1.
Definition of Globalization
1.1. Definition

Manfred Steger described globalization as “the expansion and intensification of social relations and
consciousness across world-time and across world-space.

Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments
of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investments and aided by information
technology. (Levin Institute, 2016)

Globalization is a process, based on international strategies, aims to expand business operations on a
worldwide level, and was precipitated by the facilitation of global communications due to technological
advancements, and socioeconomic, political and environmental developments. (Pologeorgis, 2017)

Globalization is a process of expanding various sociocultural and socio-ecological processes from
national to international and transcultural level (Al-Rodhan, 2006)
1.2. Globalization in different aspects

Economic Globalization
o Refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing scale
of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of international capital and wide and
rapid spread of technologies (Shangquan, 2000).
o Through Globalization, the products that are only available on a certain country will be also
available to other countries which do not have materials to produce it through an international
trading system.

Military Globalization
o The process which embodies the growing extensity and intensity of military relations among
the political units of the world system.
o For Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, military globalization entails “long - distance networks
of interdependence in which force, and the threat or promise of force, are employed.”

Cultural Globalization
o Cultural globalization is the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values around the world in
such a way as to extend and intensify social relations. This process is marked by the common
consumption of cultures that have been diffused by the internet, popular culture media, and
international travel.
o Because of having international languages(especially the English language), which is being
taught in schools, some of the local languages of each country are now already dying because
only few give attention and time learning and use them in daily conversations.

Globalization and Ecology
o there is an increasing realization that these connections can have profound influences on the
long-term dynamics of ecological systems."
o Based on an article published by Ecological society of America (2008), entitled “Ecological
Globalization”, it is said that “Because of increasing globalization, people often inadvertently
introduce non-native plants, animals and diseases into new locations. Invasive species and
pathogens, such as fire ants from South America and the SARS virus from China, can create
large, expensive problems…”

Political Globalization
o Globalization has also brought to the fore issues such as the rights of women and children…
these aspects promote globally certain common values such as equality, human rights, justice,
democracy and moral values. (Cazleh, 2001)
o On the other side, globalization has also negative effect in politics. In fact, “Globalization has
internationalized crime. Drug trafficking and the trafficking of women and children have
become much more difficult to control because of their international character. Not only
crimes, but also disease” (Muzaffar, 1998)

Globalization and Technology
o Technology really plays a huge part in the life of every individual. Also through the
advancement of technology we can now already communicate with others despite the distance
that separates us. And through our technology today, the process of globalization is now
taking place much faster.
o Another aspect of globalization is that most users of internet in cyberspace are adults and they
waste a lot of time using the internet for unnecessary purposes. One of the most dangerous
effects of globalization on young people is the immoral usage of the internet. Studies show
that the number of adults and young people who use web sites containing immoral materials
are increasing in particular among schools and universities’ students (Yaapar, 2001).
1.3. Metaphors of Globalization

SOLID/SOLIDITY
o Barriers
o Either Natural or Man-made

LIQUID/LIQUIDITY
o Refers to the increasing ease of movement
o Characteristics: 1. change quickly/in constant fluctuation
2. movement is difficult to stop
3. tend to melt whatever stands in its path

2.
FLOW
o Movement
Globalization Theories
2.1. Homogeneity

Refers to the increasing sameness in the world as cultural inputs, economic factors, and political
orientations of societies expand to create common practices, same economies and similar forms of
government.

Often Liked to Cultural IMPERIALISM

Example is Americanization
o The import by non-Americans of products, images, technologies, behavior, that are closely
associated with America/Americans

In terms of the economy, there is recognition of the spread of neoliberalism, capitalism and the market
economy.
o Neoliberalism – ideology and policy model that emphasizes the value of free
market competition.
o Capitalism – Capitalism is a system of largely private ownership that is open to new ideas,
new firms and new owners—in short, to new capital.
o Market Economy – A market economy is a system where the laws of supply and those of
demand direct the production of goods and services.

McWorld – only one political orientation is growing in today’s society.
2.2. Media Imperialism

TV, music, books, and movies are perceived as imposed on developing countries by the West (Cowen,
2002)

Undermines the existence of alternative global media originating from developing countries, such as the
Al Jazeera (Bielsa, 2008) and the Bollywood (Larkin, 2003)

The internet can be seen as an arena for alternative media.

Global media are dominated by a small number of large corporations.
2.3. Mcdonaldization

It is the process by which Western societies are dominated by the principles of fast food restaurants.

Involves the global spread of national systems, such as efficiency, calculability, predictability, and
control.

This process is extended to other businesses, sectors, and geographic areas.
2.4. Heterogeneity

Pertains to the creation of various cultural practices, new economies, and political groups because of the
interaction of elements from different societies in the world.

Refers to the differences because of either lasting differences or of the hybrids or combinations of
cultures that can be produced through the different transplanetary processes.
3.
Dynamics of Local and Global Culture
4.
3.1. Cultural Differentialism

Emphasizes the fact that cultures are essentially different and are only superficially affected by global
flows.

Samuel Huntington’s theory on the clash of the civilizations (1996)

Increasing interaction among different “civilizations” (such as the Sinic, Islamic, Orthodox and
Western) would lead to intense clashes, especially the economic conflict between the Western and the
Sinic civilizations and bloody political conflict between the Western and Islamic civilizations.
3.2. Cultural Hybridization

Emphasizes the integration of local and global cultures.

A key concept is glocalization or the interpretation of the global and local resulting in unique outcomes
in different geographic areas.

Arjun Appadurai’s “scapes” (1996)
o Where global flows involve people, technology, finance, political images, and media and the
disjunctures between them, which lead to the creation of cultural hybrids.
3.3. Cultural Convergence

Stress homogeneity introduced by globalization.

Cultural convergence is the theory that two cultures will be more and more like each other as their
interactions increase. Basically, the more that cultures interact, the more that their values, ideologies,
behaviors, arts, and customs will start to reflect each other.

One important critique of cultural imperialism is John Tomlinson’s idea of deterritorialization of culture
– it is much more difficult to tie culture to a specific geographic point of origin.
The Globalization of Religion











“Accelerated globalization of recent times has enabled co-religionists across the planet to have greater direct
contact with one another. Global communications, global organizations, global finance, and the like have allowed
ideas of the Muslims and the Universal Christian church to be given concrete shape as never before.” (Scholte,
2005)
Information technologies, transportation means, and the media are deemed important means on which religionists
rely on the dissemination of their religious ideas.
Media also play an important role in the dissemination of religious ideas.
Globalization has also allowed religion or faith to gain considerable significance and importance as a nonterritorial touchstone of identity. Being a source of identity and pride, religion has always been promoted by its
practitioners so that it could reach the level of globality and be embraced by as many people as possible.
Conflicts among the world religions exhibit a solid proof confirming the erosion and the failure of hybridization…
these identities are strengthened by globalization and cannot, in any way, intermingle or hybridize.
At the same time as being pursued through global channels, assertions of religious identity have, like nationalist
strivings, often also been partly a defensive reaction to globalization. (Scholt, 2005)
Scholt equated rationalism with globalization and considered religion anti-rationalist, it can be deduced that
religion is anti-globalization… Anti-rationalist qualities ascribed to religion can be characteristics of
fundamentalist and extremist forms of religion.
We cannot consider religion as purely anti-rationalist since many religious people reconcile reason and faith and
make moderate trends within their religion.
The dominance exerted by Westernization and Americanization, particularly on the less developed countries,
makes religion-related cultures and identities take defensive measures to protect themselves.
Globalization is not only seen as a rival of Islamic ways, but also as an alien force divorced from Muslim realities.
Stressing the negative impact of the loose morals of Western life is a daily feature of airwaves in the Middle East.
(Ehteshami, 2007)
While religion takes caution against the norms and the values related to globalization, it challenges the latter since
religion does not approve its hybridizing effect.
Reference:
Aldama, P.K.R. (2018). The contemporary world. Manila, Philippines: Rex Book Store, Inc.