologies we
have in the present gave us an idea of what is possible in the future. It is with the creativity and
ingenuity of us, human beings, that we are able to make sense of technological developments
and turn them into productivity boosting tools.
But technologies are not developed to match exactly what every person needs. After all,
each person has something different to do and to work on. It is thus important for these
technologies to be transformed into something that is geared towards making every person
productive despite the difference in their needs. Technologies are being specialized. So how
exactly does these technologies work?
14
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Companies use information as a weapon in the battle to increase productivity, deliver
quality products and services, maintain customer loyalty, and make sound decisions. Information
technology can mean the difference between success and failure. Information technology (IT) is
the application of a combination of hardware and software used to retrieve, store, transmit and
manipulate data, often in the context of a business or other enterprise.
Data are facts that are recorded and stored. Information is processed data used in decision
making. The value of information is the benefit produced by the information minus the cost of
producing it.
A System is a set of two or more interrelated components interacting to achieve a goal.
Information Systems
●
●
●
●
Set of interrelated components
Collect, process, store, and distribute information
Support decision making, coordination, and control
May also help analyze problems, visualize complex subjects and create new
products
Information System Components
●
●
Hardware – tangible aspect of a computer system
●
●
Data - is the raw material that an information system transforms into useful information
Software – programs and other operating information used by a computer (systems,
application, enterprise, horizontal system, vertical systems, legacy systems)
Processes - describes the tasks and business functions that users, managers, and IT staff
members perform to achieve specific results. Processes are the building blocks of an
information system because they represent actual day-to-day business operations.
15
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
●
People - those who have an interest in an information system are called stakeholders.
Stakeholders include the management group responsible for the system, the users
(sometimes called end users) inside and outside the company who will interact with the
system, and IT staff members, such as systems analysts, programmers, and network
administrators who develop and support the system.
Who develops Information Systems?
●
Traditionally, a company either developed its own information systems, called in-house
applications, or purchased systems called software packages from outside vendors.
●
Today, the choice is much more complex. Options include Internet-based application
services, outsourcing, custom solutions from IT consultants, and enterprise-wide software
strategies.
Systems Analysis and Design
Systems Analysis and Design is a step-by-step process for developing high-quality
information systems.
Systems Analyst plans, develops, and maintains information systems.
Business and Information Systems
With the different technological advancements, businesses have adopted newer
processes and have upgraded their business models
●
Brick-and-mortar - refers to a traditional street-side business that offers products and
services to its customers face-to-face in an office or store that the business owns or rents.
●
Click-and-mortar - Click and mortar is a type of business model that has both online and
offline operations, which typically include a website and a physical store.
●
Click - Click-only companies are those companies who have a website/online presence
without a physical store. They sell their products through their website only.
The Internet has drastically reduced the intermediaries within a transaction. Internet-based
commerce is called e-commerce (electronic commerce) or I-commerce (Internet commerce). The
E-commerce includes two main sectors: B2C (business-to-consumer) and B2B (business-tobusiness).
B2C (Business-to-Consumer)
●
Using the Internet, consumers can go online to purchase an enormous variety of products
and services. This new shopping environment allows customers to do research, compare
prices and features, check availability, arrange delivery, and choose payment methods in
a single convenient session.
B2B (Business-to-Business)
●
Business-to-business (B2B), also called B-to-B, is a form of transaction between
businesses, such as one involving a manufacturer and wholesaler, or a wholesaler and a
retailer.
16
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Business and Information Systems
In the past, IT managers divided systems into categories based on the user group the
system served. Categories and users included office systems (administrative staff), operational
systems (operational personnel), decision support systems (middle-managers and knowledge
workers), and executive information systems (top managers). Today, traditional labels no longer
apply. For example, all employees, including top managers, use office productivity systems.
Similarly, operational users often require decision support systems. As business changes,
information use also changes in most companies. Today, it makes more sense to identify a system
by its functions and features, rather than by its users.
Examples of Information Systems according to support provided
●
●
●
Inventory Control (TPS)
Reservations (TPS, MIS)
Customer Order Processing / Point-of-Sale (TPS)
17
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
●
●
●
●
●
●
Warranty Claim Processing (TPS)
Records Management (MIS)
Enrollment System (TPS)
Attendance Monitoring (MIS)
Payroll (TPS)
Queuing (TPS)
WHAT INFORMATION DO USERS NEED?
Corporate organizational structure has changed considerably in recent years. As part of
downsizing and business process reengineering, many companies reduced the number of
management levels and delegated responsibility to operational personnel. Although modern
organization charts tend to be flatter, an organizational hierarchy still exists in most companies.
A typical organizational model identifies business functions and organizational levels, as shown
in the figure below. Within the functional areas, operational personnel report to supervisors and
team leaders. The next level includes middle managers and knowledge workers, who, in turn,
report to top managers. In a corporate structure, the top managers report to a board of directors
elected by the company’s shareholders.
Top managers
●
Strategic plans
Middle Managers and Knowledge Workers
●
Middle managers provide direction, necessary resources, and performance feedback to
supervisors and team leaders
●
Knowledge workers include professional staff members such as systems analysts,
programmers, accountants, researchers, etc.
Supervisors and Team Leaders
●
Oversee operational employees and carry out day-to-day functions
18
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Operational Employees
●
Operational employees include users who rely on TP systems to enter and receive data
they need to perform their jobs.
ROLE IN THE PROJECT PROPOSAL
System Analyst
❏ A systems analyst investigates, analyzes, designs, develops, installs, evaluates, and
maintains a company’s information systems.
❏ On large projects, the analyst works as a member of an IT department team
❏ Smaller companies often use consultants to perform the work
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
System development is the process of defining, designing, testing and implementing a
software application.
A system development project includes a number of different phases, such as feasibility
analysis, requirements analysis, software design, software coding, testing and debugging,
installation and maintenance.
System Development Methods
Systems Development Life Cycle
❏ Predictive Approach
❏ Use of Process Models
❏ Process-centered technique
System Development Life Cycle(SDLC)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Planning – Initial stage, conduct preliminary investigation
Analysis – assess the requirements needed and provide documentation
Design – identify all inputs, processes, and outputs
Implementation – proposed system is constructed, all entities have their own functions
Maintenance – verification of the implementation of proposed system
ROLES DEFINED
System Analyst
Responsibilities – Translate business requirements into practical IT projects to meet needs
Required Skills and Background – Solid communication skills and analytic ability
19
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Information Technology Department
The information technology (IT) department develops and maintains a company’s
information systems
The IT group provides technical support
Application Development
●
Team may include users, managers and IT Staff members
Systems Support and Security
● Deployment team
User Support
● Help desk or information center (IC)
Database Administration
● Database design, management, security, backup, and user access
Network Administration
● Includes hardware and software maintenance, support, and security
Web Support
●
Webmasters
Information Technology Department in Project Evaluation
Management leadership and information technology are linked closely, and remarkable
changes have occurred in both areas.
Today, systems development is much more team oriented.
Although team-oriented development is the norm, some companies see the role of the IT
department as a gatekeeper.
Importance of Project Management
Regardless of the development strategy, people, tasks, timetables, and expenses must
be managed effectively.
Complex projects can involve dozens of people, hundreds of tasks, and many thousands,
millions of money.
Systems Development Guidelines
● Stick to a plan
● Involve the users throughout the development process
● Listening is very important
● Use project management tools to identify tasks and milestones
● Remain flexible
● Develop accurate cost and benefit information
For a detailed discussion of the Introduction to Systems Analysis and Design, watch the following:
Lesson 03 Introduction to Systems Analysis and Design Part 1
Lesson 03 Introduction to Systems Analysis and Design Part 2
20
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Unit 4: Systems Development Life Cycle - Planning
This part of the module begins with the discussion of strategic planning. Systems
development typically starts with a systems request, followed by a preliminary investigation, which
includes a feasibility study. Discussions include how systems requests originate, how they are
evaluated, and how to conduct a preliminary investigation and feasibility study. Fact-finding
techniques will be discussed and will be carried over into later development phases. Finally an
examination of the report to management concludes the systems planning phase.
* Activities given in this unit will be related to your business case to help you manage your
business case. You may start doing Chapter 1 of your case if selection of the company is
done.
Lecture Objectives:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of a business case and how a business case affects an IT
project.
2. Describe the strategic planning process and why it is important to the IT team.
3. Explain the purpose of a mission statement.
4. Describe the SDLC, and explain how it serves as a framework for systems
development and business modeling.
5. Describe risks and risk management features.
6. List the reasons for information systems projects and the factors that affect
such projects.
7. Explain the initial review of systems requests and the role of the systems review
committee
8. Define operational feasibility, technical feasibility, economic feasibility, and
schedule feasibility
9. Describe the steps in a preliminary investigation and the end product of an
investigation
You can read through the notes, or you can open the presentation, Lesson 04
SDLCPlanning Lesson 04 SDLCPlanning with the same content.
Let us recall again the definition of Systems Development Life Cycle which is a
structured analysis that uses a series of phases: to plan, analyze, design, implement, and support
an information system. SDLC is a process-centered technique because it focuses on processes
that transform data into useful information.
SYSTEMS PLANNING
It is the initial stage in the systems development life cycle (SDLC). It is the fundamental
process of understanding why an information system should be built and determine how the
project team will go about building it. It describes how IT projects get started, how systems
21
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
analysts evaluate proposed projects, the feasibility of a project, and the reasoning behind the
proposed system development = business case. Strategic planning starts with a management
review called a SWOT analysis.
SWOT Analysis
It is a planning methodology that helps organizations build a strategic plan to meet goals,
improve operations and keep the business relevant. During SWOT analysis, organizations identify
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (the four factors SWOT stands for) pertaining
to organizational growth, products and services, business objectives and market competition.
The following are the main steps in performing a SWOT analysis:
1. Collect relevant information and list all current known strengths and weaknesses. This can be
achieved through talking to others in the organization or through larger brainstorming
sessions. You should come prepared with questions pertaining to the SWOT objective and
aim to get thoughtful and insightful responses from your team.
2. Consider all the potential opportunities that exist for the organization, including future trends
and technologies.
3. Review the SWOT matrix to build a plan that addresses each area including everything that’s
working and everything that needs to change.
Questions that needs to be answered:
❏ What are the internal strengths and weaknesses of your company?
❏ What are the external opportunities and threats in your industry and its environment?
❏ Can any weaknesses be converted to strengths? Any threats into opportunities?
❏ How can your company take advantage of strengths and opportunities?
❏ What strategic changes can your company implement as a result of the SWOT analysis?
22
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
SWOT analysis is applied early on in the planning, as soon as the objectives of the project
are clear. In its nature, SWOT is looking at both the internal and external factors that impact the
project and the sooner you can identify these, the sooner you can use them to your advantage.
Activities in the System Planning are:
A. Project Initiation (Project Identification)
B. Preliminary Investigation (Feasibility Analysis)
A. Project Initiation (Project Identification)
It begins when someone in an organization identifies that there is a need to improve an
existing system or a new system is needed to improve business operations. Most ideas come
from outside the IT department such as marketing accounting , and the like, as a form of system
request.
It can be divided into several sub-steps:
1. Reasons for Systems Projects
❏ Improved services
❏ Support for new products and services
❏ Better performance
❏ More information
❏ Reduced cost
❏ Stronger controls (encryption, biometrics)
2. Sources of System Projects
❏ Internal factors (strategic plans, higher management, client satisfaction, existing
systems and processes)
❏ A strategic plan that stresses technology tends to create a favorable climate for IT
projects that extends throughout the organization.
❏ Errors or problems in existing systems can trigger requests for systems projects.
❏ External factors (customers, competition, regulatory agencies, technology,
environment, suppliers)
❏ Changing technology is a major force affecting business and society in
general.
❏ Suppliers- Electronic data interchange. Just-in-time inventory systems.
❏ Information systems that interact with customers usually receive top
priority.
23
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
3. Systems Request
It documents the business reasons for building the system and the value that the
system is expected to provide.
It includes the following elements:
❏ Project sponsor. This is the person who initiated the project and who will
serve as the primary point of contact for the system on the business side.
❏ Business needs. It describes why the information system should be built,
in terms of business point of view, and explains to the approval committee
why the organization should fund the project.
❏ Functionality or Feature of the System. It should be described in a
concise language.
❏ Expected value. It describes the value to be gained from the system that
includes both tangible and intangible values.
Reasons for System Request
❏ Reduced cost. The current system is expensive to operate and maintain
as a result technical problems or the changing demands of the business.
❏ More information. The system might produce information that is
insufficient, incomplete, or unable to provide the company's changing
information needs. So, the business needs to keep track of some key
information that cannot be obtained from the current system.
❏ Better performance. The system might be old and hence slow to respond
to data inquiries, have limited flexibility, and unable to support company
growth. So, it needs to increase the system performance by combining
processes, integration of systems, and the like.
❏ Improved Services. It aimed to improve service to suppliers, customers,
or users within the company.
❏ Stronger Controls. A system may not have all security required by the
company for different users.
24
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Essential Question
1. Why does a systems analyst need to know about strategic planning?
Consider an old story about two stonecutters who were hard at work when a
passerby asked them what they were doing. “I am cutting stones,” said the first worker.
The second worker replied, “I am building a cathedral.” So it is with information technology:
One analyst might say, “I am using a CASE tool,” whereas another might say, “I am helping
the company succeed in a major new business venture.” Systems analysts should focus
on the larger, strategic role of IT as they carry out their day-to-day responsibilities.
2. Consider the interaction between time and costs when doing schedule feasibility. How and
why do you have to consider the cost when doing schedule feasibility?
B. Preliminary Investigation (Feasibility Analysis)
It is an inquiry to determine whether there is sufficient evidence for a system to be
proposed. An analyst from the IT department is assigned to perform the preliminary investigation
through feasibility study.
Feasibility Analysis
The process of confirming that a strategy, plan or design is possible and makes sense.
This can be used to validate assumptions, constraints, decisions, approaches and business
cases. Types of feasibility:
1. Schedule (time)
2. Operational (business)
3. Technical (technology)
4. Economic (monetary)
25
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
1.
Schedule Feasibility
The probability of a project to be completed within its scheduled time limits. If a project
has a high probability to be completed on-time, then its schedule feasibility is appraised as high.
This asks whether a project can be implemented in an acceptable frame. It aims to answer the
questions:
❏ What conditions must be satisfied during the development of the system?
❏ Will an accelerated schedule pose a risk? If so, are the risks acceptable?
May include the following methods or measurements:
❏ Project Estimation
❏ Gantt and PERT Chart
❏ CPM (Critical Path Method)
❏ Change Management
However, this module will focus on the Gantt chart only.
Gantt Chart
A Gantt chart is a timeline of a project. It is one of the most popular and useful ways of showing
activities (tasks or events) displayed against time. It is a horizontal bar chart that represents a set
of tasks that could show planned and actual progress on a project. The position of the bar shows
the planned starting and ending time of each task, and the length of the bar indicates its duration.
This allows you to see at a glance:
❏ What are the various activities?
❏ When each activity begins and ends?
❏ How long each activity is scheduled to last?
❏ Where activities overlap with other activities, and by how much?
❏ The start and end date of the whole project?
Example. In the daily project status Gantt chart below, Task 1 will take place from March 3 to 7
and then March 10 to 14. The due date is Thursday of that week. Each week is color coded.
26
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
2. Operational Feasibility
This is being done to gain an understanding of whether the proposed system will
likely solve the business problems, or take advantage of the opportunities or not.
Operational feasibility means that a proposed system will be used effectively after it has
been developed.
Areas to be assessed:
❏ Project Size – number of users
❏ IPO – inputs, processes, outputs
❏ Management support
❏ Environment assessment – are the users going to change
Questions that needs to be answered:
❏ Will the new system result in a workforce reduction?
❏ Will performance decline in any way?
❏ Will an overall gain to the organization outweigh individual losses?
❏ Will customers experience adverse effects in any way?
❏ Will any risk to the company’s image or goodwill result?
3. Technical Feasibility
Technical feasibility refers to technical resources needed to develop, purchase,
install, or operate the system. Includes evaluating the ability of computer hardware and
software to handle workloads adequately.
Questions to be answered:
❏ Does the company have the necessary hardware, software, and network
resources? If not, can those resources be acquired without difficulty?
❏ Does the company have the needed technical expertise? If not, can it be
acquired?
❏ Does the proposed platform have sufficient capacity for future needs? If
not, can it be expanded?
27
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
4. Economic Feasibility
Economic feasibility is a method for evaluating the effectiveness of a new system.
Its procedure is to determine the benefits and savings that are expected from a candidate
system and compare them with costs, called cost-benefit analysis.
Cost -Benefit Analysis
The purpose of a cost/benefit analysis is to answer questions such as:
1. Is the project justified (benefits outweigh costs)?
2. Can the project be done, within cost constraints?
3. What is the minimal cost to attain a certain system?
Types of Benefits
Benefits may be classified into one of the following categories:
a. Monetary -- when monetary values can be calculated;
b. Tangible (Quantified) -- measured in monetary terms or in tangible assets
(reduced costs, assets not spent on);
c. Intangible -- have significant impact on the company (time saved,
productivity, efficiency, data accuracy)
Types of Costs
1. Project-related costs
❏ Development and purchasing costs;
❏ Installation, training and conversion costs.
2. Operational costs (on-going)
❏ Maintenance: hardware, software, facilities
❏ Personnel: operation, maintenance.
3. For a small business that wants to introduce a PC-based information
system, these cost categories amount to:
❏ Project costs: purchase hardware, software, furniture; customize
software, train, install, file conversion
❏ On-going costs: operating the system (data entry, backups, helping
users, vendors etc.), maintenance (software) and user support,
hardware and software maintenance, supplies,...
Accounting Methods
The two techniques to measure the economic feasibility are the following:
1. Payback Analysis
It determines the amount of time required (usually in years) for an
investment to generate sufficient cash flows to recover initial cost.
a. Averaging Method - even cash inflow
Example 1. Eselyu Corp. is planning to implement a new system by
acquiring both new hardware and software packages. The cost of
investment is estimated to be at Php 400,000. Annual maintenance and
licensing costs are estimated to be at Php 35,000 but the estimated
annual benefits are at Php 115,000. How long would it take for Eselyu
28
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Corporation to recover their investment?
Solution:
Annual net cash inflow = 115,000−35,000 = Php 80,000.00
Payback period = 400,000/80,000=5 years
Meaning, it would take 5 years before Eselyu Corporation recovers its
investment. Hence, Eselyu Corp will start taking profits from its
investment after 5 years.
b. Subtraction Method - uneven cash inflow
Example 2. Eselyu Corp. is planning to implement a new system by
acquiring both new hardware and software packages. The cost of
investment is estimated to be at Php 400,000. Earnings from the
investment starts at Php 55,000 and increases by Php 30,000 every year.
When will Eselyu Corp. recover its investment?
Solution:
Payback Period is at 4 years. That is, it would take 4 years before Eselyu
Corp. recovers its investment. In other words, Eselyu Corp will start taking
profits from its investment after 4 years.
2. Return on Investment Analysis (ROI)
It is a percentage rate that measures profitability by comparing the total net
benefits received from a project to the total costs. It shows investors how efficiently
each dollar invested in a project is at producing a profit.
Where:
❏ Net profit should be determined through communication with the company
(Estimated sales/revenue –Operating Cost)
❏ Total Investment should be determined through the economic feasibility
Example 3. A company’s newly acquired information system cost them about
Php 1,250,000. At the end of the information system’s life cycle, the company
experienced a total revenue of Php 1,950,000. What is the return on investment?
Solution:
Net profit = Revenue − Cost
=1,950,000−1,250,000
Net Profit=PhP 700,000.00
Return on Investment (ROI) = (700,000/1,250,000)100%=56%
NOTE: Companies usually have a minimum ROI goal for a particular project. In
the feasibility stage of a project development, the expected ROI is identified. The
actual ROI can only be determined after the lapse of the use of the project when
29
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
approved for implementation. ROI’s are also used to compare which among two
proposed projects is more beneficial for the company.
Additional Example: ROI or Payback Period? (NewLeaf, 2012). Saving money is great, but if
you are not careful, it can be pretty easy to “go broke saving money.” Payback on an investment
is the amount of time it takes for you to save the amount of money you initially invested. Return
on Investment (ROI) is basically a ratio that tells you how profitable or beneficial an investment
is for you.
You may check the video to guide you on how to compute the return on investment and
payback period of a project to make sustainability investment decisions.: Lesson 04 Video 02
How To Calculate The Return on Investment (ROI) of Real Estate & Stocks.mp4
Steps in Preliminary Investigation
1. Understand the Problem or Opportunity
❏ Determine which departments, users, and business processes are involved.
❏ System requests in general do not reveal the underlying problem, but only
symptoms.
❏ A popular technique for investigating causes and effects is called a Fishbone
diagram.
You can watch a discussion about Fishbone diagram from: Lesson 04 Video 03 Fishbone
Diagram Explained with Example.mp4
Fishbone Diagram
A popular technique for investigating causes and effects is called a Ishikawa Diagram.
It is an analysis tool that represents the possible causes of a problem as a graphical outline.
When using a fishbone diagram, an analyst first states the problem and draws a main bone
with sub-bones that represent possible causes of the problem. An example of a fishbone
diagram is shown below.
Example of Fishbone Diagram
a. Before starting a fishbone diagram as part of any problem solving, the problem statement
must be well defined.
Problem Statement: Customer orders for custom mountain bikes are delivered 4 weeks
later than regular mountain bikes.
b. Once the problem statement has been defined, production, warehouse and supply chain
data relating to the product in question may be collected in this case to better identify
30
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
possible causes. This will make the process of checking the possible causes and theories
a lot easier.
c. The next step is to draw the fishbone diagram including the possible cause and the four
standard problem sources. The four possible sources are:
❏ Machinery and Equipment
❏ Materials
❏ Methods
❏ People
d. For each problem source, the user must brainstorm and think of possible causes and
hypotheses related to that source. The production and supply chain data collected in step
2 can be very helpful in this step.
e. For each of the causes identified, the same thought process is repeated as in step 4 to try
and identify the root cause of each cause. This process is similar to the 5 whys approach
of problem solving.
31
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
f.
Each possible root cause or hypothesis is checked for validity with support from
production, warehouse, and other data collected along the supply chain to verify its validity
or rule the possible cause are credible one. Once this process has been completed a
handful of possible causes will be proved valid. These should provide a focus area to
address in order to eliminate the problem, issue, or seize the opportunity named in the
problem statement.
2. Define the Project Scope and Constraints
❏ Determine the project scope means defining the specific boundaries of the project
❏ Define project scope by creating a list with sections called must do, should do,
could do, and won’t do
❏ Scope is the extent of what a project will produce (product scope) and the work
needed to produce it (project scope). A Guide to the Project Management Body of
Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide)—Fourth edition mentions it is the sum of the
products, services, and results produced in a project (Project Management
Institute, 2008, p. 440).
❏ Beware of scope creep. The PMBOK® Guide describes scope creep as “adding
features and functionality (project scope) without addressing the effects on time,
costs, and resources, or without customer approval” (PMI, 2008, p 440).
❏ A constraint is a requirement or condition that the system must satisfy or an
outcome that the system must achieved
❏ System constraints also define project scope
❏ when examining constraints, analyst should identify their characteristics:
❏ Present versus future
❏ Internal versus External
❏ Mandatory versus Desirable
❏ Regardless of the type, all constraints should be identified as early as
possible to avoid future problems and surprises.
32
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
3. Perform Fact-Finding
a. Analyze company’s processes and operations
b. Conduct Interviews
b.1 Determine the people to interview
b.2 Establish objectives for the interview
b.3 Develop interview questions
b.4 Prepare for the interview
b.5 Conduct the interview
b.6 Document the interview
b.7 Evaluate the interview
c. Review documentation
d. Observe
e. Survey
4. Evaluate Feasibility
Feasibility is evaluated from developer and customer's point of view. Developers
see whether they have the required technology or manpower to build the new system.
Is building the new system really going to benefit the customer.
❏ Does the customer have the required money to build that type of a system?
❏ All these issues are covered in the feasibility study of the system.
The feasibility of the system is evaluated on the four main issues: technical,
economical, and operational. Another issue in this regard is the legal feasibility of the
project.
❏ Schedule feasibility
❏ Technical feasibility
❏ Economic feasibility
❏ Operational feasibility
❏ Legal feasibility. It checks if there are any legal hassle in developing the
system.
33
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
5. Estimate Project Development Time and Cost
a. You should provide an estimate for the overall project, so managers can
understand the full cost impact and timetable
b. What information must you obtain, and how will you gather and analyze the
information?
c. What sources of information will you use, and what difficulties will you encounter
in obtaining information?
d. Will you conduct interviews? How many people will you interview, and how much
time will you need to meet with the people and summarize their responses?
e. Will you conduct a survey? Who will be involved? How much time will it take people
to complete it? How much time will it take to prepare it and tabulate the results?
f. How much will it cost to analyze the information gathered and to prepare a report
with findings and recommendations?
6. Present Results and Recommendations to the Management
a. The final task in the preliminary investigation is to prepare a report to management
b. The format of the preliminary investigation report varies from one company to
another
c. Follow the guidelines provided
Unit Summary
1. Systems planning is the first phase of the systems development life cycle
2. Effective information systems help an organization support its business process, carry out
its mission, and serve its stakeholders
3. Strategic planning allows a company to examine its purpose, vision, and values and
develops a mission statement, which leads to goals, objectives, day-to-day operations,
and business results that affect company stakeholders
4. Systems projects are initiated to improve performance, provide more information, reduce
costs, strengthen controls, or provide better service
5. Various internal and external factors affect systems projects
6. During the preliminary investigation, the analyst evaluates the systems request and
determines whether the project is from an operation, technical, economic, and schedule
standpoint
7. Analysts evaluate systems requests on the basis of their expected costs and benefits,
both tangible and intangible
8. The steps in the preliminary investigation are to understand the problem or opportunity;
define the project scope and constraints; perform fact-finding; estimate the project’s
benefits; estimate project development time and cost; and present results and
recommendations to management
9. The report must include an estimate of time, staffing requirements, costs, benefits, and
expected results for the next phase of the SDLC
Supplementary Videos
You might want to watch the following videos to supplement discussions in the notes. These
videos from Youtube discuss the concepts presented above.
●
●
●
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EwxHBuUmN3M&t=577s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QJ6FApfNwiM&t=42s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EwxHBuUmN3M&t=577s&fbclid=IwAR1mK11fEEQVK2I_LSwNIEnC5ks2_6r_g6hcFNpe8IOQoiv3qLeTZHfq6o
34
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Unit 05: Systems Development Life Cycle - Analysis
In this lesson, we describe requirements modeling techniques and team-based methods that
systems analysts use to visualize and document new systems. We also discuss system
requirements and fact-finding techniques, which include interviewing, documentation review,
observation, surveys and questionnaires, sampling, and research.
Objectives:
1. List and describe system requirements, including outputs, inputs, processes,
performance, and controls
2. Explain the importance of scalability in system design
3. Use fact-finding techniques, including interviews, documentation review, observation,
questionnaires, sampling, and research
4. Define total cost of ownership (TCO) and explain the concept
5. Conduct a successful interview
6. Develop effective documentation methods to use during systems development
Systems Analysis
⮚ The overall objective is to understand the proposed project, ensure that it will support
business requirements, and build a solid foundation for system development
⮚ You use models and other documentation tools to visualize and describe the proposed
system
⮚ You will also consider various development strategies for the new system, and plan for
the transition to systems design tasks
⮚ Deliverable for this phase is the system requirements document
35
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Systems Analysis Activities
The systems analysis phase consists of requirements modeling, and process modeling, object
modeling, and consideration of development strategies.
Watch the Lesson 05 Requirements.mp4 video.
Requirements Modeling
⮚ Describes requirements modeling, which involves fact-finding to describe the current
system and identification of the requirements for the new system. These requirements are:
o Inputs refer to necessary data that enters the system, either manually or in an
automated manner.
o Processes refer to system characteristics such as speed, volume, capacity,
availability, and reliability.
o Outputs refer to electronic or printed information produced by the system.
o Performance refers to the logical rules that are applied to transform the data into
meaningful information.
o Security refers to hardware, software, and procedural controls that safeguard and
protect the system and its data from internal or external threats.
Watch the IPO video: Lesson 05 Video 02 IPO.mp4
Example: Consider a TPS
A transaction process system (TPS) is an information processing system for business
transactions involving the collection, modification and retrieval of all transaction data.
36
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
The INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT (I-P-O):
Process and Security:
Systems Analysis Skills
o
o
Analytical skills enable you to identify a problem, evaluate the key elements, and develop
a useful solution.
Interpersonal skills are especially valuable to a systems analyst who must work with
people at all organizational levels, balance conflicting needs of users, and communicate
effectively.
Systems Analysis Techniques
o Joint Application Development (JAD)
▪ A group-based systems development where users are active participants in the
development process.
▪ A technique for fact-finding and requirements modeling.
▪ Developers use JAD whenever group input and interaction are desired.
▪ The output is a requirements model or a new information system that best
addresses the needs of a business.
Watch the video on JAD: Lesson 05 JAD.mp4
o
Rapid application development (RAD)
▪
▪
▪
▪
A team-based technique that speeds up information systems development and
produces a functioning information system.
Development where the stages of the SDLC is condensed into a single
development process.
Build while planning.
The output is a requirements model or a new information system that best
addresses the needs of a business.
37
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Watch the video on RAD: Lesson 05 RAD.mp4
Systems Analysis Modeling Tools and Techniques
Models help users, managers, and IT professionals understand the design of a system. Modeling
involves graphical methods and nontechnical language that represent the system at various
stages of development.
o
Functional Decomposition Diagrams (FDD)
▪
▪
▪
▪
A top-down representation of a function or process.
Using an FDD, an analyst can show business functions and breaks them down
into lower-level functions and processes.
Creating an FDD is similar to drawing an organization chart
Working from a functional decomposition diagram, analysts can create data flow
diagrams
Watch: Lesson 05 FDD.mp4 on FDDs
Example: FDD
o
Business Process Modeling (BPM)
▪ Describes one or more business processes
▪ During requirements modeling, analysts often create models that use a standard
language called business process modeling notation (BPMN).
▪ BPMN includes various shapes and symbols to represent events, processes, and
workflows.
o
Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
▪ Graphical representation of the flow of data in a business information system.
▪ A data flow diagram (DFD) uses various symbols to show how the system
transforms input data into useful information.
▪ DFD’s show what the system does, not how it does it.
▪ A DFD shows the boundaries of the system and how the system interfaces with
the outside world.
38
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Example: DFD
o
Unified Modeling Language (UML)
▪
▪
▪
A method of visualizing and documenting software systems design
Provides various graphical tools, such as use case diagrams and sequence
diagrams.
Represents the information system from a user's viewpoint.
❖ Use Case Diagram
●
●
Visually represents the interaction between users and the information
system.
In a use case diagram, the user becomes an actor, with a specific role
that describes how he or she interacts with the system.
❖ Sequence Diagram
●
●
Shows the timing of interactions between objects as they occur.
Use to show all possible outcomes, or focus on a single scenario.
Systems Analysis: Benefits, Costs, and Future Growth
o
Scalability
▪ A scalable system offers a better return on the initial investment
▪ To evaluate, you need information about projected future volume for all outputs,
inputs, and processes
o
Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)
▪ Important if the development team is evaluating several alternatives
▪ One problem is that cost estimates tend to understate indirect costs
▪ Rapid Economic Justification (REJ)
39
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
o
Fact-Finding Overview
▪
▪
▪
▪
o
The first step is to identify the information you need
Develop a fact-finding plan
Involves a series of questions: Who, What, Where, When, How, and Why?
Difference between asking what is being done and what could or should be done
The Zachman Framework
▪
▪
Zachman Framework for Enterprise Architecture
Helps managers and users understand the model and assures that overall
business goals translate into successful IT projects
Fact – Finding Techniques
o
An interview is a planned meeting during which you obtain information from another
person.
Interview Process:
1. Determine the people to interview.
2. Establish objectives for the interview.
3. Develop interview questions.
✔ Creating a standard list of interview questions helps to keep you on track and avoid
unnecessary tangents
✔ Avoid leading questions
●
Kinds of questions:
 Open-ended questions encourage spontaneous and unstructured
responses. These are useful when you want to understand a larger
40
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
process or draw out the interviewee's opinions, attitudes, or
suggestions.
 Closed-ended questions limit or restrict the response. Use closedended questions when you want information that is more specific or
when you need to verify facts.
 Range-of-response questions are closed-ended questions that ask
the person to evaluate something by providing limited answers to
specific responses or on a numeric scale. This method makes it easier
to tabulate the answers and interpret the results.
4. Prepare for the interview.
✔ Careful preparation is essential because interview is an important meeting and not
just a casual chat
✔ Limit the interview to no more than one hour
✔ Send a list of topics
✔ Ask the interviewee to have samples available
5. Develop a specific plan for the meeting
✔ Begin by introducing yourself, describing the project, and explaining interview
objectives
✔ Use engaged listening
✔ Allow the person enough time to think about the question
✔ After interview, summarize the session and seek a confirmation
6. Document the interview.
✔ Note taking should be kept to a minimum
✔ After the interview, record the information quickly
✔ After the interview, send memo expressing appreciation, including the main points
discussed so the interviewee has a written summary and can offer additions or
corrections
7. Evaluate the interview.
o
Observation
 Allows you to verify statements made in interviews and determine whether
procedures really operate as they are described.
 In this technique, you might discover that neither the system documentation
nor the interview statements are accurate
 Many types of research use human research subjects, and the Hawthorne
effect is an unavoidable bias that the researcher must try to take into account
when they analyze the results. The Hawthorne Effect is the tendency,
particularly in social experiments, for people to modify their behaviour because
they know they are being studied, and so to distort (usually unwittingly) the
research findings.
o
Document review
✔ A data collection method for evaluation
41
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
✔ Can help you understand how the current system is supposed to work.
✔ Includes a basic overview of documents and answers the following:
 when to use it
 how to plan and conduct it
 how it affects the system and the business processes
 its advantages and disadvantages
○
Questionnaires and Surveys
 A questionnaire, also called a survey, is a document containing a number of
standard questions that can be sent to many individuals.
 Questionnaires can be used to obtain information about a wide range of topics,
including workloads, reports received, volumes of transactions handled, job
duties, difficulties, and opinions of how the job could be performed better or more
efficiently.
 Can be Structured and Unstructured
 When designing a questionnaire, the most important rule of all is to make sure
that your questions collect the right data in a form that you can use to further your
fact-finding
 A questionnaire can be a traditional paper form, or you can create a fill-in form
and collect data on the Internet or a company intranet.
Ideas to keep in mind when designing your questionnaire:
✔ Keep the questionnaire brief and user-friendly.
✔ Provide clear instructions that will answer all anticipated questions.
✔ Arrange the questions in a logical order, going from simple to more complex
topics.
✔ Phrase questions to avoid misunderstandings; use simple terms and wording.
✔ Try not to lead the response or use questions that give clues to expected
answers.
✔ Limit the use of open-ended questions that are difficult to tabulate.
✔ Limit the use of questions that can raise concerns about job security or other
negative issues.
✔ Include a section at the end of the questionnaire for general comments.
✔ Test the questionnaire whenever possible on a small test group before
finalizing it and distributing to a large group
●
Sampling
 When studying an information system, you should collect examples of actual
documents using a process called sampling.
 Main objective of a sample is to ensure that it represents the overall population
accurately
 Sampling techniques include systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and
random sampling.
Example:
Suppose you have a list of 200 customers who complained about errors in their
statements, and you want to review a representative sample of 20 customers.
●
A systematic sample would select every tenth customer for review.
42
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
●
●
○
If you want to ensure that the sample is balanced geographically, however, you
could use a stratified sample to select five customers from each of four postal
codes.
A random sample selects any 20 customers
Research
 Your research can include the internet, IT magazines, and books to obtain
background information, technical material, and news about industry trends and
developments.
 You can attend professional meetings, seminars, and discussions with other IT
professionals, which can be very helpful in problem solving.
 Research also can involve a visit to a physical location, called a site visit, where
the objective is to observe a system in use at another location.
Interviews versus Questionnaires
o Interview
 A more familiar and personal than a questionnaire.
 During a face-to-face interview, you can react immediately to anything the
interviewee says.
 If surprising or confusing statements are made, you can pursue the topic with
additional questions.
 During a personal interview, you can watch for clues to help you determine if
responses are knowledgeable and unbiased.
 However, an interview is a costly and time-consuming process.
o
Questionnaire
 Gives many people the opportunity to provide input and suggestions.
 Questionnaire recipients can answer the questions at their convenience and do
not have to set aside a block of time for an interview.
 If the questionnaire allows anonymous responses, people might offer more candid
responses than they would in an interview.
o
Brainstorming
 This is another popular method of obtaining input, which refers to a small group
discussion of a specific problem, opportunity, or issue.
 This technique encourages new ideas, allows team participation, and enables
participants to build on each other's inputs and thoughts.
 Brainstorming can be structured or unstructured.
● In structured brainstorming, each participant speaks when it is his or her
turn, or passes.
● In unstructured brainstorming, anyone can speak at any time. At some
point, the results are recorded and made part of the fact-finding
documentation process.
Documentation
Keeping accurate records of interviews, facts, ideas, and observations is essential to successful
systems development.
o
The Need for Recording the Facts
✔ Record information as soon as you obtain it.
✔ Use the simplest recording method.
✔ Record your findings in such a way that they can be understood by someone else.
43
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
✔ Organize your documentation so related material is located easily.
o
Software Tools
o
▪ Software programs that are available to help you record and document information
Example:
1. Graphics modeling software: Microsoft Visio is a popular graphic
modeling tool that can produce a wide range of charts and diagrams.
2. Personal information managers
● A Personal Information Manager (PIM) such as Microsoft Outlook
includes a personal calendar, a to-do list with priorities and features.
Outlook can manage email and appointments, and supports
collaboration and team projects.
● Handheld computers
● Personal digital assistants (PDAs)
3. Wireless communication devices
4. CASE Tools
CASE stands for Computer Aided Software Engineering. It means
development and maintenance of software projects with help of various
automated software tools.
5. Productivity Software
This includes word processing, spreadsheet, database management,
presentation graphics, and collaboration software programs.
Flowchart
 A business flowchart shows the steps that make up a business process, along with
who's responsible for each step.
 They are useful for analyzing current processes, planning improvements, and
crystallizing communication between process participants
44
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Types of Flowchart:
●
Document
• Illustrates the flow of documents and information between areas of
responsibility within an organization.
• A document flowchart is particularly useful in analyzing the
adequacy of control procedures.
●
System
• System flowcharts depict the relationship among the input,
processing, and output of an AIS
●
Program
• A program flowchart describes the specific logic to perform a
process shown on a systems flowchart
Check the following videos for further discussion on the Flowcharting process.
● Lesson 05 FlowCharting.mp4
● Flowchart Tutorial (with Symbols, Guide and Examples)
Importance of the Systems Analysis phase
▪
The systems analysis phase includes three activities: requirements modeling, data and
process modeling, and consideration of development strategies
▪
The main objective is to understand the proposed project, ensure that it will support
business requirements, and build a solid foundation for the systems design phase
The conclusion of the requirements modeling allow systems developers to have a clear
understanding of the business processes and system requirements
▪
▪
▪
The next step is to model the logical design of the system
The fact-finding process includes interviewing, document review,
questionnaires, sampling, and research
▪
Systems analysts should carefully record and document factual information as it is
collected, and various software tools can help an analyst visualize and describe an
information system
observation,
Unit 06: Systems Analysis - Data Flow Diagrams
As mentioned from the previous lecture, system analysts and developers use
models to help visualize an organization’s information system. They often develop two
types of models of the proposed system, a logical model which shows what the system
must do, and a physical model which describes how the system will be constructed. We’ve
also learned that there are a number modeling tools and techniques available for the
development of such models. For this lecture, we’ll go for an in-depth exploration on one
the most commonly used modelling technique, Data Flow Diagrams. We’ll also explore
the use of process description tools, including structured English, decision tables, and
decision trees. And finally, we’ll describe the relationship between logical and physical
models.
45
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Data Flow Diagrams
A Data Flow Diagram, also known as DFD, shows how data moves through an
information system without showing any program logic or processing steps. In much
simpler terms, a DFD will describe what pieces of information (e.g. customer order,
student info) that are involved in a system are produced as well as taken by the different
entities (e.g. customer, student, other existing systems) that are also involved in said
system. Take note that a set of DFD provides a logical model that shows what an
information system does, and not how it does it.
Structure of a Data Flow Diagram
DFDs
are
typically
subdivided
into
successively lower levels depending on the amount
of detail the information system has. Essentially
speaking, the lower the level of the DFD, the more
amount of detail or specificity it has.
● Context Diagram
The highest level of DFD is called a Context
Diagram. As the name implies, it provides context as
to what the information system is all about. It shows
all the pieces of information coming in and out (inputs
and outputs respectively) of the system as well as the
different entities involved in the system, as shown in
the figure.
As you can see, the previous figure illustrates
the context diagram of a grading system of a certain school. Don’t worry about the figure
itself yet, we’ll discuss the different symbols used in the diagram later. But, from what you
can see and from the definition we have for context diagrams, you’re probably able to
infer how to read the diagram. For instance, the Student, Instructor and the Student
Records System are the entities involved from the Grading System. Also, if we’re going
to take a look at the student entity, we can infer that the student will give the submitted
work to the grading system, and in turn will get the graded work. The same is true for the
other entities. As a matter of fact, this and all the lower levels of a DFD are all read the
same. The main difference is that the context diagram will only and always have a single
process - which is the system itself (in this case, the grading system).
● Lower Level Diagrams
The lower level diagrams show all major activity steps on the system. Essentially,
it describes the process one level above it in more detail. For instance, a Level 0 diagram
is the exploded version of the context diagram. This means that the level 0 diagram
describes the lone process in the context diagram (i.e. the system itself), and shows us
what happens to the information coming in and out in a specific detail. Below is the level
0 diagram for the sample context diagram illustrated earlier.
46
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
As you can see, the process named grading system is no longer there, instead
there are now multiple processes (four, in fact) in this level. These processes are the
detailed steps of the grading system process. These are what essentially happen in a
grading system. A gradebook will be created, a student’s work will be graded, a final grade
for the student will be computed, and finally a grade report will be generated. If for
instance you want to explode a process in level 0, let’s say you want to describe what
happens in the produce grade report process, you’ll have to create another level diagram
called level 1. If you want to describe another process in level 1, you’ll create a level 2
diagram, and so on.
Data Flow Diagram Symbols
System analysts and developers often choose from two sets of symbols in
modeling a DFD. We have the Gane and Sarson symbol set and the Yourdon-Coad
symbol, the difference of which can be shown in the figure below. To avoid confusion, it
is advised to use only symbols from a single set.
47
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
As you may have noticed from the previous figures, DFDs have four types of
symbols. The first one is a box containing a meaningful and unique identifier/name,
which represents the external entities of the system. External entities refer to anything
or anyone that can be a source or destination of information which is outside of the
area of study. Examples of these are a student in a grading system, a customer in a
dining management system, and a dentist in an appointment reservation system. Other
terms for entities are terminators, source, and sink. Please take note that only those
entities which originate or receive data are represented on a business process diagram,
and external entities are not only limited to people.
The next symbol is a rounded box which represents a process. A process symbol
should contain the following descriptive elements:
● An identification number appears in the top part to show the process
number.
● A descriptive title is placed in the center of the box. This should be a
simple imperative sentence with a specific verb, for example 'maintain
customer records' or 'find driver'.
A process, also referred to as black box, shows a transformation or manipulation
of data flows within the system. It contains the business logic, also called business rules.
It receives input data and produces output that has a different content, form, or both. A
submitted graded work from a student will be graded (through the grade student work
process) which will produce the student’s grade to be written in the gradebook, as well as
the graded work to be returned to the student (Refer to the Level 0 Diagram above for an
illustration).
The next one is the data store - represented by a long rectangle with a missing
side and a box opposite of it, as shown below.
A data store refers to the holding place for information within the system. Data
stores may be long-term files such as sales ledgers, file cabinets, and databases, or may
be short-term accumulations: for example batches of documents that are waiting to be
processed. Each data store should be given a reference followed by an arbitrary number
written inside the smaller box (e.g. D1, D2, D3, etc).
The last symbol used in DFDs are lines that connect all the previous symbols
together. This represents the actual flow of data in the system. It shows the flow of
information from its source to its destination. A data flow is represented by a line, with
arrowheads showing the direction of flow. For instance, going back to the previous
example, the submitted work data comes from the student entity to the grade student
work process. Since we’re referring to actual data, data flow names must be a noun or in
noun format.
There are rules that are to be followed when connecting data flows. The figure
below shows all the legal connections for entities.
48
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
The following are useful materials in creating and understanding Data Flow Diagrams:




DFD Naming Convention – how to name data flows, processes, entities and data stores
Lecture 06 DFD – explanation of Module 6, Data Flow Diagrams
Decomposition Diagram and Context Diagram – how to construct a Decomposition
Diagram and a Context Diagram
Level 0 Diagram – how to construct a Level 0 Diagram from a Decomposition and a
Context Diagram
For processes, the following are all the legal data flow connections.
49
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
And here’s all the legal data flow connections with data stores.
In essence, entity and data store symbols should not be connected to other similar
symbols without a process between them. Any data coming to an entity or a data store
should come from a process symbol, and in similar terms, any data coming from an entity
or a data store should go to a process symbol. We’ll look into the common mistakes more
in the following section.
Common DFD Mistakes
Most system developers and analysts, even some professionals, often commit
mistakes when drawing their DFD. In this section, we’ll identify the common DFD mistakes
in hopes that you’ll avoid them when creating your own. The following are things you’d
want to keep in mind when drawing a DFD.
● Illegal Data Flows
○ An external entity cannot provide data to another external entity without a
process (Entity-to-Entity).
○ Data cannot move directly from an external entity to a data store without
being processed (Entity-to-Data Store).
○ Data cannot move directly from a data store to an external entity without
being processed (Data Store-to-Entity).
○ Data cannot move directly from one data store to another without being
processed (Data Store-to-Data Store).
● Black Hole - This refers to process symbols that have input data flows but
doesn’t have any output data flow(s).
● Miracle/Spontaneous Generation - This refers to process symbols that have
output data flows but doesn’t have any input data flow(s).
● Grey Hole - This refers to process symbols where the input data flows aren’t
enough to produce the output data flow. Identifying this problem requires a
proper knowledge on the business process.
● Identical names for data flows, data-store, processes, and entities.
50
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
The figure below shows a sample DFD diagram containing common DFD
mistakes. It’s best to avoid these mistakes when creating your own DFD.
The next figure is your cheat sheet for identifying legal and illegal data flows.
51
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
You can watch the video of professor Kapil Shukla explaining the common
mistakes in creating DFD’s as well as the best way to avoid them. Lecture 6 - DFD
Common Mistakes .mp4
You should also keep track of the proper use of symbols and identifiers in your
diagram, and finally you should maintain the balance between your diagrams as
discussed in the following section.
DFD Creation
System analysts and developers usually follow a three-step rule in developing a
set of DFDs:
1. Draw a context diagram,
2. Draw a level 0 diagram, and
3. Draw the lower-level diagrams (If applicable).
In the first step of DFD creation, Identify all the external entities in your system, as
well as the data needed by said entities from the system, and the data produced by the
entities. There is only one process symbol in the context diagram, and that is the name
of the system itself. The number zero (0) is used to identify this process.
In developing the level 0 diagram, all the processes are numbered from 1 to N,
with N being the total number of processes in the diagram. Do take note of the functional
primitivity of your processes as well. Functional primitives refer to the lowest levels of
DFD and can no longer be exploded or decomposed to lower level diagrams. If you can
identify processes that can still be decomposed, then proceed to create the appropriate
lower level diagram.
52
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
When drawing the lower level diagrams (level 1, level 2, and so on), please keep
in mind the proper naming of the identifiers of your processes. If the parent process has
the number one (1) as its identifier, the identifiers of the child processes should be the
parent identifier, followed by a period and an arbitrary number (e.g. 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, etc.), as
shown in the next figure.
If for instance you’re to create another DFD level from the figure above (say,
process 1.1, the level 2 diagram should contain processes that have 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3,
etc., as their identifiers. Also, keep in mind that when creating lower level diagrams, you
have to consider its balance. The input and output data flows of the parent DFD should
be maintained on the child DFD.
The following video provides a deeper explanation as well as a demonstration on
how to create a level 0 diagram: Lecture 6 - DFD Diagram 0.mp4 You can watch the video
53
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
until the 3:32 mark of the video, as the succeeding parts are no longer necessary for this
topic. However, you can still choose to watch its entirety if you want to learn how to create
a DFD using CASE tools.
Process Description Tools
Process Description, as the name implies, documents the details of a functional
primitive, and represents a specific set of processing steps and business logic. System
analysts and developers often choose from several approaches when developing a
process description:
● Modular Design - which is based on combinations of three logical structures
(also known as control structures), which serve as building blocks for the
process,
● Structured English - is derived from structured programming language which
gives more understandable and precise description of process. It is based on
procedural logic that uses construction and imperative sentences designed to
perform operation for action.
○ It is best used when sequences and loops in a program must be considered
and the problem needs sequences of actions with decisions.
○ It does not have strict syntax rules. It expresses all logic in terms of
sequential decision structures and iterations.
For example, see the following sequence of actions:
● Decision Tables – which are logical structures that shows every combination
of conditions and outcomes, and
● Decision Trees – which are graphical representations of the conditions,
actions, and rules found in a decision table.
54
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Logical and Physical Models
While structured analysis tools are used to develop a logical model for a new
information system, such tools also can be used to develop physical models of an
information system. A physical model shows how the system’s requirements are
implemented.
Sequence of Models
Many systems analysts create a physical model of the current system and then
develop a logical model of the current system before tackling a logical model of the new
system. Performing that extra step allows them to understand the current system better.
Four-Model Approach
This approach is widely used by many systems analysts and developers when
creating an information system. As the name implies, the analysts first develop a physical
model of the current system, next a logical model of the current system, then a logical
model of the new system, and finally, a physical model of the new system. The only
disadvantage of the four-model approach is the added time and cost.
Unit 07: Systems Development Strategies
The main objective of the systems analysis phase is to build a logical model of the
new information system. Let us evaluate the different alternative solutions, preparation
of the system requirements document, and presentation of the system requirements
document to the management.
Watch the entire video: Lesson7Video1SystemDevelopmentStrategy.mp4
Development Strategies Overview
Selecting the best development path is an important decision that requires
companies to consider three key topics.
1. The impact of the Internet
2. Software outsourcing options
3. In-house software development alternatives
The Impact of the Internet
(Lesson7Video2SoftwareAsSAService.mp4, watch entire video)
Software as a Service
✔ A model of software deployment where an application is hosted as a service
provided to customers over the Internet. SaaS reduces the customer's need for
software maintenance, operation, and support
55
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
✔ The Software and Information Industry Association (SIIA) believes that the concept
of software as a service is redefining the way that companies develop and deploy
their information systems
Watch the entire video: Lesson7Video3TraditionalVsWebSystems.mp4
Traditional vs Web-based Systems Development
✔ Traditional development
o System design is influenced by compatibility issues
o Systems are designed to run on local and wide-area company networks
o Web-based features are treated as enhancements rather than core elements of
the design
o Systems are developed and delivered in an Internet-based framework such as
.NET or WebSphere
o Internet-based development treats the Web as the platform, rather than just a
communication channel
o Web-based software usually requires additional layers, called middleware
✔ WebSphere
✔ Microsoft’s .NET
✔ Many firms rely on traditional systems
Software Outsourcing Options
(Lesson7Video4Outsourcing.mp4, watch the entire video)
Outsourcing
The transfer of information systems development, operation, or maintenance to an
outside firm that provides these services, for a fee, on a temporary or long-term basis
Outsourcing can refer to relatively minor programming tasks, renting software from
a service provider, outsourcing a basic business process (often called business process
outsourcing, or BPO), or handling a company's entire IT function
 The Growth of Outsourcing
✔ Traditionally, firms outsourced IT tasks as a way of controlling costs and dealing with
rapid technological change
✔ Outsourcing has become part of an overall IT strategy for many organizations
✔A firm that offers outsourcing solutions is called a service provider
✔Application service providers (ASP)
✔Internet business services (IBS)
◦ Also called managed hosting

Outsourcing Fees
56
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
✔ A fixed fee model uses a set fee based on a specified level of service and user
support
✔ A subscription model has a variable fee based on the number of users or
workstations that have access to the application
✔ A usage model or transaction model charges a variable fee based on the volume of
transactions or operations performed by the application
 Outsourcing Issues and Concerns
✔ Mission-critical IT systems should be out-sourced only if the result is a costattractive, reliable, business solution that fits the company’s long-term business
strategy
✔ Outsourcing also can affect day-to-day company operations and can raise some
concerns
✔A company must review carefully issues relating to insurance, potential liability,
licensing and information ownership, warranties, and disaster recovery
✔ Mergers and acquisitions also can affect outsourcing clients
✔ Outsourcing can be especially attractive to a company whose volume fluctuates
widely, such as a defense contractor

Offshore Outsourcing
✔ also known as global outsourcing
✔ Practice of shifting IT development, support, and operations to other countries
In-House Software Development Options
Make or Buy Decision
✔ The choice between developing versus purchasing software often is called a make
or buy, or build or buy decision
✔ The company’s IT department makes, builds, and develops in-house software
✔ A software package is obtained from a vendor or application service provider
✔ Software vendors – companies that develop software for sale
✔ Value-added reseller (VAR) – a firm that enhances a commercial package by adding
custom features and configuring it for a particular industry
57
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
✔ Horizontal application – available for every type of activity, separate divisions
✔ Vertical application – for a specific type of business
Software Development Options
IN-HOUSE DEVELOPMENT
Satisfy unique business requirements
PURCHASING A SOFTWARE
PACKAGE
Lower costs
Minimize changes in business procedures Requires less time to implement
and policies
Proven reliability and performance
benchmarks
Meet constraints of existing systems
Meet constraints of existing technology
Requires less technical development staff
Develop internal resources and
capabilities
Future upgrades provided by the vendor
Obtain input from other companies
Customizing a Software Package
1. You can purchase a basic package that vendors will customize to suit your needs
2.
You can negotiate directly with the software vendor to make enhancements to
meet your needs by paying for the changes
3.
You can purchase the package and make your own modifications, if this is
permissible under the terms of the software license
Creating User Applications
(Lesson7Video5SystemDevelopmentStrategiesCont.mp4 watch until 1:35)
✔ User application
✔ User interface
✔ Help desk or information center (IC)
✔ Screen generators
✔ Report generators
✔ Read-only properties

Role of the System Analyst
When selecting hardware and software, part of the evaluation and selection team.
✔ Eliminate system alternatives that will not work.
✔ Rank the system alternatives that will work.
✔ Present the viable alternatives to management for a final decision.
58
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
The Software Acquisition Process
Watch the video: Lesson7Video5SystemDevelopmentStrategiesCont.mp4 (from
5:41 until 16:34)
1. Evaluate the Information System Requirements
2. Identify Potential Vendors or Outsourcing Options
3. Evaluate the Alternatives
4. Perform Cost-Benefit Analysis
5. Prepare a Recommendation
6. Implement the Solution
1. Evaluate the Information System Requirements
 Identify key features
 Prepare a request for proposal or quotation
✔ Request for proposal
✔ Evaluation model
✔ Request for quotation
2. Identify Potential Vendors or Outsourcing Options
 Potential use of the Internet
 Work with a consulting firm
 Source from the Internet bulletin board systems that contain thousands of forums,
called newsgroup
3. Evaluate the Alternatives
 Existing users
 Application testing
 Benchmarking
4. Perform Cost-Benefit Analysis
 Purchase software = software license
5. Prepare a Recommendation
 Recommendation that evaluates and describes the alternatives, together with the
costs, benefits, advantages, and disadvantages of each option
 Document each step and deliver a presentation
6. Implement the Solution
 Implementation tasks will depend on the solution selected
 Before the new software becomes operational, you must complete all
implementation steps, including loading, configuring, and testing the software; training
users; and converting data files to the new system’s format
Completion of Systems Analysis Tasks


System Requirements Document
Presentation to Management
59
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
✔ Implement an outsourcing alternative
✔ Develop an in-house system
✔ Purchase or customize a software package
✔ Perform additional systems analysis work
✔ Stop all further work
Unit 08: Systems Development Life Cycle - Design
Systems Design is the third of five phases in the systems development life cycle (SDLC).
Now you are ready to begin the physical design of the system that will meet the specifications
described in the system requirements document. Systems design tasks include output and user
interface design, data design, and system architecture.
A video by Johnny Khoury has explained how the Design Phase in SDLC (Lesson08
video01 Design Phase in SDLC) works. It is all about the design phase of creating a system.
System Design Guidelines:
The systems analyst must understand the logical design of the system before beginning
the physical design of any one component
• Data design
• User interface
• Architecture
• System design specification
System Design Objectives
• The goal of systems design is to build a system that is effective, reliable, and maintainable
• A system is reliable if it adequately handles errors
• A system is maintainable if it is well designed, flexible, and developed with future modifications
in mind
•User Considerations
❏ Carefully consider any point where users receive output from, or provide input to,
the system
❏ Anticipate future needs of the users, the system, and the organization – hardcoded
❏ Provide flexibility
❏ Parameter, default
• Data Considerations
❏ Data should be entered into the system where and when it occurs because delays
cause data errors
❏ Data should be verified when it is entered, to catch errors immediately
❏ Automated methods of data entry should be used whenever possible
60
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
•Data Considerations
❏ Audit trail
❏ Every instance of entry and change to data should be logged
❏ Data should be entered into a system only once
❏ Data duplication should be avoided
•Design Trade-Offs
❏ Most design trade-off decisions that you will face come down to the basic conflict
of quality versus cost
❏ Avoid decisions that achieve short-term savings but might mean higher costs later
Prototyping
The method by which a prototype is developed. It involves a repetitive sequence of
analysis, design, modeling, and testing. It is a common technique that can be used to design
anything from a new home to a computer network.
Prototyping Methods




System prototyping - produces a full-featured, working model of the information system.
Because the model is “on track” for implementation, it is especially important to obtain user
feedback, and to be sure that the prototype meets all requirements of users and management.
Design prototyping or Throwaway prototyping – method of development that employs
technical mechanisms for reducing risk in a project, when the project needs are vaguely and
poorly laid out. The end product of design prototyping is a user-approved model that
documents and benchmarks the features of the finished system.
Prototyping offers many benefits
Users and systems developers can avoid misunderstandings
Managers can evaluate a working model more effectively than a paper specification
Consider potential problems
The rapid pace of development can create quality problems
In very complex systems, the prototype becomes unwieldy and difficult to manage
Prototyping Tools – systems analysts can use powerful tools to develop prototypes
• CASE tools - Computer-aided systems engineering (CASE), also called computer-aided
software engineering, is a technique that uses powerful software, called CASE tool, to
help systems analysts develop and maintain information systems.
• Application generators -A tool that supports the rapid development of computer programs
by translating a logical model directly into code. Also called a code generator.
• Report generators - a computer program whose purpose is to take data from a source
such as a database, XML stream or a spreadsheet, and use it to produce a document in
a format which satisfies a particular human readership
• Screen generators - or form painter, is an interactive tool that helps you design a custom
interface, create screens forms, and handle data entry format and procedures.
Limitations of Prototypes
❏ A prototype is a functioning system, but it is less efficient than a fully developed system
❏ Systems developers can upgrade the prototype into the final information system by adding
the necessary capability. Otherwise, the prototype is discarded
Future Trends in Software Development
61
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Many software development tools and technologies are in transition
• Web services
• Open source software
• Service-oriented architecture (SOA)
• Loose coupling
• Software quality is more important than ever
Here are some links on how to create prototypes:
Create interactive prototypes with MS PowerPoint
Pencil Project | Free UI Mockup Design Software
Prototyping Tool for Mobile and Websites
Build a WIX Website For FREE in 10 Minutes
User Interface
Describes how users interact with a computer system, and consists of all the hardware,
software, screens, menus, functions, output, and features that affect two-way communications
between the user and the computer.
Graphical User Interface - uses visual objects and techniques that allow users to communicate
effectively with the system.
Usability – user satisfaction, support for business functions, and system effectiveness
❏ Process-control systems – allow users to send commands to the system
❏ User-centered systems – how users communicate with the information system, and how
the system supports the firm’s business operations
User interface requires the understanding of human-computer interactions and user-centered
design principles.
Human-Computer Interaction describes the relationship between computers and people who use
them to perform their jobs
•Electronic health records (EHRs)
Seven Habits of Successful Interface Designers:
1.Understand the Business
The interface designer must understand the underlying business functions and how the
system supports individual, departmental, and enterprise goals. The overall objective is to design
an interface that helps users to perform their jobs.
2.Maximize Graphical Effectiveness
Studies show that people learn better visually. The immense popularity of Apple’s iOS and
Microsoft Windows is largely the result of their GUIs that are easy to learn and use. A welldesigned interface can help users learn a new system rapidly and be more productive.
3.Think Like a User
The designer must learn to think like a user and see the system through a user’s eyes.
The interface should use terms and metaphors that are familiar to users. Users are likely to have
real-world experience with many other machines and devices that provide feedback, such as
62
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
automobiles, ATMs, and microwave ovens. Based on that experience, users will expect useful,
understandable feedback from a computer system.
4.Use Models and Prototypes
From a user’s viewpoint, the interface is the most critical part of the system design
because it is where he or she interacts with the system — perhaps for many hours each day. It is
essential to construct models and prototypes for user approval. An interface designer should
obtain as much feedback as possible, as early as possible.
5.Focus on Usability
The user interface should include all tasks, commands, and communications between
users and the information system. The opening screen should show the main option. Each screen
option leads to another screen, with more options.
6.Invite Feedback
Even after the system is operational, it is important to monitor system usage and solicit
user suggestions. The analyst can determine if system features are being used as intended by
observing and surveying users.
7.Document Everything
All screen designs should be documented for later use by programmers.
User Interface Elements
When designing your interface, try to be consistent and predictable in your choice of
interface elements. Whether they are aware of it or not, users have become familiar with elements
acting in a certain way, so choosing to adopt those elements when appropriate will help with task
completion, efficiency, and satisfaction.
User Interface Input Controls:
63
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
A video by TutorialsPoint has stated the right use of some of these input Controllers. See the
video for more information. Lesson08 video02 UI Controls.
A Handbook for User Interface Design
Rule 01: Create an interface that is easy to learn and use
64
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Rule 02: Enhance user productivity
❏ Consider a natural language feature that allows users to type commands or requests in
normal text phrases (Help)
❏ Group functions
❏ Alphabetize menu lists
❏ Provide shortcuts
Rule 03: Provide users with help and feedback
Rule 04: Create an attractive layout and design
❏ Use appropriate colors
❏ Use hyperlinks that allow users to navigate to related topics
❏ Be consistent with the terminologies
65
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Rule 05: Enhance the Interface
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
switchboard
command button
menu bars
toolbar
dialog box
toggle button
list boxes
scroll bar
option button
radio button
Rule 06: Focus on data entry screens
66
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Rule 07: Use validation rules
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
❏
sequence check
existence check
data type check
range check
reasonableness check
validity check
combination check
batch controls
Rule 08: Reduce Input Volume
❏
❏
❏
❏
input necessary data only
do not input data that the user can retrieve from system files or calculate from other data
do not input constant data
use codes
There are other rules in making a proper user interface that were not listed. A video by Elegant
Themes has stated 10 Rules of Good UI Design to Follow (Lesson08 video03 Good UI Design to
Follow.mp4). This video answers the question ‘What makes a User Interface Good’.
In addition to that, there are also common mistakes made by some designers. A video by Visme
has stated the Most Common Design Mistakes (Lesson08 video04 Most Common Design
Mistakes.mp4) that are made by Non-Designers.
Source Document and Form Design
The quality of the output is only as good as the quality of the input
• Garbage in, Garbage out (GIGO)
• source document – collects input data, triggers or authorizes an input action, and
provides a record of the original transaction
• form layout – how the form will appear and how easy it will be to complete
Form Design
●
heading zone – contains the company name/logo and the details of the form
●
control zone – contains codes, identification information, numbers, and dates that are
used for storing completed forms
●
body zone – main part of the form
●
totals zone
●
authorization zone – contains required signatures
67
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Input Design
Input technology has changed dramatically in recent years.
The quality of the output is only as good as the quality of the input.
●
●
●
Garbage in, garbage out (GIGO)
Data capture
Data entry
○ process of transcribing information into an electronic medium such as a computer
or other electronic device
Input and Data Entry Methods
●
●
●
Batch input
○ Batch
Online input
○ Online data entry
○ Source data automation
○ RFID tags or Magnetic data strips
○ POS, ATMs
Tradeoffs
○ Unless source data automation is used, manual data entry is slower and more
expensive than batch input because it is performed at the time the transaction
occurs and often done when computer demand is at its highest
○ The decision to use batch or online input depends on business requirements
Input Volume
Guidelines that will help reduce input volume
●
Input necessary data only
68
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
●
●
●
Do not input data that the user can retrieve from system files or calculate from other data
Do not input constant data
Use codes
Designing Data Entry Screens
●
Most effective method of online data entry is form filling
Guidelines that will help you design data entry screens
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Restrict user access to screen locations where data is entered
Provide a descriptive caption for ever field, and show the user where to enter the data and
the required or maximum field size
Display a sample format if a user must enter values in a field in a specific format - separator
Require an ending keystroke for every field
Do not require users to type leading zeroes for numeric fields
Do not require users to type trailing zeroes for numbers that include decimals
Design the screen form layout to match the layout of the source document
Allow users to add, change, delete, and view records
Provide a method to allow users to search for specific information
Provide a way to leave the data entry screen at any time without entering the current
record
Provide users with an opportunity to confirm the accuracy of input data before entering it
Provide a means for users to move among fields on the form
Display default values so operators can press the ENTER key to accept the suggested
value
Use a default value when a field value will be constant for successive records or
throughout the data entry session
Display a list of acceptable values for fields, and provide meaningful error messages
Input Errors
●
●
Reducing the number of input errors improves data quality
A data validation check improves input quality by testing the data and rejecting any entry
that fails to meet specified conditions
* At least eight types of data validation checks
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Field check – character type
Sign check – arithmetic sign
Limit check
Range check – low and high
Size check – within field
Completeness check
Validity check
Check digit verification – computed from input value to catch typo error
Prompting – input requested by the system
Close-loop verification - Uses input data to retrieve and display related data
Source Documents
●
●
Information should flow on a form from left to right and top to bottom to match the way
users read documents naturally
A major challenge of Web-based form design is that most people read and interact
differently with on-screen information compared to paper forms
69
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
●
●
Dr. Jakob Nielson believes that users scan a page, picking out individual words and
sentences
As a result, Web designers must use scan-enabled text to capture and hold a user’s
attention
Input Control
●
●
●
●
●
Every piece of information should be traceable back to the input data
Audit trail
Data security
Records retention policy
Encrypted – encryption
Output Design
Types of Output
●
●
●
●
●
Internet-based information delivery
E-mail
Blogs
Instant messaging
Wireless devices
●
●
●
●
●
Digital audio, images, and video
Podcasts
Automated facsimile systems
Computer Output to Microfilm
Computer Output to Digital Media
Output Design (Printed and Screen Output)
Reports
●
●
Detail reports, exception reports, summary reports
User Involvement in Report Design – design in advance, mock-ups
Report Design Principles
✓ Printed reports must be attractive, professional, and easy to read
✓ Report headers and footers
✓ Page headers and footers
✓ Column heading alignment
✓ Column spacing
✓ Field order
✓ Grouping detail lines
Report Design Issues
✓ Good design standards produce reports that are uniform and consistent
✓ When a system produces multiple reports, each report should share common design
elements
✓ After a report design is approved, you should document the design in a report analysis
form
Designing Character-Based Reports
✓ Many systems still produce one or more character-based reports
✓ When report designers create or modify a character-based report, they use a traditional
tool that still works well, called a printer spacing chart
Printing Volume and Time Requirements
● Length calculations
● Time calculations
○ Ppm (pages per minute)
○ Line printers often use greenbar paper
70
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Output Control and Security
✓ Output must be accurate, complete, current, and secure
✓ The IT department is responsible for output control and security measures
✓ Many companies have installed diskless workstations
For more information on Input and Output Design: Lesson08 video05 Input Output
Mechanisms.mp4
GRADED Activity 2
Part 1: Unit 3(10 pts)
1. What use does the internet have for you? Explain in 3-5 sentences.
2. If you have a phone, a laptop, or any similar kinds of technology, which 2 apps or softwares
do you use often to be more productive? Explain in no more than 3 sentences each how
you think these apps or softwares work and what makes them useful for you.
Part 2: Unit 3 (15 pts)
1. Information is commonly referred to as processed data, data being the raw material. The
key factor here is that data needs to undergo certain processes before it becomes
information. With this in mind, give 5 examples of data being transformed into information.
Present your work in a creative and concise output that organizes the data, the process it
will undergo, and the resulting information.
2. Think of any business around you (your bank, convenience store, etc.) and identify ways
on how you think they can be more productive. Explain in 3-5 sentences.
Part 3: Unit 3 (5 pts)
1. Computers perform many jobs that previously were performed by people. Will computerbased transactions and expanded e-commerce eventually replace person to-person
contact? From a customer’s point of view, is this better? Why or why not?
2. What types of information systems might a large company use?
Part 4: Unit 4 (10 pts)
Solve the following problem applying the method used in the video uploaded in your powerpoint
presentation. You may check: Lesson 04 Video 01 Payback period
Problem. Assume the following cash flow for 2 projects. Assuming that the cash flows are
occurring at the end of the year. Find the payback period for both these projects.
Year
Project 1
Project 2
0
1
2
-1000
600
400
-1000
100
400
71
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
3
4
5
200
200
100
600
600
700
Solution:
Part 5: Unit 5 (15 pts)
Content marketing can be a very hectic mess unless you organize it into clear business
processes. Consider the following process:
The content writer takes up & finishes the first draft of an article. Includes
descriptions of any custom images that are to be used in the article
The marketer gathers influencer contact information, to be used for advertising
and marketing once the article is done
The editor proof-reads the article, makes points on grammar, style, spelling, etc.
The designer creates custom images as asked, sending them over to the content
writer
The writer takes the comments into consideration, fixes any mistakes, and adds
the images to the article
The SEO expert makes sure that the article meets the right optimization bestpractices & publishes the article
The marketer uses a combination of advertising & email outreach to make sure
that the article is read.
Activity: Construct the business process diagram and apply the flowcharting process
discussed.
Note: This example is taken from: https://tallyfy.com/business-process/
Do the above activity using Word or write it in a short bond paper
Part 6: Unit 8 (10 pts)
Open and answer the Lesson-08-Assessment
GRADED Activity: Midterm Examination
72
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
References
 https://explorable.com/hawthorne-effect
 https://methods.sagepub.com/book/key-concepts-in-social-research/n22.xml
 https://online.visual-paradigm.com/diagrams/tutorials/use-case-diagram-tutorial/
 https://sites.google.com/site/2012itcs371devsec3fuzzysystem3/3
 https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/click_and_mortar.asp
 https://www.mbaskool.com/business-concepts/marketing-and-strategy-terms/2587-clickonly-companies.html
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/sequence-diagram
 https://www.slideshare.net/fajarbaskoro/systems-request
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com/software_engineering/case_tools_overview.htm
 https://www.visualparadigm.com/support/documents/vpuserguide/2821/286/7114_drawingbusin.html
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DMPxxijmG7M&fbclid=IwAR0hx6Uo4PSlgqmMmAO
eX4e_R6mq0s4nMw-iwcXUOiixRkvkHeWxK8UTQj8
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAR5sbaphwU&fbclid=IwAR3EXVa8Rag6iV8zFswXc
FhRFOB_FaiEa7QD6QMukGoyaiQ6cRLH30xiCtY
 McCombes, S. (2020, January 13). How to Do a Case Study: Examples and Methods.
Retrieved June 7, 2020, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/
 NewLeaf. (2012). ROI or Payback Period? Retrieved June 7, 2020, from https://newleafllc.com/2012/08/roi-or-payback-period/
 Requirements Modeling. Part 1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2t0ichoFHG8 Part
2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1u5KQh_B1_U
 ROSENBLATT, H. (2014) Systems Analysis and Design, 10th edition. Shelly Cashman
Series. Cengage Learning
 Top five causes of scope creep ... and what to do about them. A Guide to the Project
Management
Body
of
Knowledge
(PMBOK®
Guide)—Fourth
edition
https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/top-five-causes-scope-creep-6675
Final Requirement: Business Case
The details of the Business Case is found in GIT-BUSINESS-CASE ASSIGNMENT-GUIDEFinal Requirement.pdf and RESEARCH DOCUMENT FOR GIT BUSINESS CASE.pdf
73
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
MODULE 3
With the internet being the center for acquiring information nowadays, and more and more
systems being developed to suit the needs of different businesses, all of which make use of the
internet as a medium for marketing and operations, there is a question of how the security of
everyone is maintained. Having a singular tool used as a platform by different business and
individuals alike has definitely made it easier for everyone to communicate and do transactions.
But it has also made it easier for others to exploit the vulnerability of persons who are not
knowledgeable about the risks of using the internet.
To start with this module, take some time to reflect on the following questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Have you ever felt that your security is compromised while using the internet?
Do you think you have done something that might have been illegal?
Have you ever searched anything in Google and used it as part of one of your outputs?
Have you created anything that was used by someone else without your consent
Explore Activity
1. Search for an example of an apparent cybercrime. From this example, give your thoughts on
how you think that could have been prevented.
2. Downloading files through the internet is rampant, whether legal or not. An example of which
is downloading of movies, TV series, or animes via a torrent client. Currently, this is an illegal
act, but authorities have little resources to stop this completely. Do you think this kind of activity
must be stopped, or do you think this is something that must be accepted as legal?
74
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Unit 09: Cybercrime Laws
Study the presentation named GIT Lecture 9 - Cybercrime Laws in the Philippines.pptx
Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012. The State recognizes the vital role of information and
communications industries such as content production, telecommunications, broadcasting
electronic commerce, and data processing, in the nation’s overall social and economic
development. The State also recognizes the importance of providing an environment conducive
to the development, acceleration, and rational application and exploitation of information and
communications technology (ICT) to attain free, easy, and intelligible access to exchange and/or
delivery of information; and the need to protect and safeguard the integrity of computer, computer
and communications systems, networks, and databases, and the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of information and data stored therein, from all forms of misuse, abuse, and illegal
access by making punishable under the law such conduct or conducts. In this light, the State shall
adopt sufficient powers to effectively prevent and combat such offenses by facilitating their
detection, investigation, and prosecution at both the domestic and international levels, and by
providing arrangements for fast and reliable international cooperation.
Unit 10: Computer and Data Privacy
Study the presentation named GIT_Lecture 10 Computer and Data Privacy.ppsx
Data Privacy Act of 2012 is the policy of the State to protect the fundamental human right
of privacy, of communication while ensuring free flow of information to promote innovation and
growth. The State recognizes the vital role of information and communications technology in
nation-building and its inherent obligation to ensure that personal information in information and
communications systems in the government and in the private sector are secured and protected.
Unit 11: Copyright Laws
Study the presentation named GIT Lecture 11 Copyright Laws.pptx
75
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
What are considered copyrightable works in the Philippines?
Under Philippine law, original intellectual creations in the literary and artistic domain are
copyrightable. These include books, pamphlets, articles and other writings; periodicals and
newspapers; lectures, sermons, addresses, dissertations prepared for oral delivery; letters;
dramatic or dramatico-musical compositions; choreographic works or entertainment in dumb
shows; musical compositions; drawing, painting, architecture, sculpture, engraving, lithography;
models or designs for works of art; original ornamental designs or models for articles of
manufacture; illustrations, maps, plans, sketches, charts and three-dimensional works relative to
geography, topography, architecture or science; drawings or plastic works of a scientific or
technical character; photographic works including works produced by a process analogous to
photography; lantern slides; audiovisual works and cinematographic works and works produced
by a process analogous to cinematography or any process for making audio-visual recordings;
pictorial illustrations and advertisements and computer programs.
Derivative works are also protected as new works, provided that it does not affect the
existing copyright on original works. Derivative works may include: dramatizations, translations,
adaptations, abridgements, arrangements, and other alterations of literary music work; collections
of literary, scholarly or artistic works, and compilations of data and other materials which are
original by reason of the selection or coordination or arrangement of their contents.
What works are not protected by copyright under Philippine law?
Copyright protection does not cover:
1. Idea, procedure, system method or operation, concept, principle, discovery or mere data
as such, even if they are expressed, explained, illustrated or embodied in a work;
2. News of the day and other miscellaneous facts having the character of mere items of
press information;
3. Official text of a legislative, administrative or legal nature, as well as any official
translation thereof;
4. Work of the Philippine Government, unless there was a prior approval by the appropriate
government agency; and
5. Statutes, rules and regulations, and speeches, lectures, sermons, addresses, and
dissertations, pronounced, read or rendered in courts of justice, before administrative
agencies, in deliberative assemblies and in meetings of public character.
76
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Laws are created to protect the rights and safety of the general public. Unfortunately, the
same laws that are supposed to protect people can also be used to inflict harm on the very
same people they are supposed to protect. Such is the reason why the cybercrime law, RA
10175, was controversial. Some people argued that the law can be used to curtail the rights
of people by threatening them of sanctions. Some people fear that certain parts of the law
can be misinterpreted and thus be used against innocent people. Others see the penalties
as too harsh, while there are those who question the practicality of the law.
GRADED Activity: Final Examination
Exam on Cybercrime Laws, Computer and Data Privacy and Copyright Laws.
References:
•
•
•
•
•
Course notes - Atty Marco Polo E. Cunanan. Public Attorney II, PAO San Fernando (P)
District. Lecturer, Tarlac State University School of Law
Federis & Associates Intellectual Property Firm. (2013). What is Copyright? Retrieved
from FEDERIS Intellectual Property Law: http://www.federislaw.com.ph/faqsresources/copyright/
Lawphil.net and Chanrobles.com
Republic Act No. 10173. (2012). Retrieved from Official
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2012/08/15/republic-act-no-10173/
Gazette:
Republic Act No. 10175. (2012). Retrieved from Official Gazette:
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2012/09/12/republic-act-no-10175/
77
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
Appendix
Unit 01 Question2: Calculate the percentage increase in productivity if the output
expands from 12,000 in year 2 to 15,000 in year 3.
Answer:
Take the output in year 3 which is 15,000 and subtract it with the output in year 2 which is
12,000 to get the increase from year 2 to year 3.
15,000-12,000 = 3,000
Then divide it from the output from year 2 which is 12,000 then multiply it by 100 to get the
increase by percentage
3,000/12,000 (100) = 25%
The increase in productivity of output from year 2 to year 3 is 25%
78
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.