15th INTERNATIONAL COMBUSTION SYMPOSIUM
17-19 September 2020
Kayseri - TÜRKİYE
SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS
Editor in Chief
Prof. Dr. Nafiz KAHRAMAN
https://yanmasempozyumu.com/
INCOS2020
The Proceedings of 15th International Combustion Symposium (INCOS2020)
September 17-19, 2020
Erciyes University, Kayseri, Türkiye
Edited by
Prof. Dr. Nafiz KAHRAMAN (Chair of Symposium)
Copyright
ISBN 978-625-400-380-6
© 2020, INCOS2020, Erciyes University
Kayseri, Turkey
https://yanmasempozyumu.com/
This proceedings include the original papers submitted to INCOS2020. It is accessed in free of
charge. All scientific and linguistic responsibilities of the published articles belong to their
authors.
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15th International Combustion Symposium (INCOS2020)
17-19 September 2020
Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
HONORARY BOARD
Prof. Dr. Hakan S. SOYHAN / (Head of Combustion Institute’s Turkish Section, Sakarya University)
Prof. Dr. Mustafa Çalış / (Rector, Erciyes University)
Prof. Dr. Oğuz BORAT /(Chairman of the Board of TAI , Founder of Combustion Institute’s Turkish Section)
Prof. Dr. T. Nejat VEZİROĞLU / (Founding Editor-in-Chief, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy)
Organization Committee
Prof. Dr. Bilge A. ÇEPER / (Erciyes University) Co-chair
Prof. Dr. İlker YILMAZ / (Erciyes University) Co-chair
Prof. Dr. Nafiz KAHRAMAN / (Erciyes University) Chair
Prof. Dr. S. Orhan AKANSU / (Erciyes University) Co-chair
Advisory Committee
Prof. Dr. Ahmet ERDİL / ( Kocaeli University )
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Cevahir TARHAN / ( Erciyes University )
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Güven TUNÇ / ( Erciyes University )
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi İsmail ATA / ( Erciyes University )
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Murat TAŞTAN / ( Erciyes University )
Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Selim TANGÖZ / ( Erciyes University )
Prof. Dr. Ali SÜRMEN / ( Uludağ University )
Prof. Dr. Bahattin ÇELİK / ( Karabük University )
Prof. Dr. Bülent ÖZDALYAN / ( Karabük University )
Prof. Dr. Mustafa ÇANAKÇI / ( Kocaeli University )
Prof. Dr. Mustafa İLBAŞ / ( Gazi University )
Prof. Dr. S. Orhan AKANSU / (Erciyes University)
Prof. Dr. Sebahattin ÜNALAN / (Erciyes University)
Prof. Dr. Veli ÇELİK / ( Yıldırım Beyazıt University )
Scientific Committee
A. Korhan BINARK / ( Sabahattin Zaim University )
A. Necati ÖZSEZEN / ( Kocaeli University )
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A. Nilgün AKIN / ( Kocaeli University )
A. S. RAMADHAS / ( Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. R&D Center )
A.K. AGARWAL / ( Indian Institute of Technology )
Adnan SÖZEN / ( Gazi University )
Ahmet YOZGATLIGİL / ( Middle East Technical University )
Ali ATA / ( Gebze Technical University )
Ali KESKİN / ( Çukurova University )
Ali KILIÇARSLAN / ( Hitit University )
Ali KOÇ / ( Iskenderun Technical University )
Ali KODAL / ( Istanbul Technical University )
Ali TÜRKCAN / ( Kocaeli University )
Aramugam RAMADHAS / ( National Institue of Technology Calicut )
Arif HEPBAŞLI / ( Yaşar University)
Bart SOMERS / ( Tu Eindhoven )
Bilge ALBAYRAK ÇEPER / ( Erciyes University )
Bülent KESKİNLER / ( Gebze Technical University )
Bülent ÖZDALYAN / ( Karabük University )
C. D. RAKOPOULOS / ( National Technical University of Athens )
Can ÇINAR / ( Gazi University )
Can HAŞİMOĞLU / ( Sakarya University )
Cem SORUSBAY / ( Istanbul Technical University )
Cengiz ONER / ( Fırat University )
Cenk SAYIN / ( Marmara University )
Duran ALTIPARMAK / ( Gazi University )
E. G. GIAKOUMIS / ( National Technical University of Athens )
Emrah DENİZ / ( Karabük University )
Erol ARCAKLIOĞLU / ( Yıldırım Beyazıt University )
Ertan ALPTEKİN / ( Kocaeli Univeristy )
Ertuğrul ARSLAN / ( Istanbul Technical University )
Essam Abo-Serie / ( Coventry University )
Filiz KARAOSMANOĞLU / ( Istanbul Technical University )
Gautam KALGHATGI / ( Shell Global Solutions )
George SKEVIS / ( CPERI/CRERTH )
Gudrat I. ISAKOV / ( Institute of Physics of ANAS )
H. İbrahim SARAÇ / ( Kocaeli University)
H. Serdar YUCESU / ( Gazi University )
Hafiz ALİYEV / ( Khazar University )
Hakan BAYRAKTAR / ( Karadeniz Technical University )
Hakan Fehmi ÖZTOP / ( Fırat University )
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Halim Hamid REDHWI / ( King Fahd University of Petroleum )
Halit KARABULUT / ( Gazi University )
Halit YAŞAR / ( Sakarya University )
Hanbey HAZAR / ( Fırat University )
Hasan Rıza GÜVEN / ( İstanbul University )
Hüseyin BAYRAKÇEKEN / ( Afyon Kocatepe University )
Hüseyin GÜNERHAN / ( Ege University )
Hüseyin ŞANLI / ( Kocaeli University )
İbrahim DİNÇER / ( QUIT Canada )
İbrahim KILIÇASLAN / ( Kocaeli University )
İbrahim MUTLU / ( Afyon Kocatepe University )
İhsan KARAMANGİL / ( Uludağ University )
İlker ÖRS / (Selçuk University)
İlker YILMAZ / ( Erciyes University )
İskender GÖKALP / ( Middle East Technical University )
İsmail ÇELİKTEN / ( Gazi University )
İsmail EKMEKÇİ / ( Marmara University )
İsmail TEKE / ( Yıldız Technical University )
İsmet ÇEVİK / ( Sakarya University )
Joseph SWAN / ( Institute for Energy Research )
Julian DIZY / ( CMCL )
Kadir AYDIN / ( Çukurova University )
Kadri Süleyman YİĞİT / ( Kocaeli University )
Kamil ARSLAN / ( Karabük University )
Kemal ERSAN / ( Gazi University )
L.M.T. Bart SOMERS / ( Technische Universiteit Eindhoven )
M. Bahattin ÇELİK / ( Karabük University )
M. Kemal BALKI / ( Sinop University )
M. Sahir SALMAN / ( Gazi University )
Malgotzata WOJTYNIAK / ( Technical University of Radom )
Mario COSTA / ( Instituto Superior Technico )
Melih YILDIZ / (Iğdır University)
Metin ERGENEMAN / ( İstanbul Technical University )
Metin GÜMÜŞ / ( Marmara University )
Mohy MANSOUR / ( Cairo University )
Muammer ÖZKAN / ( Yıldız Technical University )
Muhammed İbrahim AL-HASAN / ( Al-Balqa’ Applied University )
Murat HOSOZ / ( Kocaeli University )
Murat KARABEKTAŞ / ( Sakarya University )
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Mustafa ACAROĞLU / ( Selçuk University )
Mustafa BALCI / ( EU Turkey Delegation )
Mustafa ÇANAKÇI / ( Kocaeli University )
Mustafa İLBAŞ / ( Gazi University )
Mustafa KARAGÖZ / ( Karabük University )
Mustafa KAYA / (Siirt University)
Nafiz KAHRAMAN / ( Erciyes University )
Nazım USTA / ( Pamukkale University )
Nezahat BOZ / ( Gazi University )
Nurettin DİNLER / ( Gazi University )
Nuri YUCEL / ( Gazi University )
Osman IŞIKAN / ( Marmara University )
Philippe DAGAUTT / ( CNRS )
Ramazan KÖSE / ( Dumlupınar University )
Recai KUS / ( Selçuk University )
Rıdvan ARSLAN / ( Uludağ University )
Roger CRACKNELL / ( Shell Global Solutions )
S. Orhan AKANSU / ( Erciyes University )
Selami SAĞIROĞLU / ( Karabük University )
Selçuk SARIKOÇ / (Amasya University)
Şeref SOYLU / ( Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University )
Suat SARIDEMİR / ( Düzce University )
Süleyman USTUN / ( Celal Bayar University )
Tamer YILMAZ / ( Yıldız Technical University )
Xibin WANG / ( Xi’an Jiatong University )
Yakup İÇİNGÜR / ( Gazi University )
Yasin VAROL / ( Fırat University )
Zafer DULGER / ( Kocaeli University )
Zehra ŞAHİN / ( Karadeniz Technical University )
Zuohua HUANG / ( Jiatong University )
Symposium Secretariat
Öğr. Gör. Buğrahan ALABAŞ / (Erciyes University)
Öğr. Gör. Esenay ARSLAN / (Kayseri University)
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15th International Combustion Symposium (INCOS2020)
ÖNSÖZ
Ülkemizin en uzun soluklu ve prestijli mühendislik sempozyum serilerinden biri olan
Yanma Sempozyumları, Yanma Enstitüsü’nün (The Combustion Institute) Türkiye
Şubesi’nin periyodik faaliyetlerindendir. 1983 yılından beri düzenlenen ve 2020 yılında
15. si online olarak gerçekleştirilen bu sempozyumlar serisi her iki yılda bir yapılacak
şekilde düşünülmüş ve her defasında olmamakla birlikte çoğunlukla iki yıl ara ile
gerçekleştirilmiştir. İlk 5 sempozyum Bursa’da organize edildikten sonra, etkinlik
alanını artırmak için başka üniversitelerin de organizasyon taleplerine açık olmuş ve
bu güne kadar 14 sempozyum (Uludağ Üniversitesi (6), İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi
(1), Gazi Üniversitesi (1), Marmara Üniversitesi (1), Kırıkkale Üniversitesi (1) ve
Sakarya Üniversitesi’nde (1), Uluslararası Saraybosna Üniversitesi (1), Kocaeli
Üniversitesi (1) ve Karabük Üniversitesi’nde (1)) düzenlenmiştir.
Yanma, yakıtların ısı enerji veya mekanik enerjiye dönüştürülmesi olduğundan
evlerimizin mutfağından kara vasıtaları motorlarına, ısı kazanlarından demir çelik
fırınları ve enerji santralleri kadar sayısız uygulamada yer bulmaktadır. Dolayısıyla bu
dönüşümün teknikleri ve verimliliği hayati derecede önemlidir. Özellikle enerjinin global
stratejik bir silah haline geldiği günümüzde enerji kaynaklarının yanı sıra bu
kaynakların nasıl daha etkin kullanılacakları, dolayısıyla yakıtlar ve yanma konuları da
araştırmacıların en önde gelen çalışma konularından biri haline gelmiştir.
Online olarak gerçekleştirilen ilk yanma sempozyumu olan 15. Uluslararası Yanma
Sempozyumu’nda 12 sanal oturumda 62 sözlü ve 5 poster bildiri sunulmuş, ikisi de
yurtdışından olmak üzere iki davetli konuşmacı sunum yapmıştır. Sempozyum beş
farklı ülkeden olmak üzere 150’nin üzerinde katılımcının online olarak katılımıyla
başarılı bir şekilde gerçekleştirilmiştir.
Sempozyumun başarılı bir şekilde gerçekleştirilmesinde emeği geçen sempozyum
onur, organizasyon, yönetim ve danışma kurulu üyelerine, hakemlere, davetli
konuşmacılara, oturum başkanlarına, sponsorlara, katılımcılara ve özellikle
sempozyum sekreteryasına teşekkür ederim.
Saygılarımla,
Prof. Dr. Nafiz Kahraman
Sempozyum Başkanı
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PREFACE
Combustion Symposium that is one of the longest running and most prestigious
engineering symposium series of our country, is one of the periodic activities of Turkey
Branch of The Combustion Institute. This series of symposiums, which have been held
since 1983 and as online in 2020, for the 15th time, were planned to be held biyearly
and were mostly held two years apart, although not every time. After the first 5
symposiums were organized in Bursa, it was open to the organization requests of other
universities in order to increase the area of activity and 14 symposiums (Uludağ
University (6 times), İstanbul Technical University (1 times), Gazi University (1 times),
Marmara University (1 times), Kırıkkale University (1 times) and Sakarya University (1
times), International Sarajevo University (IUS) (1 times), Kocaeli University (1 times)
and Karabük University (1 times)) have been organized so far.
Since combustion is the conversion of fuels into heat energy or mechanical energy, it
finds a place in countless applications from the kitchens of our homes to motor
vehicles, from heat boilers to iron and steel furnaces and power plants. Therefore, the
techniques and efficiency of this transformation are of vital importance. Especially in
today's world, where energy has become a global strategic weapon, besides energy
resources, how to use these resources more effectively, so fuels and combustion
issues have become one of the most prominent topics of study for researchers.
At the 15th International Combustion Symposium, the first online combustion
symposium, 62 oral and 5 poster presentations were presented in 12 virtual sessions,
and two invited speakers, two of whom were from abroad, made presentations. The
symposium was successfully held with the online participation of over 150 participants
from five different countries.
I would like to thank the symposium honor, organization, management and advisory
board members, reviewers, invited speakers, session chairs, sponsors, participants
and especially the symposium secretariat who contributed to the successful
implementation of the symposium.
Best regards,
Prof. Dr. Nafiz Kahraman
Chair of the Symposium
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15th International Combustion Symposium (INCOS2020)
17-19 September 2020
Keynote Speaker : Prof. Dr. Abdul Ghani OLABI
Speech Title: Sustainable and Renewable Energy
Engineering Department (SREE) Research Activities
CV: Prof Olabi is Chair and Head of Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering
Department “SREE” at the University Of Sharjah “UOS”. Before joining UOS, he was the
director and founding member of the Institute of Engineering and Energy Technologies at the
University of the West of Scotland. Prof Olabi received his M.Eng and Ph.D. from Dublin City
University, since 1984 he worked at different national and international institutes such as;
National Research Centre-Italy “CNR”, Research Centre of FIAT-Italy “CRF”, Dublin City
University “DCU” and Institute of Engineering and Energy Technologies “IEET” at UWS. Prof
Olabi has supervised postgraduate research students (35 PhD) to successful completion.
Prof Olabi has edited more than 30 proceedings, and has published more than 400 papers in
peer-reviewed international journals and international conferences, in addition to more than 45
book chapters. In the last 4 years Prof Olabi has patented 2 innovative projects. Prof Olabi is
the founder of the International Conference on Sustainable Energy and Environmental
Protection SEEP, www.seepconference.com and the International Conference on Materials
Science and Smart Materials. He is the Subject Editor of the Elsevier Energy Journal, Editor in
Chief of the Encyclopedia of Smart Materials (Elsevier), Editor of the Reference Module of
Materials Science and Engineering (Elsevier), Editor in Chief of Renewable Energy section of
Energies and board member of a few other journals. Prof Olabi has coordinated different
National, EU and International Projects. He has produced different reports to the Irish Gov.
regarding:
Hydrogen
and
Fuel
Cells
and
Solar
Energy.
Currently, the Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering Department “SREE” has around
700 students, 15 academic members, 6 Engineers and administrators working on Teaching,
Research and Innovation of the renewable energy sectors and related fields.
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15th International Combustion Symposium (INCOS2020)
17-19 September 2020
Keynote Speech Text
Keynote Speaker : Prof. Dr. Ashwani K. GUPTA
Speech Title: Municipal Solid Wastes – Conversion
to Clean Energy
CV: Ashwani K. Gupta (born 1948) is a British-American engineer and educator with research
focus on combustion, fuels, fuel reforming, advanced diagnostics, High Temperature Air
Combustion (called HiTAC), and high-intensity distributed combustion, green combustion
turbine, micro-combustion, and air pollution. He is an Distinguished University Professor at the
University of Maryland. Gupta is also Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University
of Maryland and Director of Combustion Laboratory.[1] He is also an Affiliate Professor at
Institute of Physical Science and Technology, University of Maryland which is part of the
University of Maryland College of Computer, Mathematical and Natural Sciences.
He is known for his work on swirl flows, combustion, high temperature air combustion,
distributed high intensity green combustion, and fuel reforming.
MUNICIPAL WASTES-CONVERSION TO CLEAN ENERGY
Ashwani K. Gupta
Mechanical Engineering Department, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
email: akgupta@umd.edu
1.Introduction
Energy is a significant issue. Waste is everywhere, and it is increasing worldwide every year.
Moreover, this increase is the increased population and more industrial development, increasing
living standards, and everybody needs more. Somewhere in the garbage disposal is good
because increase the waste generation means increased GDP, gross domestic product, and just
an idea of how much we generate. The USA is high to generate a large amount of waste,
probably the highest in the world. They have generated about 2.2 kilograms per person per day.
UAE, United Arab Emirates generate about 1.9 to 2.1 to even 2.2, so is comparable to the USA
some years they have been generating a little more. So since the Turkey conference, I put it a
good idea to look at how much the waste generated, roughly about 444 kilograms per capita per
year. That translates to roughly about 2.7 pounds per person per day. That is quite a large
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amount, so when we look at Turkey's situation, about 32 M tons of waste generated. Much of
that goes to landfill. More than half goes to sanitary landfill, and about 44% dump municipal
dumpsite in the world. The only remaining portion, about 2%, is composted disposed of by
other methods. Some parts of Europe, Germany, for example, generate roughly about 0, 95
kilograms per person per day as being same or it is little more the United Kingdom When you
look at the turkey, it is just over 1.2 so that means and Turkey and Switzerland and Japan which
is 1.6. Therefore, the US numbers are roughly 1.98, and it is going up for us in the client. So
there is a tremendous opportunity because waste to somebody in the treasure to somebody else,
certainly for the waste disposal and wasted hydrocarbon material, means you can use the energy
from waste to future generations for the power and energy.
Figure 1. Waste Generation (kg/capita/day)
2. A Global Perspective
A global perspective when we look at the energy from waste is used extensively worldwide.
There are roughly about 1000 facilities worldwide. Besides, that is many numbers. It can be
seen at the number below. Therefore, there are 1000 facilities, only about 183 million tons a
year. Waste is converted into a useful form. Figure 2 shows that the United States has 86
facilities. They processed 29 million TPY (tons per year) and are the overall 280 Million TPY
waste generated. EU has about 452 facilities, and they process roughly about 81 million TYP.
Moreover, if we are going east to Asia, they have about 427 facilities, which process 73 million
TPY that comes to 183 pounds per year at the disposal process here. The much of the garbage
is in landfill and recycling. Moreover, energy from waste is a small amount especially in China.
There is much more energy adding power from waste and the recycling is a large portion, and
the landfill is a small portion in Sweden. However, these numbers are so different for the United
Kingdom; lower portion of Ppower from the waste. The basic message is that many European
countries are not much of the energy generated from waste except Sweden, Austria, and
Germany.
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Figure 2. A Global Perspective
3. Waste Disposal Options
There are many options under the waste disposal headings—recycling, which means separating
the product to use the so-called cycle. Economy and cycling economy precisely right because
you are using and using the material ordered repeatedly.
The second option, which is quite a popular one among many countries in working through the
United States and Turkey, is landfilling. Turkey also uses anaerobic digestions. It can be
included as a third option. Moreover, the fourth options are incineration and thermal treatment.
Incineration is a short word because it generates some unwanted pollution. The Pyrolysis and
gasification or some of the advances are taking place and would be much best, including
Turkey. Material is converting some of the material into syngas, and that is in the syngas can
be used for heating, cooling, and other applications. Turkey produces about 32 M tons of
MSW/year (Municipal Solid Waste), and it has over 2.000 landfills. It uses about one million
square meters of land used to store waste every year. It means a tremendous amount of land
areas are needed to store the waste in Turkey. Significant cities in Turkey, especially Istanbul,
is the 12th largest city in the world. How many energy needs can be made from the generations
of 2 million tons of MSW. It is a few percent.
Figure 3. Compared to Europe, the USA lacks to recover EfW.
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Figure 3 shows a comparison of the US to Europe. The US has a landfilling percent of 64%.
Energy from waste is only 7%. It is a tiny part. Moreover, recycling composting is about 1/3
percent.
On the other hand, Canada has much more landfill, 74%, and EfW is a tiny fraction of the order,
about 2%. Moreover, composting and recycling is about 24%. The statistics of Denmark and
Germany are given below. Germany's energy from waste is about 35%. Moreover, the rest of
cycling and composing is 65%. The main point is that waste is an opportunity.
4. Two Common Options of Waste Disposal
There are two options for waste disposal. One option is; renewable energy generated from
landfills, and the other option is renewable energy generated from WTE facilities under the
option of energy conversion from waste. According to figure-4, the United States generates
about 249 million tons of trash that go to the landfill. The 29 million tons of trash goes to energy
from waste. It is about 5 billion kilowatt-hours, which is up to about 120 kilowatt-hours of
electricity per ton of waste in the energy generation from landfill.
On the other hand, waste to energy facilities and generate about 15 billion kWh. Figure 4 shows
that 29 million tons generate 700 kWh of electricity per ton of waste. So if you go to the landfill,
you only get about 120 kWh, which means getting six times more electricity. Moreover, it is a
warning production of roughly about 90% volume reduction. It depends on the composition of
waste, so one introduction and the engine from waste are a better option than landfill option.
Figure 4. Two Common Options of Waste Disposal
5. Greenhouse Gases
CO2 emission is essential because everybody is concerned about CO2 emissions and global
warmings, such as ice melting and more floods areas, so it is usually of CO2 as a greenhouse
gas. However, there are many other Greenhouse Gases. The main point will happen global
warming potential in 20 years, 100 years, and 500 years. The global warming potential of CO2
does not change during the one year, ten years, 100 years. On the other hand, it is methane gas
generated from the landfill site as slow-release? The warming potential is about 72 times
compared to CO2 for 20 years. Also, 100 years is 25 times and in 500 years is 7 1/2 times.
xiii
Methane is not the only one gas during the combustion system; the NOx is also generated,
including nitrous oxide N2O ( laughing gas). The global warming potential of nitrous oxide is
298, roughly 300 times in 20 years, and if you go 100 years from now is still 298, and 500 years
it is 153. The other gases such as chlorofluorocarbon CFC 12 and hydrofluorocarbon, HCFC22, their global warming potential is much higher for 5000 in 20 years and even after 100 years
is about 2000 times and finally 549 times.
Figure 5. Greenhouse Gases
Tetrafluoromethane's potential is even more immense. The 20 years is 5240. In 500 years it is
more, less double that number. The same thing has happened, Hexafluoroethane. Its potential
in 20 years, 8630 and finally 18.200, and these are some of the refrigerants, The
Sulfurhexafluoride's GWP is 16,000 times, and the potential in finally is almost double (32600).
6. Some Urgent Incinerator Research Problems
It is a big challenge for this incineration to understand what is going on here, so this is the same
picture. Nonuniform mixing results in the local hot spot and somebody smoke production.
Furthermore, once the carbon is formed. It is tough to destroy. The academic community needs
to look at the flow channel because it is introduced at the bottom. It does not spread uniformly,
so locally we had the hot spot. We lack that forms into carbon material and in entirely, so we
need to understand what is going on here. The model is the comprehensive model to locally
combustion in the bed material here.
7. EfW Sustainability
It is the one diagram related to the EfW concerning which is not too far from the instrumental,
and it produces to waste to 5000 thousand lbs/hr steam production, so it is a 16 MW of
electricity generation and the schematic is given over here, so the garbage comes in. Moreover,
it will refuse feed and be introduced into the shoot over, which goes into the boiling zone. The
typical burning from the entry point at the endpoint can be as much as 50 minutes to 60 minutes,
and the gas in which all from here utilized these gases to generate steam. When the steam is
xiv
generated, it is cooling down these gasses using a stack tower. Then it collected the ash and
material recovery and electric frustrated. It is called the Bresco, Waste energy facility.
Figure 6. A comprehensive model of combustion in the bed
8. Advances in Waste to Energy Conversion
The other part is to convert the waste into energy is so calling gasification. An example below
is the case of waste, so coal in this case was in very low coal but very high ash content but 3%.
Take the coal as municipal solid waste and paralyze it with heat. Then the heat paralyzes char,
and the problem is tar is left over. Tar and char are the main components, which are left over
the Pyrolysis. Therefore, in the conversion of tar and char into syngas with gasification agent
usage. The gasifying agent is air, oxygen and high-temperature steam. So how is very favorable
and we generated unit which is very high temperatures steam, and everything is to convert into
syngas such as methane agent. The ash is leftover, and it is an inorganic material, and char is
converted SO2.
Figure 7. The Process of Gasification
9. Future Sustainable Society
To make a future sustainable society, we have on the left side resources and recycle coming in
and human social activity, which contains accumulation and a cascade activity. The main idea
is to minimize waste. We should hopefully utilize that as its source or some other source over
here and so that in the grant cycle, we have the resources that are waste and recycle if we want
to enhance it. So essentially, those natural resources should be utilized. As an engineer, you can
make a difference to evolve to a clean, healthy environment with finite amounts of known
available resources for a Sustainable Future.
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15th INTERNATIONAL COMBUSTION SYMPOSIUM
SYMPOSIUM SCHEDULE
SEPTEMBER 17, 2020 (THURSDAY)
Coffee Break
1. SESSION 10.45-12.00 (ENGLISH PRESENTATION)
SESSION CHAIR: PROF.DR. MUSTAFA ILBAS
POLLUTION EFFECTS OF HYDROGEN USAGE AS AN ENERGY CARRIER
CEVAHIR TARHAN
SINGLE PARTICLE COMBUSTION ANALYSIS OF OLIVE RESIDUE AND
TUNCBILEK LIGNITE
HYDROGEN PEMFC STACK PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS THROUGH
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF OPERATING PARAMETERS BY USING RESPONSE
SURFACE METHODOLOGY (RSM)
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS OF A
COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINE POWERED BY 1 HEPTANOL / DIESEL FUEL
BLENDS
CHARACTERIZATION OF DIESEL LIKE FUEL FROM WASTE TIRE PYROLYSIS BY
INSTRUMENTAL TECHNIQUES
xvi
KAAN GUREL
FEYZA KAZANC
E. EKER KAHVECI
I.TAYMAZ
MURAT KADIR YESILYURT
ABDULVAHAP CAKMAK
ABDULKADIR AYANOGLU
GEDIZ UGUZ
Lunch Break
2. SESSION 13.00-14.30 (ENGLISH PRESENTATION)
SESSION CHAIR: PROF.DR. HAKAN SERHAD SOYHAN
SWIRL COMBUSTION OF KEROSENE AND AMMONIA-ASSISTED KEROSENE
MUSTAFA ILBAS, OSMAN KUMUK
FUELS IN A MODEL GAS TURBINE COMBUSTOR: A NUMERICAL STUDY
SERHAT KARYEYEN
COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS OF OXY-AMMONIA COMBUSTION IN A NONM. ILBAS, O. KEKUL
PREMIXED BURNER
A. BEKTAS, S. KARYEYEN
PREDICTION OF FUEL-IN-OIL FORMATION RATE BY USING GAUSSIAN PROCESS M. GONUL, O.A. KUTLAR
MODELS
A. CALIK
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT CHEMICAL REDUCTION MECHANISMS APPLIED
GOKHAN COSKUN, ERMAN ASLAN
ON A 3D-HCCI ENGINE COMBUSTION MODEL
ZEKERIYA OZCAN
GULTEN GIZEM KUCUK
INVESTIGATION OF COMBUSTION OF KEROSEN IN AVIATION
HALIL TUZCU , HAKAN CALISKAN
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION OF TEA FACTORY WASTE AND SPENT TEA WASTE;
S. OZARSLAN, S. ABUT
EXPERIMENTAL AND KINETIC MODELING STUDIES
M.R. ATELGE, M. KAYA
S. UNALAN
Coffee Break
3. SESSION 14.45-16.00 (ENGLISH PRESENTATION)
SESSION CHAIR: PROF.DR. ALI SURMEN
COMBUSTION OF METHANE USING A CYCLONIC BURNER UNDER COLORLESS
K. B. KEKEC, S. KARYEYEN
DISTRIBUTED COMBUSTION CONDITIONS
M. ILBAS
PASSENGER CAR EMISSIONS IN TURKEY
ADEM UGURLU
BIOGAS PRODUCTION AS AN ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCE IN DEVELOPING
MUSTAFA ILBAS, LINA ANTARI
COUNTRIES: PALESTINE AS A CASE STUDY
MURAT SAHIN
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF BIOGAS DISTRIBUTED COMBUSTION IN A
MUSTAFA ILBAS
MODEL COMBUSTOR
NURHAN UREGEN GULER
MURAT SAHIN
xvii
Coffee Break
4. SESSION 16.15-17.45 (TURKISH PRESENTATION)
SESSION CHAIR: PROF.DR. MEHMET ZAFER GUL
IKI FAZLI YANMA ORTAMINDA BASINC ARTISININ DAMLACIK
M. KUCUK
BUHARLASMASINA ETKISI
A.SURMEN
COMBUSTION AND EMISSIONS CHARACTERISTICS OF DI DIESEL ENGINE
ABDULVAHAP CAKMAK
FUELED WITH DIESEL-BIODIESEL-GLYCEROL ETHERS. PART I: EFFECT OF
HAKAN OZCAN
COMPRESSION RATIO
COMBUSTION AND EMISSIONS CHARACTERISTICS OF DI DIESEL ENGINE
ABDULVAHAP CAKMAK
FUELED WITH DIESEL-BIODIESEL-GLYCEROL ETHERS. PART II: EFFECT OF
HAKAN OZCAN
INJECTION TIMING
NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF PRIMARY AIR HOLE
BILAL SUNGUR
DIAMETERS ON COMBUSTION IN PELLET FUELLED BOILERS
BAHATTIN TOPALOGLU
ETANOL-MOTORIN KARISIMLARININ KULLANILDIGI BIR DIZEL MOTORDA
M.VARGUN, M.HURPEKLI
YAKIT PUSKURTME ZAMANININ YANMA KARAKTERLERI UZERINE ETKISI
A.N.OZSEZEN
EFFECTS OF FUSEL OIL ON A THERMAL COATED ENGINE
O. SALIH, V. ERDINC
O. SERKAN
SEPTEMBER 18, 2020 ( FRIDAY)
5. SESSION 09.45-11.00 (ENGLISH PRESENTATION)
SESSION CHAIR: PROF.DR. NAFIZ KAHRAMAN
INVESTIGATION OF COMBUSTION OF DIESEL-ETHANOL FUEL BLEND IN
M.HURPEKLI, M.VARGUN
COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
A.N.OZSEZEN, A.H.APAYDIN
OPTIMIZATION OF INJECTION PARAMETERS FOR COMPRESSION IGNITION
R. SENER
ENGINE USING GENETIC ALGORITHM
M. Z. GUL
xviii
CO2 ANALYSES WITH MODEL BASED REGULATORY TOOLS: VECTO
APPLICATION FOR ISTANBUL PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION CASE
THE EFFECTS OF POST INJECTIONS OF HYDROGEN ON DIESEL ENGINE
POWERED BY ETHANOL FUMIGATION
MODELING AND OPTIMIZATION OF A FLUIDIZED BED GASIFICATION
O. OZENER, O. GEZER
M. OZKAN, N. ZACHAROF
G. FONTARAS
HUSEYIN GURBUZ
EBUBEKIR BEYAZOGLU
ERHAN PULAT
Coffee Break
6. SESSION 11.10-12.25 (TURKISH PRESENTATION)
SESSION CHAIR: PROF.DR. SELAHADDIN ORHAN AKANSU
DIZEL ENJEKTOR MEMESININ SICAKLIK DEGISIMININ INCELENMESI
A.ERGENC, O. OZENER
G. AKPINAR
S.EYUBOGLU
A.KAYA, B.KARAYEL
TARIMSAL ATIKLARIN YANMA DAVRANISINA TORREFAKSIYONUN ETKISI
N.CAYCI,
N.DURANAY
M.YILGIN
BIR TERS AKISLI YAKMA SISTEMINDE DIMETIL ETER KULLANIMININ YANMA
AHMET ALPER YONTAR
KARAKTERISTIKLERININ VE ALEV SONME SINIRLARININ INCELENMESI
DUYGU SOFUOGLU
HIDROJENCE ZENGINLESTIRILMIS METAN BAZLI FARKLI YAKIT KARISIMLARI
AHMET ALPER YONTAR
ICIN IS OLUSUMLARININ LAZER KAYNAKLI AKKORLUK YONTEMIYLE
HUSEYIN DEGIRMENCI
INCELENMESI
KIZGIN BUHAR TEKNOLOJISI ILE YIYECEKLERIN SAGLIKLI PISIRILMESINE
Z. KAHRAMAN
KATKI SAGLAYAN VE COK FONKSIYONLU CALISAN YENILIKCI ENDUSTRIYEL
M. HACI
PISIRME FIRINI PROTOTIPININ TASARIMI VE GELISTIRILMESI
K. ICIBAL
R. TIMUR
H. S. SOYHAN
xix
Lunch Break
7. SESSION 13.45-15.00 (TURKISH PRESENTATION)
SESSION CHAIR: ASST.PROF.DR. NUREDDIN DINLER
METAN VE ETIL ALKOLUN GONDERIM HIZI DEGISIMLERI ICIN FARKLI YANMA
AHMET ALPER YONTAR
ODASI TASARIMLARINDA YANMA KARAKTERISTIKLERININ KARSILASTIRMALI TAHIR AYAZ
OLARAK INCELENMESI
HUSEYIN DEGIRMENCI
DUYGU SOFUOGLU
DIZEL-BIYODIZEL-IZOBUTANOL UCLU KARISIMLARI KULLANILAN BIR DIZEL
YUNUS EMRE OZTURK
MOTORDA PERFORMANS VE EMISYON KARAKTERISTIKLERININ DENEYSEL
MUSTAFA DENIZ ALTINKURT
OLARAK INCELENMESI
ALI TURKCAN
OPTIMIZATION OF OPERATING PARAMETERS OF METHANOL USED GASOLINE
SAMET USLU
ENGINE WITH TAGUCHI
FARUK ALKAN
MUSTAFA BAHATTIN CELIK
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF AN INNOVATIVE INDUSTRIAL COMBI COOKING Z. KAHRAMAN, M. HACI
OVEN PROTOTYPE TO IMPROVE TEMPERATURE AND AIR TEMPERATURE
N. EMEKWURU, H. S. SOYHAN
DISTRIBUTION AND ENERGY SAVING
DETERMINATION OF PERFORMANCE AND EMISSONS PARAMETERS ON A
SEMIH YILMAZ
HYDROGEN INJECTED HCCI DIESEL ENGINE
KUBILAY BAYRAMOGLU
Coffee Break
8. SESSION 15.15-16.30 (TURKISH PRESENTATION)
SESSION CHAIR: PROF.DR. BILGE ALBAYRAK CEPER
OPTIMIZATION OF PISTON BOWL GEOMETRY IN TERMS OF FUEL
C. AKKUS
CONSUMPTION AND EMISSIONS USING COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS IN
S. USLU
A DIESEL ENGINE
PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION OF GRASS WASTE SUPPORTED NI CATALYST
DUYGU ELMA KARAKAS
FOR HYDROGEN PRODUCTION BY THE DEGRADATION OF SODIUM
BOROHYDRIDE IN METHANOL
xx
HIDROJEN KATKISININ CIFT BUJI ATESLEMELI MOTOR KARAKTERISTIKLERINE
ETKISI
YAHYA DOGU
AHMET ALPER YONTAR
EMRAH KANTAROGLU
ABDULKADIR YALCINKAYA
UGUR BARAN TURKMEN
BARIS GUREL
YUMURTA KABUKLARININ YERLI LINYITLE BIRLIKTE KABARCIKLI AKISKAN
YATAKLI KAZANDA YAKILMASINDA BACA GAZI EMISYONLARININ
DEGISIMININ INCELENMESI
PIROLIZE EDILMIS LASTIK YAGI KULLANILARAK ELDE EDILEN YAKITIN TEK
SULEYMAN SIMSEK
SILINDIRLI DIZEL MOTOR PERFORMANS VE EMISYONLARA ETKISI
Coffee Break
9. SESSION 16.45-18.15 (ENGLISH PRESENTATION)
SESSION CHAIR: ASST. PROF.DR. ESSAM ABO SERIE
THE EFFECT OF OXYGEN ENRICHMENT ON COMBUSTION INSTABILITIES FOR
BUGRAHAN ALABAS
SYNTHETIC GASES FUELS WITH DIFFERENT H2/CO RATIOS
GUVEN TUNC
MURAT TASTAN
ILKER YILMAZ
ENVIRONMENTAL AND ENVIROECONOMIC ANALYSES OF A GASOLINE FUELED YASIN SOHRET
SI ENGINE
HABIB GURBUZ
ANAEROBIC CO-DIGESTION OF DEFATTED SPENT COFFEE GROUNDS WITH
M.R. ATELGE, A.E. ATABANI
DIFFERENT WASTE SUBSTRATE FOR BIOGAS PRODUCTION
S. ABUT, M. KAYA
C. ESKICIOGLU, G. KUMAR
C. LEE, Y.S. YILDIZ
S. UNALAN
R. MOHANASUNDARAM
F. DUMAN
IMPACT OF DIESEL-ETHANOL FUEL BLENDS ON THE PERFORMANCE AND
H. ENES FIL
EMISSIONS OF A COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
S. ORHAN AKANSU
xxi
ASSESSMENT OF DETAILED AND REDUCED-KINETICS MECHANISMS FOR
COMBUSTION AND EMISSIONS OF GAS FUELS
INVESTIGATION OF NATURAL GAS-DIESEL FUEL MIXTURE IN TERMS OF
ENGINE PERFORMANCE IN COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
MEHMET SALIH CELLEK
ESENAY ARSLAN
TALIP AKBIYIK
NAFIZ KAHRAMAN
SEPTEMBER 19, 2020 ( SATURDAY)
10. SESSION 10.00-11.15 (ENGLISH PRESENTATION)
SESSION CHAIR: ASSOC. PROF. DR. SERHAT KARYEYEN
CATALYTIC FAST PYROLYSIS OF SAFFLOWER BIOMASS FOR SYNTHETIC BIOE. ARIOZ, B. KURTUL
OIL PRODUCTION
O.M. KOCKAR
AN EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL CASE STUDY ON COALESCING PLATES
MEHMET ORUC
USED IN OIL-WATER SEPARATION
SEDAT YAYLA
CHARACTERIZATION AND STABILITY OF PYROLYTIC OIL PRODUCED FROM
AHMED AYYASH
OLIVE RESIDUE
ESIN APAYDIN VAROL
MURAT KILIC, GAMZENUR OZSIN
CHARACTERIZATION OF BIOMASS ALTERNATIVES
D.N. INCEOGLU, E. UNAL
T. PAMUKSUZ
THE EFFECT OF N2 DILUTION ON EMISSION AND COMBUSTION INSTABILITIES
YAKUP CAM
FOR A BIOGAS MIXTURE USED IN INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS
BUGRAHAN ALABAS
ILKER YILMAZ
Coffee Break
11. SESSION 11.30-12.45 (TURKISH PRESENTATION)
SESSION CHAIR: DR. ZAFER KAHRAMAN
WANKEL MOTORUNUN PERFORMANSININ NUMERIK OLARAK INCELENMESI
B.T. ALTIPARMAK
M. KUCUK
A. SURMEN
xxii
A NOVEL METAL-FREE CATALYST FROM ORANGE PEEL WASTE PROTANTED
WITH PHOSPHORIC ACID FOR HYDROGEN GENERATION FROM METHANOLYSIS
OF NABH4
POLYMER TECHNOLOGY FOR FIRE PROTECTION INVESTIGATING FIRE
APPROACH CLOTHES
DUYGU ELMA KARAKAS
MUHAMMED FATIH ASLAN
HAKAN SERHAD SOYHAN
BURAK GOKALP, KIVANC KOZA
G. GORMEZ
B. ALBAYRAK CEPER
S. OZARSLAN, M.R. ATELGE
M. KAYA, S. UNALAN
REAKTIVITE KONTROLLU SIKISTIRMA ATESLEMELI BIR MOTORUN SAYISAL
ANALIZI
TEA FACTORY WASTE CATALYST TREATED WITH ACETIC ACID FOR
HYDROGEN GENERATION THROUGH METHANOLYSIS OF SODIUM
BOROHYDRIDE
Coffee Break
12. SESSION 13.00-15.00 (TURKISH/ENGLISH PRESENTATION AND CLOSING SPEECH/EVALUATION)
SESSION CHAIR: PROF.DR. NAFIZ KAHRAMAN
EFFECT OF TOLUENE ADDITION TO WASTE COOKING OIL ON COMBUSTION
O. SALIH
CHARACTERISTICS OF A CI ENGINE
A. MEHMET
V. ERDINC
COMPARISON OF THE EMISSIONS OF DIESEL AND WASTE DERIVED BIOFUEL
IBRAHIM YILDIZ
UNDER 100 NM ENGINE LOAD
HAKAN CALISKAN
KAZUTOSHI MORI
EVALUATION OF OXYGEN ENRICHMENT EFFECTS ON COMBUSTION AND
MEHMET SALIH CELLEK
EMISSIONS
ELEKTRIK KAYNAKLI YANGINLAR NASIL ONLENIR?
MUHAMMED FATIH ASLAN
HAKAN SERHAD SOYHAN
GOKHAN COSKUN
NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF INTAKE VALVE GEOMETRY
BURAK SEREMET
ON AIR FLOW DURING INTAKE STROKE
NUREDDIN DINLER
xxiii
POSTER PRESENTATIONS
UCAKLARDA CIKAN GOVDE ICI YANGINLARLA MUCADELEDE KULLANILAN
UZATMALI CATI MONITOR SISTEMININ INCELENMESI
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF PROPANE ADDITION ON
DIESEL ENGINE PERFORMANCE
INFLUENCE OF ACETYLENE INDUCTION ON COMBUSTION, PERFORMANCE AND
EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF DIESEL-FUELLED CI ENGINE
A REVIEW FOR ASSESSMENT METHODS OF BLACK TEA PRODUCTION WASTE
ASSESSMENT OF SMOKE RISK OF WOOD MATERIALS IN FIRE
xxiv
SINAN TURKEL
HAKAN SERHAD SOYHAN
ESENAY ARSLAN
H. ENES FIL
NAFIZ KAHRAMAN
H. ENES FIL
M.ILHAN ILHAK
S. ORHAN AKANSU
S. OZARSLAN
M.R. ATELGE
M. KAYA
S. UNALAN
Y.J. CHUNG
E. JIN
INDEX
Article Title
Page Number
Pollution Effects of Hydrogen Production as an Energy Carrier .……………………….………….001
Single Particle Combustion Analysis of Olive Residue and Tuncbilek Lignite ……………………..007
Hydrogen Pemdc Stack Performance Analysıs Through Experimental Study of Operating
Parameters by Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM)……………………………………….011
An Assessment of The Combustion Characteristics of a Compression-Ignition Engine
Powered by 1-Heptanol/Diesel Fuel Blends …………………………………………………………020
Characterization of Diesel Like Fuel From Waste Tire Pyrolysis by Instrumental Techniques……..035
Swirl Combustion of Kerosene and Ammonia-Assisted Kerosene Fuels in a Model Gas
Turbine Combustor: A Numerical Study.……………………………………………….....................043
Combustion Characteristics of Oxy-Ammonia Combustion in a Non-Premixed Burner…................050
Prediction of Fuel-In-Oil Formation Rate by Using Gaussian Process Models…………………...…058
Comparison of Different Chemical Reduction Mechanisms Applied on a 3D-HCCI
Engine Combustion Model…………………………………………………………………………...065
Investigation of Combustion of Kerosene Fuel Used in Aviation……………………........................075
Anaerobic Digestion of Tea Factory Waste and Spent Tea Waste; Experimental and
Kinetic Modelling Studies……………………………………………………………………………080
Combustion of Methane Using a Cyclonic Burner under Colorless Distributed Combustion
Conditions………………………………………………………………………………………….…087
Passenger Car Emissions in Turkey…………………………………………………………………..096
Biogas Production as an Alternative Energy Source in Developing Countries: Palestine
as a Case Study…………………………………………………………………………………….…101
Experimental Investigation of Biogas Distributed Combustion in a Model Combustor……………..111
İki Fazlı Yanma Ortamında Basınç Artışının Damlacık Buharlaşmasına Etkisi………......................116
Combustion and Emissions Characteristics of DI Diesel Engine Fuelled with
Diesel-Biodiesel-Glycerol Ethers. Part I: Effect of Compression Ratio……………………..............122
Combustion and Emissions Characteristics of DI Diesel Engine Fuelled with
xxv
Diesel-Biodiesel-Glycerol Ethers. Part II: Effect of Injection Timing………………….....................131
Pelet Yakıtlı Kazanlarda Primer Hava Delik Çaplarının Yanmaya Etkisinin Nümerik
İncelenmesi…………………………………………………………………………………………...141
Etanol-Motorin Karışımlarının Kullanıldığı Bir Dizel Motorda Yakıt Püskürtme Zamanının
Yanma Karakterleri Üzerine Etkisi………………………………………………...............................149
Effects of Fusel Oil on a Thermal Coated Engine……………………………………………………158
Investigation of Combustion of Diesel-Ethanol Fuel Blend in Compression Ignition Engine………164
Optimization of Injection Parameters for Compression Ignition Engine Using Genetic Algorithm…173
CO2 Analyses with Model Based Regulatory Tools: VECTO Application For İstanbul Public
Transportation Case…………………………………………………………………………………..177
The Effects of Post Injections of Hydrogen on Diesel Engine Powered by Ethanol Fumigation……183
Modelling and Optimization of a Fluidized Bed Gasification……………………………..................192
Dizel Enjektör Memesinin Sıcaklık Değişiminin İncelenmesi……………………………………….202
Tarımsal Atıkların Yanma Davranışına Torrefaksiyonun Etkisi……………………….…….............207
Bir Ters Akışlı Yakma Sisteminde Dimetil Eter Kullanımının Yanma Karakteristiklerinin ve
Alev Sönme Sınırlarının İncelenmesi………………………………………………………………...214
Hidrojence Zenginleştirilmiş Metan Bazlı Farklı Yakıt Karışımları için İs Oluşumlarının Lazer
Kaynaklı Akkorluk Yöntemiyle İncelenmesi………………………………………………………...222
Kızgın Buhar Teknolojisi ile Yiyeceklerin Sağlıklı Pişirilmesine Katkı Sağlayan ve Çok
Fonksiyonlu Çalışan Yenilikçi Endüstriyel Pişirme Fırını Prototipinin Tasarımı ve Geliştirilmesi…230
Metan ve Etil Alkolün Gönderim Hızı Değişimleri için Farklı Yanma Odası Tasarımlarında
Yanma Karakteristiklerinin Karşılaştırılmalı Olarak İncelenmesi…………………………………...235
Dizel-Biyodizel-İzobütanol Üçlü Karışımları Kullanılan Bir Dizel Motorda Performans ve Emisyon
Karakteristiklerinin Deneysel Olarak İncelenmesi…………………………………………………...244
Metanol Kullanılan Benzinli Motorun Çalışma Parametrelerinin Taguchi ile Optimizasyonu……...252
Desing and Development of an Innovative Industrial Combi Cooking Oven Prototype to
Improve Temperature and Air Temperature Distribution and Energy Saving…………….................258
Determination of Performance and Emission Parameters on a Hydrogen Injected Dual Fuel
Diesel Engine…………………………………………………………………………………………263
Optimization of Piston Bowl Geometry in Terms of Fuel Consumption and Emissions Using
Computational Fluid Dynamics in a Diesel Engine…………………………..………………………269
Production and Application of Grass Waste Supported Ni Catalyst for Hydrogen Production
by the Degradation of Sodium Borohydride in Methanol……………………………………………280
xxvi
Hidrojen Katkısının Çift Buji Ateşlemeli Motor Karakteristiklerine Etkisi…………….....................290
Yumurta Kabuklarının Yerli Linyitle Birlikte Kabarcıklı Akışkan Yataklı Kazanda
Yakılmasında Baca Gazı Emisyonlarının Değişiminin İncelenmesi………………………………...299
Pirolize Edilmiş Lastik Yağı Kullanılarak Elde Edilen Yakıtın Tek Silindirli Dizel Motor
Performans ve Emisyonlarına Etkisi……………………………………………………. …………...304
The Effect of Oxygen Enrichment on Combustion Instabilities for Synthetic Gases Fuels with
Different H2/CO Ratios………………………………………………………....................................313
Enviromental and Enviroeconomic Analyses of a Gasoline Fueled SI Engine………........................320
Anaerobic Co-Digestion of Defatted Spent Coffee Grounds with Different Waste Substrate for
Biogas Production……………………………………………………………………... …………….327
Impact of Diesel-Ethanol Fuel Blends on the Performance and Emissions of a Compression
Ignition Engine……………………………………………………………………………….. ……..337
Assessment of Detailed and Skeletal Kinetic Mechanisms for Combustion and Emissions of
Methane……………………………………………………………………………………………....343
Investigation of Natural Gas-Diesel Fuel Mixture in Terms of Engine Performance in
Compression Ignition Engine………………………………………………………………… ……..349
Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis of Safflower Biomass for Synthetic Bio-Oil Production…..……………….356
An Experimental and Numerical Case Study on Coalescing Plates Used in Oil-water Separation….360
Characterization and Stability of Pyrolytic Oil Produced from Olive Residue....................................369
Characterization of Biomass Alternatives……………………………………………………………374
Effect of N2 Dilution on Emission and Combustion Instabilities for a Biogas Mixture Used in
Industrial Systems…………………………………………………………………………………….376
Wankel Motorunun Performansının Nümerik Olarak İncelenmesi…………………………………..381
A Novel Metal-Free Catalyst from Orange Peel Waste Protonated with Phosphoric Acid
for Hydrogen Generation from Methanolysis of NABH4…………………………………………...389
Polymer Technology for Fire Protection: Investigating Fire Approach Clothes……………………..399
Reaktif Kontrollü Sıkıştırma ile Ateşlemeli Bir Motorun Sayısal Analizi…………………………...404
Tea Factory Waste Catalyst Treated with Acetic Acid for Hydrogen Generation Through
Methanolysis of Sodium Borohydride………………………………………………………………..414
Effect of Toluene Addition to Waste Cooking Oil on Combustion Characteristics of a CI Engine…422
Comprasion of the Emissions of Diesel and Waste Derived Biofuel Under 100 NM Engine Load…428
Evaluation of Oxygen Enrichment Effects on Combustion and Emissions……….............................433
Elektrik Kaynaklı Yangınlar Nasıl Önlenir…………………………………………………………..439
xxvii
Numerical Investigation of the Effects of Intake Valve Geometry on Air Flow During Intake
Stroke…………………………………………………………………………………………………444
Uçaklarda Çıkan Gövde İçi Yangınlarla Mücadelede Kullanılan Uzatmalı Çatı Monitör
Sisteminin İncelenmesi………………………………………………………….................................450
Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Propane Addition on Diesel Engine Performance…….459
Influence of Acetylene Induction on Combustion, Performance and Emission Characteristics of
Diesel-Fuelled CI Engine………………………………………………………………......................465
A rewiew for Assessment Methods of Black Tea Production Waste………………………………...471
Assessment of Smoke Risk of Wood Materials in Fire……………………………………………....497
xxviii
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
POLLUTION EFFECTS OF HYDROGEN PRODUCTION AS AN ENERGY
CARRIER
Cevahir Tarhan1
1. Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Erciyes University,
Turkey; email: ctarhan@erciyes.edu.tr
Kayseri, 38280,
Abstract
The intensive use of fossil fuels is one of the most important factors in the damage caused by humanity
to the environment due to the resulting carbon emission. In recent years, the search for alternative
energy sources has gained importance due to the decrease in fossil-based fuel resources and therefore
the increase in costs. The use of hydrogen as an energy carrier also supports the use of alternative
energy sources such as wind energy and solar energy, which have started to enter our lives intensively.
As a result of burning hydrogen with oxygen, water vapor is released into the environment as a waste,
because of taht hydrogen is one of the leading items in the search for clean energy. In this article, I
reviewed and evaluated the articles in the literature which are investigating the destruction of
enviroment and harmful gas emissions caused by the neglected production, use and life cycle of
hydrogen, which is seen as a clean energy carrier.
Keywords: Hydrogen, energy, pollution, hydrogen production
1 INTRODUCTION
Hydrogen has a wide variety of possibilities in
terms of production resources such as water,
natural gas, coal and sea beds. There is trace
amount of hydrogen in the atmosphere and
Simmonds et al. [1] gave the amount of
hydrogen in the atmosphere as 510 ppb in their
study. Most of the hydrogen currently produced
is obtained from natural gas. With hydrogen's
combustion with pure oxygen, it is possible to
obtain high amount of energy and heat. In case
of burning with air, a small amount of nitrogen
oxides are released, but the combustion process
is much cleaner than fossil fuels. Derwent et al.
[2] revealed that hydrogen reacts with hydroxyl
radicals in the troposphere, disrupting the
distribution of methane and ozone, which are
the gases that have the most important
greenhouse effect after carbon dioxide, thus
gaining an indirect greenhouse effect. Of
course, when examining the effect of hydrogen
usage on the atmosphere, not only the damage
caused by hydrogen directly in the atmosphere,
but also the emissions that occur during the
production and transportation of hydrogen
should be considered. Spath et al. [3], with the
life cycle study of hydrogen, examined the
emissions that occur in the cycle from the
production of hydrogen to the point where it
will be used, and put into account the effects of
this process on the atmosphere. Apart from the
emissions that arise during the initial
investment and installation, gas outputs that are
continuous in the production of hydrogen are
among the most important issues. Colella et al.
[4] showed the emission values based on the
use of natural gas and coal in production with
their studies. In case of using biomass in
hydrogen production, the studies of Koroneos
et al. [5] provided us with information about
the emissions that occur. In their study, Seker et
al. [6] examined the ideal facility area for the
decomposition of H2S as an another hydrogen
production method. For this purpose, the H2S
rich waters of the Black Sea in the north of the
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Turkey is considered as a potential facility
building location. Hellmer et al. [7] revealed
the method of obtaining hydrogen from H2S
with its patent. Thanks to the studies of Zeng
and Zhang [8] on electrolysis, another widely
known hydogen production method, it provides
an opportunity to improve the techniques of
obtaining hydrogen from water by electrolysis
in terms of cost, energy consumption and
safety. Liu's patent [9] offers a useful method
for obtaining hydrogen from crude oil by
partial oxidation method. Jacobson et al. [10]
presented a useful study on reducing
greenhouse gases in the air with thanks to the
use of hydrogen fuel cells in vehicles, which
make the combustion process more efficient by
removing
intermediate
process
steps.
Granovskii et al. [11] presented a comparison
of conventional, hybrid, electric and hydrogen
fuel cell used vehicles in terms of their
economic and environmental impact. The
source of hydrogen and the electricity used
make a significant difference in terms of
environmental impact. When evaluating the use
of hydrogen, it is also important to mention the
storage of hydrogen to be used. Efficient
storage of electricity, one of the challenges of
electrically powered systems, is less of a
problem for hydrogen. Nevertheless, until the
widespread use of hydrogen begins and
hydrogen is transferred by pipelines, the
storage of hydrogen in the area where it will be
used and its transfer by means of vehicles
constitute a certain cost. Züttel [12] presented 6
different methods for the storage of hydrogen
and draws attention to the importance of
materials science in terms of the usability of
these methods. Another problem in using
hydrogen as an energy carrier is the high
flammability of the air-hydrogen mixture.
Shapiro and Moffette [13] draw attention to the
risks and flammability of mixing hydrogen
with air in their report. Bocci et al. [14]
examined the use of hydrogene in homes and
evaluates the requirements and efficiency for a
100 m2 house. One of the most important
factors that will facilitate the use of hydrogen
in homes and in our lives will be the possibility
of hydrogen transport with natural gas
transmission lines.
In this article, I reviewed and evaluated the
articles in the literature whic are investigating
the destruction of enviroment and harmful gas
emissions caused by the neglected production,
use and life cycle of hydrogen, which is seen as
a clean energy carrier.
2 POLLUTION EFFECTS OF HYDROGEN
PRODUCTION
Since hydrogen is a costly gas to transport and
store, unless it is transmitted to the end user
through pipelines such as natural gas
distribution networks on a global scale. It is
logical that hydrogen is produced locally and
supplied to the nearby end user by coal
gasification, steam methane reforming, biomass
gasification, electrolysis, partial oxidation of
oil, obtaining hydrogen sulphide from the sea
etc. As a by-product of all these production
methods, it is seen that gases such as CH4, CO2,
CO, N20, NOX, SO2 that cause greenhouse
effect and pollute the atmosphere are released
into the atmosphere. One of the leading
hydrogen production methods is the method of
obtaining hydrogen and carbon monoxide from
natural gas known as steam methane reforming.
With this method, approximately 95% of the
hydrogen used in America is obtained
American Department of Energy [15].Equation
1 is given the equation of the method in
question Liu et al. [16].
CH4 + H2O ==> CO + 3 H2
(1)
The emission values found by Colella et al. [4]
are given in table 1. Which are produced by
using 1 kg of natural gas as fuel in the
production of hydrogen by steam methane
reforming method.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Table 1. Emission values with steam
methane reforming method Colella et al. [4]
Emissions
(kilogram)
NOX
CO
NMHC (nonmethane
hydrocarbons)
CH4
Colella et al. [4]
0.0000459
0.00000328
0.000000655
0.0000475
Colella et al. [4] revealed a significant
greenhouse gas emission to the atmosphere
during the process, although the emission
values are not as high as coal energy plants.
Coal gasification is not as widely used as steam
methane reforming, but it is a technique used to
obtain hydrogen. In this method, primarily
synthetic gases and then hydrogen can be
obtained by oxidizing coal with the help of
oxygen and water vapor. Equation of the
method in question is given in equation number
2.
3C + O2 + H2O ==> H2 + 3CO
(2)
The emission values found by Colella et al. [4]
are given in table 2. Which are produced by
using 1 kg of coal as fuel in the production of
hydrogen by coal gasification method.
Tablo 2. Emission values with coal
gasification method Colella et al. [4]
Emissions
(kilogram)
CO
NO2
SO2
CO2
Colella et al. [4]
0.00734
0.000108
0.000762
2.37
The emission values that found by Colella et
al. [4] are much higher than steam methane
reforming. It is revealed that coal is not a clean
method in hydrogen production.
Hydrogen production using biomass is an
advantageous method because biomass is a
renewable resource. Although it is not as
common as hydrogen production from fossil
fuels, it offers an alternative production
process. The work of Koroneos et al. [5] in this
area reveals the emissions that occur during
hydrogen production from biomass. The
emission values during the production of 1 kg
hydrogen from biomass found by Koroneos et
al. [5] are given in Table 3.
The emission values during the production of 1
kg hydrogen from Biomass which were found
by Koroneos et al. [5] are given in Table 3.
Tablo 3. Emission values in hydrogen
production from biomass Koroneos et al.
[5]
Emissions
(kilogram)
CO
CO2
CH4
C2H2
C2H4
C2H6
H2S
NH3
Koroneos et al. [5]
2.028
0.632
0.743
0.016
0.217
0.029
0.003
0.017
Koroneos et al. [5] detected significant CO and
CO2 emissions in thier work. The method
differs from other methods in that it causes
high emissions in terms of greenhouse gas
effect, and these gases can be collected from
the atmosphere with the help of biomass
production and than can be included in the
cycle.
Electrolysis of water is also one of the main
methods of obtaining hydrogen. The main
problem of this method is that electricity is
used for the electrolysis process and the
necessary electricity is somehow obtained and
delivered to the place where the electrolysis
process is performed. Whether electricity is
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
obtained by consuming fossil resources or
using wind or solar energy, the production,
installation and operation of the equipment
used in these systems is also a process that
causes greenhouse gas emissions. Although this
prevents hydrogen production from being a
process free from greenhouse gas emissions, it
does not change the fact that hydrogen
production from renewable sources is a cleaner
process than generating electricity using fossil
fuel.
Tablo 4.Average air emissions of a
hydrogen production life cycle Spath et al.
[3]
Emissions
System
total
(g/kg of
H2).
Spath et
al. [3]
C6H6
1.4
Finally, I'll mention an another hydrogen
production method that can be performed in
Black Sea which is in the north of Turkey.
Blacksea is rich in H2S and hydrogen can be
obtained from this water. This method is a
promising method introduced by Hellmer et al.
[7]. One of the advantages of this method is the
emergence of sulfur, which is not harmful to
the environment, as waste.
CO2
CO
CH4
NO2
N2O
10,620.6
5.7
59.8
12.3
0.04
While evaluating all these methods, it is a fact
that it is very important to consider the
emissions generated by the necessary plant and
transmission line investments as well as the
emissions that occur during hydrogen
production. Spath et al. [3] reveal important
information on this issue in their study of the
life cycle of hydrogen production. The data of
Spath et al. [3] is useful in terms of comparing
the gas emissions arising from production
processes with the gas emissions arising from
the establishment of the plant and production
lines and they are given in Table 4.
SO2
NMHC (non- 16.8
methane
hydrocarbons)
Particulates
2.0
9.5
% of
total
in this
table.
Spath
et al.
[3]
<
0.0%
99.0%
0.1%
0.6%
0.1%
<
0.0%
0.2%
% of total
from H2
plant
operation.
Spath et
al. [3]
<
0.0%
0.1%
1.1%
0.0%
83.7%
1.4%
0.0%
7.3%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
As seen in Table 4, 83.7% of CO2, the gas that
create the most significant greenhouse effect is
emerging in hydrogen production, is released
into the atmosphere through chemical
processes during production. The CO2 emitted
during the establishment of the production
facility and transmission lines contributes
around 16%.
3. CONCLUSIONS
When evaluating the use of hydrogen as an
energy carrier, it may be misleading to compare
the effect of hydrogen on the atmosphere with
the damage caused by fossil fuels. Instead, it is
necessary to consider the emissions that will
arise during the construction of facilities and
transmission lines for the extraction and
transportation of hydrogen and other compared
fuels as a life cycle process. It should be taken
into consideration that natural gas should be
used for steam methane reforming, which is the
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
most common production method of hydrogen,
and during this process, the gases that create a
significant greenhouse effect and pollute the
atmosphere are mixed into the atmosphere. The
same situation is also valid for the oxidation of
oil, biomass gasification and coal gasification
methods, where fossil fuels are used in
hydrogen production. The introduction of new
methods such as hydrogen production from
water fields containing hydrogen sulfide, which
will reduce the use of fossil fuels for hydrogen
production, is important for making hydrogen
an advantageous position when comparing
hydrogen as an energy carrier with other
energy sources. In addition, obtaining the
electricity and fuel used in the production of
hydrogen from renewable sources is of great
importance in reducing greenhouse gas
emissions that will arise in the life cycle of
hydrogen production. It is also a necessary
process to develop and standardize safety
precautions for reducing the risks of high
flammable hydrogen in parallel with the
development
of
hydrogen
production
techniques in terms of the introduction and
widespread use of hydrogen into our lives. The
use of hydrogen in our daily lives and at homes
will also bring great benefits in terms of
widespread use of hydrogen and reduction of
production costs.
REFERENCES
[1] Simmonds, P. G., Derwent, R. G.,
O'Doherty, S., Ryall, D. B., Steele, L. P.,
Langenfelds, R. L., ... & Hudson, L. E. (2000).
hydrogen at the Mace Head baseline
atmospheric monitoring station over the 1994
1998 period. Journal of Geophysical Research:
Atmospheres, 105(D10), 12105-12121.
[2] Derwent, R., Simmonds, P., O'Doherty, S.,
Manning, A., Collins, W., & Stevenson, D.
(2006). Global environmental impacts of the
hydrogen economy. International Journal of
Nuclear
Hydrogen
Production
Applications, 1(1), 57-67.
and
[3]
Spath, P. L., & Mann, M. K. (2000). Life
cycle assessment of hydrogen production via
natural gas steam reforming (No. NREL/TP570-27637). National Renewable Energy Lab.,
Golden, CO (US).
[4] Colella, W. G., Jacobson, M. Z., & Golden,
D. M. (2005). Switching to a US hydrogen fuel
cell vehicle fleet: The resultant change in
emissions, energy use, and greenhouse
gases. Journal of Power Sources, 150, 150-181.
[5] Koroneos, C., Dompros, A., & Roumbas,
G. (2008). Hydrogen production via biomass
gasification A
life
cycle
assessment
approach. Chemical
Engineering
and
Processing: Process Intensification, 47(8),
1261-1268.
[6] Seker, S., & Aydin, N. (2020). Hydrogen
production facility location selection for Black
Sea using entropy based TOPSIS under IVPF
environment. International
Journal
of
Hydrogen Energy.
[7] Hellmer, L., Keunecke, G., Lell, R., AlMuddarris, G. R., Pachaly, R., Stauffer, A., &
Vangala, V. R. (1981). U.S. Patent No.
4,302,434. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office.
[8] Zeng, K., & Zhang, D. (2010). Recent
progress in alkaline water electrolysis for
hydrogen production and applications.
Progress in
energy and combustion
science, 36(3), 307-326.
[9] Liu, S. K. (1999). U.S. Patent No.
5,958,365. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office.
[10] Jacobson, M. Z., Colella, W. G., &
Golden, D. M. (2005). Cleaning the air and
improving health with hydrogen fuel-cell
vehicles. Science, 308(5730), 1901-1905.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
[11] Granovskii, M., Dincer, I., & Rosen, M.
A. (2006). Economic and environmental
comparison of conventional, hybrid, electric
and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Journal of
Power Sources, 159(2), 1186-1193.
[12] Züttel, A. (2003). Materials for hydrogen
storage. Materials today, 6(9), 24-33.
[13] Shapiro, Z. M., & Moffette, T. R.
(1957). Hydrogen flammability data and
application
to
PWR
loss-of-coolant
accident (Vol. 545). Office of Technical
Services, Department of Commerce.
[14] Boc
(2011). Renewable and hydrogen energy
integrated house. International Journal of
Hydrogen Energy, 36(13), 7963-7968.
[15] "Hydrogen Production: Natural Gas
Reforming".
Department
of
Energy.
Retrieved 7 August 2020.
[16] Liu, K., Song, C., & Subramani, V.
(2010). Hydrogen and syngas production and
purification technologies. John Wiley & Sons
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
SINGLE PARTICLE COMBUSTION ANALYSIS OF OLIVE RESIDUE AND
TUNÇBILEK LIGNITE
Kaan Gürel1 and Feyza Kazanç2
1. Graduate Student, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Middle East Technical University,
Ankara; email: kgurel@metu.edu.tr
2. Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Middle East Technical University,
Ankara; email: fkazanc@metu.edu.tr
Abstract
The present paper studies single particle combustion of olive residue and Tunçbilek lignite in a vertical wire
mesh reactor (WMR). Particles are heated to 1000 ºC with radiation with a heating rate of 900ºC/s. The
combustion process is recorded with a high-speed camera. The combustion behaviour of the fuels was
different. Tunçbilek volatiles were delivered as jet and released soot, where the olive residue flame was
uniform around the particle and round. During biomass char combustion, partial melting due to the surface
tension is observed; however, Tunçbilek lignite preserved its inordinate shape. The impact of the particle
size and mass was higher for the Tunçbilek lignite with an increase in burnout times in particle mass above 6
mg; on the other hand, olive residue kept up with the tendency.
Keywords: olive residue, tunçbilek lignite, high speed camera, combustion time, wire mesh reactor
1
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the idea of converting coal fired
power plants to biomass fired or co
fired
power plants come into focus. Since coals are
non - renewable fuels, soon the world will need
another resource to supply the required energy
demand.
Turkey has a wide variety of biomass sources,
including olive residue, almond shell, hazelnut
shell.
Therefore,
over
recent
decades
governmental projects are more prone to be
focused on biomass technology. Based on the
data provided by Turkish Chamber of
Agriculture Engineers [1], from 2012 to 2016,
the average annual production rate of olive in
Turkey was 1.36 million metric tons, standing as
the fourth biggest olive producer in the world.
Therefore, in Turkey, olive residue can be used
as a biomass source to obtain a clean energy.
Olive residue has a high heating value of
approximately 18,600 kJ/kg found by the
experiments.
In recent years, wire mesh reactor became a
widely used approach in combustion and
pyrolysis experiments. Motivation of using it in
the present work, is easiness of obtaining high
heating rates, which simulates a real-life power
plant
environment.
Rapidly
increasing
temperatures plays a key role as it happens
during the stages of particle combustion.
Therefore, combustion conditions significantly
influence burnout times of the particle fuels.
Single particle devices have been used in
previous studies [2] to study coal combustion
and identify the differences between coals
mainly depending on their rank. Lignite [3] and
anthracite [4] coals have been observed and
reported to burn as a one step process with the
heterogeneous combustion of the particles, while
bituminous coal shows a volatile flame prior to
char combustion [5].
Present study aims to report combustion
behaviour and burnout times of olive residue and
Tunçbilek lignite.
2
MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
2.1 Biomass Sample Preparation
In this study, olive residue is obtained from
as a biomass source and Tunçbilek lignite was
characterized as a lignite in single particle
combustion experiments. Fuels were crushed
into small particles with garlic press to get the
size range of 1 3 mm. Ultimate and proximate
analyses were carried out at METU Central
Laboratory based on standard procedure and are
shown in Table I.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
lens, 5- and a probe made by K type
Table 1. ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS OF
thermocouple to hold the particle and withstand
OLIVE RESIDUE AND TUNÇBILEK
the high temperature without absorbing too
LIGNITE
much heat. The sketch of the wire mesh reactor
Proximate Analysis (as
OR
TL
(WMR) with the high-speed camera is shown in
received, wt.%)
Figure 1.
Moisture
5.9
2.81
Volatile Matter
Fixed Carbon
Ash
71.9
17.4
4.8
31.1
52.1
13.0
Ultimate Analysis (dry basis,
wt.%)
C
H
N
S
O
46.6
6.4
0.58
0
46.4
61.8
5.6
2.65
1.45
28.5
2.2 Experimental Approach
Wire mesh reactor (WMR) shown schematically
in Figure 1, was used as a radiative heat source.
During experiments, stainless steel (SS316) wire
mesh was used. The wire mesh has an aperture
size of 40 µm. A probe has been placed between
the vertical wire mesh to fix the fuel in between,
preventing fuel from falling. The meshes were
heated to 1000 ºC with a heating rate of 900 ºC/s
ºC/s.
Electrodes transmit high current from a DC
power source to the mesh. The reactor is
connected to the computer with a circuit board,
and the software LabVIEW is used to open and
close the switch for the electric current.
The single combustion experiments for both
olive residue and Tunçbilek lignite were
conducted in the wire mesh reactor (WMR) and
recorded with Phantom Camera MiroC110. The
combustion process is recorded with 100 frames
per second (fps). After the combustion process
ends, the video is recorded to the computer,
converted into the images, and processed in
MATLAB software. The software then measures
the particle luminosity and distinguishes the
combustion phases.
3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 High Speed Video Analysis Results
Figure 1. Schematic overview of wire mesh
reactor (WMR) with control system
Single particle combustion experiments were
carried out for each olive residue and Tunçbilek
lignite by using wire mesh reactor (WMR).
Heating rate was 900 ºC/s for the experiments. It
was observed that there was a sequential burning
for the particles of both olive residue and
Tunçbilek lignite. The frames of combustion
process of the olive residue and Tunçbilek are
presented in Figure 2. Two steps of the
combustion were observed in the process,
volatile combustion and char combustion. This
phenomenon was also observed and agreed on
with the previous completed works by using
different single particle devices [5]. The olive
residue ignited clearly on the gas phase, created
uniform and big volatile flame for the 16% of
the total combustion time.
Parts of the reactor are; 1- two wire meshes
vertically to equally heat the particle by
radiation, 2- electrodes which were made of
brass to conduct current to the mesh, 3- a high
speed camera to record the process, 4- a chamber
that was made of glass to create a barrier
between the fuel and the high speed camera to
prevent any hot particle to stick to the camera
As the olive residue, the lignite also showed a
homogeneous ignition. As seen from Fig. 3,
during the ignition delay period, it is observed
that the lignite had swelling (b.1 b.2), leading
the particle to have increased volume than the
initial stage. As stated by Riaza et al [5],
swelling is created by the high-pressure volatile
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 2. a) Olive residue burning phases b) Tunçbilek lignite burning
gas inside the coal particle released during the
ignition delay phase, and only can be observed
in some high volatile bituminous coals. Thus, it
can be stated that Tunçbilek lignite shows the
behaviour of a bituminous coal, even it is a
lignite.
After ignition, the olive residue flame was
smooth around the whole particle surface, as it
can be seen from Figure 2 (a.3
a.4). The
volatile flame in olive residue flew out easily
relatively while the volatile flame in Tunçbilek
lignite released as jets since the olive residue is a
porous particle and volatiles can be released
easily [6] while the lower porosity of the lignite
particle does not allow the volatiles to flow out
[7]. When the volatile pressure inside the lignite
increases due to increasing temperature, the
volatiles break the wall and come out as jets.
In Figure 2, the olive residue char was more
rounded than its initial stage which was long and
fibrous shape (a.6
a.7). This is due to the
particle melted during the char combustion since
the temperatures reached in char combustion
stage were higher than during the volatile release
[8]. Due to surface tension and being melted due
to high temperatures, the char particle was
softened and deformed. Also, during the ignition
delay phase, the particle colour became darker as
the particle released its moisture.
3.2 Burnout Times
All the particles were weighed to establish
empirical correlations between the burnout time
and particle size and mass. The burnout time for
each particle was measured with MATLAB with
an image processing code. The total burnout
combustion times can be a way to compare
among samples as the heat transfer and
combustion may be different for olive residue
and Tunçbilek lignite. Tendency lines on total
burnout times and particle mass were obtained
and plotted in Figure 3.
The number of experiments were 20 for olive
residue and 20 for Tunçbilek lignite. For every
mass interval (1-3 mg, 3-5 mg and 5-9 mg),
minimum of 4 experiments were carried out.
Figure 3. Total burnout time of the particles
of different weight.
As noticed in Figure 3, the burnout time of the
Tunçbilek lignite was higher than the olive
residue if same mass of fuels is considered. This
difference is not surprising since the fixed
carbon in Tunçbilek lignite is three times more
than the fixed carbon amount in olive residue.
Also, the molecule size of the volatiles in
Tunçbilek lignite is higher than the olive residue,
results in longer ignition times.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Due to heterogeneity of the biomass fuels, the
of single particles from three different coal ranks
size of the olive residue particles for the same
and from sugar cane bagasse in O2/N2
mass can vary. Hence, it is hard to predict an
[4]
Riaza, J., Khatami, R., Levendis, Y.A.,
accurate burnout time for the olive residue. For
Álvarez, L., Gil, M.V., Pevida, C. (2014) Single
the lignite, the burnout time increase per mass
particle ignition and combustion of anthracite,
was significantly increased. This increment
semi-anthracite and bituminous coals in air and
reflects the importance of the particle size of the
simulated oxy-fuel conditions. Combustion and
fuels and milling process in power plants to have
Flame; 161:1096 108
an efficient burnout in the furnace [5].
[5]
Riaza, J., Gibbins, J., Chalmers, H.
(2017).
Ignition and combustion of single
4 CONCLUSION
particles of coal and biomass. Fuel, 202, 650655. doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2017.04.011
A wire mesh reactor with high speed camera is
[6]
Gil MV, Riaza J, Álvarez L, Pevida C,
used to understand the combustion behaviour of
Rubiera F. (2015) Biomass devolatilization at
olive residue and Tunçbilek lignite. Both the
high temperature under N2 and CO2: Char
fuels have shown a sequential step combustion.
morphology and reactivity. Energy; 91:655 62.
However, the difference of chemical and
[7]
Gil MV, Riaza J, Álvarez L, Pevida C,
physical properties between the fuels have led to
Pis JJ, Rubiera F. (2012) Oxy-fuel combustion
different combustion characteristics. Ignition
kinetics and morphology of coal chars obtained
and combustion of olive residue volatiles was
in N2 and CO2 atmospheres in an entrained flow
smooth and had progressively growing flame.
reactor. Appl Energy; 91:67 74
However, the flame during the volatile
[8]
Riaza, J., Khatami, R., Levendis, Y.A.,
combustion of the Tunçbilek lignite was jet and
Álvarez, L., Gil, M.V., Pevida, C. (2014)
released soot. Olive residue char is rounded
Combustion of single biomass particles in air
during its combustion stage, where Tunçbilek
and in oxy-fuel conditions. Biomass Bioenergy;
lignite preserved its nonuniform shape. Due to
64:162 74.
difference in their reactivities and chemical
components, Tunçbilek lignite showed a higher
burnout time than the olive residue when same
mass of fuels are considered.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present work was supported by Royal
Society Advanced Newton Fellowship, Ref. No.
NA140020 (UK). The authors appreciate the
support from Clean Combustion Technologies
Laboratory colleague Duarte Magalhaes. The
authors appreciate the Central Laboratory of the
Middle East Technical University for the support
during the experimental trials.
REFERENCES
[1]
Chamber of Agriculture Engineers
(2014) Production, export, problems and
suggestions of production of olive and olive oil
in Turkey
[2]
Marek, E., Stan´ czyk K. Case studies
investigating single coal particle ignition and
combustion. J Sustain Mining 2013; 12:17 31
[3]
Khatami, R., Stivers, C., Joshi, K.,
Levendis, Y., Sarofim, A. Combustion behavior
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
E. Eker Kahveci1 and I.Taymaz2
1. Engineering Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Sakarya University, Sakarya, TURKEY;
email: eeker@sakarya.edu.tr
2. Engineering Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Sakarya University, Sakarya, TURKEY;
email: taymaz@sakarya.edu.tr
Abstract
Although many studies have been done on finding operating conditions of hydrogen-fed fuel cells before, it
still remains one of the most important points in determining its parameters in the process. So this paper aims
to investigate experimentally the reactant gases flow rate and cell voltage which have significant impact on
current density of a 3-cell PEM fuel cell stack having 150 cm2 active layer. In this case to determine the
optimum values it was used response surface methodology at low 1.5 V, medium 1.8 V and high 2.1 V. Then
they were compared with each other. In this context, while keeping the hydrogen flow rate low and obtaining
high current density is one of the main targets, at low voltage values it was concluded that the flow rate should
be increased due to the reaction rate increasing with temperature. In general while the effect of humidification
and cell temperature on performance was examined more prominently at 1.8V, the highest current density
values that were 313.66 mA/cm2, 336.75 mA/cm2 and 323.48 mA/cm2 respectively was reached at 1 L/min.,1.3
L/min. and 1.6 L/min. anode and cathode flow rates and 1.5 V voltage value which is the lowest one given in
the experimental study.
Keywords: Hydrogen, PEM Fuel Cell Stack, Response Surface Methodology
1 INTRODUCTION
In the last ten years, design of experiments (DOE)
method has been applied in the field of
engineering science and technology due to the
least number of experiments. Design of
experiments (DOE) method was used by Peng et
al. [1] to obtain channel dimensions which are
channel depth, channel width, rib width and
transition radius of PEM fuel cell bipolar plate.
According to their results the optimum
dimensions are 0.5 mm channel depth, 1.0 mm
channel width, 1.6 mm rib width and 0.5 mm
transition radius which are 79% reaction
efficiency.
Xuan et al. [2] developed a dynamic model which
are GDL model, membrane hydration model,
mass flow model and stack voltage model of PEM
fuel cell by using Response Surface Methodology
to get the maximum power density. They tried to
understand how can be reached the maximum
power by changing the stack current, cathode
humidity, hydrogen and oxygen excess ratio.
From the results they suggested that optimum
parameters can be select more effectively and
cheaply by using RSM.
Carton and Olabi [3] used Design of Experiments
to optimize PEM fuel cell output values. They
performed a serpentine bipolar plate and at 15
ml/min hydrogen flow rate, 150 ml/min air flow
rate gave the maximum output values which are
0.97 V and 2.9 A. And also their results showed
that pressure is not affect too much on
performance unlike hydrogen and oxygen flow
rates.
Boyaci San et al. [4] investigated different design
and operating parameters which are contact
angle, surface roughness and hydrogen flow rate
respectively that effect on performance of a PEM
fuel cell directly by RSM. They found the
optimum results of 81.2° contact angle, 1.87
dm3/min hydrogen flow rate after optimization of
determined values using DOE.
Okur et al. [5] optimized hot-pressing parameters
of membrane electrode assembly using response
surface methodology which generates a nonlinear quadratic equations. At the end of their
experiments optimum operating parameters 97°C
temperature, 66 kg/cm2 hot-pressing pressure and
3.6 min hot-pressing time have been determined
respectively.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
McCarthy et al. [6] used Desing of Experiments
concentration, 18.83 kV voltage and 22.15
based on Central Composite Design (CCD) to
distance from needle tip to screen collector.
Roudbari et al. [13] aimed to determine optimum
humidifier compared with two different
MEA hot-pressing process by optimizing these
membranes of PEMFC. Their results showed that
parameters using RSM. After the optimization it
the performance of humidifier strongly depends
was found the most effective results are
on temperature.
temperature of 92.7°C, pressure of 35 kgf/cm2
Flick et al. [7] demonstrated a split-plot model of
and pressure time of 5 min. with the maximum
DOE to understand how voltage and pressure
performance of 22.9 mW/cm2.
drop effect PEM fuel cell power density at
Cha et al. [14] discussed the performance
different current densities. It was shown that the
characteristics of a single PEMFC having 25 cm2
most effective parameters are GDL material and
active layer changing operating temperature, air
temperature on voltage.
stoichiometry, backpressure and voltage. While
Kanani et al. [8] developed a central composite
determining the optimum conditions they used
model to obtain optimum power of PEM fuel cell
central composite design model of RSM.
by investigating the effect of anode and cathode
Qiu et al. [15] conducted at their study a 1000 W
stoichiometry, inlet gas temperature and cathode
PEM fuel cell stack having 20-cell to understand
relative humidity. According to their results the
forming the metallic bipolar plate for the best
best cell power reached at anode stoichiometry of
design parameter by using RSM. For this case it
1.9747, cathode stoichiometry of 1.8030, cathode
was seen that the most significant role is the
relative humidity of 73.77% and gases inlet
radius of modules and clearance between the
temperature of 25°C.
punch and die.
Yuan et al. [9] established a quadratic model of
Rajan et al. [16] used a moment-based uncertainty
RSM to examine the effects of methanol flow
evaluation technique to find the optimum
rate, methanol concentration and cell temperature
operating parameters of PEM fuel cell for
of an air-breathing micro DMFC. By optimizing
maximum power taking into account low
their experimental results they found the power
hydrogen flow rate. As a result of their
density of 50.6 mW/cm2 with 20° cell
experimental study the optimum power was
2
temperature, 105.4 mW/cm with 60° cell
obtained as 1545.25 W not to exceed 3x10 -5 kg/s
temperature respectively.
hydrogen flow rate. Also they could say from the
Oladoye et al. [10] used Box-Behnken design
study it is very useful for design engineers to use
model of RSM to investigate the corrosion
RSM as it allows fewer experiments to determine
current density of PEM fuel cell bipolar plate
optimum conditions.
taking into account the influences time, activator
Giner-Sanz et al. [17] considered three factors of
content and temperature. From their results it was
PEM fuel cell which are the operation
presented that corrosion current density
temperature, the humidity of the hydrogen and air
decreased with temperature and increased with
by using factorial design of DOE. Finally their
influences time without using activator content.
study showed that it was seen hydrogen humidity
Rahim et al. [11] focused on the effect of four
and operating temperature have much more effect
different operating conditions which are current
on power density than other parameters.
density, temperature, anode and cathode
Karanfil [18] prepared a literature research paper
stoichiometry on PEM fuel cell by characterizing
to analyze the use of DOE and other optimization
four commercially MEA. They used in their
techniques determining PEM fuel cell operation
experiments a two-level design of DOE for
and design parameters and their relationship with
screening responses and factors. At the end of the
each other.
study it was reported that DOE can be used for
Mansouri et al. [19] investigated operational
MEA characterization without too much
factors of PEM fuel cell by minimizing the
experimental effort.
number of experiments thanks to DOE. They
Awang et al. [12] determined the optimum
realized that optimum power was 1320 mW, the
conditions producing SPEEK polymer membrane
of PEM fuel cell thanks to DOE at their study.
These optimum conditions are 0.17 wt %
55°C, pressure of 1.85 bar, oxygen flow rate of
0.47 L/min.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Hasheminasab et al. [20] used central composite
Y is response variable (power density),
terms
design of DOE to investigate the effect of inlet
are the main factors,
terms are the linear
gas
temperature,
anode
and
cathode
coefficients, term is the constant coefficient,
stoichiometry of a single PEM fuel cell having 25
terms are the quadratic coefficients for the
cm2 active layer. Some of the remarkable results
variable i and
terms are the linear model
of the study are that the increase in inlet
coefficients for the interaction between the
temperature and anode stoichiometry caused a
variables i and j, e is the residual of ith
decrease in accumulated water of the flow
experiment.
channels, maximum power of 10.56 W was
It was used the optimization tab of Design Expert
reached at 1.2 anode and 2.5 cathode
11.0 (trial version) software to determine the
stoichiometry, 3.2 non dimensionalized inlet
maximum current density under given conditions.
temperature.
While the criteria for the operating environment
In the previous study [21], the polymer composite
was determining, the current density was selected
bipolar plate was coated with materials with
as the maximum degree of importance due to the
different contact angles, and as a result of the
goal is to achieve the maximum current density.
tests, the highest performance hydrophobic PTFE
In the experimental design program, after
coating was achieved. So in this paper, keeping
entering the operating conditions in Table 2, one
the anode flow rate minimum, the effect of
of the predetermined variables, the experiment
cathode flow rate and temperature values from
program was created to be carried out
operating parameters on current density in a 3sequentially. The current density values obtained
cell PEM fuel cell stack with hydrophobic surface
in these 25 experiments given in Table 3 were
at different input voltage values was
written in the response part of the program and
investigated..
how they affect each other in terms of
performance was examined. The general
2 EXPERIMENTAL
properties of fuel cell stack used in the
The response surface method (RSM) used in the
experiments are shown in Table 1 and Figure 1.
study is the summation of the mathematical and
statistical techniques used for modeling and
analysis in applications where the desired
response is affected by various variables and the
aim is to optimize this response [22]. This method
is widely used in process and experiment designs,
especially in engineering science, since it
provides the most appropriate answer with the
least number of experiments. It uses experimental
designs such as "Central Composite Design,"
which fits the least squares method of RSM,
which is an effective method for optimizing the
process. If the proposed model tested with
analysis of variance (ANOVA) is suitable, it can
be used to examine the response values in the
studied independent variable ranges and to make
optimization studies. CCD, which has equal
predictability in all directions from the center, is
the most common experimental design used in
RSM and was also used in this study.
The total number of experiments with four
variables is 25. In addition to analyzing the
effects of these variables, a quadratic model Eq.
(1) was chosen in terms of independent variables
Figure 1. 3-cell PEMFC stack used in experiments
for this experimental methodology.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
In these diagrams, examinations were made at 3
Table 1. General properties of 3-cell PEM
different cell voltage values and as a result, the
fuel cell stack
most appropriate oxygen flow rate, cell and
Cell number
3
humidification temperature values for minimum
Number of flow channels 34
2
hydrogen flow rate and maximum current density
Active area
3x50 cm
Channel width
1 mm
are shown. The change of operating conditions
Geometry of bipolar
100mmx100mmx4mm
used in the experiments according to the current
plate
density obtained at different voltage values is
Temperature
Variable
given in Figure 2. As can be seen in this figure,
Pressure
1 bar
the highest current density values were obtained
Flow rate
H2=variable; O2=variable
at 1.5 V.
Total weight
2350 g
Total power
Flow channel
Bipolar plate material
Current collector plate
material
End plate material
Cooling method
50 W
Single serpentine
Polymer composite
graphite
Copper
Table 3. ANOVA results from Desing of
Experiments
Aluminium 7000
Air
Table 2. Operating parameters of coded
factor levels used RSM
Factors
A
B
C
D
Operating
parameters
Cell temperature
(°C)
Humidification
temperature (°C)
Anode flow rate
(L/min.)
Cathode flow rate
(L/min.)
-1
50
Levels
0
55
+1
60
45
52.5
60
1
1.3
1.6
1
1.3
1.6
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In this study, the operating conditions have been
changed by using the experimental design method
in order to keep the hydrogen flow rate at a
minimum and obtain the maximum current
density. How these changed conditions affect
each other is shown in 3-dimensional diagrams.
Run
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Factors
A
B
-1 -1
-1 -1
+1 -1
-1 +1
+1 +1
-1 +1
-1 +1
0 +1
+1
0
-1 -1
0
0
0
0
-1 +1
0 -1
+1 +1
+1 -1
0
0
0
0
0
0
+1 +1
+1 -1
-1
0
+1 +1
-1 -1
+1 -1
C
-1
+1
+1
-1
+1
+1
-1
0
0
-1
0
0
+1
0
-1
-1
+1
-1
0
-1
-1
0
+1
+1
+1
D
+1
+1
+1
-1
-1
-1
+1
0
0
-1
-1
0
+1
0
+1
-1
0
0
+1
-1
+1
0
+1
-1
-1
Figure 2. Experiments versus response (current density)
Response (mA/cm2)
1.5 V
1.8 V
2.1 V
306.00 178.78
72.32
315.66 187.71
81.89
281.14 186.18
49.93
302.60 201.84
89.48
308.00 184.91
57.89
311.20 142.51
99.67
318.86 160.93 101.92
309.70 154.05
97.18
316.66 150.51
80.57
307.80 198.91
87.24
314.33 223.04
78.42
336.75 218.00
77.06
324.53 233.77
97.85
319.20 227.84
58.98
328.60 208.04
76.65
287.58 222.04
29.38
323.40 224.37
80.00
313.66 230.53
75.61
354.29 222.97
86.28
296.66 212.11
49.49
273.86 228.31
63.51
366.06 204.37
63.44
291.80 221.31
65.26
305.73 169.38
70.17
273.09 201.11
35.14
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 3. Effect of cathode flow rate and humidification temperature on current density at 1 L/min. anode flow
rate, different voltage and cell temperature values
Figure 3 shows the change of the current density
according to humidification temperature and
oxygen flow rate by keeping hydrogen flow rate
constant at a minimum of 1 L/min. at different
voltage and cell temperature values. In Figure
3(a), (b), (c), it is observed that the current density
decreases with the increase of the cell
temperature at 1.5 Voltage values. In almost all
different cell temperature values, the change of
the cathode flow rate does not affect the current
density much, while the humidification
temperature increases up to about 52 °C. After 52
°C, decreases occurred. In Figure 3(d), (e), (f),
current density graphs of 1.8 V are given. In these
graphs, it is seen that the maximum current
density is achieved as the cell temperature
approaches the humidification temperature.
However, when the cell temperature increases up
to 55°C, the current density increases, and after
this value decreases again.
In Figures 3(g), (h), (i), the current density change
of 2.1 V is given. As can be seen from this graph,
there has been a noticeable decrease in the current
density. These decreases can be observed more
clearly as the cell temperature increases. As the
humidification temperature increases at the cell
temperature value, the current density continues
to increase.
In Figure 3, the increase in the voltage value
decreased the current density in all temperature
and flow rate values. While the cathode flow rate
does not have a significant effect on the current
density in general, it becomes more important at
high voltage values.
In Figure 4, again, the cathode flow rate at
different voltage values was taken at 3 different
values and the effect of the cell and
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
humidification temperature on the current density
Figure 4(a), (b), (c) the change in current density
was examined. In the previous Figure 3, it was
is almost negligible. The peak of the
stated that the cathode flow rate did not cause a
humidification temperature increases up to
noticeable change in the current density, but there
52.5°C and then decreases. In Figure 4(d), (e), (f),
were significant decreases due to the increase in
the maximum current density values that can be
the cell temperature at 2.1 V. In this graph, it was
reached at 1.8 V, which is the voltage value in all
observed that the cathode flow rate did not cause
3 graphs, were obtained at 55°C cell and 52.5°C
a significant change on the current density, but on
humidification temperature.
the humidification and cell temperature, it
When the voltage value is increased to 2.1 V, it is
increased to certain values and then decreased
seen that humidification and cell temperature
again.
have opposite interactions on each other. In other
words, in Figure 4(g), (h), (i), the highest current
density value was reached at low humidification
and high cell temperature.
Figure 4. Effect of cell and humidification temperature on current density at 1 L/min. anode flow rate, different
voltage value and cathode flow rate
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 5. Effect of cathode flow rate and cell temperature on current density at 1 L/min. anode flow rate, different
voltage value and humidification temperature
Finally, in Figure 5, the effect of cathode flow rate
and cell temperature on current density at
different voltage and humidification temperature
values was examined. When looking at the Figure
5 in general, there were serious fluctuations of 1.8
V, while the increase in the voltage value caused
a decrease in the current density. While the
highest current density value of 1.5 V was
reached at a humidification temperature of
52.5°C, the increase in humidification
temperature even above the cell temperature at
2.1 V value had positive results. Figure 5 (a), (b),
(c) shows that only the humidification
temperature has a significant effect.
In Figure 5 (d), (e), (f), the temperature values at
which the highest current density values are
reached, are shown in fluctuations. In other
words, at this voltage value, humidification and
cell temperature gain serious importance on
current density. In Figure 5 (g), (h), (i) the highest
current density values were reached at 2.1 V in all
three graphs with the increase in humidification
temperature and decrease in cell temperature, as
shown in Figure 4 above. In line with the results
of the graphs examined above, the maximum
current density by keeping the hydrogen flow rate
at minimum is given as the optimum values in
Table 4.
Table 4. Optimum results from experiments (DOE)
Cell
potential (V)
1.5
Cell
temperature (°C)
55
Humidification
temperature(°C)
52.5
Anode (H2) flow
rate (L/min.)
1
Cathode (O2) flow
rate (L/min.)
1.3
Current
Density(mA/cm2)
313.66
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
4 CONCLUSIONS
This paper aims to determine optimum values that
provide maximum current density for various
voltage values in the ideal range of operation
conditions. In this context, measurements were
made at 1.5 V, 1.8 V and 2.1 V voltages
determined before starting the experiments,
keeping the hydrogen flow at a minimum value of
1 L/min, and the current density obtained as a
result of these measurements was written in the
experimental design program as a response, and
the interaction between operating conditions was
examined. As a result of the graphics of the
experimental design program, it was seen that the
voltage value had a great effect on the current
density. Even the voltage value increased from
1.5 V to 2.1 V, the current density decreased
almost halfway. Accordingly, the current density
that increases with the increase of the
humidification temperature at 2.1 V has a positive
effect, although the effect of humidification
temperature and cell temperature at 1.5 V and 1.8
V values has a similar effect by increasing the
current density to a certain value and then
decreasing it.
As a result of all this work, the highest current
density of 313.66 mA/cm2 was obtained at 52.5°C
humidification, 55°C cell temperature, 1.3 L/min.
cathode flow rate and 1.5 V by keeping the
hydrogen flow rate constant at 1 L/min.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Technological Research Council of Turkey
(TUBITAK). Project Number: 216M045.
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS OF A
COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINE POWERED BY 1-HEPTANOL/DIESEL
FUEL BLENDS
Murat Kadir YESILYURT 1 and Abdulvahap CAKMAK 2
1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering-Architecture, Yozgat Bozok
University, 66200, Yozgat, Turkey; email: kadir.yesilyurt@bozok.edu.tr, ORCID ID: 0000-00030870-7564
2. Department of Motor Vehicles and Transportation Technologies, Kavak Vocational School, Samsun
University, 55850, Samsun, Turkey; email: abdulvahap.cakmak@samsun.edu.tr, ORCID ID: 00000003-1434-6697
Abstract
The drastic increase of environmental pollution apprehensions along with the consumption of natural
resources leads to investigate alternative and sustainable fuels for internal combustion engines. The
researches carried out so far has been intensively focused upon the applications of short-chain alcohols
(lower alcohols) and the reports on the long-chain alcohols (higher alcohols), especially having more than 5
carbon atoms, are limited in the recent literature. Furthermore, higher alcohols have better properties than
short-chain alcohols, like higher energy content, higher cetane number, superior blending capabilities, etc.
Heptanol is long-chain alcohol with seven carbon atoms in its chemical bond, and it may help to decline the
problems of environmental and energy security. On this basis, the goal of this present experimental work is
to examine the influences of the higher alcohol application to the conventional diesel fuel (D100) on the
combustion behaviours of a single-cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled, naturally-aspirated, direct-injection
diesel engine at various loads (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) with a constant speed of 1500 rpm and the
experimental outcomes were compared with neat D100. Three different alternating fuel blends were
prepared by the splash blending technique as a function of 1-heptanol concentration from 5% to 15% on a
volume basis and coded as D95H5, D90H10, and D85H15. It has been obtained that the infusion of alcohol
with diesel reduced the heating value on account of its native oxygen content. The results revealed that
combustion behaviors are monitored as a similar pattern for all of the test fuels. The maximum in-cylinder
pressures of the alcohol-treated fuel blends except for D85H15 are higher than that of D100 at 100% load by
means of the excess amount of oxygen molecules in the alcohol. Besides, the highest heat release rate values
are noted to be at 34.46 J/deg for D100, 39.46 J/deg for D95H5, 41.13 J/deg for D90H10, and 32.36 J/deg
for D85H15. When the ignition delay duration of the tested fuels was evaluated, alcohol-infused fuel blends
have longer periods than D100 attributable to the low cetane number of alcohol. Based on the experimental
findings, it can be indicated that 1-heptanol might be taken into consideration as a partial replacement for
conventional diesel fuel.
Keywords: Binary blend, Combustion, Diesel engine, Higher alcohol, 1-heptanol
1 INTRODUCTION
Diesel engines are the most influential
reciprocating engines and have high torque
output and better fuel economy compared to the
same size other reciprocating engines. So they
are widely employed in vehicles, construction
and agricultural equipment and also heat and
electricity generation facilities. However, diesel
engines suffer from higher PM and NOX
emissions that create many health problems
along with ground ozone layer, acid rain, and
smog [1]. To mitigate or overcome these
shortcomings, and also due to limited petroleum
resources
and
environmental
pollution,
researchers have prompted to explore for clean
and alternative fuels for diesel engines. As a
result of searching for alternative fuels in the last
two decades, biodiesel, alcohol, dimethyl ether
(DME), and natural gas has developed as a clean
and renewable fuel substitute for diesel fuel and
have been used to reduce dependence on fossilbased fuels and environmental pollutions [2]. In
this regard, alcohols are promising alternative
fuel for reducing the PM, NOX emission, and
greenhouses gases emitted from diesel engines
tailpipe [3]. Therefore, recently the use of
alcohol has been driven by legislative regulation
to reduce emissions and increase biofuel use.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Alcohols are oxygenated liquid fuels that contain
shortened the duration of the combustion. The
oxygen as a part of their chemical structure and
addition of n-butanol to biodiesel performed
can be produced by renewable sources.
simultaneous reductions of NOX and soot
However, alcohols have some significant
emissions. Butanol provided fewer ultrafine
drawbacks such as immiscibility and stability
particles number concentration, and the
problems with diesel fuel, low combustion heat,
geometric mean diameter of the ultrafine
low cetane number, the high heat of
part
s oxygen
vaporization, and poor lubricating performance
content and its lower viscosity. Babu and Anand
[4]. On the other hand, higher alcohols like
[9] investigated the combustion, performance,
propanol, butanol, pentanol, and heptanol are
and emission features of a single-cylinder diesel
considered as a suitable alternative fuel since
engine fuelled with n-pentanol-biodiesel-diesel
they provide better fuel properties compared to
and n-hexanol-biodiesel-diesel blends. It was
short-chain alcohols like ethanol and methanol
determined that by the addition of 5-10% n[5]. Due to this, the usage of higher alcohols as
hexanol and n-pentanol into the diesel-biodiesel
an alternative fuel with diesel/biodiesel has
mixture, the fuel properties were improved.
received considerable attention and has been
Engine performance and combustion parameters
investigated by many researchers.
were enhanced, and exhaust emissions were
decreased by using the higher alcohols. Overall,
Ibrahim [6] experimentally investigated the
n-hexanol and n-pentanol were ascertained to be
combustion, performance, and NO emission of
promising alternative fuels for diesel engines.
diesel biodiesel butanol mixtures in a directAppavu et al. [10] performed an experimental
injection compression-ignition engine at a speed
study to research quaternary blends of
of 1500 rpm and different loads. It was
diesel/biodiesel/vegetable oil/pentanol on diesel
determined that the application of 20% butanol
engine performance, combustion, and emission
into the diesel-biodiesel mixture (B50)
characteristics. According to the results, specific
diminished the thermal efficiency by 4.2% while
fuel consumption, as well as specific energy
ascended consumption of fuel by 9.3% contrary
consumption, were reduced interestingly with
to diesel fuel. Butanol showed no significant
increasing pentanol concentration from 10% to
effect on combustion features. Still, it led to a
40%. Quaternary fuel blends reduced the HC,
slight increase in NO emissions. Overall results
CO, and smoke while NOx emissions raised
indicated that butanol has fabulous potential to
dramatically, especially for higher pentanol
be used in diesel engines. Algayyim et al. [7]
percentages. Combustion analysis showed that a
scrutinized the effect of the acetone-butanol
40% pentanol blending ratio resulted in the
mixture, which is the industrial butanol
maximum cylinder pressure and the minimum
fermentation product on spray characteristics,
cumulative heat release rate. It was also stated
engine performance, combustion, and emissions.
that pentanol with 40% vol. of mixing ratio
The results revealed that the butanol-acetone
could be a suitable fuel for quaternary blends for
mixture could improve the spray characteristics
enhancing engine performance while reducing
of biodiesel by raising both the spray penetration
emissions. Santhosh et al. [11] carried out an
length and the contact surface area, hence
experimental study to analyse performance and
improving air-fuel mixture homogeneity. The
emissions characteristic of a diesel engine run on
peak cylinder pressure and engine power for
1-pentanol-diesel mixtures with the application
butanol-acetone mixtures were found slightly
of EGR. It was observed that 1-pentanol blends
higher than that of biodiesel. Adding the
and EGR affected negatively BTE and BSFC,
butanol-acetone blends to biodiesel reduced
but they reduced the NO X emission. Besides, due
NOX and CO emissions but increased HC
to the lesser cetane number of 1-pentanol, an
emissions. Geng et al. [8] studied on combustion
increment in ignition delay was detected. It was
characteristics and PM emissions of a diesel
inferred that 1-pentanol has the potential to
engine running on n-butanol and waste cooking
enhance the fuel properties compared to lower
oil biodiesel blends. Results showed that the
alcohols, and it can be served as a blending fuel
oxygen content of butanol accelerated the
with diesel to alleviate the toxic emissions and to
combustion speed and promoted a higher heat
diminish the dependency on fossil-based diesel
release rate. However, due to the low cetane
fuel. Nour et al. [12] researched the combustion,
number of butanol ignition delay increased but
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
performance, and emission behaviours of a
combustion and emission characteristics of a
diesel engine fueled with butanol, octanol, or
CRDI engine and RCEM running on the nheptanol/diesel blends. They utilized 10% and
heptanol/diesel fuel mixtures and carbon
20% v/v blending ratios to avoid any
nanomaterial additives. As a result, the
modifications to the fuel system. According to
researchers suggested 20% n-heptanol/80%
their results, all blends demonstrated stable and
diesel fuel (by volume) blend according to the
homogenous specifications for four months
results. Saravanan et al. [17] evaluated the usage
without any phase separation. Experiments
of ternary blends involving algae biodiesel,
indicated that the BTE was increased when
diesel fuel, and heptanol in terms of
higher alcohol/diesel blends were tested.
performance, harmful emission levels, and
However, higher alcohols increased the ignition
combustion properties of a single-cylinder,
delay, and the most prolonged ignition delay was
constant speed diesel engine. The researchers
noted for butanol-diesel combinations. Further,
showed that considerable reductions were
they led to a decline in soot and NOX emissions
observed in the NO X, CO, HC, and CO2
though they ascended the HC and CO emissions.
emissions, together with the drastic increase in
Devarajan et al. [13] experimentally tested the
smoke intensity. Based on the experimental
neat biodiesel and heptanol blends in a diesel
results, 20% biodiesel/10% heptanol/70% diesel
engine. The authors monitored that a reduction
fuel alternating blend exhibited preferable
in all the emissions and an increase in
outcomes in the tested engine without any prior
performance characteristics when deploying
modification. EL-Seesy et al. [18] studied the
heptanol. Ashok et al. [14] noted an
impact of graphene oxide nanoparticles on
improvement in diesel engine performance when
diesel/higher alcohols (such as n-butanol, nn-octanol was blended by 10% to 50% on a
heptanol, and n-octanol) mixtures on the
volume basis with biodiesel. It was observed that
performance of the diesel engine. As a result, the
the increase of n-octanol ratio in blend caused an
utilization of various higher alcohols with diesel
enhancement in ignition delay duration, cylinder
fuel and adding nanoparticles had the potency to
pressure, and HC emission. However, a lower nreduce the HC, CO, and smoke emissions while
octanol ratio appeared effective in reducing NOX
catching high thermal efficiency.
emissions. CO and smoke emission were
As viewed in the literature review, many studies
dropped by using a higher fraction of n-octanol
have been carried out on the utilization of
in blends. EL-Seesy et al. [15] examined the
butanol, octanol, pentanol as a fuel substitute for
effect of n-heptanol-methyl oleate biodiesel
diesel/biodiesel in diesel engines. However,
mixtures on the combustion characteristics and
there have been little efforts towards the
harmful emissions of a rapid compressionsubstitution of diesel fuel with heptanol as
expansion machine (RCEM). n-heptanol was
higher alcohols; hence the current study intends
blended with methyl oleate biodiesel at various
in order to evaluate the combustion
blends, which are 10%, 20%, and 40% by vol. It
characteristic of a diesel engine fuelled by
was determined that the blending of n-heptanol
heptanol-diesel fuel blends at different loading
with methyl oleate fuel provided a significant
conditions.
decrease in the soot emission by nearly 75%,
and the NOx emission was dropped by 6% as
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
opposed to reference methyl oleate fuel.
An experimental setup consisting of a Kirloskar
Furthermore, it was observed that rising the
brand TV1 model compression-ignition-engine
blending proportion of n-heptanol in the fuel
and an eddy current dynamometer (Baturalp
mixture caused to retardation of the combustion
Taylan brand) in order to load the engine was
process. Furthermore, it was observed that
used in the present experiments. The used diesel
increasing the blending ratio of n-heptanol in the
engine has single-cylinder, four-stroke, watermixture caused to retardation of the combustion
cooled, naturally-aspirated, and direct-injection
process. It was recommended that the blending
specifications. Moreover, it runs at a fixed speed
ratio of n-heptanol with methyl oleate biodiesel
(1500 rpm). The trials were carried out under
should be 20% by volume, which yielded the
different loading conditions, ranging from 25%
best combustion and emission characteristics.
to full load in a step of 25%. The technical
Similarly, EL-Seesy et al. [16] investigated the
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
properties of the tested engine were tabulated in
Firstly, the apparatus used in the measurements
Table 1.
have been calibrated before beginning the engine
experiments. Then, the pre-tests have been
Table 1. The technical properties of the tested
carried out on account of monitoring the
engine
working conditions for the tested diesel engine.
Description
Specification
Subsequently, the stabilization time of the
Apex Innovations Pvt.
engine has been determined. Accordingly, the
Manufacturer
Ltd
test engine has been brought the stabilized
Brand- Model
Kirloskar-TV1
conditions for each test fuel specimens. The
Ignition
Compression-ignition
essential experiments were commenced after
Injection
Direct-injection
overall deficiencies dissipated throughout the
o
Injection timing
23 bTDC
pre-trials had been overcome. During the main
Nozzle opening
engine tests, the relative humidity and the
210 bar
pressure
temperature of the ambient were measured to be
Cylinder number
1
approximately 60% and 20-23oC, respectively.
Stroke number
4
Consequently, the combustion characteristics of
Bore
87.5 mm
the used compression-ignition engine operating
Stroke
110 mm
with test fuel specimens have been achieved at
Displacement
661.45 cm3
the engine loads of 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%
Compression ratio
17.5:1
with a fixed speed of 1500 rpm.
Power output
3.5 kW
ICEngineSoft software package program was
Speed
1500 rpm
used to examine the combustion behaviors for
Connecting rod length
185 mm
the tested engine. ICEngineSoft performance
Cooling system
Water-cooled
and combustion properties analysis software can
Intake system
Naturally-aspirated
monitor and record the signals that came from
Injector nozzle
the several kinds of sensors connected to the test
4
number
setup. This program can calculate the
Fuel type
Multi-fuel
combustion data in real-time by utilizing the
Fuel tank capacity
15 L
aforementioned signals. A pressure sensor, PCB
In the experiments, the engine was loaded with a
Piezotronics brand S111A22 model was used to
mounted dynamometer, and the loading level
measure the pressure that occurred inside the
was adjusted with a control panel. The schematic
cylinder during the experiments. This pressure
layout of the experimental test rig was presented
sensor has a measuring range of 5000 psi and a
in Figure 1.
precision of 1.0 mV/psi along with a low noise
cable.
To obtain the crank angle (CA), an encoder
(Kubler brand 8.KIS40.1361.0360 model) with a
TDC signal was mounted to the system. The
sensitivity of the encoder was validated by the
supplier as 1 deg. The pressure outcomes were
found out considering an average of 50
consecutive cycles obtained from the pressure
measurement sensor.
Figure 1. The schematic layout of the engine test
setup
The achieved crank angle along with the
pressure data were recorded so as to determine
the rate of the apparent heat release (HRR), rate
of the cumulative heat release (CHRR), rate of
the pressure rise (PRR), ignition delay (ID), and
ringing intensity (RIN) parameters thanks to a
data acquisition device (National Instrument
brand NI USB-6210 model) for entire the test
fuels.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
In the experiments, diesel fuel and its different
applying splash blending techniques. For
binary blends with 1-heptanol, including seven
providing the accurate blending ratio, the
carbon atoms in its chemical structure, were
percentages of the fragments were ensured with
tested. For this purpose, the euro diesel fuel was
the aid of a calibrated beaker with an accuracy of
purchased from a petroleum station located in
±0.5 mL. The binary fuel mixtures have been
Yozgat, and 1-heptanol having the purity of 98%
abbreviated as DxHy in general in which the x
was procured from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical
and y were intended to the proportions of the
Company (St. Louis, Missouri, USA).
diesel and 1-heptanol by volume, respectively
meanwhile D and H were inferred to the order of
As a reference fuel, the mineral diesel fuel
diesel and 1-heptanol. Some of the important
named as D100 was used for the purpose of
physical and chemical specifications for the test
obtaining the base data. The diesel fuel and
fuel specimens were given in Table 2.
higher alcohol of 1-heptanol were mixed by
Table 2. The basic properties of the test fuels
Property
Unit
D100
D95H5 D90H10 D85H15 1-heptanol 1
Chemical formula
C14H25
C7H16O
Molecular mass
kg/kmol
193
116
Lower heating value
kJ/kg
44750
44245
43740
43235
34650
o
Self-ignition temperature
C
254-300
275
o
Density at 15 C
kg/m3
830.0
829.4
828.8
828.2
818.0
Cetane number
55
53
52
50
23
Latent heat of vaporization
kJ/kg
270-375 2
574.95
o
Flash point
C
59
76
Carbon
wt. %
87.05
86.30
85.56
84.82
72.16
Hydrogen
wt. %
12.95
12.99
13.03
13.06
13.71
Oxygen
wt. %
0
0.71
1.41
2.12
14.13
Carbon/Hydrogen
6.722
6.644
6.566
6.495
5.263
Kinematic viscosity at 40oC
cSt
2.526
2.561
2.596
2.632
3.320
1
2
Data adopted from Refs. [12, 15-18].
Data adopted from Ref. [19].
By the agency of the raw pressure values
revealed in the cylinder during the operating of
the tested engine in each working cycle up to
720o CA in each 1o CA steps at all engine load
conditions, some of the considerable parameters
like apparent HRR, CHRR, ID periods, etc. were
computed for each fuel samples at all engine
loading conditions. In this context, first of all,
the apparent HRR parameter was calculated for
analyzing the combustion process. The HRR
values at different crank angle degrees were
determined by implementing the 1st law of
thermodynamics and regarding the ideal gas law.
For calculating HRR, Equation (1) was used as
given underneath [20, 21]. The ratio of specific
heat ( ) is taken into consideration as 1.35.
(1)
The rate of the cumulative heat release (CHRR)
may be found the integral of HRR over limited
intervals of CA. Equation (2) was used for
calculating the CHRR as given below [22].
(2)
Here, Qnet (J) and Qcum (J) define the amount of
energy transition through the cylinder wall and
combustion chamber wall subsequent to the
combustion reaction and cumulative heat
o
release, respectively. P (Pa),
), and V (m3)
represent the pressure in the cylinder, crank
angle, and cylinder volume, respectively.
The pressure rise rate (PRR) can be determined
by taking into account the first derivative of the
in-cylinder pressure according to the CA [23].
The PRR results for the test engine operating
with diesel fuel and its blends with the 1heptanol were calculated by using the Equation
(3).
(3)
The start of combustion (SoC) is being able to
be determined from the HRR graph, where this
point passes on the zero x-axes [22]. The start of
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
injection (SoI) could be monitored such as CA,
physicochemical characteristics together with
where the injector turns on. In addition, ID
the intermolecular structures. In this context, gas
duration can be calculated using the SoC and SoI
pressure occurred in the cylinder, maximum inparameters since the ID duration is the
cylinder pressure, apparent HRR, maximum
difference between SoC and SoI.
apparent HRR, CHRR, PRR, ID duration, and
RIN parameters were comprehensively studied
The ringing intensity (RIN), called also as the
and discussed considering the findings of the
ringing index, was introduced by Eng [24]. The
latest literature.
RIN has been computed applying the Equation
(4) so as to assess the inclination of the engine
knock [25, 26]. The RIN has been used in the
working of the direct-injection compressionignition engine by Wei et al. [27] even though it
has been largely acknowledged as the
fundamental parameter for homogeneous charge
compression-ignition engine knocking behavior.
Next, a numerical derivative technique has been
implemented in each of the filtered pressure
signals for computing the maximum rate of
pressure increase [28]. One of the most
remarkable advantages of the RIN equation is
that it may be used with ease in order to quantify
knock in the simulation of the engine because
most models cannot receive high-frequency
oscillations [29]. Besides that, RIN possesses a
good correlation with the noise that occurred
during the combustion reaction while
understandably evaluating the engine durability
characteristic [30, 31].
(4)
Here,
max indicates the maximum PRR,
Pmax refers the highest pressure occurred inside
the cylinder, Tmax is the peak gas temperature in
the cylinder, R represents
defines a correlation constant,
has been preferred in the calculations even
though it is a constant value detected from the
engine geometry [28, 31].
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
In the following sub-sections, the combustion
behaviours for an unamended compressionignition engine powered by D100, D95H5,
D90H10, and D85H15 blends have investigated
under four different engine loadings, varying
from 25% to 100% in steps of 25%, in order to
observe the mechanisms and processes of the
reactions happening in the combustion chamber
of the engine where the used test fuels were
burnt out to effectuate heat energy that is
depended
upon
the
exclusively
the
3.1 In-cylinder gas pressure
The variation of the cylinder pressure in relation
to the CAs in each test fuel samples under
dissimilar engine loadings, ranging from 25% to
full load at the intervals of 25% was separately
illustrated in Figure 2 for better understanding.
In addition to Figure 2, the maximum cylinder
gas pressure values and their CAs for all test
fuels were detected and given in Table 3. The
increase in the load caused to augmentation of
the in-cylinder gas pressures slightly. At full
loading working condition, the highest incylinder gas pressure figures for D100, D95H5,
D90H10, and D85H15 were observed to be as
50.88 bar at 365oCA, 54.95 bar at 366oCA,
55.50 bar at 366oCA, and 48.30 bar at 367oCA,
respectively. It is evident from the graphs and
Table 3 that the highest in-cylinder pressure
outcomes for all test fuels were perceived to be
between 6oCA and 11oCA near the TDC. As
seen from Figure 2, the maximum in-cylinder
pressure figures of D90H10 entire the loading
conditions were to be noted as the highest
amongst the tested fuel samples. Namely, the
infusion of higher alcohol to D100 reference fuel
led to increasing the pressure inside the cylinder
up to 10% by volume. This is because of the
excessive amount of oxygen content of higher
alcohol. As shown in Table 2, 1-heptanol has
14.13% oxygen content in its chemical bonds.
The oxygen molecules cause improvement in the
combustion reaction inside the combustion
chamber and hence increase the cylinder
pressure values slightly. However, a 15%
addition of 1-heptanol caused to decrease the
cylinder gas pressure drastically. This case can
be clarified by the lesser heating value and
higher latent heat of vaporization (LHV) of 1heptanol than those of D100 (as given in Table
2), resulting in the above-mentioned reductions.
Additionally, it can be obviously noticed that the
application of 1-heptanol with diesel caused to
advance in the pressure curves to the
right side. Moreover, there was a delay in the
SoC processes in the combustion chamber in
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
view of the lesser cetane number specification of
ignition engine under three different engine
the used higher alcohol and its different binary
loads (20%, 60%, and 80%). In conclusion, the
mixtures with diesel fuel. The results and their
researchers observed that the 10% 1-hexanol
reasons were in good agreement with the
addition to diesel fuel led to becoming higher
outcomes presented by various researchers.
cylinder gas pressures at all loading conditions
Jamrozik et al. [23], for instance, indicated that
in contrast to the other test fuels. This could be
the highest methanol percentage in both
explained
that
the
poor
combustion
biodiesel and diesel fuels had to be 30%
characteristics occurred with the utilization of a
according to the experimental outcomes. The
higher amount of long-chain alcohol in the
researchers reported that further ascending the
blends since 1-hexanol has a high LHV, low
alcohol concentration in the mixture led to
energy content, high kinematic viscosity, and
decrements in the gas pressure. Santhosh and
low cetane number than that of diesel fuel.
Kumar [32] investigated the influence of 1Radheshyam et al. [33] indicated that the higher
hexanol infusion to the conventional diesel fuel
concentration of 1-pentanol in the blend caused
at various percentages, varying from 10% to
to a decrement in the cylinder gas pressure in
40% at the intervals of 10% by volume, on the
consequence of the higher LHV, lower cetane
combustion behaviours of a compressionnumber and calorific value of 1-pentanol.
60
A)
D100
D95H5
D90H10
D85H15
50
40
30
20
10
0
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
Crank angle (deg)
60
60
C)
D100
D95H5
D90H10
D85H15
50
D)
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
D100
D95H5
D90H10
D85H15
50
0
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
Crank angle (deg)
510
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
Crank angle (deg)
Figure 2. In-cylinder gas pressures as a function of CA at various loads of (A) 25%, (B) 50%, (C)
75%, and (D) 100% with a fixed speed of 1500 rpm conditions
3.2 Apparent heat release rate
One of the most considerable combustion
parameters is the rate of heat release (HRR).
HRR defines the phases of the combustion
process in the cylinder like premixed
combustion, rapid combustion, controlled
combustion, and period after burning. In
addition, HRR gives an idea concerning the
emitted complete heat energy based on the CA
of the internal combustion engine [34]. In this
context, the apparent HRR values in each test
fuels were calculated with the help of Equation
(1). It has not been forgotten that overall
experiments in the test engine were performed
under an original injection timing. The change in
the apparent HRR figures for all the test fuels at
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
different engine loading conditions with respect
the flame speed and declining in the heat transfer
to the CAs was plotted in Figure 3. Besides that,
speed. Furthermore, the lesser cetane number of
the highest HRR values for test fuels and their
alcohols enhances the ID duration, leading more
CAs have also been tabulated in Table 3 for
fuel to accumulate in the cylinder. Therefore, it
better evaluation. It is evident from the graph
can be thought that the HRR values increase as a
that the HRR values were jumped with the rise
result of the sudden burning of the fuel
in the load, and hence the peak results were
accumulated in the combustion chamber and the
achieved at the full load operating conditions. At
role of the excess oxygen content in the
100% load, the highest HRR values for D100,
chemical structures of alcohols in increasing the
D95H5, D90H10, and D85H15 were found to be
burning rate [34, 35]. On the other hand, further
as 34.46 J/deg at 354oCA, 39.46 J/deg at
infusion of 1-heptanol into the diesel
o
o
354 CA, 41.13 J/deg at 355 CA, and 32.36 J/deg
deteriorated the atomization characteristics of
at 358oCA, respectively. As seen, the maximum
the fuel and hence decreased the HRR values.
HRR levels were obtained with using D90H10
Radheshyam et al. [33] presented that the HRR
under all engine loads. This is owing to the
figures ascended with the use of 1-pentanol
inherent oxygen molecules found in the higher
higher alcohol in diesel fuel up to 30% of
alcohol along with the in-cylinder gas pressure
alcohol concentration in the blend at higher
characteristics (as shown in Section 3.1). This is
loads owing to an augmentation in the ID
due to the effect of alcohol on the increments to
duration along with the premixed combustion.
50
50
A)
D100
D95H5
D10H10
D85H15
40
B)
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
-10
D100
D95H5
D90H10
D85H15
40
-10
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
300
330
360
Crank angle (deg)
390
420
450
480
510
Crank angle (deg)
50
50
C)
D100
D95H5
D90H10
D85H15
40
D)
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
0
-10
D100
D95H5
D90H10
D85H15
40
-10
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
Crank angle (deg)
510
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
Crank angle (deg)
Figure 3. Apparent HRR values across CA at various loads of (A) 25%, (B) 50%, (C) 75%, and (D)
100% with a fixed speed of 1500 rpm conditions
3.3 Cumulative heat release rate
Figure 4 portrays the variation of CHRR results
for all test fuels between the CA alterations of
300o and 510o in a cycle at dissimilar loads. It is
evident from the graph that it can be monitored
that the CHRR results for D100, D95H5,
D90H10, and D85H15 at full loading conditions
were obtained to be 872.82 J, 975.60 J, 953.42 J,
and 885.32 J, respectively. The diminishing in
the cetane number (as presented in Table 2) of
the fuel mixtures caused to becoming a higher
ratio of combustion at a constant volume where
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
in turn augmented the CHRR [36]. Another
combustion efficiency, which is validated by
reason can be the excessive amount of oxygen
Yanfeng et al. [37].
molecules in the blend, resulting in improved
1000
C)
800
600
D100
D95H5
D90H10
D85H15
400
200
0
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
Crank angle (deg)
Figure 4. CHRR values in relation to CA at various loads of (A) 25%, (B) 50%, (C) 75%, and (D)
100% with a fixed speed of 1500 rpm conditions
3.4 Pressure rise rate
Figure 5 illustrated the rates of pressure rise
(PRR) for the test fuel samples under differing
engine loading conditions. It can be observed
from the graphs that PRR ascended depending
upon the rise of the load. Shrivastava et al. [38]
reported that an increase in the load and
compression ratio as well caused to increase the
PRR outcomes. Also, the PRR is an inevitable
and significant parameter to analyse the
knocking formation in an engine. It refers to an
elevated grade in the oxides of nitrogen
generation in the engine [39, 40].
In the current experimental research, the highest
PRR values at the full load were obtained to be
at 3.85 bar/deg (34.65 bar/ms) for D100, 4.37
bar/deg (39.33 bar/ms) for D95H5, 4.54 bar/deg
(40.86 bar/ms) for D90H10, and 3.49 bar/deg
(31.41 bar/ms) for D85H15. It can be stated that
there is no clear alteration in the maximum PRR
levels with the infusion of 1-heptanol as an
oxygenated fuel additive except for 15%
blending of alcohol with diesel. More alcohol
addition to D100 caused to decrease in the PRR
due to the worse combustion properties of
alcohol in the compression-ignition engines.
3.5 Combustion parameters
Combustion parameters of all test fuel samples
at various loads are presented in Table 3. SoI
was close to each other for all fuel types, but
SoC differed for all fuels. The low cetane
number of the 1-heptanol retarded the SoC, and
thus blended fuels led to longer ID than diesel
fuel.
As appeared in Table 3, the peak values of the
CPmax, PRRmax, and HRRmax belong to D90H10,
D95H5, D100, and D85H15, respectively, at
each engine load. Moreover, the peak points of
CPmax, PRRmax, and HRRmax increased with the
rise of load for all test fuels. The increased fuel
consumption by load is the reason for this
increment.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
5
C)
D100
D95H5
D90H10
D85H15
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
Crank angle (deg)
Figure 5. PRR values with respect to CA at various loads of (A) 25%, (B) 50%, (C) 75%, and (D)
100% with a constant speed of 1500 rpm conditions
At low loading conditions, the ignition delay is
higher for all test fuel samples attributable to
low cylinder temperature and pressure compared
to elevated loads. The amount of fuel injected
into the cylinder enhances with the load that
elevates the cylinder temperature, in turn, shorter
ignition delay. Besides, at all engine loads, the
shortest ignition delay was identified for diesel
fuel thanks to its high cetane number and low
LHV. The shortest ID time for D100 was
observed by 9º CA at 75% and full load, while
the longest ignition delay time was determined
for D85H15 by 15º CA at 25% engine load. Ors
et al. [41] revealed that the treatment of
biodiesel/diesel fuel blends with adding
bioethanol led to diminishing the cetane number,
resulting in a higher ID period. Tse et al. [42]
pointed out that the augmentation of the ethanol
concentration in the blended fuel from 0% to
20% caused to delay the SoC duration and hence
ID period was ascended. In addition, Lapuerta et
al. [43], Anbarasu et al. [44], and Zhu et al. [45]
indicated similar findings.
Variation of mean gas temperature (MGT) with
engine load for test fuels was also listed in Table
3. It is seen that MGT was higher for D95H5
and D90H10 than that of D100 and D85H15 at
all loads. The reasons for this can be attributed
to the presence of oxygen atoms in the 1heptanol structure. The oxygen availability in
the alcohol enhances the rate of the combustion
process and, thus, combustion temperature. On
the other hand, further increasing the 1-heptanol
s heat energy and
decreases the charge temperature in the cylinder
by reason of the higher LHV, in this case, the
combustion temperature gets lower. The
increased amount of fuel-burning regarding a
rise in load increased the MGT, and the
maximum value of MGT was determined at full
load running.
CHRRmax increased with an increase in 1heptanol fraction and engine load. CHRRmax was
enhanced with an increase in 1-heptanol fraction
and engine load. All 1-heptanol-diesel blends
produced higher CHRR max compared to diesel
fuel. This is due to more amount of fuel are
required to generate the same amount of power
by the engine because of the less energy content
of 1-heptanol.
100
75
50
25
348
349
351
347
348
349
350
346
347
347
349
345
346
346
349
335
D90H10 335
D85H15 336
336
337
D95H5
D85H15 338
336
D100
D90H10 336
336
D95H5
D85H15 336
336
D100
D90H10 337
337
D95H5
D100
D95H5
D90H10 336
D85H15 337
347
335
D100
12
10
10
9
11
11
11
9
14
12
11
11
15
14
13
12
48.30
55.50
54.95
50.88
46.79
52.18
51.80
48.99
42.02
49.50
49.56
46.48
39.53
47.18
46.06
42.69
Engine
SoI
SoC ID
CPmax
Test fuels
load (%)
(deg) (deg) (deg) (bar)
367
366
366
365
367
366
366
365
369
366
366
366
370
367
367
367
ACPmax
(deg)
3.49
4.54
4.37
3.85
3.00
3.59
3.59
3.35
1.98
3.06
3.14
2.74
1.48
2.41
2.28
1.90
358
355
354
354
358
356
355
354
360
356
356
355
362
358
357
357
385
381
382
383
385
382
382
381
385
382
381
383
386
382
382
383
1014
1117
1112
1054
983
1062
1061
1005
913
1013
1012
964
885
979
957
918
358
355
354
354
359
356
355
354
361
357
356
355
363
358
358
358
32.36
41.13
39.46
34.46
28.54
32.12
31.54
28.96
21.00
27.46
27.66
24.76
18.42
22.28
19.99
18.76
479
483
485
478
485
493
495
483
490
495
497
485
492
503
506
489
885.32
953.42
975.60
872.82
901.59
973.94
968.72
873.75
870.51
949.66
948.38
859.91
860.99
968.37
945.08
836.35
PRRmax AIPmax AMGTmax MGTmax AHRRmax HRRmax ACHRRmax CHRRmax
(bar/deg) (deg) (deg)
(oC)
(deg)
(J/deg) (deg)
(J)
Table 3. Combustion parameters of all test fuel samples at various engine loads in the present research work
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3.6 Ringing intensity
4 CONCLUSIONS
A ringing process having an intense level leads
In this study, the combustion characteristics of a
to occurring higher combustion noise in the
direct-injection diesel engine fuelled with
engine and hence it results in detriments in some
different ratios of 1-heptanol-diesel blends
of the engine parts. Therefore, it is one of the
(D95H5, D90H10, and D85H15) were
remarkable factors, and hence it can be
meticulously investigated. Engine tests were
addressed the ringing intensity (RIN)
performed at a constant speed of 1500 rpm and
characteristic of the tested engine since it
different engine loads of 25%, 50%, 75%, and
indicates the noise of the combustion in the
100%.
The
determined
combustion
engine. The change in the RIN values for the test
characteristics for all 1-heptanol blended fuel
fuel samples at several engine loading conditions
samples were analysed and compared with those
were plotted in Figure 6. One can be observed
of D100. This analysis revealed that 5% and
from the recent literature that the RIN level has
10% 1-heptanol fraction increased the cylinder
2
to be lesser than 5 MW/m , resulting in a
pressure, while 15% 1-heptanol fraction led to a
convenient combustion noise together with
decrease in maximum cylinder pressure by
knock free working [46].
means of the low calorific rating of 1-heptanol.
The maximum increment in the heat release rate
4
Engine loads
by 19.36% was observed for D90H10 compared
25%
to diesel. Besides, ID duration increased for all
50%
3
75%
1-heptanol-diesel blends by virtue of 1100%
heptanol s low cetane number. Overall, the
addition of 1-heptanol by 10% to diesel fuel
2
resulted in better combustion characteristics
compared to other heptanol fractions. Hence, the
blending heptanol with diesel fuel by 10% could
1
be recommended.
Future studies should
scrutinize the cost analysis and emission gains of
0
1-heptanol use.
D100
D95H5
D90H10
D85H15
Fuel types
Figure 6. RIN results for all tested fuels in
relation to the different loads
As a result, in the present experimental work, the
above-mentioned value has been accepted as a
maximum limit for objectionable combustion
reactions
inside
the
engine
cylinder.
Furthermore, it can be highlighted that the RIN
is related to engine speed, peak PRR, and
maximum cylinder gas pressure [24]. As can be
monitored in Figure 6, the rise in the load caused
to jump the RIN figures for all test fuels. The
current research shows that the maximum RIN
values were found to be at 2.67 MW/m2 for
D100, 3.25 MW/m2 for D95H5, 3.48 MW/m2
for D90H10, and 2.27 MW/m2 for D85H15. Due
to the higher HRR values that occurred at higher
engine loading, the maximum RIN results were
observed when the test engine was operated at
full load conditions [26]. To conclude, all results
were found to be lower than the aforementioned
upper acceptable limit.
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
1
2
1
Vocational School of Mechanical and Material, Mardin Artuklu University, Mardin;
a.ayanoglu1@gmail.com
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun;
gediz.uguz@omu.edu.tr
Abstract
Due to growing population, of transportation requirement have been increased each day.
However, especially, the transportation tire damaged on road and have to change. Each year,
approximately 1 billion tire disposed to roads or stored. Then, so the waste tires (WTs) have to
re-use by a method which can be use as new products or useful chemical. The pyroysis is one
of the best method in conversion methods. The main product of liqufied was waste tire oil
(WTO) which has high heating value and close properties to fuels, but much sulfur amount
which destroy world. Therefore, the WTO were mixed with calcium oxide (CaO) or natural
zeolite (NZ) at different ratio and purified to obtain low sulfur with well characteristic of new
fuel. Unfournately, the produced liquid (10% CaO-WTO) distillation curve was close to DF
however, it required to separate into fraction as 150 oC to 360 oC, called as diesel like fuel
(DLF). In this study, the DLF were analyzed by FT IR, TGA and DSC for defining similarities
of DF.
Keywords: Waste Tire, Pyrolysis, Diesel Fuel, Diesel Like Fuel, Characterization
1. INTRODUCTION
thermal
The continuity of world have been sustained
pyrolysis or catalytic pyrolysis methods
by traditional energy source however
were used for the WTs in order to re-cycled
energy needs increase and standard energy
into useful products [4]. In past decades,
resource decrease by social and political
novel technologies have been developed to
statements. Thus, non-conventional sources
produce more or less products (gas, liquid,
have been required to utilize by minimizing
and solid) of the WTs [5]. Pyrolysis is an
their
tires
impression and interesting method which
production have been increased by vechicle
can be obtained high yield products with
increase. Thus, high amount of WTs have
low sulfur and less nitrogen oxides
discarded to environment which cause
ingredients in order to decompose tire
harmful problem throughout human life and
polymers under high temperature at various
ecosystem [2]. Due to the WTs statistics of
mediums [6]. The liquid has disgusting
world, about 17 million tons were produced
odor, low power of hydrogen (pH), low
in a year [3]. Mechanical, biological,
heating value and high sulfur amount which
harmful effects
[1].
The
incineration,
chemical
and
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
cause air pollution, high corrosion in
combusted in engine or not. For this reason,
engine, with less burning capacity. Due to
a detail analysis were done for DLF and DF
tire oil problems, it was treated with catalyst
characterization in order to define organic
to improve properties of oil for burning [7].
compounds by FT-IR, TGA and DSC
Ayanoglu worked on the WTs conversion
techniques. Based on analytical tests, DLF
by adding various ratio of CaO for obtaining
approved to use as fuel.
high amount of oil with low sulfur. The
2.MATERIAL AND METHODS
WTO were analyzed by chemical and
2.1. RAW MATERIAL
physical tests to compare with standard
The metal and textile parts of the WTs were
fuels [8]. Lopez et. al. [9] investigated
seperated and further washed by water to
natural and synthetic rubber of the WTs
remove other non-purities and dust, then cut
conversion in conical spouted bed reactor
in 1 mm particle size.
between 425-600oC. The liquid was tested
2.2. PYROLYSIS SYSTEM
by
The
gas
chromatography
and
mass
fixed-bed
equipped
gas
with
thermocouple, blender, safety valve, heat
distillation and elemental tests. Islam et. al.
exchanger and can. The main component
[10] worked on new application of pyrolysis
was reactor which have a cylindrical
by using the WTs (4 cm3 particle size) in a
chamber (Ø30x40cm), coated by 5 cm glass
fixed-bed fire-tube under nitrogen gas at
wool for isolating heat release. In addition
475 oC. The oil properties were tested by
to reactor, the blender was used to mix
elemental analysis, FT-IR, 1H-NMR and
samples for homogenoues temperature
GC-MS and distillation tests.
distribution and the thermocouple was used
The test results gave an idea to use oil as
to measure temperature which were inserted
fuel. The main goal of the study is to find
on the reactor which was shown at Figure 1.
(GCxGC)
similarity of DLF and DF whether can be
Figure 1. The pyrolysis system.
reactor,
system was
spectrometry (GC-MS), two-dimensional
chromotography
by
pyrolysis
control
panel,
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
2.3. PYROLYSIS PROCEDURE
2.5.
The WTs were pyrolyzed into gas, oil
ANALYSIS (TGA)
(WTO) and char at first stage of liquefaction
In this study, the thermogravimetric (TG)
in a fixed bed reactor by 5 oC/min under
thermograms of samples were tested by
atmospheric medium. Then at second stage
Shimadzu DTG 60H thermogravimetric
of pyrolysis, the WTO has exposed with
analyzer [11]. A 10 mg was weighed to put
2,4,6,8 and 10 mass ratios of CaO and NZ
into platinum pan and analyzed under 100
under concurrent consistence, individually.
ml/min dry air to determine the oxidative
The curve of distillation test is a good key
stability by temperature rise from 25 oC to
to define fuel quaility and similarities of
700 oC with a heat rate of 10 oC/min for 1 h
chemicals. Thus, the mixture of 10% CaO -
[11,12]. Finally, the chemical reactions
WTO distillation had a good curve, near to
were completed at 700 oC due to mass
the DF. Unfortunately, the mixture was
stability [13]. The TGA curves were also
distillated from lower temperature than the
used to define the onset temperature of
DF. Therefore, the mixture was necessary
samples.
required to separated into fractions due to
2.6.
start temperature point of 150 oC to 360 oC
CALORIMETRY (DSC)
which was light part, called as diesel like
The
fuel (DLF), explained in detail in previous
determine characteristics of fuel at low
study.
temperature. On the other hand, the
2.4.
DIFFERENTIAL
SCANNING
DSC is a significant method to
TRANSFORM
crystallization onset temperature is an
INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY (FT-IR)
critical parameter especially for cold
METHOD
weather countries because of freezing [14].
The
FOURIER
THERMOGRAVIMETRIC
physico-chemical
properties
with
The present work focus on crystallization
performance and emissions of fuel have
onset temperature of DLF and DF by DSC
been influenced by different composition
to find similarity with standard fuels. The
amount of hydrocarbon. The FT-IR spectra
Mettler Toledo DSC 1 700 were run under
were recorded between 4000-650 cm-1
Nitrogen gas with 50 mL/min and 8.0 ± 1.0
range with a resolution of 4 cm-1 for 4 scans
mg of sample weigh in aluminum pan which
at room temperature by a Perkin Elmer
were heated up to 20 °C or cooled to -80 at
Spectrum-Two spectrometer for DLF and
a rate of 10 °C/min.
DF, were observed chemical structure.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figures 6 and 7. indicate the FT-IR
3.1. THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
absorbance spectras while Figures 8 and 9.
PRODUCTS
indicate the FT-IR transmittance spectras of
The physical test results will be declared
samples. The observed peaks were defined
briefly in this section. The physical
alkenes group for each sample. The
properties of the WTs and its products were
functional groups were tabulated at Table 1,
analyzed in previous study of Author [8].
which founded in literature and compared
3.2.
for all samples.
FOURIER
TRANSFORM
INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY (FT-IR)
Figure 2. FT-IR split absorbance (A) spectra of DLF and DF.
Figure 3. FT-IR split tranmittance (%) spectra of DLF and DF.
Table 1. FT-IR functional groups and compounds of DLF and DF [15].
Wavenumber ranges (cm-1)
Wavenumber (cm-1 )
Functional group
Groups
3700-3200
3677
O-H stretching
Hydroxyl
3000-2800
2962,2925
C-H stretching
Alkanes
1675-1575
1608
C=C stretching
Alkenes
1525-1115
1455,1376,1247
C-H bending
Alkanes
1150-1100
1066
C-H in plane bending
Aromatics
1020-845
891
C = C stretching
Alkenes
810-600
768,742,729,693
C H cylic deformations
Aromatics
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3.3.
THERMOGRAVIMETRIC
opinion about initial boiling point with
ANALYSIS (TGA)
thermal stability. The Tonset were become
The TGA and DrTGA curves of samples
higher value at low polyunsaturation for
were indicated oxidative degradation which
maximizing of oxidation stability. As a
were happened at a range of 23.50-570.92
comparative of DLF results were close to
for a single continuous step. The onset
standard petreloum which can be acceptable
degradation temperature (Tonset) inform an
as alternative fuels [16].
Figure 4. Thermogravimetric analyses (TGA) of DLF and DF samples for oxidative stability.
Table 2. TGA analysis of onset and end temperatures with mass loss of DLF and DF.
Tonset (°C)
Tend (°C)
Sample
Weight loss (%)
DLF
28.09
309.15
99.81
DF
29.01
295.80
99.18
Table 3. DrTGA analysis of combustion reaction intervals, peak temperatures, and weight
losses of DLF and DF.
Reaction region (°C) Peak temperature (°C)
Sample
Weight loss (%)
DLF
31.98-272.49
149.99
55.85
DF
29.15-290.14
224.57
65.33
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3.4.
DIFFERENTIAL
SCANNING
16.84 oC, respectively which was shown at
CALORIMETRY (DSC) RESULTS
Table 10. The Cloud Point can be observed
The Cloud Point (CP) has taken attention
by naked eyes easily in case of huge
because of low crystallization temperature
paraffins precipition or in contrast hard to
[17]. The crystallization onset temperatures
observe inversely [18].
of DLF and DF were as -21.31 oC and Table 4. Crystallizations onset temperatures (°C) of DLF and DF.
Sample
Tonset (°C)
DLF
-21.31
DF
-16.84
4. CONCLUSIONS
[3]
K. Wang, Y. Xu, P. Duan, F. Wang,
The WTs was converted to rich organic
and Z. X. Xu,
-chemical
compounds of products by pyrolysis. some
conversion of scrap tire waste to
available characterization parameters as
Waste
FT-IR, TGA and DSC of DLF have anayzed
in details and results were declared as a
Manag., 2019.
[4]
X. Cheng, P. Song, X. Zhao, Z.
comprehensive with diesel fuel (DF).
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of ground tire rubber at low
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A. K. Panda, R. K. Singh, and D. K.
plastics to liquid fuel. A suitable
Renewable Source of Chemical
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[2]
H. N. F. Lira, E. T. Rangel, and P.
Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2010.
[6]
M. Kyari, A. Cunliffe, and P. T.
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and Lubricating Grease Preparation
gases, and char in relation to the
pyrolysis of different brands of
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vol. 9, no. 12, pp. 2459 2470, 2018.
Energy and
Fuels, 2005.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
[7]
review on waste to energy processes
Emissions, PhD Thesis in
Mechanical Engineering, 2016.
[14] G. Lopez, M. Olazar, M. Amutio, R.
Energies. 2012.
[8]
tire formulation on the products of
M. Sienkiewicz, J. Kucinska-Lipka,
continuous pyrolysis in a conical
Energy and
used tyres management in the
Waste
Fuels, 2009.
[15] M. R. Islam, M. Parveen, H.
Manag., vol. 32, no. 10, pp. 1742
HANIU, and M. R. I. Sarker,
1751, 2012.
[9]
tion in Pyrolysis
M. Arabiourrutia, G. Lopez, G.
Technology for Management of
Elordi, M. Olazar, R. Aguado, and J.
Scrap Tire: a Solution of Energyand
Int. J. Environ. Sci.
obtained in the pyrolysis of tyres in
Dev., 2010.
[16] G. Dwivedi and M. P. Sharma,
Chem. Eng. Sci., 2007.
[10] C. Roy, A. Chaala, and H.
thermal stability of Pongamia
Biodiesel by thermogravimetric
used tires end-uses for oil and
carbon black products, J. Anal.
Appl. Pyrolysis, 1999.
[11] A. Mohan, S. Dutta, and V. Madav,
of crude tire pyrolysis oil (CTPO)
obtained from a rotating autoclave
Energy Convers. Manag.,
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Egypt. J. Pet., 2016.
[17]
Variations in the Properties of
Biodiesel on Addition of
[18] M. R. P. Cabral et al.
composition and thermal properties
of methyl and ethyl esters prepared
from Aleurites moluccanus (L.)
[12] P. T. Willia
Ind.
Waste Manag.,
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Produced From Waste Tires on
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Crops Prod., 2016.
[19] P. Claudy, J.-M. Letoffe, and B.
864, 1986.
[20] F. P. De Sousa, C. C. Cardoso, and
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hydrocarbons for green diesel and
jet fuel formulation from palm
Fuel Process.
Technol., vol. 143, pp. 35 42, 2016.
[21] D. A. Taleb, H. A. Hamid, R. R. R.
Deris, M. Zulkifli, N. A. Khalil, and
pyrolysis of waste tire in fixed bed
Mater.
Today Proc., 2020.
[22]
characterization and kinetics of
diesel, methanol route biodiesel,
canola oil and diesel-biodiesel
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[23] L. Gouveia et al.
Microalgae-Based
Biofuels and Bioproducts: From
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
SWIRL COMBUSTION OF KEROSENE AND AMMONIA-ASSISTED
KEROSENE FUELS IN A MODEL GAS TURBINE COMBUSTOR: A
NUMERICAL STUDY
Mustafa lba 1, Osman Kümük2, Serhat Karyeyen1
1. Gazi University, Faculty of Technology, Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Ankara; email:
ilbas@gazi.edu.tr, serhatkaryeyen@gazi.edu.tr
2. Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Gazi University, Ankara; email:
osman.kumuk@iste.edu.tr
Abstract
Since ammonia has a carbon-free substance and a large number of hydrogen atoms per volume unit, most of
the scientists think it could be used as an alternative fuel instead of natural gas or kerosene-based fuels in gas
turbine combustors. In addition, C-free emissions are released after combustion, which enables the
mitigation of greenhouse gases leading to global warming. The main goal of this study is to investigate
turbulent swirl combustion ammonia-assisted kerosene fuels in a model gas turbine combustor. For this
purpose, numerical modelings have been performed by using a commercial computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) code. In a model gas turbine combustor, ammonia-assisted kerosene fuels have been consumed, and
their combustion and emission parameters have been presented in the study submitted. Ammonia was
introduced into the combustor from the different inlets until 70% kerosene-30% ammonia in an interval of
10 % by heat fraction without changing the total heat load. The results showed that there was no
considerable change on the combustion performance of kerosene even the maximum temperature levels and
locations changed somewhat in the combustor as ammonia was added into the combustor. In addition to
temperature distributions of kerosene and ammonia-assisted kerosene fuels, NOX emission levels have been
addressed by post-processing of the CFD code used in this study. According to the predicted NOX levels,
although it was seen that the predicted NOX emissions levels increased significantly in the high temperature
flame zone due to bound-nitrogen in ammonia (fuel-NOX mechanism), the predicted NOx emission levels
were not too high at the exit of the combustion chamber. Therefore, it can be concluded that ammoniaassisted kerosene fuels have considerable potential in terms of combustion performance as a new and
renewable fuel while considerably increasing NOX levels.
Keywords: Ammonia, Kerosene, Gas Turbine Combustion, CFD.
1 INTRODUCTION
Aircraft are most preferred for transportation.
Because they are faster and safe. The most
important part of the aircraft is engines.
Propulsion occurs in the combustion chamber
where it is located inside the engine when
oxidizer and fuel react chemically at a certain
temperature. Most of the aircraft engines
consume kerosene-based fuels such as JP-8 and
etc. depending on where it is used. Gas turbines
are mostly used in aircraft engines. gas turbines
operate according to an open cycle known as the
reaction cycle. The ideal cycle is similar to the
simple ideal Brayton cycle. Ammonia is
preferred for traditional production, ammonia
transportation and storage, have a high hydrogen
density, used as a fuel in the combustion
chamber, etc. Being a carbon-free fuel, may
ensure a substantial reduction in global CO2
emissions.
Ammonia has a hydrogen-energy carrier and
also a carbon-free fuel. It is necessary to know
the basic flame properties of ammonia for design
a fuel burner. In the study of Hayakawa et al. [1]
have been studied experimentally the Markstein
length of premixed flames with ammonia/air at
various pressures up to 0.5 MPa. The results
show that the maximum value of unstretched
laminar combustion rates is less than 7 cm/s
under the conditions under investigation. Also, it
is lower than the hydrocarbon flames. The
burned gas Markstein length increases with the
increase in the equivalence ratio. The combustor
adopted vapor-NH3 fuel and diffusion
combustion to enhance flame stability by Kurata
et al. [2,3]. The NH3-air combustion gas turbine
chamber has operated at a variety of speeds and
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
powers, 18.4 kW to 44.4 kW and 70,000 rpm to
mixed. The contraction of the flame under high
80,000 rpm respectively.
inlet temperature conditions was improving the
combustion
efficiency
and
increased
NO and unburned NH3 emissions depend on the
consumption of species at the flame boundaries.
burner inlet temperature. The increase in the fuel
Research and development is required to identify
rate of NH3 significantly increased the NO
conditions using ammonia/hydrogen blends with
emission due to the fuel-NOX mechanism. It also
low NOx and higher cycle efficiency.
shows that it reduces the conversion rate of NO.
In order to achieve low NOx combustion in
Arakawa et al. [7] experimentally investigated
NH3-combustion
gas
turbines,
it
is
the flame stability and the emission
recommended to burn large amounts of NH3 fuel
characteristics of vortex stabilized ammonia/air
and to produce both rich and weak fuel mixtures
premixed flames. The lean and rich combustion
in the primary combustion zone.
limits were found to be close to the flammability
limits of the ammonia flame. Also, the emission
Somarathne et al. [4] are dedicated to
characteristics were investigated using an FTIR
understanding the combustion and emission
gas analyzer. Under rich conditions, the NO
characteristics of turbulent non-premixed
concentration decreased and the ammonia
NH3/air and CH4/air swirl flames in a rich-lean
concentration increased.
gas turbine have high pressure at various wall
boundary conditions. In this study, the emission
Nozari et al. [8] investigated the combustion
characteristics of both flames were obtained
properties of NH3-H2-air mixtures in high
through numerical simulations using large-eddy
pressure and weak conditions, such as gas
simulations. The results showed that the
turbine burners. Laminar premixed freely
minimum NO emission can be achieved when
propagating flame model is used to calculate the
the primary region global equivalence rate is 1.1
combustion properties. In the second part of the
in NH3/air flames. It was experimentally
study, they developed two reduced mechanisms
validated use simulate NO and OH-PLIF
based on the Konnov mechanism in terms of
images.
pressure, fuel mixture, and equivalence.
However, it shows that it can estimate
In addition, wall heat loss cooling of the
approximately five times less CPU time cost.
combustion wall have been shown to greatly
affect the oxidation of NH3. it has been found to
In the present study submitted, the model gas
cause significant unburned NH3 emissions,
turbine combustor has been selected as the
although lower NO emissions have occurred.
combustor where the non-premixed kerosene
and ammonia-assisted kerosene fuels were
The formation of emissions by combustion of
consumed to study the introduction of ammonia
CH4-NH3-air aims to provide information with
into the combustor on the combustion
up to 30% ammonia in gas turbine burners.
performance and NO X emission level.
Okafor et al. [5] The results show that the premixed CH4-NH3 and NOx emissions from the air
2 THE MODEL COMBUSTOR AND THE
during single-stage combustion are more than
INITIAL PARAMETERS
5000 ppm at equivalence rates. The optimum
zone of the primary combustion zone has been
determined for low NOx emissions ranging from
1.30 to 1.35 depending on the ammonia fraction.
NOx emission increased due to an increase in
NOx production in the primary combustion
zone.
Medina et al. [6] show that ammonia can be used
as an alternative fuel in gas turbines with
combustion operation when hydrogen is added
using a 70% NH3 and 30% H2 mole fraction
Figure 1. The Model Combustor
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ammonia in an interval of 10 % by heat fraction
The combustor has been designed and created
without changing the total heat load.
using a solid modeling program. The annular gas
turbine combustor has 18 pieces equally as
Table 2. Air Flow Rate Percentage [9]
circular. The modeling has been performed for
one piece of all pieces as symmetrical to
Air mass flow rates Symbol
Percentage/%
simplify all modelings. For the combustor
Swirler
12
sw
studied, kerosene inlet, ammonia inlet, swirl air
Dome inlet
8
dm
inlet, dome inlet, primary air inlet, secondary air
Primary air inlet
20
pr
inlet, and dilution air inlet are shown in Figure 1.
Secondary air inlet
50
sc
Ansys Fluent CFD code was used for all
Dilution air inlet
10
dl
computational reactive analyses. In order to
perform further modelings, the axial temperature
profiles obtained from 100 % kerosene
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
combustion have been validated with the
In order to continue to the next modeling step in
reference profiles. For this purpose, the initial
any computational study, the results predicted
design parameters are given in Table 1.
should first be compared and validated with the
reference value obtained from the literature. For
this purpose, the axial temperature profiles of
Table 1. Initial Design Parameters [9]
100 % kerosene for both predicted in the present
Parameter
Value
Units
study and obtained from the literature [9] have
1.595
kg/s
been validated as can be seen in Figure 3.
air
T1
743.352
K
According to Figure 3, it can be said that the
axial temperature profiles predicted are in
Pair
2083450
Pa
satisfactorily good agreement with the results
0.0144
kg/s
fuel
obtained from the literature. Thus it is clearly
understood the further modelings can be
Table
air air flow rate
performed anymore.
percentage in the combustor.
Figure 2. Detailed Air Flow Rate Percentage
in the Combustor [9]
For the gas turbine combustor of 11.17 MW,
kerosene and ammonia-assisted kerosene fuels
have been consumed to investigate the
introduction of NH3 to kerosene. In this way, it
is aimed at the effect of NH3 addition over the
combustion performance of the gas turbine is
revealed. For this purpose, NH3 was introduced
into the combustor until 70% kerosene-30%
Figure 3. Comparison of the axial
temperature profiles predicted and obtained
from [9]
Figure 4 shows the axial temperature
distributions of all cases studied. As seen in
Figure 4, the temperature levels of all cases
increased rapidly in the primary region due to
the flame. Then, the temperature levels of all
cases decreased drastically when the flames
propagated to the secondary zone. However, the
temperature levels were almost the same towards
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
the combustor outlet due to secondary and
inside the combustor whereas the flame location
dilution air inlets that are used to control
moved to further due to its lower burning
temperature levels inside the combustor in gas
velocity. After the secondary zone where the
turbines. It is observed that the flame
secondary and dilution airs were introduced into
temperature of the kerosene did not change
the combustor to suppress high NO X levels in
much more as the ammonia was introduced into
gas turbine combustor, we can say that the
the combustor. However, it can clearly be said
temperature distributions of all cases consumed
that the flames of all cases with the ammonia
are almost the same.
propagated to the combustor outlet. This is
attributed to the lower burning velocity of the
ammonia compared to that of the hydrocarbon
[1]. In other words, the total velocity of the
mixture is higher than that of the burning
velocity. The maximum temperature values of
kerosene and ammonia-assisted kerosene fuels
are of 2475 K, 2687 K, 2613 K, and 2555 K, at
100% kerosene, 90% kerosene-10% ammonia,
80% kerosene-20% ammonia, and 70%
kerosene-30% ammonia, respectively.
Figure 5. The temperature contour of 100%
kerosene fuel as cross-sectional
Figure 4. The axial temperature profiles
predicted for all cases
In order to examine better the effect of ammonia
addition into the combustor on the temperature
distributions, the temperature contours of 100
100% kerosene, 90% kerosene-10% ammonia,
80% kerosene-20% ammonia, and 70%
kerosene-30% ammonia fuels are presented as
cross-sectional
and
radial
distributions
throughout the combustor. Figure 5, Figure 6,
Figure 7, and Figure 8 give the temperature
contours of 100 100% kerosene, 90% kerosene10% ammonia, 80% kerosene-20% ammonia,
and 70% kerosene-30% ammonia fuels as crosssectional, respectively. When the figures are
examined, as mentioned previously, it is seen the
maximum temperature level of kerosene did not
change more with the addition of ammonia
Figure 6. The temperature contour of 90%
kerosene-10% ammonia mixture fuel as
cross-sectional
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 7. The temperature contour of 80%
kerosene-20% ammonia mixture fuel as
cross-sectional
Figure 9. The radial temperature contours of
100% kerosene fuel
Figure 8. The temperature contour of 70%
kerosene-30% ammonia mixture fuel as
cross-sectional
The other way to understand the effect of
ammonia addition inside the combustor during
kerosene combustion is to examine the radial
temperature distributions throughout the
combustor. The radial temperature contours of
all cases studied are obtained at different axial
distances (3 cm, 5.5 cm, 7.5 cm, 10 cm, and 13
cm), and all together are presented in a figure for
each case. Figure 9, Figure 10, Figure 11, and
Figure 12 show the radial temperature contours
of all cases at five different axial positions. As
can be seen from the figures presented, the
temperature levels have been almost the same
when ammonia was introduced into the
combustor. However, it can be understood from
the figures some of the high temperature zones
moved to further. In particular, for the cases of
80% kerosene-20% ammonia, and 70%
kerosene-30% ammonia fuels, new high
temperature zones emerged at the new axial
position (the axial distance of 10 cm) due to the
lower burning velocity of ammonia.
Figure 10. The radial temperature contours
of 90% kerosene-10% ammonia mixture fuel
Figure 11. The radial temperature contours
of 80% kerosene-20% ammonia mixture fuel
The effect of swirlers on temperature
distributions can also be seen from the radial
temperature contours presented in the figures.
Thus we can say that the flame propagated to the
combustor walls efficiently due to the tangential
velocity of the mixture.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 14. The NOX contour of 100%
kerosene fuel as cross-sectional
Figure 12. The radial temperature contours
of 70% kerosene-30% ammonia mixture fuel
The other important combustion parameter to be
examined is NOX emission stemming from
thermal, prompt, and fuel NOX mechanism.
Figure 13 shows the axial NOX profiles of all
cases studied. The NOX level while 100%
kerosene combustion may be negligible when
compared to the fuels with assisted ammonia.
However, NOX levels predicted went up
drastically with the introduction of ammonia due
to fuel NOX mechanism, in particular, in the
primary zone. The NOX levels have been
predicted more than 800 ppm, 1100 ppm, and
1400 ppm for 90% kerosene-10% ammonia,
80% kerosene-20% ammonia, and 70%
kerosene-30% ammonia fuels, respectively.
Same results emerging with ammonia addition
can be seen as contours in Figure 14, Figure 15,
Figure 16, and Figure 17.
Figure 15. The NOX contours of 90%
kerosene-10% ammonia mixture fuel as
cross-sectional
Figure 16. The NOX contours of 80%
kerosene-20% ammonia mixture fuel as
cross-sectional
Figure 13. The axial NOX profiles predicted
for all cases
Figure 17. The NOX contours of 70%
kerosene-30% ammonia mixture fuel as
cross-sectional
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
4 CONCLUSIONS
[5] E.C. Okafor, K.D.K.A. Somarathne, R.
Turbulent swirl combustion of kerosene and
Ratthanan, A. Hayakawa, T. Kudo, O. Kurata,
ammonia-assisted kerosene fuels have been
N. Iki, T. Tsujimura, H. Furutani, H. Kobayashi,
examined in terms of temperature and NOX
Combustion and Flame, Vol. 211, pp.406pollutant distributions in the model gas turbine
416,2020.
combustor. Ansys Fluent commercial CFD code
[6] A.V. Medina, M. Gutesa, H. Xiao, D. Pugh,
has been used to model all cases studied, and
A. Giles, B. Goktepe, R. Marsh, P. Bowen,
then, the axial and radial temperature and NOX
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Vol.
profiles and contours have been presented and
44, pp. 8615-8626, 2019.
discussed in details in this study. The first
[7] A. Hayakawa, Y. Arakawa, R. Mimoto, K.D.
conclusion is that the maximum temperature
A. Somarathne, T. Kudo, H. Kobayashi,
level of kerosene did not change much more
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,
with the introduction of ammonia inside the
Vol.42, pp. 14010-14018, 2017.
combustor. Another conclusion emerged inside
[8] H. Nozari, A. K
Fuel, Vol.159,
the combustor in terms of temperature
Fuel, pp. 223-233,2015.
distributions is that the flame of kerosene moved
[9] C.P.Mark, A.Selwyn, Propulsion and Power
to further with adding ammonia due to its lower
Research, Vol. 5(2), pp. 97-107, 2016.
burning velocity compared to that of kerosene.
With ammonia addition inside the combustor, it
is demonstrated that although NOX levels
increased considerably in the flame zone due to
bound-nitrogen in ammonia contributing fuelNOX, the predicted NOx levels are not too high
at the exit of the combustion chamber.
Therefore, ammonia appears to be a new and
assistive fuel for gas turbine combustor because
of high energy content arising from hydrogen
inside even if NOX levels are much more while
being consumed
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge Gazi
University for the use of Ansys Fluent academic
computer code.
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Arakawa, T. Kudo, H. Kobayashi, Fuel, Vol.
159, pp.98-106,2015.
[2] O. Kurata, N. Iki, T. Matsunuma, T. Inoue,
T. Tsujimura, H. Furutani, H. Kobayashi, A.
Hayakawa, Proceedings of the Combustion
Institute, Vol.36, pp.3351-3359,2017.
[3] O. Kurata, N. Iki, T. Inoue,, T.Matsunuma,
T. Tsujimura, H. Furutani, M. Kawano, K. Arai,
E.C.Okafor, A. Hayakawa, H. Kobayashi,
Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, Vol.37,
pp.4587-4595,2019.
[4]
K.D.K.A.Somarathne,
E.C.
Okafor,
A.Hayakawa, T. Kudo, O. Kurata, N.Iki,
H.Kobayashi,
Combustion
and
Flame,
Vol.210,pp.247-261,2019.
Proceedings of INCOS2020,
2020, Kayseri-Turkey
COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS OF OXY-AMMONIA COMBUSTION IN A
NON-PREMIXED BURNER
1.
2.
3.
4.
M ILBAS1, O KEKUL2, A BEKTAS3
S KARYEYEN4
Faculty of Technology, Gazi University, Ankara; email: ilbas@gazi.edu.tr
Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Gazi University, Ankara;
kekulozan@gmail.com
Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Ankara; email: kadirbektas35@gmail.com
Faculty of Technology, Gazi University, Ankara; email: serhatkaryeyen@gazi.edu.tr
email:
Abstract
The increasing demand for energy and awareness for climate change compels people to find out alternative
energy resources. Since ammonia has a carbon-free substance and a large number of hydrogen atoms per
volume unit, it is thought it can be used as an alternative fuel. The purpose of this paper is to examine the
combustion behaviours of oxy-ammonia flame and to compare its combustion performance with the
performance of the air-ammonia flame. For this purpose, a computational fluid dynamics commercial code
has been used to investigate temperature and emission levels of oxy-ammonia and air-ammonia combustion.
In this way, the temperature and emission levels of ammonia combustion have been predicted under air and
oxy conditions. The results demonstrate that the temperature levels predicted have been higher under oxyammonia combustion conditions compared to those of air-ammonia combustion. In addition to the
temperature levels predicted, some emission levels, such as NOX, have been predicted by post-processing.
The NOX results predicted show that usage of oxygen instead of air as an oxidizer affects the NOX levels
considerably.
Keywords: Ammonia, Oxy-Fuel Combustion, CFD, NOX
1 INTRODUCTION
Combustion is the most important method for
converting crucial energy source into heat,
power and etc. all around the world, both for
industrial applications and human activities.
From past to present, studies have been
expanded to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
through enhanced performance of the
combustion apparatus. But, lower emissions
values can be achieved by using fuels that do
not contain carbon atoms in power production
systems [1]. It can be here said that hydrogen is
more efficient than traditional fossil fuels, and
using hydrogen in combustion occupational
fields that require heat energy can be cleaner
and more convenient. Because, there is no any
component
that
is
responsible
for
environmental pollution in hydrogen, and
increases greenhouse effects during energy
production. In the light of these circumstances,
it seems hydrogen usage is favorable.
Hydrogen is a more expensive fuel than
traditional fossil fuels comparatively, in terms
of both storage and production. Thus, decrease
in cost of hydrogen energy via technological
progress and alternative storage methods would
play an essential role in the long-term. Today, a
large amount of hydrogen is produced through
hydrocarbons, whereas a small fraction of
hydrogen is produced via electrolyze.
Hydrogen content of ammonia is 17.8% by
mass, and the production of ammonia can be
taken place via nitrogen, which can be
decomposed from the air. Moreover, utilizing
hydrogen, which is obtained from renewable
energy sources, is the best way for the
generation of ammonia. Besides, the thermal
properties of ammonia and propane are almost
identical concerning condensation pressure and
boiling temperature. This resemblance with
propane and storing capability of hydrogen of
ammonia makes it an attractive alternative fuel
and energy carrier [1]. Apart from these, the
direct usability of ammonia for combustors
without having any hydrogen decomposition
procedure is another advantage as well.
The first production of ammonia has been
carried out by F. Haber and C. Bosh about 100
years ago. This production process is known as
the Haber-Bosh process, and a catalyst is used
Proceedings of INCOS2020,
Fuel
Condensing
LHV (MJ/kg)
Flammability limit
2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Table 1. Combustion Properties [1]
Ammonia Hydrogen
-33
-253
9.9
18
120
0.60 1.40
0.10 7.0
F
Burning velocity (m/s)
Auto
1800
0.07
650
2110
2.90
520
Methane Propane
-161
-42
9.5
50
46.4
0.50-0.7 0.51 2.5
1950
0.40
630
2000
0.43
450
under high pressure and high-temperature
conditions to combine nitrogen and hydrogen.
ammonia mixture is more limited, and the
necessary temperature for ignition is higher.
The first serial manufacturing of ammonia has
been done by the 1900s. It is used in
agricultural fields as fertilizer, and it has been
considerable substance supporting to nutrient
requirements of the population, which is
growing up globally [2].
This result indicates that the flammability of
ammonia is low. Moreover, although the
combustion of air-ammonia mixture does not
give rise to CO2 emissions, fuel NOx
generation is high [1].
Production, storage, transportation, and use of
ammonia during more than 100 years enable us
replacing of ammonia to the traditional fossil
fuels and using it safely with minimum
investment costs [1]. Consequently, thermal
and basic combustion characteristics of
ammonia and some hydrocarbons are given in
Table 1.
As shown in Table 1, to condense hydrogen, an
entirely low temperature is necessary as -253
implemented for a sufficient level of storing
hydrogen at room temperature. In light of this
information, the storage of hydrogen in high
density requires substantial energy and
expensive equipment. Ammonia, which
condenses at room temperature under 9.90 atm
pressure or in atmospheric pressure at ,
exhibits similar storing properties to propane,
and these features of ammonia show us that it
has the high potential both as an energy and as
a hydrogen carrier.
Apart from these advantages mentioned above,
using ammonia as a fuel has some difficulties
in comparison to conventional fuels. As
demonstrated in Table 1, the flame temperature
of ammonia and the burning velocity of an airammonia flame are lower than those of other
fuels. Also, the flammability range of the air-
In order to use ammonia in combustion
systems, these drawbacks must be overcome,
and there are some studies in literature such as
mixing ammonia with traditional hydrocarbons
at reasonable ratios, modifications on
combustors, and oxygen using instead of air as
oxidizers. Han et al. performed the study to
better understand combustion features of
ammonia as a function of equivalence ratio and
molar concentration of ingredients, burning
velocities of air-ammonia, air-ammoniahydrogen, air-ammonia - carbon monoxide and
air-ammonia-methane flames experimentally
[3]. Okafor et al. burnt ammonia in a swirling
micro gas turbine combustor chamber and
asserted some combustion methods and
combustion chamber design for obtaining
sufficient burning parameters and lower NOx
levels. In this experimental and numerical
study, they focused on the effects of fuel inlet
angle, the inlet temperature of a combustor,
equivalence ratio, and ambient pressure on
combustion and emissions distribution of
ammonia flame [4]. Kurata et al. designed a
combustor for power production in a micro gas
turbine and used NH3 as fuel for this
experimental study. They performed airammonia,
and
air-ammonia-methane
combustion performance tests and investigated
the combustion parameters and thermal
productivities, product gases analyses, and NO
emission levels [5].
Proceedings of INCOS2020,
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the
combustion behaviours of oxy-ammonia flame
and to compare its combustion performance
with the performance of the air-ammonia flame
using an air-oxy burner. For this purpose, a
computational fluid dynamics commercial code
has been used. In this way, temperature and
emission levels of ammonia combustion have
been predicted under air and oxy conditions. In
addition to the temperature levels predicted,
some emission levels, such as NOX, have been
predicted. Furthermore, with the scope of the
study, differences between temperature and
NOX levels of ammonia and methane
combustion are discussed.
2 CFD MODELLING
Computational fluid dynamics modelling was
performed through an existing gas burner for
both ammonia and methane combustion in
order to model the combustion of the gases in
oxy-fuel and air-fuel circumstances in the
study. The 3D model and drawing of the burner
are shown in the figures below.
Figure 1. 3D Model of the Burner [6]
Figure 2. Drawing of the Burner [6]
2020, Kayseri-Turkey
The burner, which is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2
has two different oxygen-air outlets at the
oxidizer outlet. The first ones of them are
located to the edge of the body of the burner
and resemble half-moon shape, and the
swirling angle for these outlets is 15
oxidizer outlets are straight holes. The fuel line
is located to the center of the burner and
consists of holes which are radial to the
combustion field.
Ansys Fluent code has been used for numerical
simulation of the flow, which took place in the
burner and combustion chamber. Fluent uses
the finite volume method to solve simple
equations. [7].
When the flame temperature is higher than
1000 K, a radiation model must be used to
obtain better prediction results for consistency
between the results predicted and measured.
Therefore, the P-1 radiation model was used
for modelling ammonia and methane
combustion. Moreover, modelling of turbulent
flow was carried out by selecting a standard kturbulent model. In order to predict all NOx
formation caused by the combustion of
ammonia and methane gases, a Fluent postprocessor was used.
Inlet temperatures of the oxidizers and fuels
were of 300 K, and it was supposed that
combustion occurring in all cases were under
atmospheric conditions. Moreover, the room
temperature was presumed as 300 K, and the
heat transfer coefficient was selected as 20
W/m2 K. All combustion cases were planned
for 10 kW thermal power and 0.83 equivalence
ratio. Consequently, the 3D model of the
combustor and mesh pattern, which were used
in this study are illustrated in Fig. 3. Mesh
structure was thickened, especially at the
location of the burner and swirling area. Since
combustion reactions begin in this area,
increasing the frequency of mesh structure is
very important. This mesh structure has 613947
tetrahedron cells and 112719 node points. The
highest skewness value is 0.833, the average
skewness value is 0,232, and the lowest
orthogonal quality value is 0,167 for this mesh
structure.
Proceedings of INCOS2020,
2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 3. (a) Solid Model and (b) Mesh Structure of the Combustor and the Burner
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Numerical results which have been obtained
for combustion parameters of ammonia and
methane for oxy and air-fuel conditions is
presented in this section of the paper.
Temperature and NOx distributions of air-NH3,
oxy-NH3, air-CH4, and oxy-CH4 combustions
are compared and discussed.
3.1 Temperature Distributions
Fig. 4 illustrates the axial temperature
distributions for all cases. It can be observed
that burning with oxygen increases the flame
temperature for all cases since there is no
nitrogen content in the oxidizer.
Figure 4. Axial Temperatures Predicted for
All Cases
Also, flame temperatures of both ammonia and
methane combustions increased by nearly %60
in the flame zone when combustion is carried
out under the oxy-fuel conditions. Considering
oxy-fuel combustion, the difference between
temperature values of oxy-CH4 combustion and
oxy-NH3 combustion seems close to each other
except the flame zone. In contrast, the
difference between temperature values of airCH4 and air-NH3 combustions exhibits a
different results from the flame zone to the
combustor outlet. The reason for this
distinction is that ammonia contains nitrogen,
and when the air is used as an oxidizer,
nitrogen in the fuel and in the air increases the
total amount of nitrogen in the ambient
excessively. Thus, burnt out the temperature of
air-NH3 combustion is significantly lower.
Furthermore, the maximum temperature value
of oxy-NH3 combustion is 2217 K at 0.15 m
axial distance from the combustor inlet, and the
maximum temperature value of air-NH3 is
1318 K at 0.20 m axial distance from
combustor inlet. This phenomenon shows oxyfuel combustion changes the maximum
temperature zone to the combustor inlet, and
therefore, oxy-fuel combustion increases the
burning velocity of ammonia. This result is the
same for methane combustion as well.
Because, higher temperature leads to higher
burning velocity. Likewise, Fig. 4 illustrates
that the burning velocity of methane is higher
than that of ammonia for both oxy and air-fuel
combustion since the high-temperature field of
Proceedings of INCOS2020,
methane combustion is closer to the combustor
inlet.
Additionally, radial temperature profiles
predicted between oxy and air-fuel combustion
can be seen in Fig. 6. The radial temperature
values which are taken from 10 cm axial
distance drastically decrease from the
combustor center to the combustor wall. This is
because there is highly internal recirculation as
the combustion chamber used is a sudden
expansion type within this study.
The flame temperatures for all cases studied
decreased towards the combustor outlet. It is
seen that the temperature values predicted for
both air-NH3 and air-CH4 combustions are
almost close from the center of the combustion
chamber to the combustor wall after the axial
distance of 50 cm. This conclusion may be
explained that the flames of air-NH3 and airCH4 combustions propagate into the combustor
chamber as uniform. However, there are
slightly unstable temperature values that are
taken from the combustor axis and combustor
wall at the same axial distance for air-NH3
combustion compared to air-CH4 combustion.
Furthermore, it was observed that the radial
temperature of air-NH3 combustion is higher
than that of air-CH4 combustion from the
center of the combustor to the combustor wall.
Although flame temperatures of oxy-NH3 and
oxy-CH4 combustions are higher than those of
air-NH3 and air-CH4 combustions in the
combustor center, radial temperatures of them
are lower than those of air-NH3 and air-CH4
combustions. On the other hand, radial
temperature profiles of oxy-NH3 and oxy-CH4
combustions are quite close to each other.
Besides, the temperature values of oxy-NH3
and oxy-CH4 show some differences, and that
means, combustion products of oxy-NH3 and
oxy-CH4 flames do not spread uniformly in the
combustor chamber. This situation can be
explained by evaluating the burning velocities
of oxy-combustion flame. Since the burning
velocity of the oxy-fuel flame is higher than
air-fuel flame.
3.2 NOX Distributions
Axial NOx distributions predicted of ammonia
and methane combustions can be seen in Fig.5.
2020, Kayseri-Turkey
As it is known that the thermal NOx
mechanism is more dominant in normal
combustion conditions, and the thermal NOx
mechanism increases NOx levels depending
upon rising flame temperature. Moreover, if a
fuel contains nitrogen, fuel NOx must be taken
into account as well. It can be readily said that
the thermal NOx mechanism is more dominant
in oxy-NH3 combustion, and this caused the
highest NOx levels. Moreover, the fuel NOx
mechanism is more effective in comparison to
air-NH3
and
air-CH4 under
air-fuel
combustions. Although axial temperature
values of air-CH4 combustion are higher than
air-NH3 combustion, fuel NOx mechanism
causes NOx values of air-NH3 combustion are
higher than air-CH4 combustion. Furthermore,
it can be observed in Figure-5 that NOx
emission values of oxy-NH3 combustion are
further than those of air-NH3 and air-CH4
combustions. Since the thermal NOx
mechanism is excessively effective at high
temperature levels, it is thought this
phenomenon occurs. When NOx emission
values between oxy-NH3 and air-NH3
combustions evaluated, even though nitrogen
mass, which is fed to the combustor, is
decreased via oxy-fuel combustion, increasing
flame temperature plays a more dominant role.
It raises NOx levels of a flame for oxy-NH3
combustion to about 3000 ppm at an axial
distance of 20 cm. Radial NOx distributions are
also given in Fig. 7.
Figure 5. Axial NOx Values Predicted
Proceedings of INCOS2020,
2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 6. Radial Temperatures Predicted for All Cases
Proceedings of INCOS2020,
Figure 7. Radial NOx Values Predicted for All Cases
2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Proceedings of INCOS2020,
4 CONCLUSIONS
Combustion characteristics and emission
distributions of ammonia fuel have been
examined in oxy and air-fuel combustion
circumstances numerically, and observed
outcomes are shown and scrutinized previous
sections of the paper. As a consequence of
conducted
numerical
modelling,
the
conclusions obtained are given below;
- When all predicted temperature distributions
are assessed for all fields of the combustion
chamber, the oxy-fuel condition is more proper
for ammonia gas as a fuel in terms of
combustion performance, due to higher
temperature values of oxy-fuel combustion.
Moreover, oxy-fuel combustion performance of
oxy-NH3 can compete with air-CH4 combustion
in terms of flame temperatures.
- Regarding NOx values predicted of ammonia
combustion, oxy-fuel combustion of ammonia
shows much higher NOx levels than air-fuel
combustion of ammonia, and NOx levels
remain steady toward the combustor outlet
except flame region.
- According to results predicted acquired from
oxy and air-fuel combustions of ammonia, it
can be concluded that the oxy-fuel condition
method is a more convenient process for
ammonia in terms of combustion performance.
However, emission parameters, such as NOx
values, should be optimized. It is thought that
lower NOx values of oxy-NH3 combustion can
be obtained by doing recirculation of
combustion products to the flame region, twostage combustion, feeding of water to the
combustion chamber or stratified feeding of
oxidizer and fuel.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Gazi University is gratefully acknowledged by
the authors for Ansys academic computer code
usage.
2020, Kayseri-Turkey
REFERENCES
[1] H. Kobayashi, A. Hayakawa, K. D. K. A.
Somarathne, and E. C. Okafor, Science and
technology of ammonia combustion, Proc.
Combust. Inst., Vol. 37, pp. 109 133, 2019.
[2] V. Smil, Population Growth and Nitrogen:
An Exploration of a Critical Existential Link,
Population Council, Vol.17 (4), pp. 569-601,
1991.
[3] X. Han., Z. Wang, M. Costa, Z. Sun, Y. He,
and K. Cen, Experimental and kinetic
modelling study of laminar burning velocities
of NH3-air, NH3-H2-air, NH3-CO-air and
NH3-CH4-air premixed flames, Combust.
Flame, Vol. 206, pp. 214-226, 2019.
[4] E. C. Okafor, Towards the development of
an efficient low-NOx ammonia combustor for a
micro gas turbine, Proc. Combust. Inst, Vol. 37
(4), pp. 4597 4606, 2019.
[5] O. Kurata. Performances and emission
characteristics of NH3-air and NH3-CH4-air
combustion gas-turbine power generations,
Proc. Combust. Inst., Vol. 36 (3), pp. 3351
3359, 2017.
[6] S. Karyeyen, Experimental and numerical
investigations of combustion characteristics of
coal gases in a developed combustor, PhD
thesis, Gazi University, Turkey, 2016.
combustion characteristics in a natural gas
diffusion flame, Journal of Energy Resources
Technology, Vol.135(4), pp. 1-8, 2013.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
PREDICTION OF FUEL-IN-OIL FORMATION RATE BY USING GAUSSIAN
PROCESS MODELS
1
3
, O.A. Kutlar2 and A.
1. Istanbul Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul; email:
muratgonul@itu.edu.tr
2. Istanbul Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul; email:
kutlar@itu.edu.tr
3. Istanbul Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul; email:
calik@itu.edu.tr
Abstract
Regeneration intervals of diesel particulate filters (DPF) are getting dramatically shortened due to strict
emission legislations and city drive cycles with traffic issues which generates huge amounts of soot in the
exhaust. Active (O2-based oxidation) DPF regeneration strategies coupled with late in-cylinder post
injections are the main approach for most of the car manufacturers. One disadvantage of this approach is the
oil dilution due to fuel creeping away from cylinder walls into the oil pan. Overcoming the oil dilution
problem is highly challenging due to the aggressive demand in the market for higher oil change intervals.
Additionally, strict emission legislations force car manufacturers to have a calibration strategy with low
NOx-high PM emissions coming out of the engine that necessitates short DPF regeneration intervals, which
in turn causes more oil dilution. As a result, oil dilution is becoming a major issue for engine calibration and
also an emerging problem by means of hardware protection. Therefore, it is crucial to model the oil dilution
accurately. Gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy can be utilized to determine the fuel-in-oil amount
with high accuracy. These measurement methodologies require 4-6hr of steady state sampling and an hour of
subsequent testing, which renders the online optimization techniques unfeasible and even impossible. In the
recent years, machine learning algorithms are started to be utilized in the areas of emission modeling, onboard diagnostics and engine operating mode selection. In this study, a modeling approach based on the
Gaussian process models for the optimization of oil dilution phenomenon is reported and the results are
compared with the literature. It is shown that high model accuracy with Gaussian process models are
possible for rate of oil dilution.
Keywords: Fuel-in-Oil, Gaussian Process Models, Oil Dilution
1 INTRODUCTION
To increase the air quality and to protect the
environment, exhaust emission legislations are
becoming stricter which requires vehicles to
have optimum powertrain and exhaust emission
system operating collectively and interactively,
and with a very high efficiency even in cold
drive cycles. Most of the gases and particles
namely, CO, HC, NOx, soot that result from
the combustion of diesel fuel are harmful to
health and also to environment, and therefore,
their levels are legally controlled globally by the
emission legislations. Exhaust emission systems
are used to convert these poisonous gases and
particles to less harmful ones, and are composed
of different catalysts with varying functions.
Diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC) oxidizes the
poisonous CO and hydrocarbon as well as NO
owing to the high amounts of PGM (platinum
group metals) it contains. Being another
component of emission system, selective
catalytic reduction (SCR) is mainly responsible
for reduction of NOx. DPF on the other hand is a
mechanical filter collecting soot (black smoke)
coming out of the engine. When DPF is fully
loaded with soot, the engine operation is affected
due to the increased back pressure, and thus, the
filtered soot should be removed periodically
from the filter basically by oxidation, via a
process called regeneration. In theory, there are
two different types for DPF regeneration; O2based oxidation of soot which is called active
regeneration and takes place at high
temperatures (above 500degC) and NO2-based
oxidation which is termed as passive
regeneration and occurs whenever the exhaust
temperature is above 280oC and there is
sufficient amount of NO2. Active regeneration
has a chemical reaction rate of orders of
magnitude higher than the passive regeneration
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
does. The common methodology for DPF
Gaussian process model approach. Studied
regeneration in passenger cars is the O2-based
methodology can be explained with an analogy
oxidation of soot that is trapped within the filter.
from turbine efficiency calculation. If turbine
The underlying reason for the choice of active
efficiency is investigated in speed-torque
regeneration is that the most challenging cycles
domain, it would be needed to calculate
in city drive are very short and the rate of soot
efficiency in very large window. Yet, turbine is
oxidation by O2 is high enough to remove all of
working between choke and surge lines so
the trapped soot for such short cycles. However,
determination of turbine efficiency within two
the temperature requirement (above 500degC)
curves as a function of corrected flow and
for the initiation of active regeneration cannot be
pressure ratio would cover all points in speedmet during normal engine operation and thus
torque domain. With similar analogy, on the
exotherm generation is necessary to reach
contrary of modelling oil dilution in speeddesired temperatures. The exotherm generation
torque domain in conventional method,
is accomplished by delivering raw fuel to the
modelling rate of oil dilution in Sauter mean
DOC catalyst which then oxidizes the fuel
diameter, spray penetration dept, in-cylinder
resulting in necessary temperature increase.
temperature and engine speed would cover a
Delivering of raw fuel can either be done with an
very large operating window. The proposed
external fuel injector right in front of the DOC
method will allow for the offline optimization of
or with in-cylinder post injections. Usage of
the engine calibration parameters that can
external fuel injector is usually limited by the
minimize the amount of oil dilution.
unavailable packing space considering issues
regarding to mounting external injector on the
2 PARAMETERS IN FUEL-IN-OIL
exhaust pipe or ensuring homogeneous raw
CALCULATION
fuel/exhaust gas mixture in front of the DOC and
Artmann et.al. reported that the rate of fuel
additional hardware cost including also the extra
leaking into the oil pan is changing as a function
fuel pump. As a result, in-cylinder late post
of start of injection for late far post injection
injection strategy is commonly adopted for the
which can be observed in Figure 1 in white
regeneration of DPF. Main drawback of inregions where late post injections are enabled.
cylinder late post injection strategy is oil dilution
The authors also reported that the recovery of a
due to increased fuel concentration. As recent
certain fraction of fuel in oil is possible when
emission legislations require low engine-out
late post injections are disabled. If the start of
NOx strategies, the frequency of DPF
injection for late far post injections is retarded
regenerations within regular oil change intervals
then the amount of fuel leaking into the oil pan
are increased and oil dilution phenomenon
within a certain duration is increased based.
become a major issue in the field.
Although it was expected to observe a decrease
Accurate determination of fuel that is blended
in fuel concentration in all the grey zones in
with engine oil is highly challenging due to
Figure 1, there are two outliers. This observation
molecular similarity between fuel and oil. Gas
also gives an insight regarding to measurement
chromatography integrated with a mass
accuracy.
spectroscopy is commonly used to analyse the
amount of fuel in oil. However, it is analytically
quite hard to distinguish between fuel and oil,
especially when the fuel amount is low, because
both are composed of hydrocarbon fractions
with a range of carbon numbers. Additionally,
the measurement itself requires a certain time to
be completed which renders the online
optimization impossible. Considering the
complexity of the sampling and measurement
systems, a level of discrepancy should also be
expected in the results.
The present study proposes a methodology to
Figure 1. Relation between increasing rate
accurately model the oil dilution by using
of fuel in oil and start of injection for post inj.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
at a specific oil temperature which can be
observed from Figure 4. It can also be noticed
that a certain fraction of fuel with high carbon
In the same study, the authors also reported that
chains do not have enough vapor pressure at
the magnitude of oil dilution is increasing
engine oil operating temperature range. So that
linearly with the injection rate which is
this fraction is not recovered during normal
displayed in Figure 2. In Figure 3, it was shown
operation within oil temperature limitations. The
that rail pressure has also an influence on oil
fraction of fuel that cannot be recovered is called
dilution rate. In the reference, it was stated that
as heavy fraction and the percentage of this
the momentum of the spray particles was not
fraction is generally 40-60%. The recovery of
high enough to reach the cylinder wall in low
fuel was considered in each stage of this study
rail pressure region. On the other hand,
including, the determination of the dyno meter
atomization in high rail pressure region is
testing conditions.
dominant so particulates are not reaching to the
cylinder wall. But, a portion of this behaviour
against rail pressure deviation can be seen based
on engine hardware specifications
Figure 4. Recovery rate of fuel in oil regards
to different carbon chains
3
Figure 2. Relation between rate of fuel in oil
and far post inj. quantity
Figure 3. Relation between rate of fuel in oil
and rail pressure
Different carbon chain structures can recover
with different rates depending on vapor pressure
PARAMETERS IN FUEL-IN-OIL
CALCULATION
17 different operating points with different
engine calibration deviations were selected for
testing. The points are selected from the engine
operating region where we see high oil dilution
rate tendency based on residencies from issues
customer vehicles. It was shown in the literature
that higher late post injection quantities and
retarded late post injections increase the rate of
fuel leakage into the engine oil which played a
key role in the determination of the steady state
operation duration. At each operating point the
engine was run for 4-6hr to reach the steady state
fuel concentrations in the oil. Tests are
completed in 34 days with two shifts in each
day. Late far post injection quantity, rail
pressure and start of injection were varied during
the tests as shown in Figure 5, 6 and 7, to
analyse the effects of each of these parameters.
120 samples were collected and analysed with
GCMS. The measurements were carried out
according to the methodologies stated in
ASME3524 oil measurement standard. 50mL
sample is collected for each sampling and three
samples to calculate oil dilution rate in each
point are collected. Sample results are corrected
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
improved and the validity range for such a
based on sampling volume. Oil in sump and oil
model can be extended further. Considering that
filter are changed before starting each new
there will be many input parameters for the
testing point. Sampling is always done from
model and there will be also a certain level of
mixed oil with same length sampling pipe.
discrepancy in the oil dilution measurements,
Gaussian process is the most appropriate model
that can be used in the modeling.
Figure 5. Normalized rail pressure demand
Figure 6. Normalized late far post injection
quantity
Figure 7. Normalized start of injection for
late far post
4 MODELLING
The effects of rail pressure, late far post injection
quantity and start of injection for late far post on
oil dilution rate were tested. However, it is
reasonable to change domain from swept
parameters to spray characteristics together with
in-cylinder conditions when late far post
injection occurs as it will be possible to assess
deviations in engine calibration parameters in
that domain so that offline optimization in that
new domain will be possible. With that
adjustment, the accuracy of the model can be
4.1 Calculation of Model Inputs
The input parameter set for the oil dilution
model was considered to be Sauter mean
diameter, in-cylinder gas temperature at the time
of the late post injection, engine speed and spray
penetration depth. Among many input sets
evaluated, this input variable set was determined
to have the highest coverage rate.
Figure 8. Correlation between Sauter mean
diameter and oil dilution rate
In Figure 8 from reference [2], the correlation
between Sauter mean diameter (SMD) and oil
dilution was shown. The observed correlation
only exists when Sauter mean diameter is
increased by increasing demand of late far post
injection quantity. However, when injection
timing for late post injection is retarded, oil
dilution would be lowered according to Figure 2
from ref. [1] although Sauter mean diameter is
increased. Therefore, rather than investigating
the correlation for each individual parameter, a
Gaussian process model with the above
mentioned four input parameters will be more
effective for modelling studies. Dilution rate will
be modelled in terms of dilution within a
specific time so that engine speed is also an
effective parameter considering that it
determined occurrence rate of the late far post
injection in a specific time window. In-cylinder
temperature at the time of late far post injection
is also another essential parameter as it is one of
the parameters that is affecting cylinder wall
wetting and evaporation of fuel from cylinder
wall.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
For calculation of Sauter mean diameter and spray
penetration dept, the following formulas are used from
Reference [3].
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
There are several additional parameters that are
required for the calculation of Sauter mean
diameter and penetration depth. In order to
calculate these subset of parameters, secondary
Gaussian process models were developed.
Additional design of experiment studies for
turbine inlet temperature and in cylinder
pressure are completed. Statistical model of
turbine inlet temperature was developed and
isentropic process equation was used to calculate
in cylinder temperature at the time of late far
post injection. A series of Gaussian process
models were fitted to in-cylinder pressure at
CRA30-60-90-120-150 and the polynomial
interpolation was computed to calculate incylinder pressure in a specific crank angle
regarding the timing of the late far post
injection.
Figure 11. Rail pressure demand sweep
In Figures 9, 10 and 11, sensitivity of SMD and
penetration depth as a function of late far post
injection quantity, timing and rail pressure were
shown. Increasing the normalized start of
injection for late far post injection means that the
specific injection is getting closed to top death
center (TDC). Penetration values are given as
normalized based on distance between injector
tip and cylinder wall.
4.2 Model Development
Figure 12. SMD sweep in input data for
modelling
Figure 9. Start of injection for late far post
injection sweep
Figure 13. Penetration sweep in input data
for modelling
Figure 10. Late far post quantity sweep
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
the input set for oil dilution rate problem is
efficient. Sweeping different parameters in terms
of timing of start of injection and late far post
quantity would be a reasonable approach to
check if Gaussian process model output agrees
well with the Reference [1].
Figure 14. Engine speed sweep in input
data for modelling
Figure 17. Gaussian model output for start
of injection sweep
Figure 15. Oil dilution rate results as
modeled values
In Figures 12, 13, 14 and 15, the input and
output data are shown. In recent years, Gaussian
process models are frequently used for engine
out emission modelling for the offline
optimization purposes. This type of modelling
approach is very effective in that area as
Reference [4] implies that such a modelling
approach can still supply high level of accuracy
even if the measurement data contains
discrepancies. Due to the huge amount of noise
obtained during long testing period of oil
dilution characterization, Gaussian process is an
appropriate method for the modelling of oil
dilution rate.
Figure 16. R^2 for oil dilution rate model
As the above model fit offers a good level of
correlation (R^2=0.99), it can be concluded that
Figure 18. Gaussian model output for late
far post quantity sweep
Figure 19. Gaussian model output for rail
pressure sweep
In figure 17 and 18, results shown in graphs are
directly aligned with Reference [1]. These
figures are gathering by running Gaussian
process model offline with deviations in input to
understand behavior of model outputs compared
to measurement results from Reference [1] in
figure1 and figure2.
The results displayed in Figure 19 do not agree
with the literature data [1] which was shown in
Figure 3. Depending on the engine hardware, it
may not be possible to see the n-shaped trade-off
between rail pressure and oil dilution rate for all
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
the operating points. In figure 19, we are seeing
[4] Study of the influence of emission control
left hand side of n-shaped trade off given in
strategies on the soot content and fuel dilution in
Reference [1] in Figure 3.
engine oil, by Bernardo Tormosa, Ricardo
Novellaa, Josep Gomez-Sorianoa, Antonio
5 CONCLUSION & DISCUSSIONS
Ueharab,
Marcos Alonso in Volume 136, August
In this paper, a Gaussian process model for the
2019, Pages 285-298 Tribology International.
prediction of oil dilution rate was developed to
[5] ATSM3524, Standard Test Method for
be used for optimization purposes. The model
was developed by inputs of SMD, penetration
Diesel Fuel Diluent in Used Diesel Engine Oils
depth, in-cylinder gas temperature at the time of
by Gas Chromatography.
far late post injection and engine speed.
[6] Modelling Diesel Spray Tip and Tail
Therefore, the model is shown to be valid in a
Penetrations After End-of-Injection, by Xinyi
wide range of operating conditions. Unlike
Zhou, Tie Li, Zheyuan Lai, Yijie Wei in Fuel,
conventional oil dilution models, Gaussian
237-2019-442-456.
process modeling approach in physical domain
[7] Structures of Fuel Sprays in Diesel Engines,
can also cover deviations in engine calibration
parameters so that offline optimization of oil
by Hiro Hiroyasu and Masataka Arai, in March
dilution with such a model can be possible.
1990 SAE Technical Paper Series
[8] Fuel Property Effects on Oil Dilution in
For calculation of input parameters such as SMD
Diesel Engines, by Mark Wattrus in Jan 2013
and penetration depth, empirical equations given
in Ref. [3] were used. These calculations can be
SAE International
coupled with CAE studies and coverage region
[9] Prediction of Oil Dilution by Post-Injection
and accuracy of the oil dilution modeling can
in DPF Regeneration Mode by Takayuki Ito,
thus be improved. Fuel-in-oil is currently
Takaaki Kitamura, Hirokazo Kojima, Hiroshi
estimated with map-based calibration approach
Kawanabe in Dec 2019 SAE International.
in the field and that approach can be improved
by directly implementing Gaussian process
models into the engine control unit (ECU) as
new generation of ECU technology allows us to
implement machine learning algorithms directly.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Author would like to thank Doc.Dr
for their technical guidance and support during
study.
REFERENCES
[1] CARB Low NOx Stage3 Program
Aftertreatment Evaluation and Down Selections,
by Bryan Zavala, Christopher Sharp, Gary Neely
and Sandesh Rao from Southwest Research
Institute., 2020-01-1402 Published 14 Apr 2020
in SAE International.
[2] Investigation of variations of lubricating oil
diluted by post-injected fuel for the regeneration
of CDPF and its effects on engine wear, by
Bong-Ha Song and Yun-Ho Choi., in 2008,
Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology.
[3] A New Measurement Technique for Online
Oil Dilution Measurement, by Christina
Artmann, Marcel Kaspar and Hans-Peter Rabl,
in Nov 2013, SAE International Journal of Fuels
and Lubricants.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
1
, Erman Aslan2, Zekeriya Özcan3, Gülten Gizem Küçük 4
1. Department of Mechanical Engineering,
gcoskun@sakarya.edu.tr
2. Department
of
Mechanical
Engineering,
erman.aslan@istanbul.edu.tr
3. Department
of
Mechanical
Engineering,
ozcan.zekeriya@hacettepe.edu.tr
4. Department
of
Mechanical
Engineering,
gultengizem.kucuk@ogr.iu.edu.tr
Sakarya
Istanbul
Hacettepe
Istanbul
University,
University,
University,
University,
Sakarya;
email:
Istanbul;
email:
Ankara;
email:
Istanbul;
email:
Abstract
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) or Controlled Auto Ignition (CAI) is the concept for an
engine in which the combustion of a homogeneous mixture takes place simultaneously in the entire combustion
chamber due to very high compression rates. Early models used in the field of ICE technology did not include
a detailed explanation of the fuel's oxidation chemistry but a general reaction equilibrium which only takes
the initial reactants and the final products into the account. However, it is becoming more and more difficult
to improve the current
, and accordingly very precise models are needed. Today, most popular
methodology to solve both fluid dynamics equations and the reaction chemistry is the utilization of reduced
kinetic mechanisms. A comprehensive kinetic mechanism would involve any possible chemical path during
the combustion of a fuel, except taking the importance of a reaction in circumstances being modelled into the
account. In the scope of this study, different kinetic reduction mechanisms are compared in order to observe
their effects on different HCCI combustion outputs using toluene reference fuel (TRF) which is composed by
%79 toluene and %21 n-heptane. Mainly four different chemical reduction mechanisms, which were proposed
Pressure development in combustion chamber, heat release rate and emissions are monitored in order to
compare experimental and numerical data. Results show that two mechanisms that are proposed from Wang
et al. and Chen et al. show far better compatibility with experimental data at specified initial conditions (CR:
14.04, Tin: 440 K, Pin:2.905 bar). Particularly, Chen et al. mechanism demonstrates an acceptable behaviour
in hot combustion region. Thus, a parametric study about the effect of intake temperature was also conducted
with this mechanism for the sake of convergence.
Keywords: HCCI, Combustion Modelling, TRF, Reduction Mechanisms
1
INTRODUCTION
Over the past decades computing power has
increased dramatically and computational
methods have become more effective in ICE
design processes. On the other hand, whilst the
experimental methods keep their importance in
this particular field, overall costs of experiments
are getting higher in comparison to numerical
methods. Combustion modelling is one of the
most challenging processes of engine design and
maybe the most influential one for reducing fuel
consumption and emissions. HCCI concept was
mainly developed to meet same demands.
Several studies have been conducted to discuss
the advantages, disadvantages and further
challenges of this technology since the very
beginning. Zhao et al. [1] stated that since HCCI
engines are more fuel-efficient, they are capable
of working at diesel-level compression ratios (>
15), thus promising around %30 (theoretical)
higher efficiencies than common gasoline
engines. Another study conducted by Warnatz et
al. [2] explains another advantage of HCCI
combustion.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
HCCI provides a homogenous mix of fuel and air
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
and that results with a cleaner combustion less
emissions values in comparison to conventional
Nowadays, diesel and gasoline are still the most
engines. Such a combustion leads to lower
commonly used
. As we
maximum temperatures during the process, which
know, both are complicated compositions of
leads to nearly insignificant NOx emissions.
many components of different molecular
Another positive aspect is no soot production [2].
structures. A full-scale mechanism, which
contains all possible components would be ideal
This engine is able to work with both gasoline and
to simulate the combustion of those fuels.
diesel. Alternative fuels are also compatible with
However, state of art shows us that it is still
HCCI technology [3]. Studies show that HCCI
engines evade losses that are originated from
CFD methods. Therefore, fuels that are called
throttling, that also contributes to efficiency
for representing diesel and gasoline
increases [4].
have been proposed by including the most
important components in the fuels, such as nOne of the most important challenges about this
heptane or iso-octane. But major problem of such
technology is the control of autoignition. This is
a simplification is obvious: these surrogates do
due to lack of an ignition starter (e.g. injector or
not include other essential components of the
spark plugging) unlike Otto or Diesel Engines [5].
fuel.
Power production capability of this technology is
lower than conventional methods [6] and
Some studies have also found out that aromatic
CO/Hydrocarbon emissions are higher due to the
components play important roles in processes of
constraints such as relative low temperatures and
soot production, and the aromatic content in
rapid combustions which lead to unfinished
diesel and gasolines is typically about 25 35
combustions [7]. Higher heat release rates and
percent [8]. Toluene is a member of aromatic
rapid pressure elevations may cause early aging
family and represents %79 of the molar fraction
of the engine [2].
in our surrogate fuel, which was named after this.
(TRF: Toluene Reference Fuel). Since the
Today, most popular methodology to solve both
reference fuel is TRF, in scope of this study,
fluid dynamics equations and the reaction
toluene reduction mechanisms were used to solve
chemistry
is the utilization of reduced
the fluid mechanics and oxidation chemistry.
kinetic mechanisms. A comprehensive kinetic
mechanism would involve any possible chemical
A chemical reaction method for modelling the
path during the combustion of a fuel, except
cycle of combustion and the polyaromatic
taking the importance of a reaction in
hydrocarbon production of diesel and n-heptane /
circumstances being modelled into the account.
toluene fuels was produced by Reitz et al [9]. This
In the scope of this study, different kinetic
method has been tested with experimental data on
reduction mechanisms are compared in order to
ignition delay in homogeneous charge
observe their effects on different HCCI
compression ignition (HCCI) combustion [9].
combustion outputs using toluene reference fuel
(TRF) which is composed by %79 toluene and
Huang et al. [10] proposed another polyaromatic
%21 n-heptane. Mainly four different chemical
hydrocarbon (PAH) mechanism that was
reduction mechanisms, which were proposed by
developed on the basis of a comprehensive
different researchers, used in this study in order
mechanism for n-butylbenzene (BBZ) and a
to simulate an experimental toluene combustion
previously reduced mechanism for n-heptanePAH. This mechanism is not validated against a
HCCI engine but a direct injection compression
Heat release rates, in-cylinder pressure
engine.
development and emission values are tracked in
order to validate and compare those mechanisms
For predictions of combustion, PAH and soot
against the experimental data.
production, a reduced toluene reference fuel
(TRF, n-heptane, iso-octane, and toluene)polycyclic-aromatic
hydrocarbon
(PAH)
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
reduction mechanism with 109 species and 543
Li et al. [16] suggested a mechanism for toluene
reactions is suggested by Wang et al [11]. The
and decalin oxidation with PAH (Polycyclic
mechanism can also capture combustion and
aromatic hydrocarbon) formation predictions.
emissions from simulations of the HCCI engines.
This mechanism comprises from 108 species and
Toluene material significantly improves the
566 reactions. A sensitivity analysis was
production of PAH and soot formation.
conducted in order to observe the relationship
between aromatic ring structure and PAH
Chen et al. [12] proposed reduced chemical
formation with benzene, naphthalene, pyrene and
mechanism targeted for a 5-component gasoline
phenanthrene.
surrogate. This is a case study on the heat release
nature in a GCI engine. Gasoline Compression
PAH formation is questioned for premixes of
Ignition (GCI) is a favourable engine operation
toluene and
aromatics in the study of Li et
mode that can decrease the maximum pressure
al. [17]. Experimental data confirms the influence
rise rate (MPRR) without knock inclination and
of aromatic structure over PAH formation. A
better control the phasing of combustion relative
kinetic model is also proposed to validate the
to the Homogeneous Charge Compression
experimental data. Kinetic analysis demonstrated
Ignition (HCCI).
that benzyl plays a decisive role for both toluene
decomposition and PAH formation.
Another mechanism was proposed from Bai et al.
[13] for a tri-component diesel surrogate fuel Niemeyer et al. [18] proposed different
namely N-hexadecene, iso-cetane and 1methodologies and suggestions for reduction
methylnaphtalene. This mechanism consists from
mechanisms of multicomponent surrogate fuels.
234 reactions and 83 species and validated
Results were validated with ignition delaying. In
against a HCCI engine. It is shown that results are
this study, HCCI simulations demonstrated that
acceptable regarding process parameters such as
utilized skeletal mechanisms could catch ignition
ignition delay timing or in-cylinder pressure
point and species profile from lean to
development of HCCI engine.
stochiometric combustions with an acceptable
accuracy.
Hernandez et al. [14] developed a multitechnique reduction methodology for HCCI
In a review article, Zhen et al. [19] summarized
combustion modelling with a diesel surrogate fuel
different chemical reduction mechanisms for
which consists from %64 n-heptane %36 toluene.
gasoline surrogate fuels such as iso-octane, PRF
Reduced mechanism includes 184 species and
(Primary reference fuel) and TRF. This study
463 reactions. In HCCI combustion, it is shown
focuses on the challenges and opportunities in
that errors below 1 crank angle degrees are
this particular research field.
possible by using this methodology.
[20] previously conducted an
Generation of novel models for methanol-based
analysis of an HCCI engine combustion using
toluene reference fuels was the main objective of
toluene reference fuel for different equivalence
Zhang et al [15]. By applying techniques such as
ratios and compared the experimental data with
reaction pathway analysis, TRF (Toluene
CFD and SRM simulations. Reduction
reference fuel) model could be reduced in 290
mechanisms that are utilized in this study were
reactions with 100 species. Validations were
suggested by Machrafi et al. [21] and Andrae et
carried out with a variety of methodologies such
al. [22].
as shock tube ignition delaying, flow reactor etc.
A high level of accuracy is achieved for a relative
It is found that simulations of CFD and SRM with
broad temperature range (T=300-2500 K).
reduced process have better results for collecting
But only CFD simulation with reduced function
could catch the effects of the experimental
)
[20].
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
In this study, four different chemical reduction
Compression ratio was set to 14.04 by
mechanisms will be utilized among the cited
manipulating the piston crown. Although
literature. Table-1 summarizes these mechanisms
different air-fuel mix ratios are tested in this
in terms of their species and reaction numbers,
setup, = 3.5 for TRF79 was taken into account
validation temperature and pressure ranges.
in scope of this study. 1200 rpm was the engine
speed for the sake of stabilization in combustion.
Table 1. Reduction mechanisms used in
3.2 Numerical Setup
scope of this study
Relevant
Article
Reitz et
al. [9]
Wang et
al. [11]
Chen et
al. [12]
Huang et
al. [10]
#
of #
of T
Species Reactions (K)
71
360
7001450
109
543
7001450
1393
5976
7501100
111
542
7001400
P
(bar)
1-50
Numerical solutions based on CFD methodology
were carried out in the ANSYS Forte, an ICE
module which is specifically developed for ICE
calculations.
1-50
3.1 Experimental Setup
All kinetic reduction mechanisms were built-up
based on available supplementary data from
research papers in CHEMKIN chemistry module
of ANSYS. All temperatures on system
boundaries (e.g. piston, wall and head) were set
to 353 K. As an initial guess for the pressure at
inlet valve closing time, 2.905 bar was specified.
For initial temperature 380 K was guessed.
Results show that none of the above mentioned
mechanisms have converged under those
conditions. Accordingly, initial temperature
guess has been increased gradually. Results show
that a guess of 440 K (P= 2.905 bar) is suitable as
a base for further studies.
Experimental results were gathered from the
same configuration mentioned in [20], a singlecylinder Ricardo Hydra type test engine at Shell
Laboratories in the UK. Technical data of this
engine is mentioned in Table-2.
Valve geometries were excluded from the
numerical model, because the CFD program
simulates the system between inlet valve closing
time and outlet valve opening time. Geometric
model is presented in Fig. 1.
3
1080
1-50
METHODOLOGY
This study includes a numerical part and its
comparison with experimental data. Accordingly,
data collection methodology from these two
sources will be elaborated in this section.
Table 2. Engine technical data [20]
Parameter
Value
Unit
Bore
86 mm
mm
Stroke
86 mm
mm
Connecting
143.5 mm
mm
rod length
Compression
14.04
ratio
Engine
1200 rev/min
rev/min
Speed
Number of
4
valves
Intake valve
340 BTDC
CAD
opening time
Intake valve
108 BTDC
CAD
closing time
Exhaust
120 ATDC
CAD
valve
opening time
Exhaust
332 ATDC
CAD
valve
closing time
Figure 1. Combustion Chamber
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
All parts of the combustion chamber are meshed
4 RESULTS
with linear elements as shown in Fig. 2:
Numerical study is conducted at =3.5 air-fuel
mixture ratio for TRF79. Data collected from
experimental setup which was mentioned in [20]
are compared with numerical results -obtained
from different mechanisms- in terms of incylinder pressure, heat release rate (HRR) and
particle emissions.
Figure 2: Mesh Structure
In order to compare the effect of constant size
mesh elements and temperature-adaptive size
mesh elements, a brief mesh study (using 3 mm
global mesh size) is conducted with a reduction
mechanism which shows highest convergence,
namely Chen et al. [12].
Figure 4. Comparison of experimental and
numerical data in terms of in-cylinder
pressure for different reduction mechanisms
Fig. 4 shows a comparison of experimental and
numerical data in hot combustion region in terms
of cylinder gas pressure. Whilst four mechanisms
are applied under same boundary and initial
conditions (CR: 14.04, Tin: 440K, Pin=2.905
bar), one can extract from that figure that
mechanisms which are suggested from Chen et al.
[12] and Wang et al. [11] demonstrate better
compatibility with experimental data.
Figure 3. A comparison between constantsize mesh strategy and temperature
adaptive-size mesh strategy in terms of
pressure development
Figure 3 shows that constant-size mesh strategy is
more compatible in comparison to adaptive mesh
for this mesh dimensions.
Figure 5. Comparison of experimental and
numerical data in terms of heat release rate
(HRR) for different reduction mechanisms
Fig 5. compares experimental heat release data
with numerical data. This figure clearly shows
that Chen et al. mechanism shows a far better
correlation
with
experimental
setup.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Accordingly, a special case study which
Particle emissions resulted from combustion,
examines the effect of intake temperature on
such as
and
are also monitored in scope
results of Chen et al. mechanism was also
of this study.
conducted.
Since there is no experimental data for
development of component consumptions and
emissions, these numerical results will be
compared among each other. Final particle
emissions will be compared with experimental
data separately.
Figure 8. Development of
emissions for
different mechanisms in hot combustion
region
Figure 6. Toluene (
) consumption for
TRF79
mechanisms
Toluene consumption regarding engine crank
angle in hot combustion range is shown in Fig. 6.
Similarly, consumption of another component (nheptane) in hot combustion region is
demonstrated in Fig. 7:
In Figure 8, it is possible to observe the
development of
emissions for different
mechanisms. As stated before, HCCI combustion
leads rapid pressure changes and unfinished
reactions, which causes the formation of carbonmonoxide.
takes a % 0.14 share from combustion
elements according to the experimental outputs
Huang et al. mechanism demonstrates hardly an
emission behaviour in hot combustion region.
Figure 9. Development of
emissions for
different mechanisms in hot combustion
region
Figure 7. N-heptane (
mechanisms
) consumption
Figure 9 shows the development of
emissions in hot combustion region. Similar to
emissions, Wang and Chen et al. mechanisms
behave alike in hot combustion region whilst
Reitz and Huang et al. mechanisms are in an
irrelevant behaviour.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
that it represents best hot combustion pressure
As far as the percentages of
,
and
behaviour within the region.
among the particles are concerned in terms of
final particle emissions, Table-3 shows the
correlations between experimental and numerical
results for different mechanisms.
Table 3. Percentages of
,
and
different reduction mechanisms
for
Experimental
% 0.14
%
4.10
% 15.78
Chen et al. [12]
% 0.08
%
5.16
% 17.51
Wang et al. [11]
% 0.13
%5.04
%17.55
Reitz et al. [9]
% 1.24
%0.46
%20.89
Hueng et al. [10] % 0.18
%0.01
%22.66
If one takes in-cylinder pressure development,
HRR and emission percentages into the account,
it is straightforward to state that Chen and Wang
et al. mechanisms show an acceptable behaviour
in hot combustion region under these initial and
boundary conditions.
A parametric case study for Chen et al.
mechanism presents following results:
Figure 11. Comparison of experimental and
numerical data in terms of heat release rate
(HRR) for Chen et al. mechanism at
different intake temperatures
HRR results at different intake temperatures are
also presented in Figure 11 for Chen et al.
mechanism. These results are also in accordance
with in-cylinder pressure results. 450 K seems to
be a suitable intake temperature in scope of this
case study.
Table 4. Percentage of
,
and for
experimental data and Chen et al. (450 K)
Experimental
Chen et
(450 K)
% 0.14
% 4.10 % 15.78
al. % 0.09
% 5.20 %17.47
Table 4 indicates the
,
and
emission
percentages among the particles. Intake
temperature adjustment improved
and
values slightly whilst
emission diverges 0.04
percent more.
Figure 10. Pressure development of
experimental data and different intake
temperatures of Chen et al. mechanism
As shown in the Figure 10, 450 K is the most
suitable inlet temperature among the ones which
were proposed in this case study, due to the fact
These results show that Chen et al. and Wang et
al. mechanisms show an agreeable accordance
with experimental data (particularly Chen et al.
mechanism). A reason for this conclusion may be
that; engine setup used in Chen et al. [12]
mechanism is similar to the engine setup of [20].
Wang used similar conditions in HCCI setup [11].
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Another potential reason is the difference
Surrogate fuel composition plays a
between surrogate fuel compositions. Chen et al.
decisive role on the chemical reduction
proposed a 5-component fuel (i.e.
, i,
representation. More similar structured
i, n, n) that include much
component
means more possible
more possible reduction pathways than simple
reduction pathways.
two-component surrogate fuels.
Owing to the fact that aromatics -in this
Reitz et al. [9] mechanism is validated also
case toluene- enhance the PAH formation,
against a HCCI engine, however utilized fuel
fuels that contain more toluene in their
composition contains far less aromatics (i.e.
structure, behave more convergent to
toluene) namely %80 n-heptane to %20 toluene.
experimental data.
Huang et al. [10] mechanism proposes
butylbenzene (BBZ) as an alternative to the
toluene as an aromatic representative in surrogate
fuels, but in this case it is obvious that existence
of toluene plays a crucial role in the reduction
kinetics.
450 K intake is determined as suitable
intake temperature for Chen et al.
mechanism as a result of case study.
Effect of intake temperature was also investigated
for less-convergent mechanisms, but no
meaningful changes could be observed.
compatibility.
5
CONCLUSIONS
In the scope of this study, different kinetic
reduction mechanisms are compared in order to
observe their effects on different HCCI
combustion outputs using toluene reference fuel
(TRF) which is composed by %79 toluene and
%21 n-heptane. Mainly four different chemical
reduction mechanisms, which were proposed by
different researchers, used in this study in order
to simulate an experimental toluene combustion
Conclusions can be summed up as follows:
Chen et al. and Wang et al. mechanisms
demonstrate an agreeable compatibility
with experimental engine data under
given initial and boundary conditions.
Number of species and reactions has an
impact on the representation behaviour of
chemical reduction mechanism. Chen et
al. includes far more species and possible
reactions than the others. This
mechanism s pressure range is also
broader, which may cause a better
compatibility in high pressure (i.e. hot
combustion) regions.
Validation methodology (i.e. HCCI,
ignition delay, DI etc.) has an important
Temperature-adaptive mesh increases the
computational time and accordingly the
computational costs, but as shown
previously, such a meshing strategy did
not contribute to a better convergence at
given mesh dimensions.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
[8] Marchal C, Delfau J-L, Vovelle C, et al.
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hydrocarbon (PAH) mechanism for engine
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[3] Dec, John E.; Epping, Kathy; Aceves,
Energy 2018; 165: 90-105.
Salvador M.; Bechtold, Richard L. (2002). The
Potential of HCCI Combustion for High
[11] Wang H, Yao MF, Yue Z, Jia M, Reitz RD.
Efficiency and Low Emissions. Society of
A reduced toluene reference fuel chemical kinetic
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Formation in Internal Combustion Engines:
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Halil Tuzcu1 and Hakan Caliskan2
1. Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Usak University, Usak,
Turkey; halil.tuzcu@usak.edu.tr
2. Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Usak University, Usak,
Turkey; hakan.caliskan@usak.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, the kerosene fuel used in aviation sector is investigated. The energy rate of the kerosene
fuel and its combustion energy rate after the combustion chamber are also studied. Obtaining the
number of moles of the chemical components after combustion is examined in two different ways as
theoretical and experimental approaches. Considering the combustion chamber example, the energy
efficiency value is obtained per unit mass of C11H21 as a result of the combination of kerosene and
atmospheric air. Also, the information on how to calculate the mass ratio, mass percentage and mass
flow rates of CO2, H2O, N2 and O2 at the combustion chamber exit are given. The energy rate of
C11H21 kerosene fuel with 1 kg/s flow rate of is determined as 43MW, while the energy output rate
of the combustion chamber (kerosene combustion products) is calculated as 20.87MW. On the other
hand, the energy efficiency of the combustion chamber is obtained as 48.53%.
Keywords: Combustion, Energy, Equation, Fuel, Kerosene.
1
INTRODUCTION
Kerosene is a mixture of hydrocarbons with
numbers of carbon atoms ranging from 6 to 16.
It is obtained by the fractional distillation of
petroleum between 150°C and 275°C with a
density between 0.78 0.81 g/cm3. Kerosene can
be widely composed of C12H26 15H32
hydrocarbons. As it is not as flammable as the
lower fractions, it is still used around the world
for heating and lighting [1]. Kerosene also called
paraffin, paraffin oil, flammable hydrocarbon
liquid. Kerosene is commonly used as a fuel or
fuel component for gas turbines [2]. There are
different types of kerosene as Jet A, Jet A-1, JP8, JP-4, JP-10 [3]. Many countries maintain
separate specifications for jet fuel. Operational
and logistical differences affect specifications of
the fuel. The military jet fuels of U.S. are given
in Table 1 [4].
In spite of there is still no clear explanation of the
ignition source of the fuel-air explosion, the
advice is to keep the kerosene/air vapor ratio
below the explosive limit. A minimum quantity
of fuel should be maintained in the tank of
aircraft, thereby limiting the potential for fuel
temperature rise and evaporation is important
[3]. For this reason, air/fuel ratio is also
investigated in this study.
Table 1. Military Jet Fuels [4].
Freeze
Point
oC max
Flash
Point
oC min
kerosene
wide-cut
wide-cut
wide-cut
-60
-60
-60
-72
43
1952
1956
1956
1960
kerosene
kerosene
kerosene
kerosene
-46
-54
-53
-43
60
1979
1998
kerosene
kerosene
-47
-47
38
38
Fuel
Year
Introduced
Type
JP-1
JP-2
JP-3
JP-4
1944
1945
1947
1951
JP-5
JP-6
JPTS
JP-7
JP-8
JP8
+100
43
60
Comment
obsolote
obsolote
obsolote
air force
fuel
navy fuel
obsolote
higher
thermal
stability
air force
fuel
Kerosene is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons
and other compounds [5]. CO2, H2O and N2 are
the main chemical products of kerosene
combustion [6]. Emissions are directly related to
the engine loads and speeds. At low engine
loads, the NOx emissions are also the same about
each operating condition. But at higher engine
loads, the kerosene-blended pre-injection fuel
tends to increase the NOx emissions slightly [7].
There is a linear relationship between the
maximum explosion pressure and maximum free
radical emission intensity of the fuels [8].
According to the literature research, the
combustion of a fuel, the chemical products
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
released after the combustion and their quantities
become important. The aim of this study is to
contribute to the calculations of the chemical
reaction and burning behaviour of the kerosene
in the aircraft combustion chamber.
2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
In this study, the kerosene fuel and its chemical
products are investigated. Kerosene fuel
enters the combustion chamber (CC) and
combustion occurs by the help of atmospheric air
2, H2O, N2 and O2 that are given at the
atmosphere as exhaust gases. This basic
combustion process is given on Figure 1.
As described in the introduction section,
kerosene can be widely composed of C12H26
C15H32 hydrocarbons.
In the open literature there are various kerosene
researches. One of them is the study of Koca
(2013) and it was accepted that the general
combustion equation of kerosene fuel is as
follows:
xC12H24
2+3.76N2
O+dH2+eO2+fN2
The atmospheric air condition was assumed as
298.15K (25oC) and 101.325kPa. Temperature
and pressure properties of kerosene are
considered the same as atmospheric air and also
its mole amount was taken as 1 kmol.
The minimum amount of air required for
complete combustion of a fuel is called
stoichiometric or theoretical air, and the ideal
combustion process that occurs during the
complete combustion of a fuel with theoretical
air is called the stoichiometric or theoretical
combustion of the fuel [9]. In this study
combustion of kerosene by the help of
atmospheric air is evaluated as the stoichiometric
combustion.
(2)
and the it was found that a=18, b=12, c=12,
d=67.68 as the mole numbers.
In this study, C11H21 kerosene fuel is used as an
aircraft fuel.
3
Figure 1. Combustion Chamber Schematic
Drawing
2+bCO+cH2
ANALYSIS
3.1 Theoretical Basic Approach
In case where C11H21 is used as fuel, the
stoichiometric combustion equation can be
written as:
xC11H21 1(O2+3.76N2
4N2
5O2
2CO2
3H2O+
(3)
where x is the mole number of the fuel, 1 is the
mole number of the atmospheric air and 2, 3, 4,
5 are the mole numbers of CO2, H2O, N2, O2 in
kmol, respectively. CO2, H2O, N2 and O2 are the
chemical products at the combustion chamber
exit.
Depending on the type of fuels, each fuel
requires different amounts of atmospheric air,
but there is a general ratio range between air/fuel
or fuel/air ratio as it is seen in Figure 2 [4].
The combination of number 6.02x1023
(Avagadro's number) of particles or molecules of
a substance is called the number of moles.
Chemical substances can be found in the
equations as mol or kmol. Atmospheric dry air
consists of approximately 20.9% oxygen, 78.1%
nitrogen, 0.9% argon and a small amount of
carbon dioxide, helium, neon and hydrogen. For
this reason, it can be considered that dry air
consists of approximately 21% oxygen and 79%
nitrogen in mol. It can be basically described as
(1): [9].
1kmol O2 + 3.76kmol N2 = 4.76kmol Air
(1)
Figure 2. Fuel-Air Ratio General Range [4].
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
This method evolved into ASTM D 909,
Standard Test Method for Knock Characteristics
of Aviation Gasolines by the Supercharge
Method, which was adopted in 1958 [4]. When
the studies in the open literature are examined
[1,4,6], it is determined that if the coefficient 1
could not be reached experimentally, the
coefficient 1 could be considered between 1518 for the ideal case of kerosene depending on
the aircraft condition. In this study, 1 mole
number of air is taken as 16. After the theoretical
calculation, the result is compared with
experimental result.
For 1 kmol of C11H21 and 16 kilo moles of
the equation is written as:
C11H21+16(O2+3.76N2
4N2
5O2
2CO2
1,
3H2O+
(4)
It is necessary to calculate the total number of
moles of each element in the inputs equal to the
number of moles of each element in the products.
Table 2 shows the results of the mole numbers.
Table 2. Results of The Mole Numbers.
Calculations
values
C:
2
2=11
H:
3x2
3=10.5
O:
N2:
2
16x(3.76)
3
4
5x2)
5=0.25
Comment
Table 3 shows the ideal experimental coefficient
results of the C11H21.
Table 3. Experimental Coefficients.
1
Ideal
Case
77.813
2
11.027
3
12.919
4
60.42
5
0
values which are used in
and
experimental
1=16)
1=77.813) are compared, it can be seen that
there is a difference in values. The reason is that
1=77.813 value is in a percentage. But 2, 3, 4,
5 are the mole numbers of CO2, H2O, N2, O2,
respectively, and they almost equal for the
theoretical and the experimental results.
1
value which is
in percentage form as mole number, it is
necessary to divide this number to the mole
number of air (=4.76) as it was described in
equation (1). As a result,
1
can be calculated as 16.137 and its value is
1 value.
1
4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Mass Flow Rate Calculation
Almost zero
(stoichiometric)
4=60.16
and
5=0.25
that means, combustion process is completed in
almost under stoichiometric process. By
1=16, the exact mole amount of
the atmospheric air can be calculated by using
the trial and error method.
3.2 Experimental Data Investigation
Although theoretical calculations can be made
with the number of moles, gas analysis devices
in laboratories generally show the component
results of the elements as a percentage. Equation
(5) shows the detailed chemical reaction of the
C11H21 with elements coefficients.
C11H21 1[0.7567N2+0.2035O2+0.0303H2O+
0.000345CO2+0.0000
2CO2
3H2O+
(5)
4N2
5O2
The amount of power that can be obtained from
kerosene entering the combustion chamber can
be written to be;
(6)
where Hu is lower heating value and
is mass
flow rate of the fuel which are using for the
calculation of energy input rate
. Lower
heating value of the kerosene is 43MJ/kg [10]
and
is taken as 1kg/s. Therefore the result for
the
can be calculated as 43MW.
It's necessary to calculate the properties of the
elements at the combustion chamber exit.
(7)
where
and
are mass flow rate and specific
heat rate of the combustion chamber exit for ith
component.
and
are mass
flow rates of the combustion chamber exit
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
products of
,
,
and , respectively.
is the combustion chamber exit temperature.
(8)
where MA is molar mass of the ith element and
is mole amounts of the elements which are
calculated in Table 2.
From the equation (4), C11H21 fuel is considered
and the molar mass of C11H21 can be calculate as
(11x12)+(21x1)=153kg/kmol.
For
1kmol
C11H21, 2365.48 kg atmospheric air is necessary
as calculated in Table 3. In this study the mass
flow rate of the C11H21 is used as 1kg/s. Dividing
the mass (kg) of 1 kmol of C11H21 to 153, mass
flow rate value of the fuel can be calculated as
1kg/s. Therefore the mass flow rate of
atmospheric air can also be calculated as
2365.48kg/153=15.46 kg air is needed. As a
result for C11H21 of 1kg/s mass flow rate, 15.46
kg/s atmospheric air is necessary. Due to the law
of conversation of mass, the mass flow rate of
elements should be,
(9)
where
are the mass flow rates of
fuel, atmospheric air and products in kg/s,
respectively. So,
can be calculated as
1+15.46=16.46 kg/s for the products. For each
element, the mass flow rate can be calculated as
follows:
(10)
Table 3. Mass Flow Rate Results.
i
CO2
H2O
N2
O2
Total
(kmol)
11
10.5
60.16
0.28
MA
(kg/kmol)
44
18
28
32
mi
(kg)
484.00
189.00
1684.48
8.00
2365.48
mi/mTotal
(%)
20.46
7.98
71.21
0.33
(kg/s)
3.367
1.315
11.721
0.055
4.2 Specific Heat Rate Calculation
For the specific heat values, if there is any
experimental data, it can be used directly. But if
there is no experimental data, specific heat
values can be calculated for each element as to
be [11];
(11)
where
is universal gas constant and
is
thermo-physical property coefficient for
common perfect gas species which changes for
combustion chamber exit temperature (
coefficients are taken from [11]), and is the
combustion chamber exit temperature as 998.15
K.
The unit of
is described in kJ/kmolK [11]. For
this reason, it is necessary to convert unit as
follows:
(kJ/kgK)
(12)
As a result, the specific heat values are shown in
Table 4.
Table 4. Specific Heat Value (cp) Results.
i
CO2
H2
O
N2
O2
kJ/kmolK
54.287
41.190
32.688
34.872
kJ/kgK
1.233
2.288
m ix
kW/K
4.155
3.009
m ix
kW
4147.62
3003.94
1.167
1.089
13.684
0.060
13658.77
60.55
4.3 Energy Rate and Energy Efficiency
Results
All the required values of (7) has been
calculated. All elements in the combustion
chamber exit are in the same temperature
conditions and all data can be replaced to (7). As
a result, the energy rate at the combustion
chamber exit can be found as;
This results shows the power which was obtained
at the combustion chamber exit after the
combustion of kerosene. Energy efficiency of
the combustion chamber (cc) can be calculated
as,
(13)
According to (13), the energy efficiency of the
combustion chamber is calculated 48.53%.
5
CONCLUSION
In this study, the energy output rate of the
combustion chamber by using the C11H21
kerosene fuel is investigated, while the fuel flow
rate is 1kg/s. Also, the energy efficiency of the
combustion chamber is calculated. The energy
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
rate of the C11H21 fuel is determined as 43MW,
while the energy output rate of the combustion
chamber is calculated as 20.87MW. On the other
hand, the energy efficiency of the combustion
chamber is obtained as 48.53% for the 16 kmol of
1.
The theoretical and experimental approaches are
compared for the chemical combustion
equations and the atmospheric air requirement is
investigated. It is determined that approximately
16x4.76=76.16 kmol of atmospheric air is
required (for 1=16) to burn 1 kmol of C11H21
fuel. In addition, even if the mass flow rate of the
combustion gases cannot be known, the mass
percentages of the elements on the combustion
chamber exit can be used as explained in this
study.
This study can be useful as a technical guide for
researchers and engineers interested in energetic
field of fuel combustion and combustion
chambers.
REFERENCES
[1] Ten-See Wang, Thermophysics Characterization of Kerosene Combustion, NASA
Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville,
Alabama, 2000.
[2] T. Edwards, J. Propul. Power 19 (6), 1089
1107, 2003.
[3] I. Sochet, P. Gillard, Flammability of
kerosene in civil and military aviation, Journal of
Loss Prevention in the Process Industries 15,
335 345, 2002.
[4] Aviation Fuels Technical Review, Global
Aviation, Chevron Corporation, 2006.
[5] B. Duboc, G. Ribert, P. Domingo,
Description of kerosene / air combustion with
Hybrid Transported-Tabulated Chemistry, Fuel
233, 146 158, 2018.
[6] I. Koca, The Development of a Pilot Burner
System for a Gas Turbine Engine Combustion
Chamber, Master Thesis, Istanbul Technical
University, 2013 (Turkish).
[7] B. Lia, Y. Wangb, W. Longb et all,
Experimental research on the effects of kerosene
on the pre-injection spray characteristics and
engine performance of dual-direct injection
diesel Jet Controlled Compression Ignition
mode, Fuel 281, 118691, 2020.
[8] Z. Luoa, D. Lia et all, Thermodynamic
effects of the generation of H*/OH*/CH2O* on
flammable gas explosion, Fuel 280, 118679,
2020.
[9] Y. Cengel, M.A. Boles, Thermodynamics
with an Engineering Approach, 2008.
[10] Web 1, https://www.engineeringtoolbox.
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[11] Kotas T.J. The Exergy Method of Thermal
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION OF TEA FACTORY WASTE AND SPENT TEA
WASTE; EXPERIMENTAL AND KINETIC MODELING STUDIES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Saliha Özarslan1, Serdar Abut2, M.R. Atelge1,3, M. Kaya4, S. Unalan1*
Energy Division, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes
University, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey
Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Siirt University, 56100 Siirt,
Turkey
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Siirt University, 56100 Siirt, Turkey
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Siirt University, 56100 Siirt, Turkey
*Corresponding Author; S. Unalan (sebahattinunalan@gmail.com)
Abstract
Production biofuel from waste has become an important topic due to waste management and reducing their
environmental hazard. Tea factory waste is a strong candidate due to its availability and reachability. This
study aimed to reveal the biochemical methane potential (BMP) of tea factory waste (TFW) and spent tea
waste (STW). Additionally, the results revealed that both substrates had high biodegradability due to high
VS removal. The BMP tests took 49 days under mesophilic conditions with a batch reactor and the
cumulative methane yields were 248.94, and 260.97 mL CH4/g VS for FTW and STW, respectively.
Moreover, TWF had a high TS and VS removal, which are 42.00 and 64.06%, respectively. In the obtained
biogas, the highest methane percent (77.84%) was reached the 21st day of test as 77.74 and 78.43% for TFW
and STW, respectively. Furthermore, kinetic studies of methane production were analyzed and the results
showed the experimental data were in agreement with the modified Gompertz model.
Keywords: Tea factory waste, Spent tea waste, Anaerobic digestion, Biofuels.
1 INTRODUCTION
In the world, the demand for energy is
increasing rapidly due to industrial progress and
relative population growth. The resources that
developing countries use to meet this demand
mostly fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas.
In developed countries, an increasing part of the
energy consumption in order to prevent global
problems such as greenhouse effect, hole in the
ozone layer, acid rain and environmental
pollution is met from renewable energy sources
such as wind, biomass, solar and hydroelectric
[1, 2]. Renewable energy has been adopted as an
important resource in many countries of the
world. However, less than 15% of global
primary energy supply is renewable energy [3].
Increasing the use of renewable energy has
become environmentally and economically
essential.
Biofuels refers to renewable fuels produced from
biological resources and biomass waste that can
be used for heat, electricity and fuel. They are an
interesting alternative to petroleum-based fuels
as they can be used as transportation fuels with
little modification to existing technologies.
Biomass is recognized worldwide as the most
potential renewable energy source for both
developed and developing economies to
contribute to the energy needs of modern
society. Its abundance in nature, being cheap,
clean and environmentally friendly has made
biomass resources attractive. Biomass waste can
be converted into energy through thermal,
biological and physical processes [4, 5]. Biogas
is a widely used biofuel. Many countries around
the world pay attention to the development of
new ways to produce biogas from biomass and
biowaste [6]. Biogas produced from biomass
waste could play a critical role in the energy
future. Biogas has the distinction of being a
versatile renewable energy carrier that can
replace conventional fuels to generate heat and
power. Biogas finds use in many areas such as
automotive applications, electricity generation,
chemicals and materials production. At the same
time, secondary waste, a by-product of this
technology, is a high-value fertilizer for crop
cultivation. Biogas production by anaerobic
digestion offers significant advantages over
other bioenergy production forms [7].
Considered as one of the most energy efficient
and environmentally friendly technologies for
bioenergy production [8, 9].
One of the potential sources of biomass is tea
factory waste released during the production of
tea, one of the most consumed beverages in the
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
world. Worldwide, tea is grown in more than 35
The inoculum has been stored at +4°C in the
countries. Tea production reached a volume of
refrigerator. All batch reactors were set to the S/I
5.95 million tons in 2016, according to Food and
ratio of 1.0 on a VS basis.
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United
2.2 Analytical methods
Nation sources [10, 11]. Tea production in the
TS values were analyzed according to APHA
world was recorded as 6.3 million tons in 2018.
method. All substrates were placed in an oven at
Turkey, the world production of 270 thousand
103-105°C until reaching a constant weight to
tons of dried tea is replacing at 5th place [12]. In
determine TS [21]. For determination of the VS,
tea industries, 2-4% of total production is
the sample was burnt in a muffle furnace
generated as tea waste. Tea waste can be used in
(MagmaTherm), first for 30 min at 220°C, and
many useful ways [13]. In the literature, it is
then for 2 h at 550°C. [21]. The elemental
possible to find examples of production of
analysis was performed to obtain the C, H, N, O,
hydrogen; building materials such as pellets,
and S contents of each substrate using an
briquettes; activated carbon; ethanol; biochar
elemental analyzer (Leco/TruSpec Micro). CO2
and bio-oil from tea wastes. [14-19].
and CH4 contents in biogas were analyzed via a
In this study, the potential of biogas production
gas chromatography (GC-2010 Plus). All tests
from tea factory wastes (TFW) consisting of
were conducted in triplicate and the standard
fiber, dust and woody structure, which is
deviation was calculated accordingly.
deficient during production in tea factories, is
From the elemental analysis results of
investigated. TFW can be used as fuel in tea
feedstocks, the stoichiometric equation was
production processes (4410 kcal/kg) or as
obtained as CnHaObNc (Eq. (1)) for each sample.
fertilizer in local tea cultivation after composting
The stoichiometric equation (Eq. (2))
[20]. However, it is possible to use and add
(BMPtherotical) was used to calculate the
value in more effective areas. Tea plant is grown
theoretical methane yields [22] as follows:
in certain regions due to climatic conditions. Tea
factories are gathered in areas close to the raw
(1)
material so that the tea plant does not lose its
characteristics. This situation shortens and
facilitates the supply process of TFW compared
(2)
to biomass sources such as brewed tea waste.
TFW occurs in large amounts in a given area,
2.3 BMP tests
but it is possible to move to a different region.
BMP tests were performed in 120mL bottles that
Biogas production from tea wastes will be
had 90 mL working volume. In this study, the
beneficial in terms of obtaining a new source for
feedstocks were used as sole digestion. Each
biogas production technology as well as
sample had 90 mL of inoculum and substrate
preventing environmental problems arising from
mixture. To understand gas potential from
the storage of tea wastes. It is also believed that
substate and dilated water, samples was
this study will contribute to filling the existing
performed without inoculum. Additionally, the
gap in the literature and will be a guide for new
blank sample was run to obtain baseline biogas
studies.
production. The baseline biogas production was
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
corrected from other trials biogas production to
find biogas production from the samples. All
2.1 Feedstocks and inoculum
BMP test trails were run triplicate under five
The tea factory waste was obtained from Caykur
different conditions. Samples were labeled
in Rize, Turkey and spent tea waste was
TFW, STW, and blank. Nitrogen was applied
collected in the Carkur cafeteria. Both them
into the bottles for 2 min to remove existed
were immediately dried using an oven at 105°C
oxygen in the head of the bottle before sealing.
(Mikrotest) for 24 hours and the dried samples
Lip of the bottle had a hole for sampling and
were then stored at +4°C in a refrigerator for
daily biogas measurements. The BMP tests were
further usage. Inoculum was taken from a local
run under mesophilic conditions (37 ± 1°C).
wastewater treatment plant in Kayseri. Total
During the test, samples continually shook at
solid (TS) and volatile solid (VS) values of the
150 rpm. The dry biogas was calculated from
inoculum were 4.23% and 2.33%, respectively.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
daily biogas production at standard temperature
TFW was 49.67% which was slightly higher
(0°C) and pressure (1 atm) according to
than STW (48.01%). The macronutrient ratio
Richards et al. [23].
(C/N) is commonly accepted between 20-25 to
improve the AD process [7]. TFW and STW
2.4 Kinetic study
were within the optimum range for C/N. The
The modified Gompertz model was used to
C/N ratio was 21.41 for TWF and 23.56 for
obtained the predicted cumulative methane
STW. Moreover, these results were supported
production rate. The model is represented in Eq.
with TS and VS content of wastes. TS/VS ratio
(3) [24].
was 0.95 and 0.96% for TFW and STW,
(3)
respectively. Additionally, BMPtherotical was
calculated according to Eq. (1) and (2). Due to
where:
higher C content, TFW had the highest methane
y
The cumulative methane production (L
yield of 483 mL CH4/g VS followed by STW
CH4/g VS)
(475 mL CH4/g VS) as shown in Table 1.
t
The incubation time (day)
For the trace elements, Fe, Zn, and Cu should be
A
The estimated methane production
suitable range which are 1320, 1130, and 120
potential (L CH4/g VS)
ppm to avoid inhibition [25]. FTW had 66.15,
R
The maximum methane production rate
13.58, and 7.78 ppm for Fe, Zn, and Cu whereas
(L CH4/d)
STW had 44.21, 9.05, and 10.06 ppm as shown
Lag phase (day)
in Table 1. Feedstocks used in this study were
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
within optimal range for micronutrients aspect.
3.1 Characterizations of the substrates
3.2 Experimental analyses
The main physicochemical properties including
BMP test results
elemental analysis, TS, VS, and BMPtherotical of
In this study, sole digestion of TFW and STW
each substrate are given in Table 1.
was examined. The methane production
Table 1 Physicochemical properties of
performance based on the BMP tests was
substrates tested for BMP
evaluated based on the sole digestion of TFW
and STW. Additionally, the experimental data
TFW
STW
that were daily measured was in agreement with
C (%)
49.67
48.01
the modified Gompertz model (MGM). As it has
H (%)
5.12
5.68
been mentioned above, the study primarily aims
O (%)
38.43
39.95
to analyze the impact of TFW on the BMP
results in order to assess the feasibility of TFW
N (%)
2.32
2.04
due to their availability and reachability for AD
S (%)
0.07
0.02
process. Also, there is an comparison between
CHNOS (%)
95.61
95.69
TFW and STW on BMP test.
C/N
21.41
23.56
The BMP tests are shown in Fig. 1. The test
results are represented in mL of CH4 per gram
TS (%)
98.67
98.78
waste of VS based at STP. The BMP test was
VS (%)
94
94.44
run in triplicate and tests were terminated when
VS/TS
0.95
0.96
daily biogas production was less than 1% of
pH
5.36
4.57
cumulative biogas. The BMP tests took 49 days
and the cumulative methane yields were 248.94,
Fe (ppm)
66.15
42.21
and 260.97 mL CH4/g VS for FTW and STW,
Zn (ppm)
13.58
9.05
respectively. STW is better performance than
Cu (ppm)
7.78
10.06
FTW for methanation aspect. It could be the
BMPtherotical
reason that FTW has more lignin content than
483
475
STW. FTW is the first time reported for biogas
(mLCH4/g VS)
production, however, STW has a good
The elemental analysis results as shown in
agreement with available literature data. For
Table 1 indicated that both wastes were organic
example, STW was run under mesophilic
waste because a total of C, H, O, N, and S
conditions with different food/inoculum (F/I)
contents was higher than 95%. C content of
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ratio and the results showed that 0.5 of F/I ratio
CO2 and CH4 contents in biogas were analyzed
gave higher methane yield than 1 of F/I ratio.
by GC-2010 Plus, Shimadzu. Their sampling
The former was 149 mL CH4/g VS while the
days and CH4 content as a percentage were
later was 123 mL CH4/g VS [26]. Additionally,
given in Table 2. The CH4 content was sharply
STW was investigated co-digestion with other
increased for both substrates after the second
substrates. Their results revealed that the
week as expected. The highest methane content
methane yields of co-digestion were improved
was reached at 21st day as 77.74 and 78.43% for
when sole STW digestion comparing to coTFW and STW, respectively. It was observed
digestion.
To
illustrate,
co-digestion
that the first week STW had higher methane
performance of STW and cow manure was
content than TFW. It might be higher lignin
increased by 170% according to sole STW
content of TFW. Therefore, it is a high
digestion [27]. Moreover, the result was
probability that the pre-treatment could give a
supported by Thanarasu et. al. [28] and
better result for TFW due to reducing lignin
Ozbayram et.al. [26]. However, their results
content in it.
were represented in COD and their mixing was a
Table 2 CH4 content in the produced biogas
basis of TS weight. Therefore, the methane yield
according to their sampling days
performance of STW is not comparable with this
Days
TFW (%)
STW (%)
study because a VS basis was used. In this study,
rd
3 day
2.05
1.52
STW showed a better performance than
th
7
day
4.93
18.06
Ozbayram et.al. [26]. It might be seasonal
harvesting of the substrate. When STW and
14th day
59.52
78.13
st
TFW were compared to each other, STW
21 day
77.74
78.43
showed a better performance than TFW;
th
28 day
67.88
70.29
however, TFW might have a positive benefit
th
35 day
35.78
76.81
when availability and reachability were taken
th
49 day
29.39
23.49
into account.
a
b
Fig. 1 The cumulative methane production (a)
for TFW and STW and the modified
Gompertz kinetic model (MGM) (b)
VS and TS removals
Between the initial and final TS and VS, the TS
and VS removals were determined for each trial.
The Fig. 2 represents the removals in
percentage. For AD process, the removal of both
TS and VS shows the biodegradability
performance of substrates [29]. TFW had the
highest VS removal as 64.06% while STW has
56.80% of VS removal. In the case of TS
removal had the same trend as VS removal. In
Fig. 2, TS removals are given 40.80, and
42.00% for STW and TFW, respectively.
Moreover, pH is a crucial parameter for AD
process and pH value gives a clue that whether
the reactor is in balance for microbial
communities. Different phases request different
pH ranges, for example, the suitable pH value is
between 4 and 8 for hydrolysis and 6.5-7.5 for
the methanogenic phase [30]. After concluding
AD process, the final pH value of a reactor
shows whether inhibition exists. The lower pH
could be attributed to VFA accumulation [31].
The final pH is given in Fig. 2 for both
substrates. The final pH of STW and TFW were
measured 7.61 and 7.45, respectively. These pH
values showed that both feedstocks were
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
digested in balance. This result is agreed with
and 23.56 for TFW and STW, respectively, was
the cumulative methane yield.
in the optimum range for both substrates. The
methane yield of STW was higher than TFW
which is 260.97 and 248.94 94 CH4 mL/g VS,
respectively. Additionally, the removal of TS
and VS figured out that it was in a close
agreement with the cumulative methane yield.
TFW had the highest VS removal as 64.06%
STW
TFW
while STW has 56.80% of VS removal.
Fig. 2 Removal of TS, and VS and final pH
Moreover, the MGM revealed that the
value
experimental data and model prediction showed
a general agreement with a higher R2 value
3.3 Kinetic study results
(0.9982). TFW is an industrial waste and it could
The Gompertz model is used for reliability
be reached in a tea factory. It makes TFW more
growth when the reliability data is analyzed. The
feasible for biogas production.
model is commonly applicable if the data show a
Based on this experimental study, the following
smooth curve trend. If the data follows the S
conclusions can be drawn as:
shape trend, it can be described by the Gompertz
STW was higher methane potential than
model and the Logistic curve. This combination
TFW;
however,
availability
and
is described as Modified Gompertz Model
reachability made TFW more feasible for
(MGM). The cumulative methane production
the biogas plants.
shows S shape trend because biogas slowly
TFW had a high VS removal which
produces in the first days, afterward, the
indicated that this substrate is suitable for
production of the gas is rapidly grown [32].
biogas production.
Therefore, MGM is an applicable model for
Therefore,
it is recommended to further
biogas production. In the kinetic study, MGM
investigate the co-digestion of TFW with STW,
was applied for each obtained data. The model
and other organic waste in future studies. Also,
showed a good agreement with experimental
2
pretreatment of TFW should be investigated to
methane production. In Table 3, the R value
enhance the methane yield.
was 0.9982 and STW showed better
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
performance in the term of the maximum
The authors would like to acknowledge The Unit
methane production rate as 18.57 mL CH4/d
of Scientific Research Project Coordination at
while TFW was slightly lower than was 14.68
Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey for the
mL CH4/d. The higher lignin content of TFW
financial support under the University Project:
might be the reason for that.
FDK-2020-10493.
Table 3 BMP test results with their sample
combination, name, and the kinetic
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
COMBUSTION OF METHANE USING A CYCLONIC BURNER UNDER
COLORLESS DISTRIBUTED COMBUSTION CONDITIONS
2
K. B. Kekeç1, S. Karyeyen2, M.
1. Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Gazi University, Ankara; email:
kenanbilginkekec@gmail.com
2. Gazi University, Faculty of Technology, Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Ankara; email:
serhatkaryeyen@gazi.edu.tr, ilbas@gazi.edu.tr
Abstract
Colorless distributed combustion (CDC) is a novel combustion method providing ultra-low NOX and CO
pollutant emissions, a more uniform thermal field, less combustion instabilities, etc. CDC can be
implemented to many types of burners like cyclonic burners. Cyclonic burners, intrinsically, can enable a
more uniform thermal field, less pollutant emissions, and more residence time due to highly internal
recirculation. However, CDC is achieved by external recirculation. Therefore, non-premixed combustion of
methane using a cyclonic burner was modelled through a commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
code to enable both external and internal recirculation in the study presented. In the modelling, Reynolds
Stress Model that predicts accurately higher level turbulence closures was used as the turbulence model. The
assumed-shape with -function Probability Density Function non-premixed combustion and P-1 radiation
models were also used as the combustion and radiation models, respectively. In order to simulate CDC, N2
as the diluent was used to reduce oxygen concentration in the oxidizer from 21% to 15%. In this way, the
transition to CDC was achieved at around an oxygen concentration of 15% when methane was combusted at
an equivalence ratio of 0.83. With decreasing oxygen concentration in the oxidizer by N 2, it was predicted
NOX and CO pollutants emissions decreased considerably at the burner outlet (ultra-low NOX value, less
than 1 ppm). For better understanding of the effect of equivalence ratio on thermal fields, and NO X and CO
pollutant emissions, modelling were taken place at equivalence ratios of 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, and 0.6. According to
the results predicted with changes in equivalence ratio, NOX and CO emissions decreased substantially even
if ultra-low NOX emission levels could not be achieved compared to CDC conditions. Therefore, it can be
said that CDC has enabled ultra-low NOX and considerably less CO pollutant emissions with a more uniform
thermal field at lower equivalence ratios.
Keywords: Colorless Distributed Combustion, Methane, Cyclonic Burner, CFD
1 INTRODUCTION
Energy consumption is getting increase each
year because of the growing population and
economies. Therefore, energy production is one
of the essential points for countries and their
economies. However, energy production has a
substantial impact on the environment due to
emissions unless a renewable energy resource is
used. Especially fossil fuels bring about serious
problems on the environment due to pollutant
emissions such as NOx and CO. That issue
dictates engineers should improve the
combustion methods that are being used
nowadays to consume fossil fuel sources
efficiently and effectively. In this direction,
novel combustion methods have been developed
to decrease the pollutant emissions. Some of
these methods are as follows: Colorless
Distributed Combustion (CDC) [1-4], Moderate
or Intense Low Oxygen Dilution (MILD),
Flameless Oxidation [FLOX] [5-7].
CDC which is one of the promising methods,
has several properties in common with HiTAC
(High Temperature Air Combustion). CDC
provides a more stable flame along with low
noise levels, and less pollutant emissions such as
NO and CO [8].
CDC conditions are achieved by reducing the
oxygen concentration in the oxidizer. For this
purpose, the oxidizer flow rate is increased with
a diluent to simulate external recirculation. At
the same time, the amount of oxygen that is
stoichiometrically required to burn a fuel
completely is kept constant. In this way, the
reaction rate is slowed down. Thus more stable
flame and temperature field are achieved over
the entire of the reactor. High temperature zones
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
are not mostly seen in the combustion chamber
oxidizer flow rates. The general views of the
because of obtaining distributed reaction zone
burner constituted are shown in Figure 1
[9].
(isometric view) and Figure 2 (top view). Fuel
and oxidizer inlets have been placed on the
In order to achieve higher combustion efficiency
lateral two surfaces as can be seen from the
less pollutant emissions, many scientists have
Figures. When it comes to the burner outlet,
performed lots of studies that provided
from Figure 1, it can be seen that it has been
substantial contribution to the literature. Sabia et
placed on the top of the burner. In this way,
al., for example, conducted numerical and
combustion products reside in more time in the
experimental studies on propane [10], methane
burner before being exhausted.
[11] and diluted (CO2, H2O) propane [12]
considering auto-ignition delay time under
MILD condition. Sidey et al. performed
numerical study regarding laminar strained nonpremixed flames of methane under particular
MILD conditions. Sidey reveals thermal and
prompt NO formation results in that study [13].
Li et al. examined the effect of H2 addition into
methane on the formation of NO under MILD
condition as both numerical and experimental.
As a result of this study, NOx ratio remains
constant. This surprising results cannot be
clarified with thermal NOx formation in that
reactor temperature increases with the addition
of H2 [14]. Costa et al. designed the novel
Figure 1. The isometric view of the burner
combustor model for gas turbine. That study
demonstrated that inlet air configuration mostly
associated with efficiency [15]. Lammel et al.
showed that it is possible to reach high flame
temperature up to 2000 K with low pollutant
emissions [6].
In light of the studies presented and discussed
above, the combustion of methane using a
cyclonic burner was investigated under colorless
distributed combustion conditions. For this
purpose, the cyclonic burner that was used in the
previous study performing under MILD
conditions by Sorrentino et al. [16] was selected
due to its higher internal recirculation capability.
Then, Ansys Fluent CFD code was used to
predict the temperature, and the pollutant
emission levels such as NOX and CO of methane
combustion under CDC conditions. In this way,
both external and internal recirculation was
achieved to obtain ultra-low NOX and
considerably less CO pollutant emission levels.
2 MODELING DETAILS
As mentioned previously, the burner used was
selected as the almost same as that of
6]. The geometry of the
burner was designed and constituted using
Ansys Design Modeler considering the fuel and
Figure 1. The top view of the burner
The fuel flow rate was determined considering to
correspond to a thermal power of 2 kW for all
conditions studied (Table 1). Then, the fuel inlet
diameter was calculated as 0.89 mm considering
the thermal power selected. Similarly, the
oxidizer inlet diameter was also calculated as
3.39 mm taking into account an equivalence
ratio of 0.83 and the thermal power selected.
Then, the all oxidizer flow rates for each
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
condition have been calculated considering
been used for some modelling such as conditions
which
equivalence
ratio
and
oxygen
at lower oxygen concentrations needed using
concentration are studied. It means the oxygen
more cells to reach convergence criteria.
concentration in the oxidizer reduces as N2
diluent is introduced into the oxidizer. The
In the present study, for prediction of NOX
burner outlet diameter was constituted as 25
pollutant emission, Ansys Fluent post-processor
mm. The reactor height, width, and length are of
was used. It is well-known that there exist three
50 mm, 200 mm, 200 mm, respectively.
NOX formation mechanisms that are called as
thermal (oxidation of nitrogen in the air at high
Table 1. Operating conditions
temperature), prompt (which is produced at fuelrich zones due to hydrocarbon fuel separation
Mixture
Oxygen
reactions) and fuel-NOX. However, for this
Equivalance
Temperature Concentration
study, thermal and prompt NOX mechanisms
Ratio
(K)
(% by volume)
have been activated to predict NOX levels. Fuel
NOX has not been activated as methane has not
0.83
300
21%
any fuel-bound nitrogen.
0.83
300
20%
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
0.83
300
19%
3.1 Model Validation
0.83
300
18%
In order to consider that all modelling results are
0.83
300
17%
reasonable, validation with experimental results
0.83
300
16%
is very important. For this purpose, some
0.83
300
15%
modelling has been performed to compare and
0.9
300
21%
validate with the experimental data obtained in
0.8
300
21%
the study reported by Sorrentino et al. [16].
0.7
300
21%
Sorrentino et al. [16] combusted C3H8/O2/N2
mixture with highly preheated air and obtained
0.6
300
21%
some experimental results. Therefore, the
numerical results predicted and the data
Ansys Fluent commercial program has been
measured are compared in Figure 3. It is
used for numerical analysis of turbulence
understood from Figure 3, the results predicted
reacting flow. Modelling algorithm of flow was
are in good agreement with the data measured in
considered as steady-state and three-dimensional
terms of values and trends. So, it can be said that
continuity. Energy, momentum, and species
further modelings for this burner can be
transport equations were solved iteratively.
implemented and acceptable in terms of
Linear pressure strain Reynolds Stress Model
accuracy.
(RSM) along with non-equilibrium wall function
was selected due to its higher accuracy capacity
for highly swirling flows. For species transports,
the assumed-shape with -function Probability
Density Function non-premixed combustion
model was preferred together with inlet diffusion
option. Scheme simple was selected for
pressure velocity
coupling.
The
other
components were determined as respectively:
Pressure: Presto; Gradient: Least Square CellBased; Momentum and Turbulent Kinetic
Energy: Second Order Upwind. Convergence
criteria for each equation was selected at least
10-4.
Minimum 460000 cells have been used to
predict the temperature field and pollutant
emissions. More than 460000 cells have also
Figure 2. Model validation
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3.2 The effect of oxygen concentration
on the temperature field
Figures 4 to 10 show the effect of oxygen
concentration on the temperature field inside the
burner. The maximum temperature level has
been predicted as around 2040 K at an oxygen
concentration of 21%. Then, the maximum
temperature values predicted decreased as the
oxygen concentration in the oxidizer was
reduced by introducing N2 diluent into the
oxidizer. The maximum temperature values
predicted for each oxygen concentration are of
almost 1980 K, 1950 K, 1920 K, 1890 K, 1830
Figure 4. Temperature distributions at an
K, and 1790 K at oxygen concentrations of 20%,
oxygen concentration of 20%
19%, 18%, 17%, 16%, and 15%, respectively.
As for temperature distributions, it can be said
that high temperature zones replaced in the
burner with being decreased the oxygen
concentration in the oxidizer. This is because of
higher
flow rates at
lower oxygen
concentrations. However, for the cyclonic
burner, CDC conditions did not change
considerably temperature field even if a little
more uniform thermal field was obtained inside
the burner. After an oxygen concentration of
15%, the burner was not continued to model as
the NOX values predicted (the results are
presented in 3.4. section) decreased below 1
Figure 5. Temperature distributions at an
ppm, which is considered CDC is achieved.
oxygen concentration of 19%
Figure 3. Temperature distributions at an
oxygen concentration of 21%
Figure 6. Temperature distributions at an
oxygen concentration of 18%
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
important conclusion here is to reveal a more
uniform thermal field was obtained under CDC.
In particular, it is concluded that the temperature
differences between the values close to the walls
and at the burner centre are not too different.
Therefore, in terms of a more uniform thermal
field, it can be said that CDC was achieved.
Figure 7. Temperature distributions at an
oxygen concentration of 17%
Figure 10. The temperature profiles along
the centreline of the burner at different
oxygen concentrations
Figure 8. Temperature distributions at an
oxygen concentration of 16%
Figure 9. Temperature distributions at an
oxygen concentration of 15%
The temperature profiles at different oxygen
concentrations along the centreline of the burner
are shown in Figure 11. When it is looked at in
Figure 11, the first conclusion is that the
temperature levels decreased gradually as the
oxygen concentration was decreased. The other
3.3 The Effect of Equivalence Ratio on
Temperature Distributions
The effect of change in equivalence ratio on
temperature distributions are presented here. For
this purpose, more modelling have been
performed at equivalence ratios of 0.9, 0.8, 0.7,
and 0.6, and temperature fields of those are
given in Figures 12 to 15. From the Figures, it
can be said that the maximum temperature level
emerged at the near stoichiometric condition (at
an equivalence ratio of 0.9). It is also seen the
temperature field became a more uniform when
the equivalence ratio was decreased to 0.6. It can
be concluded that reducing equivalence ratio is
more effective obtaining a more uniform thermal
field in the cyclonic burner.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 11. Temperature distributions at an
equivalence ratio of 0.9
Figure 14. Temperature distributions at an
equivalence ratio of 0.6
The temperature profiles at different equivalence
ratios along the centreline of the burner are
shown in Figure 16. According to Figure 16, it is
said that the maximum temperature values
decreased with being reduced equivalence ratio.
Besides, reducing the equivalence ratio enabled
less temperature differences between the values
close to the walls and at the burner centre like an
oxygen concentration of 15%.
Figure 12. Temperature distributions at an
equivalence ratio of 0.8
Figure 15. The temperature profiles along
the centreline of the burner at different
equivalence ratios.
Figure 13. Temperature distributions at an
equivalence ratio of 0.7
3.4 Pollutant Emissions
In order to understand the transition to CDC, the
effect of reduced oxygen concentration on
pollutant emissions such as NO X and CO are
presented here. The NO X profiles at different
oxygen concentrations and equivalence ratios
along the diameter of the burner outlet are
shown in Figure 17 and Figure 18. Moreover,
the mean NOX and CO levels predicted at the
burner outlet are given in Figure 19 and Figure
20. According to Figure 17, it can be said that
reducing
oxygen
concentration
affected
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
substantially the NOX levels predicted. It can be
seen from the Figure the NOX levels predicted
reduced drastically as the oxygen concentration
in the oxidizer was reduced. Such that, at an
oxygen concentration of 15%, the NOX value
predicted is of around 0.2 ppm, which suggests
that CDC is achieved in terms of ultra-low NOX
level.
As for the evaluation of the effect of the
decrease in the equivalence ratio on the NOX
values predicted, it can be concluded that the
decrease in the equivalence ratio reduced the
NOX values like the decrease in the oxygen
concentration. However, ultra-low NOX levels
could not be achieved. The NOX value predicted
is of around 15 ppm at an equivalence ratio of
0.6.
Figure 17. The NOX profiles along the
diameter of the burner outlet at different
equivalence ratios
Figure 19. The effect of reduced oxygen
concentration on NOx emission levels at the
burner outlet
Figure 16. The NOX profiles along the
diameter of the burner outlet at different
oxygen concentrations
Figure 19 and Figure 20 show the effect of
oxygen concentration on mean NOX and CO
pollutant emissions at the burner outlet. Both
NOX and CO pollutant emission reduced
significantly with decreasing the oxygen
concentration.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
field and ultra-low NOX and less CO pollutant
emissions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge Gazi
University for use of Ansys Fluent academic
computer code.
Figure 18. The effect of reduced oxygen
concentration on CO emission levels at the
burner outlet
4 CONCLUSIONS
The non-premixed combustion of methane using
a cyclonic burner was modelled through Ansys
Fluent commercial code to achieve both external
(CDC conditions) and internal recirculation in
this study. In the modelling, Reynolds Stress
turbulence model, the assumed-shape with function Probability Density Function nonpremixed combustion model, and P-1 radiation
model were used to predict temperature field,
and pollutant emissions such as NOX and CO. In
order to simulate CDC, N2 as the diluent was
introduced into the oxidizer to reduce the
oxygen concentration in the oxidizer from 21%
to 15%. It has been concluded that the transition
to CDC was achieved at around an oxygen
concentration of 15% when methane was
combusted at an equivalence ratio of 0.83. When
the transition to CDC is evaluated in terms of
different equivalence ratios, it can be said that
decreasing the equivalence ratio highly affected
the transition to CDC. So, a more uniform
thermal field was achieved at an equivalence
ratio of 0.6. As for the conclusion of pollutant
emissions, it can be concluded reducing the
oxygen concentration affected considerably the
NOX levels predicted (ultra-low NOX level has
been predicted as around 0.2 ppm). CO levels
have also been predicted from around 3000 ppm
to less than 1500 ppm at the oxygen
concentration of 21% to 15% under CDC due to
the high internal recirculation capability of the
cyclonic burner. Therefore, it can be said
cyclonic burners providing high internal
recirculation can be used in practical
applications such as gas turbines under CDC
conditions to obtain a more uniform thermal
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Sorrentino, R. Ragucci, M. de Joannon, CO2 and
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
PASSENGER CAR EMISSIONS IN TURKEY
1. Department of Mechatronics
adem.ugurlu@klu.edu.tr
A.
Engineering,
1
K rklareli
University,
K rklareli,
Turkey,
Abstract
In this study, the emission levels of passenger cars in Turkey, where is one of the world's twenty largest
emission producers, is investigated. GREET software has been used to analyze emissions for the last ten
years. The software was adapted to the Turkish statistical data on technological years of fuel production
systems, fuel types, vehicle years, vehicle types, and shares of different energy sources in total electricity
generation. Emissions from average Turkish car for each year have been compared on well to wheel basis.
According to the analysis, VOC emission decreased from the levels of 0.56 g/km in 2009 to 0.37 g/km in
2018. For the same period, other emissions approximately decreased from 4.87 g/km to 3.57 g/km for CO,
from 1.29 g/km to 0.83 g/km for NOx, from 0.021 g/km to 0.016 g/km for PM10, from 0.018 g/km to 0.014
g/km for PM2.5, from 0.11 g/km to 0.08 g/km for SOx, and from 294 g/km to 267 g/km for GHG-100,
respectively. This reduction in emissions is mainly due to the technological improvements over the years,
the increase in the use of LPG as a fuel in passenger cars, the increase in the share of renewable energy
sources in electricity generation, and the increase in the number of hybrid and electric cars.
Keywords: Fuels, passenger car, emissions, Turkey.
1 INTRODUCTION
Vehicles on the roads of Turkey are equipped
with internal combustion engines powered by
gasoline, diesel, and LPG. These fuels emit
volatile organic compound (VOC), carbon
monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
particulate matters (PM10 & PM2.5), sulfur
oxides (SOx), and greenhouse gases (GHG) in
the combustion process. They, therefore, cause
air pollution, global warming, and climate
change in the environment, which is investigated
and shown in many studies [1-14].
Literature has publications showing present data
sources and parameters for different countries.
Few studies, on the other hand, perform analyses
only for limited fuel and vehicle options for
Turkey, and therefore, these studies may not
represent the real situation for a comprehensive
fuel-vehicle combination in the past and future
of Turkey. Thus, this study has been performed
to make comparison of nearly all air pollutant
emissions, directly or indirectly emitted from
passenger cars, considering different fuel
production technologies, electricity generation
technologies, electricity mixes, and vehicle
technologies for different years in passenger cars
of Turkey adapting the GREET model.
2 METHODOLOGY
VOC, CO, NOx, PM10, PM2.5, SOx, and GHG
emissions emitted from internal combustion
engine vehicles (ICEVs), hybrid electric
vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs), electric vehicles (EVs), and fuel cell
vehicles (FCVs) are analyzed using GREET
(greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and
energy use in transportation) software (version
1.3.0.13395) developed by Argonne National
Laboratory [15] for Turkey. The analysis is
performed for the ten years from 2009 to 2018.
The main calculation method of the emissions
that GREET software uses is demonstrated in
Eq. 1 [16], where
,
,
, and
are the total emissions of pollutant i of
the energy source throughput for the given
process, the combustion emissions of the
pollutant i of the energy source j burned, the
upstream emissions of the pollutant i of the
energy source j utilized to produce and distribute
the energy source to the related process, and the
energy consumption of the energy source j
during the process, respectively. In the emission
analysis, passenger vehicles are considered as
identical vehicles. Therefore, merely the
variations of vehicle technologies, vehicle types,
fuel properties and additive rates, and shares of
energy sources in electric generation by year are
determined for Turkey. In the energy
calculations of the fuel sources, lower-heating
values (LHV) are used. Vehicle technology year
is determined by the software automatically as
five years that of the target year. Turkey
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
produces its electricity using which source is
passenger cars (>54% in 2018) [17], it is
also effective in the emission calculation for the
suitable to take them into consideration in the
specified year. It is clear that how electricity is
emissions analysis. As clearly seen from the
produced in a country directly affects emissions
table, while the number of gasoline powered
in EVs that use this electricity, but it should be
cars is decreasing by years, diesel and LPG
known that it also indirectly effects the
powered cars increase their numbers in Turkey.
production of some vehicle fuels in different
In addition, although their numbers are very
proportions for the specified year. Consistent
low, hybrid and electric cars multiply their
with this, vehicle emissions are calculated for
numbers in the Turkish passenger car market by
the specified years using these exact values year
year. Unknown cars, on the other hand,
by year in the study.
demonstrate the passenger cars that have no fuel
information in their records, which is due to the
(1)
errors during the registration of the cars. The
number of the vehicles with unknown fuel
Table 1 shows the numbers of passenger cars in
decreases as they are withdrawn from the traffic
Turkey according to their fuel types. Since the
by years.
more than half of the vehicles in Turkey are
Table 1. Passenger cars in Turkey according to fuel types [17-20]
Year
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
Gasoline
3 373 875
3 191 964
3 036 129
2 929 216
2 888 610
2 855 078
2 927 720
3 031 744
3 120 407
3 089 626
Diesel
1 111 822
1 381 631
1 756 034
2 101 206
2 497 209
2 882 885
3 345 951
3 803 772
4 256 305
4 568 665
3 RESULTS
Table 2 shows VOC, CO, NOx, PM10, PM2.5,
SOx, and GHG-100 emissions of average
passenger cars in Turkey. Average passenger
cars are determined for each year regarding the
numbers of the cars that have different fuels and
car technologies. According to the table, all
emissions decrease by year with no exception.
The prominent factors in this decrease are
technological advances in both fuel production
stages and vehicle efficiency, also decrease in
the number of gasoline vehicles, increase in the
numbers of diesel and LPG vehicles, and even it
is a bit lower, increase in the numbers of hybrid
and electric vehicles in Turkey. While the
highest emission in the amount of g/km unit is
GHG-100, the lowest emission is PM10-2.5. From
2009 to 2018, the average emission reductions in
percent are over 32% in VOC, 26% in CO, 36%
in NOx, 25% in PM10, 26% in PM2.5, 22% in
LPG
2 525 449
2 900 034
3 259 288
3 569 143
3 852 336
4 076 730
4 272 044
4 439 631
4 616 842
4 695 717
Hybrid
0
0
24
24
201
243
419
646
1094
4621
Electric
0
0
23
204
235
282
470
514
591
746
Unknown
82 818
71 242
61 613
49 082
45 332
42 697
42 733
41 691
40 739
38 815
SOx, and 8% in GHG-100. As the table shows,
the mostly reduced emission between 2009 and
2018 is NOx, which is a vehicle emission that
takes big attention of car manufacturers to be
lowered, even some of them reports false results
as gets global interest with news. The lowest
reduction in emissions is in GHG-100, which is
actually the most important one for the
environment we live in. However, reducing
GHG-100 is very hard in internal combustion
engine vehicles, since they emit CO2 and its
equivalents due to fuel consumption of the
engine. Efficiency increase of the engine
decrease CO2 emissions in some degree. To
lower CO2 emissions, actually all kind of
emissions, electric should be produced from
environmentally friendly sources, and vehicles
should be powered by this green electricity as
much as possible.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Table 2. Emissions of the average passenger car in Turkey by years
Year
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
VOC
(g/km)
0.5577
0.5329
0.5062
0.4845
0.4626
0.4453
0.4216
0.4011
0.3833
0.3747
CO
(g/km)
4.8674
4.6915
4.4976
4.3383
4.1731
4.0417
3.8838
3.7468
3.6281
3.5738
NOx
(g/km)
1.2926
1.2280
1.1571
1.0990
1.0479
0.9993
0.9407
0.8899
0.8457
0.8253
Fig. 1 illustrates the average emission percent
shares of passenger cars in Turkey for the
scenario years of 2030 and 2050. It is assumed
that Turkey generates its electricity by using the
following sources at equal shares: oil, coal,
natural gas, biomass, hydro, geothermal, wind,
solar, and nuclear. Although the vehicles have
lower values in some emissions, they can have a
higher average value for all the emissions. What
the bars in the figure show a comprehensive
view of general situation for Turkish 2030 and
2050 scenarios and plot a target path with a
proper expression. Although some types of
emissions are more important for the
environment, it is also a good comparison
criterion to average the emissions frequently
used in comparisons and to illustrate the percent
shares of each in the vehicle group. Therefore,
if we carefully examine the figure, it is clearly
seen that EVs have the highest average
PM10
PM2.5
SOx
GHG-100
(g/km)
(g/km)
(g/km)
(g/km)
0.0213
0.0184
0.1052
294
0.0205
0.0177
0.1024
290
0.0196
0.0170
0.0992
286
0.0189
0.0164
0.0965
283
0.0182
0.0158
0.0935
280
0.0177
0.0153
0.0911
278
0.0170
0.0147
0.0877
274
0.0165
0.0142
0.0849
271
0.0160
0.0138
0.0823
269
0.0158
0.0136
0.0811
267
emission shares in both years according to the
analysis. Actually, EVs do not have tailpipe
emissions, but they pollute the environment
during the production of the electricity they use,
especially when using conventional fossil fuels
such as coal and oil, as assumed in this analysis
also. Second, third, and fourth highest average
emissions are seen in 90% gasoline + 10
ethanol powered spark ignition (SI) PHEVs and
SI HEVs, and gaseous hydrogen powered
FCVs, respectively. The lowest average
emission, on the other hand, is seen in the LPG
powered SI HEVs, which is an important result
that should be emphasized in terms of the
Turkish people who highly prefer LPG powered
vehicles, as can be seen in Table 1. After LPG
powered SI HEVs, CNG powered SI HEVs
have the lowest emissions. Furthermore, it is
seen that average emissions have slightly more
or less similar values in 2030 and 2050.
100
80
60
40
20
2030
2050
0
Figure 1. Average emission percent shares of passenger cars in 2030 and 2050
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
4 CONCLUSION
hydrogen blends, Fresenius Environmental
Emissions of passenger cars in Turkey for the
Bulletin, vol.27, 4174-4185, 2018.
last ten years and in the years 2030 and 2050
[6] I.
M.
Investigation of
have been evaluated in this study. Statistical
hydrogen addition to methanol-gasoline blends
data and GREET software have been used to
in a SI engine, International Journal of
calculate emissions. As a conclusion, it appears
Hydrogen Energy, vol.43, 20252-20261, 2018.
that passenger car emissions of Turkey decrease
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 7- 9 Sep 2020,
BIOGAS PRODUCTION AS AN ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCE IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: PALESTINE AS A CASE STUDY
Mustafa lba 1, Lina Antari2 and Murat ahin3
1Energy
System Engineering Department, Technology Faculty, Gazi University, Ankara; email:
ilbas@gazi.edu.tr, corresponding author
2Energy System Engineering Department, Technology Faculty, Gazi University, Ankara; email:
lena.o.antari@gmail.com
3Mechanical
Engineering Department, National Defense University, Ankara; email:
msahin@kho.edu.tr
Abstract
Biogas production from animal manures is one of the alternative utilization of organic wastes that
could be implemented easily in rural areas in order to mitigate energy shortage problems or to reduce
the gas and energy bills. This study concerns the biogas production by anaerobic digestion process
for domestic usage in Palestine and its cost. Experimental work was conducted to determine the
amount of biogas produced by every kg of cow manure. Portable digester with a capacity of 60 L
was fed with 1:1 ratio of cow manure and water and operated for 40 days with a temperature interval
of (29-34) °C. The pH values for the manure sample dropped gradually to less than 6, then it raised
again to 7 on the last day. The total obtained amount from biogas on the last day was approximately
1kg with a biogas yield factor of 0.0389 kg biogas/kg manure. The sample reached its maximum
productivity on the 27th day with 155g of biogas. It was founded that biodigester with 2 m3 is
required to cover monthly cooking requirements of a Palestinian family with an initial construction
cost of 598$. The economic evaluation showed that total profit from using household biodigester was
153$/month in the case of selling the digestion residue as an organic fertilizers. It also was
15$/month if the biogas was used only (without selling the fertilizers). Simple payback period was
ranged between 4 months and 3 years.
Keywords: Palestine, Biogas, Anaerobic digestion, Animal manure
1 INTRODUCTION
Energy has a vital role in driving various
developments in all life aspects and in
improving standard life quality. The world today
faces uncontrollable energy demand growth,
which causes critical environmental changes as
air pollution, water pollution, deforestation,
ozone layer depletion, and global warming [1].
Today, engineers and scientists make extensive
efforts to search and find solutions to slow down
the global energy consumption, most of these
solutions tend to use renewable energy sources
as an effective alternative to fossil fuels.
Renewable energy sources represented mainly
by solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, nuclear
and geothermal energy [2]. By comparing with
fossil fuels, it is more difficult to have a
comprehensive statistical data about all
renewable energy potentials in the world [3].
According to International Energy Agency
(IEA) renewables are the second largest source
for electricity production in the world, they
accounted for 24.5% of global electricity
generation in 2017[4]. This paper highlights the
biogas technology from several aspects and
sides. The main sections of this paper can be
classified as follows: biomass energy, biogas,
energy situation in Palestine, research
methodology, designing of a household digester,
economic evaluation and conclusion and
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 7- 9 Sep 2020,
recommendations that included in the final
section.
2 BIOMASS ENERGY AND BIOGAS
Throughout human history, biomass has been
one of the most important sources of all basic
requirements. Until the early 19th-century
biomass was the primary energy source in
industrial countries and, indeed, still continues to
provide the biggest part of the energy for many
developing countries[5]. Organic wastes,
standing forests and energy crops are the three
main categories of biomass energy resources [6].
One of the most important advantages of
biomass over other renewables is its cheapness
and availability. Biomass can be converted to
electricity, heat, and fuels via biochemical,
mechanical, and thermochemical conversion
processes as shown in Figure 1 below. However,
the behaviour of different types of biomass
during conversions depends mainly on organic
and inorganic chemical structures [7].
Ethanol has a smaller heat value and a higher
octane rate than gasoline, which enables higher
engine efficiency with a larger compression
ratio. Ethanol is usually obtained from the
fermentation of starch crops like corn and
potato. New technologies are being developed to
get it from cellulosic biomass with a
simultaneous saccharification and fermentation
method, which will enable us to utilize most
parts, except lignin, of the grassy plants [9].
Biodiesel
Vegetable oils from rapeseed, soybean,
sunflower, and others can be used for diesel
engines.
Emission
from
biodiesel
is
characterized by low SOx content. Regarding
NOx, it increases some times but with the
adjustment of valve timing, it could be kept on
the same level as that of conventional diesel fuel
[6].
2. Gaseous Fuels
Biogas
There are diverse sources of biogas production
as animal manure, municipal solid waste, and
sewage sludge. Generally, high moisture content
biomass is the most preferred in this field.
Synthesis Gas
Produced from gasification of biomass.
a
mixture of hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide
(CO), a little of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4) and small quantities of other light
hydrocarbons. This gas can use to generate
electricity in large system through gas turbine
also, it can be used as a transportation fuel [10].
Figure 1. Biomass conversion methods [8]
Fuels can be produce from biomass as liquid,
gas and solid as illustrated below. They are used
for different purposes according to their
properties.
1. Liquid Fuels
Ethanol
3. Solid Fuels
.
Wood and charcoal
Both are common biomass solid fuels in many
countries, but the heat efficiency of a wood
furnace is generally low. Energy losses in the
production of charcoal are also considerably
large [11].
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 7- 9 Sep 2020,
.
Agricultural wastes
Used for heat or electric generation as straw.
.
Forestry wastes
Used for power generation by the Rankine cycle
with a turbine in wood-processing factories.
.
Solid municipal wastes
Obtained from a city with a large population
can run a power plant.
.
Animal wastes
Can run a power plant or produce biogas for
domestic usages.
2.1 Biogas production technologies
Countries have accelerated their innovation
studies on alternative energy sources that could
be obtained from domestic sources and organic
matters. Researchers are working to increase the
yield of biogas by creating bacterial colonies to
be used in biogas systems.
Biogas is a combustible gas produced by
anaerobic digestion of organic matter in the
absence of oxygen. It consists mainly of
methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2), and
small amounts of other gases as hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) and siloxanes. It is colorless,
odourless and lighter than air. It burns with a
bright blue flame [12]. Digestate from anaerobic
digestion can be recycled and used as fertilizer
for growing vegetables for sustainable
agriculture as it contains high amount of macro
and micronutrients [13]. The effect of biogases
obtained from the anaerobic fermentation of
organic wastes on greenhouse emissions was
investigated [14]. The effect of the change of
combustion air contents on combustion
characteristics has been also investigating in
order to expand the use of biogas from natural
sources as an alternative to natural gas [15].
Utilisation of animal manures and slurries as a
feedstock for biogas production is a very
attractive option because it contain
the
anaerobic bacteria naturally, it has high water
content and it has cheap price[16]. In addition,
it can be found easily as a residue from animal
farming, anytime, and almost anywhere as well
that reduces greenhouse emissions.
Anaerobic digestion takes place through four
main
steps:
hydrolysis,
acidogenesis,
acetogenesis and methanogenesis. In hydrolysis,
complex polymers are converted to more simple
soluble organics as follows: carbohydrates are
split into sugars, lipids are converted to longchain fatty acids, and proteins are broken down
into amino acids. In acidogenesis, all soluble
molecules are converted to acetic acid and other
longer volatile fatty acids, alcohols, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen. After that, the longer
volatile fatty acids and alcohols are oxidized to
acetic acid and hydrogen in the acetogenesis
stage. In the last step (methanogenesis), the
previous products are converted into methane
and carbon dioxide by different species of
strictly anaerobic bacteria. Figure 2 below
clarifies the overall process.
Figure 2. Schematic representation of anaerobic
digestion [16].
2.2 Biogas utilization technologies
Biogas can be utilized in various methods and
technologies depending on the nature of biogas
sources and demand in the local market. Biogas
can be used for heat production by direct
combustion, electricity production through fuel
cells or micro-turbines, Combine heat power
generation (CHP) and it can be used as a vehicle
fuel. Direct burning of biogas in boilers or
burners is the simplest way for heat production.
However, it can be burned on site, or transported
by pipeline to the end-user. CHP generation is
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 7- 9 Sep 2020,
widely used in countries with advanced biogas
technology for the effective production of
thermal and electrical energy from biogas. In
addition, a CHP engine based power plant has an
efficiency of about 90% with 35% electricity
production and 65% heat production. Usually, a
part of this heat is used for heating the digester
itself. Micro-turbines are another technology to
generate
s costly,
so strenuous efforts are still being made to
reduce the future model costs. Biogas can be fed
to fuel cells to produce an electrical current
through an electrochemical reaction that takes
place inside it [16]. The combustion
characteristics of biogases obtained from
domestic sources were investigated in
conventional burners and in the newly developed
burner. It has been stated that biogas can be used
as an alternative to natural gas in the new
generation burner [17].
2.3 Environmental impacts of biogas
technology
Using organic wastes as a feeding material for
biogas plants is one of the most important
technique in waste management. The following
positive impacts could be achieved if this
technology was successfully applied[18].
1. Reducing the volume of waste to be disposed
with other disposal methods (such as direct
combustion) so it eliminates adverse effects such
as smoke, dust and gas emissions.
2. Reducing the dependence on fossil fuels for
energy generation, which reduce air, soil, ground
and surface water pollution.
3. The feedstock for AD is a renewable source
with zero emission so AD contributes to
reducing the greenhouse gases and reducing
overall emission.
4. The odour of digested wastes is much less
than that of undigested.
5.
an effective solution to mitigate bad
effects from the accumulating of animal
manures.
2.4 Socio- economic impacts
Constructing biogas plants gives many positive
socio-economic impacts not only to the owner
but also to the local society and national level.
1. Provide new job opportunities.
2. Reducing the quantity of imported natural gas
and other fossil fuel which save money for
government and families.
3. Using the resulted organic digested from
anaerobic digestion as an organic fertilizers
reduces the imported
amount from
manufactured fertilizers, which save money for
both farmer and government. Also this enhances
crops production, which will increase the farmer
income.
3 ENERGY SITUATION IN PALESTINE
Palestine is one of the developing countries that
face a real crisis in meeting their energy needs.
The overall situation of energy sector in
Palestine is very different from the Middle East
and the world as a result of the shortage in
natural resources, complex policy conditions,
financial crisis, and high population density.
About 80% of energy sources come from
neighbour countries [19]. Palestine has high
solar energy potential with 3000 h of annual
sunshine and average solar radiation of about 5.4
kWh / m2-day on the horizontal surface, wind
and biomass energy is also available [20]. Solid
waste produced by municipalities, animal
manure, and agricultural waste are examples of
different biomass sources in Palestine. The
Animal manure produced in Palestine per year is
equal to 628,660 tons so it can be used as an
reliable source for biogas production especially
in rural areas [21].
4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This section clarifies the followed experimental
procedures also, it illustrates how to make a
complete design for a household biodigester to
produce biogas from cow manure. A
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 7- 9 Sep 2020,
comprehensive data about the biogas production
process were collected and studied in details,
after that a small-scale fixed type biodigester
with batch system was built and operated for 40
days in order to find the produced amount from
biogas per kilogram of cow manure, which
defined as gas yield factor. According to the
obtained experimental results, household
biodigester was designed with an inclusive
feasibility study.
4.1 Materials and instruments
The used materials and tools were:
1. Digester tank: plastic cylindrical tank with a
volume of 60L. It is the main part where the
biological processes accomplished.
2. Valves: gas valve used to withdraw biogas
and slurry valve used to get out the slurry.
3. Electronic balance: for biogas weighing.
4. Plastic vessel: for measuring wastes and water
volumes or for mixing purposes.
5. Internal car tubes: for collecting biogas from
the digesters.
6. pH- checker: for measuring slurry acidity.
7. Insulations
8. Gas chromatography: used to analyze biogas
sample and determine the methane percentage.
Figure 3 below shows the schematic diagram of
used biodigester while Figures (4-7) show the
different steps and actual apparatus used in
experiment.
Figure 3. Schematic Diagram of Biodigester
Figure 4. Portable
experimental work
biodigester
used
in
Figure 5. pH checker and sample taking
Figure 6. Elctronic balance and weighing
process
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 7- 9 Sep 2020,
Figure 7. Chromatography
The experiment implemented in Palestine inside
an agricultural incubator to maintain the
temperature constant within 40 days. This time
interval was chosen depending on the nature of
mesophilic process where the retention time of
this process usually ranges between 30 to 40
days.
4.3 Experimental procedure
24 kg of cow waste was mixed with water by a
1:1 ratio. Then it was introduced to the digester
for 40 days. The opening inlet was closed tightly
to prevent air from entering. The slurry sample
was taken every 3 days from the liquid valve and
its pH value was recorded. The experiment was
conducted inside an agricultural incubator,
which was heated permanently by air
conditioner to (29 -34) °C. Rock wool insulator
was also used to maintain the temperature of the
digester constant as much as possible. The
weight of produced biogas that was collected
inside the car internal tube was recorded through
an electronic balance every 3 days. Biogas
sample was analyzed by a special device (gas
chromatography) and gas
percentage was
determined to be 53% of CH4 and about 45.8%
CO2.
4.4 Experimental results
The main obtained experimental results were
illustrated below in Figure 8 and Figure 9. Total
biogas yield amount was 935 grams within 40
days and the biogas yield factor was .0389 kg
biogas/kg cow manure. As it is noted from the
figure below the samples reach their maximum
productivity within a time interval (25
35)
days from the beginning. The temperature
changes were nearly stable during the
experiment. Therefore, there was no significant
sudden pH drop observed. Methanogenic
bacteria are sensitive for temperature changes
where its activation increases with increasing the
temperature of digester while its activation
decreases if the temperature decreased. The pH
values for the manure sample dropped gradually
to below 6 within a time interval (15 27) days
from the beginning, then it was raised to 7 on the
last day. The experiment was carried out inside
an agricultural incubator, which was heated
permanently by the air conditioner to (29 -34) °C
so temperature can be considered semi constant.
Figure 8. Biogas amount changing with days
Figure 9. pH slurry changing with days
5
DESIGN OF A FAMILY DIGESTER
An above-ground fixed gas reservoir family
biodigester (continuous feeding system) was
proposed for cooking purposes as shown in
Figure 10. LPG is the main used cooking gas in
Palestine it has calorific value of 11300 kcal/kg
[22]. Biogas with 53% methane has calorific
value of 4800 kcal/m3 (as the calorific value of
methane is 9100 kcal/m3 ) [23]. The digester
volume was specified by the several steps below.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 7- 9 Sep 2020,
Where,
is the total daily slurry must be
added to biodigester in L/day,
is the
water volume in L.
Note: for approximation, liquid food, animal
manure and farm wastes have a density close to
water 1000kg/m3 [26].
Figure 10. Schematic diagram of house hold
biogas plant
5.1 Monthly biogas requirement
The monthly gas requirement of the Palestinian
family on avg is about 12 kg of LPG with
135600 kcal. Based on the calorific value of
each gas, about 28 m3 of biogas is required to
substitute LPG as shown in Equation (1) below.
(1)
Where,
is the total energy requirement for
cooking per month in kcal and
is the calorific
value of biogas .
5.2 required cow manure
According to Equation (2) below, the required
amount of cow manure was about 850Kg.
(2)
Where,
is the mass of biogas in kg,
is
the mass of wet cow manure in kg and is the
experimental value of biogas yield factor (0.039
kg biogas/kg manure).
Note: Biogas density is 1.2kg/m3 [24].
5.3 Required water
Water should be add to cow dung with a ratio of
1:1 [25], so total water requirements were 850L.
The daily requirement from slurry per month
equal 57kg/day as shown in Equation (3).
(3)
5.4 Digester volume
Digester volume was calculated to be 1700L as
shown in Equation (4).
(4)
Where,
is the biodigester volume in L and
HRT is the retention time in day.
The total required volume is the digester volume
and the volume required for the gas holder
which equal 20% from the digester volume, so
the total required volume equals 2000 L.
6 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Many economic considerations in biogas
production projects arising from the initial
investment, operation, and use of by-products.
6.1 Initial investment
The initial cost of required biodigester was 598$
as shown in Table 1.
Table1.Requirements
and
constructing family biogas unit
cost
Requirements
2000 L tank
220 L tank
valves and connectors
Metal base
Plastic pipes
Insulations
Miscellaneous
Total
Cost ($)
220
50
45
0
170
20
598
for
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 7- 9 Sep 2020,
6.2 Water cost
The price of 1 m3 of water in Palestine is 6$. So,
the water monthly cost is 5$/month.
6.3 Biogas and organic fertilizer profits
Total profits from biogas and organic fertilizer
was estimated as follows.
1. Biogas profit: The average price of 12 kg
bottle of LPG in Palestine is about 20$ so biogas
profit is 20$/month.
2. Fertilizer profit: Organic matter contains from
65-90% volatile solids and 30-60% of the
volatile solids converted by anaerobic digestion
to biogas [27]. By taking the averages for the
previous percentages, 553 kg of organic
fertilizers can be produced monthly. The
fertilizer prices in Palestinian markets are about
250$/ton. Therefore, fertilizer s profit is equal to
138$.
6.4 Total profits
The total monthly profit from running the biogas
digester was calculated as shown in equation (5).
It were calculated for two scenarios, the first
one assumed selling the fertilizer in addition to
using the biogas. While the second one assumed
using biogas only without selling the fertilizer.
The total profits were 153 $/month and 15 $
/month respectively.
Where, profit is the profits of biogas ±fertilizer
and running cost is the cost of water in $.
The land cost was not included because it earned
by the farmer.
6.5 The simple payback period (SPBP)
Equation (6) was used to calculate SPBP, which
adopted as an economical evaluation tool; it was
calculated for the two scenarios mentioned
before. In the first case it was equal to about 4
months .While in the second case it was about
3years.This time period was reasonable.
Where, profit is the
$/month
total monthly profit in
CONCLUSION
AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Biogas production potential from cow manure in
Palestine was presented in this paper.
Experimental work was carried out at an
agricultural incubator within a semi constant
temperatures of (29-34)°C. The main products
were organic fertilizer and about 1 kg of biogas
with a methane percentage of 53% and CO2
percentage of about 46%. Biogas production
can solve many problems for citizens who live in
remote and rural areas, especially the problem of
accumulating animal manure with bad odours. It
is also an effective solution for the shortage of
power supply problem. It was founded that 28
m3 of biogas is required to cover monthly
cooking requirements of Palestinian family (on
average). The economical evaluation for design
a domestic biodigester showed that total profit
was ranged between 153 $/month and 15
$/month respectively. SPBP was ranged from 4
months to 3 years so it is highly recommended
to conduct similar projects. In addition, the
effect of co-digestion and water mixing ratio on
the quality and quantities of
biogas is
recommended to be studied in other works.
Using of biogas to generate electricity for rural
areas it is an attractive choice for electricity
to be
research and study in future work.
7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank deeply
Mr.Baraa Antari and Eng. Sondos Hamadneh for
their efforts and encouragements to achieve this
paper.
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(EREM) , vol. 63, pp. 60-66, 2013.
[14]
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF BIOGAS DISTRIBUTED COMBUSTION
IN A MODEL COMBUSTOR
1
3
, Nurhan Üregen Güler2
1. Gazi University, Technology Faculty, Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Ankara-Turkey;
email: ilbas@gazi.edu.tr
2. Gazi University, Natural Science Institute, Division of Energy Systems Engineering, Ankara-Turkey;
email: nurhanuregen@gmail.com
3. National Defence University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Ankara-Turkey; email:
m.sahin@kho.edu.tr
Abstract
This study concentrates on the experimental analysis of biogas distributed combustion in a generated
burner and combustor. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the combustion characteristics
which are temperature values of distributed combustion through a combustor. In this study, combustion
have been conducted with biogas and gas mixture of O2 - CO2 which contains 40 % O2 called distributed
combustion in a model combustor then temperature values were examined in different points on model
combustor. The axial and radial temperature values have examined. Temperature values of the
combustion decreased from 1100 K to 359 K. This experimental study can take place in the literature with
the designed burner and combustor that enables the combustion of biogas at different temperatures.
Keywords: Biogas, Distributed, Oxy-Fuel, Combustion, Emission
1
INTRODUCTION
Today energy demand is rapidly increasing all
over the world. Renewable energy technology
has been developing over past decades however
it is estimated that fossil fuels remain the
primary energy resources even now. The
burning of fossil fuels cause greenhouse effect
which increase in the average climate over time.
The scientists try to discover new energy
resources such as solar energy, wind energy,
hydrogen energy, biomass and the others.
Biogas energy have received significant
attention because of their environmental
friendly, waste recovery and renewable energy
characteristics. Biogas sources such as animal
manure is used as an energy source and can be
converted organic fertilizer. Biogas provide
good waste management strategies for human
health and environmental protection. It is
mainly composed of methane and carbon
dioxide with a trace amount of hydrogen,
sulphur and nitrogen. These trace components
quantity is varied according to how the
gasification and production are done [1].
Distributed combustion is reduction of oxygen
concentration in oxidizer. This reduction occurs
through recirculating of hot combustion products
thermal load is
kept constant. Recirculation prior to ignition
occurring is the most important step in achieving
of distributed combustion. For this reason,
combustion takes place by a lower reaction rate
and result of this the combustion products spread
into the combustor uniformly. In other words,
reaction takes place over the entire combustor
under distributed combustion conditions.
Thence, high NOX levels arising from thermal
NOX mechanism thanks to distributed
combustion [2]. Oxy fuel combustion is fuel
burning with pure oxygen instead of air. Flame
temperature is higher than conventional air-fuel
combustion processes. Burner and combustor
walls may become overheating because of this
situation. In order to solve this problem, burner
modification is required such as the materials of
the burner and combustor have endurance limits
due to higher flame temperature [3]. Thus, some
fuels can be used under these conditions as oxyfuel combustion technique is generally used in
the glass and the steel industries [4]. Oxy-fuel
combustion provides approximately 75% lower
flue gas flow rate. Oxy-fuel combustion
technology is a new combustion technique. Also,
this technology makes possible heat loss
Proceedings of INCOS2020, September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
reducing in the flue gas, it is convenient for
cases and compared with each other. They have
sequestration. Flue gas from oxy-fuel
concluded that changes in turbulator angles
combustion is composed primarily of CO2,
highly affect the temperature and emissions
which means better combustion [5].
profiles of the biogas throughout the combusiton
There are many studies about biogas
chamber. Khalil and Gupta [10] have aimed to
combustion. Karyeyen [6], for instance, have
develop high intensity combustor with ultra-low
performed a numerical study that is directly
emissions of NO and CO, and much improved
related to distributed combustion. In that study,
pattern factor. Experimental results are reported
combustion characteristic of a non-premixed
from a cylindrical geometry combustor with
have been numerically
different modes of fuel injection and gas exit
investigated for the newly generated burner
stream location in the combustor. Air was
under conventional and distributed combustion
injected tangentially to impart swirl to the flow
conditions. He has concluded that NOX and CO
inside the combustor in all the configurations.
emissions have been reduced down to nearly
Very low amount NOx emissions were found for
zero emissions while CO2 emission levels have
both the premixed and non-premixed
been increased slightly at the combustor outlet
combustion modes for the geometries
under distributed combustion conditions.
investigated here. Swirling flow configuration,
wherein the product gas exits axially resulted in
investigated 3D numerical modelling of
characteristics closest to premixed combustion
combustion of different biogases in a generated
mode. Fuel injection location variation caused
burner and combustor. They have investigated
changing the combustion characteristics from
the combustion characteristics such as
traditional diffusion mode to distributed
temperature and emissions of biogases through a
combustion regime. Results showed very low
combustor due to depletion of natural gas and
levels of NO ( 3 PPM) and CO ( 70 PPM)
the effect of the preheated air on flame
emissions. They also reported on lean stability
temperatures of biogases. They have concluded
limit and OH chemiluminescence under both
flame temperatures of biogases increase with
premixed and non-premixed conditions for
preheating the combustion air as expected and
determining the extent of distribution
SO2 emissions increase as amount of H2S in
combustion conditions. Arghode, Gupta and
biogas is increased through the combustor.
Bryden [11] have been investigated combustion
[8] have purposed researching thermal field
characteristics
of
colorless
distributed
distributions and pollutant levels of various
combustion for application to gas turbine
biogas flames under distributed combustion
combustors. Very high intensity distributed
conditions. He has investigated numerically
combustion has been shown for application to
combustion characteristics of biogas flames by a
stationary gas turbine engines. Different
commercial code on distributed combustion
configurations analyzed have catch out reverse
conditions in terms of fuel flexibility, diluent
cross-flow mode to be more favorable for
temperature, and diluent composition. Thanks to
desirable combustion characteristics. The
this work distributed combustion conditions
reverse-cross flow geometry is further
have been achieved and determined that
investigated experimentally at range thermal
pollutant emission levels have been decreased to
intensities from 53 to 85 MW/m3 atm with
ultra-low levels as the oxygen concentration has
specific focus on exhaust emissions, radical
been reduced in the oxidizer.
ahin [9]
emission, global flame photographs and
have investigated combustion characteristic of a
flowfield using novel but simplified geometry
biogas under varying turbulator angle conditions
for easy transition to applications in gas turbine
and hydrogen addition in a combustor. They use
engine applications. The high combustion
angle with changed 15°-45° at intervals of 15°
intensity demonstrated here is higher than that
and performed the investigations by using a
used in present stationary gas turbine engines.
CFD code. They compared predicted
They also performed numerical simulations and
temperature and emission profiles of the biogas
compared with the experiments for the new
to existing experimental measurement under
design configuration under non-reacting
turbulator angle. Then predictions have been
conditions. Very low NOx emissions are
performed under 30° and 45° of turbulator angle
achieved for both the novel premixed and non-
Proceedings of INCOS2020, September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
premixed combustion modes. Carbon monoxide
be seen in figure 1, there are six prob holes in
levels of about 30 ppm are achieved in both
vertically on combustion chamber.
novel premixed and non-premixed modes of
combustion. Almost no visible flame color in the
reaction zones are observed for both novel
premixed and non-premixed modes and it is
dramatically different than that used in
contemporary gas turbine combustion operating
under lean premixed, lean direct injection or rich
burn, quick quench lean burn gas turbine
combustion. Arghode and Gupta [12] have
investigated colorless distributed combustion
(CDC) focused on gas turbine combustion
applications because of its significant benefits
for, much reduced NOx emissions and noise
reduction, and significantly improved pattern
factor. They have examined four different
sample configurations to achieve colorless
distributed combustion conditions that reveal no
visible color of the flame. The results were
compared from the four different configurations
on flow field and fuel/air mixing using
numerical simulations and with experiments
using global flame signatures, exhaust
emissions, acoustic signatures, and thermal field.
Lower NOx and CO emissions, better thermal
field uniformity, and lower acoustic levels have
been observed when the flame approached CDC
mode as compared to the baseline case of a
diffusion flame. The reaction zone is observed to
Figure 1. Combustion Chamber
be uniformly distributed over the entire
The burner is shown in figure 2. It is designed
combustor volume when the visible flame
in sections that can burn methane and fuels in
signatures approached CDC mode.
different heating value ranges.
2
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The existing combustion chamber is given in
Figure 1. It includes biogas and the oxygen lines
by which the fuel and the oxidizer are supplied
into the combustor. In a model combustor
includes a combuster and burners. The length
and diameter of the combustion chamber are
fixed at 100 cm and 40 cm, respectively. The
combustion burner was designed favorably with
biogas combustion in different heating value.
The combustion chamber consists of a sight
glass made of tempered glass and five
measuring ports. Prob holes at certain intervals
vertically are on combuster and they can be
connected with burners. There are also prob
holes radially and these probs provide obtained
temperature values radially and axially. As can
Figure 2. Burner
In experiment, biogas was used as a fuel with
flow rate of 1.95 m3/h, 55 % methane content
and 40 % O2 - 60 % CO2 gas mixture was used
as an oxydator with flow rate of 7.56 m3/h.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Temperature measurements on five axial points
0.1, 0.3, 0,5, 0.7 and 0.9 m. In addition to this,
for five vertical points and exhaust gases were
axial measurements were taken along
carried out. During experimental study,
combustor axis. Five axial and radial
ambient temperature is 20 ºC and pressure of
temperature values were obtained. The highest
fuel inlet to combustor is 21 mbar.
temperature value was obtained in fuel inlet
which is 1100 K. At the chimney, the
temperature is measured as 565 K. The
temperature decreased from 1100 K to 565 K
3. RESULTS and DISCUSSION
along fuel inlet and chimney. It is observed
The experimental radial and axial temperature
that the temperature values which close flame
values are presented in Figure 3 and Figure 4.
zone is high values. It is understood that
Temperature measurement have analyzed for
temperature values decrease axially as from
axial and radial. Radial measurements have
center of burner and vertically as from fuel
taken for five points on axial length which are
inlet.
Figure 3. Experimental Radial Temperature Distributions for Five Axial Points
Proceedings of INCOS2020, September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
[4] Wall TF. Combustion processes for carbon
capture. Proc Combust Inst 2007;31(1):31 7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2006.08.123.
[5] Malti G, Sudhakar M, Shahi RV. Carbon
capture, storage, andutilization: apossible
climate change solution for energy industry.
NewDelhi: TERI; 2015.
[6] Karyeyen S, Combustion characteristics of a
non-premixed metha
burner under distributed combustion conditions:
A numerical study, Fuel 2018;230:163-171.
[7] Ilbas M, Sahin M, Karyeyen S, 3D numerical
modelling of turbulent biogas combustion in a
newly generated 10 KW burner. J Energy Inst
2016; S1743-9671(16)30488-3.
[8] ahin M, Combustion characteristics of
various biogas flames under reduced oxygen
Figure 4. Experimental Axial Temperature
concentration conditions. Energy Sources, Part
Distributions
A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental
4. CONCLUSION
Effects;2019 41(19), 2415-2427.
[9] Ilbas M, Sahin M, Effects of turbulator angle
When experimental radial results of the
and hydrogen addition on a biogas turbulent
distributed combustion are compared with
diffusion flame.
International Journal of
each other, the highest temperature values are
Hydrogen
Energy
2017;
42(40), 25735-25743.
on 0.1 m distance with values of 1100 °C. The
[10] Khalil AEE., Gupta AK., Swirling
maximum temperature value has been
distributed combustion for clean energy
measured at fuel inlet. Axial temperature
conversion in gas turbine applications. Appl
values range from 565 K and 1100 K. All
Energy 2011;88:3685 93.
temperature values decrease along axial
[11] Arghode VK., Gupta AK., Bryden K.M.,
distance. There are the lowest temperature
High intensity colorless distributed combustion
values at 0.9 m which range from 610 K and
for ultra low emissions and enhanced
359 K from axis of the combustor to the
performance. Appl Energy 2012;92:822 830.
combustor wall. When the Figure 3 examined,
[12] Arghode, VK., Gupta, AK., Effect of flow
the radial graphs curves decrease with
field for colorless distributed combustion (CDC)
increased axis length.
for gas turbine combustion," Applied Energy
2010;87:1631 40.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge Gazi
University.
REFERENCES
[1] Dirkse EHM, Biogas upgrading using the
DMT TS-PWS® Technology, Report, Page 212, DMT Environmental Technology.
[2] Khalil AEE, Gupta AK.
investigation under distributed combustion
conditions. Appl Energy 2015;160:477 88.
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
IN DAMLACIK
M. Küçük1 and A.Sürmen2
; email: merve.altay@btu.edu.tr
; email: surmen@uludag.edu.tr
1.
2.
Abstract
Design of internal combustion engines, such as diesel engines, jet engines, and rocket engines, requires
detailed knowledge about the droplet evaporation and combustion processes and parameters affecting them
under the increasing environment pressures. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of the ambient
pressure increase on the droplet evaporation and hence combustion quality. In this study steady-state
analyses are conducted for n-heptane fuel droplets using different droplet diameters, and different
combustion regimes (lean, stoichiometric and rich). It is estimated that the results obtained from this study
can give researchers an idea in the design of many systems based on the spray combustion.
Keywords: Droplet evaporation, two-phase combustion enviroment, ambient pressure, parametric analysis.
Özet
- state) analizleri n-
Anahtar kelimeler: Damlac
1
gaz türbinleri gibi birçok güç sisteminde
mümk
-kimyasal
etk
parametrelerin nümerik veya deneysel olarak
y
göz
[1].
etkileyen
parametrelerle
ilgili
bilgi
sahibi
kapasitesi ve uzun hesaplama süreleri gibi
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
mamen gaz
-buhar-hava
reaksiyon
bölgesine
geçilir.
Reaksiyon
dar
fa
bölgesinde
(secondary
evaporation
zone)
izo-
gözlemlemi
-9]. Bunun sonucu
boyunca böl
[15,16].
gelir [11-
ioksit
e
ünülmektedir.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
2
YÖNTEM
boyutlu korunum denklemlerini, püskürtmeli
Bir boyutlu laminer sprey yanma
= 1.0).
front) gelmeden önce tamamlayamazlar bu da
3
ibi
3.1
ir Boyutlu
Laminer Sprey Yanma Analizleri
-
0.04, 0.05 ve 0
/ h; boyutsuz
termal
= 1.0).
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
nüfuz edebilirler.
3.2
Laminer Sprey Yanma Analizleri
i
= 1.0).
yanma
sonu
zlerde,
/
da
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
a)
su
b)
da
c)
4
SONUÇ
-
-sis
parametrelere etkisi üzerine bir parametrik analiz
ütle
=0.06
a
yanma rejimleri için (fakir, stokyometrik ve
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
[13] D. E. Rosner and W. S. Chang, Transient
evaporation and combustion of a fuel droplet
REFERANSLAR
near its critical temperature. Combustion
[1]
J. Sato, Studies on droplet evaporation
Science and Technology, Vol 7, pp.145-158,
and combustion in high pressures. 31st
1973.
Aerospace Sciences Meeting. Aerospace
[14] J. A. Manrique and G. L. Borman.
Sciences
Meetings.
Reno,
1993.
Calculations of steady state droplet vaporization
https://doi.org/10.2514/6.1993-813
at high ambient pressures. International Journal
[2]
D.R. Ballal, A.H. Lefebvre, Flame
of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol 12, pp. 1081,
propagation in heterogeneous mixtures of fuel
1969.
droplets, fuel vapour and air. Proc. Combust.
[15] Silverman, I. and Greenberg, J.B.
Inst. Vol 18, pp. 312 328, 1981.
Stoichiometry and Polydisperse Effects in
[3]
S. Hayashi, S. Kumagai, T. Sakai,
Premixed Spray Flames Y. Tambour, Combust.
Propagation velocity and structure of flames in
Flame, Vol 93, pp. 97 118, 1993.
droplet-vapor-air mixtures, Combust. Sci.
[16] Neophytou,
A.,
Mastorakos,
E,
Technol, Vol 15, pp.169 177, 1976.
Simulations of laminar flame propagation in
[4]
M. Lawes, A.Saat, Burning rates of
droplet mists, Combust. Flame, Vol 156, pp.
turbulent iso-octane aerosol mixtures in
1627-1640, 2009.
spherical flame explosions. Proc. Combust. Inst,
Vol 33, pp. 2047 2054 (2011).
[5]
K. Kauazoe, Ohsawa, K. Fujikake, LDA
measurement of fuel droplet sizes and velocities
in a combustion field, Combustion and Flame,
Vol 82, pp. 151-162, 1990.
[6]
C. G. McCrenth and N. Chigier, Liquidspray burning in the wake of a stabilizer disel,
14th International Symposium on Combustion,
1355-136, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh,
1972.
[7]
N. A. Chigier and C. G. McCreath,
Combustion of droplets in sprays, Acta
Astronautica, pp. 687-710, 1974.
[8]
Y. Onuma and M. Ogsawara. Studies on
the structure of a spray combustion flame. 15th
International Symposium on Combustion, 453
465. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, 1974.
[9]
E. E. Khalil and J. H. Whitelaw,
Aerodynamic and thermodynamic characteristics
of kerosene spray flames. 16th International
Symposium on Combustion. 569 576, The
Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, 1976.
[10] G. M. Facth. Current status of droplet
and liquid combustion, Progress Energy
Combustion Science, Vol 3, pp. 191-224, 1977.
[11] R. L. Matlosz. S. Leipziger and T. P.
Torda. Investigation of liquid droplet
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1972.
[12] D. E. Rosner. On liquid droplet
combustion at high pressures. AIAAJ, Vol 5, pp.
163-166, 1967.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September2020, Kayseri-Turkey
COMBUSTION AND EMISSIONS CHARACTERISTICS OF DI DIESEL
ENGINE FUELED WITH DIESEL-BIODIESEL-GLYCEROL ETHERS. PART I:
EFFECT OF COMPRESSION RATIO
Abdülvahap ÇAKMAK1 and Hakan ÖZCAN2
1. Department of Motor Vehicles and Transportation Technologies, Kavak Vocational School, Samsun
University, Samsun; email: abdulvahap.cakmak@samsun.edu.tr
2. Department of Mechanical Engineering,
; email:
ozcanh@omu.edu.tr
Abstract
Biodiesel emerged to be an alternative fuel to mitigate problems arisen from the use of petroleum diesel.
Due to its many superiorities over conventional diesel fuel, the production and commercial use of biodiesel
experienced sustainable growth over two decades. Besides, biodiesel production is expected to increase in
order to achieve biofuel consumption targets in the upcoming years. However, as a result of increased
biodiesel production, also the creation of glycerol, which is the main product of transesterification reaction
will grow proportionally. Therefore, transforming biodiesel based glycerol into new oxygenated fuels, which
could be blended with biodiesel, has appeared as an efficient way for evaluation of glycerol surplus. For that,
in this study, the oxygenated fuel synthesized from glycerol and then utilized as a blending component for a
diesel-biodiesel mixture to experimentally investigate its effect on combustion and emissions characteristics
of a direct injection diesel engine under different compression ratios. Diesel fuel, diesel-biodiesel blend, and
diesel-biodiesel- glycerol ethers mixture were used for this research. Engine tests were conducted on a 4stroke, water-cooled, single-cylinder diesel engine at low, medium, high, and full load and a constant engine
speed of 1500 rpm as well as various compression ratios (16, 17.5, and 18). The results showed that ignition
delay, combustion duration, CO emissions, HC emissions decreased. In contrast, NOX emissions, cylinder
pressure, net heat release rate, and rate of pressure rise rate increased for all fuels as the compression ratio
increased. It was observed that with the use of B18G2 NOX emissions decreased, while HC emissions
increased for all selected compression ratios, compared to D and B20G0. The mean maximum increase in
HC emissions and mean maximum reduction in NOX emissions were observed by 173% and 68%, at
compression ratio 16 and 17.5, respectively. Due to the low cetane number of glycerol ethers, B18G2
presented longer ignition delay and higher combustion duration, compared to D and B20G0. This leading the
combustion shifted away from the TDC. As a result, maximum cylinder pressure and maximum heat release
rate occurred later crank angles compared to D. From all experimental results, it can be concluded that
glycerol ethers could be used as a blending component with the benefits of reducing NOX emissions.
Keywords: Compression Ratio, Biodiesel, Glycerol Ethers, Emissions, Combustion Characteristics.
1 INTRODUCTION
Today, the primary energy source of
transportation is still fossil fuels. However,
recognizing the harmful effects of the burning of
petroleum fuels has led to an increasing interest
in the search for finding biofuels [1]. Biofuels
can play a significant role in alleviating the
adverse effects of petroleum fuels since biofuels
can be derived from renewable sources. As a
consequence of biofuel researches, biodiesel has
emerged as a promising alternative fuel for
petroleum diesel, and it has been widely used in
the diesel engine for two decades. This situation
resulted in the continual increase of biodiesel
production, and it is expected that worldwide
production of biodiesel will experience
sustainable growth in the next years, and it
reaches up to 39 billion litres in 2027 [2]. The
transesterification of oils into biodiesel causes
the creation of glycerol by 10% wt. of the total
produced biodiesel as the main byproduct of this
process [3], [4]. Glycerol is widely used as the
principal-agent in many industries such as food,
cosmetics, medicine. But, as increasing biodiesel
production, a glycerol oversupply will be
generated since traditional use of glycerol cannot
exploit the increase in biodiesel originated
glycerol [5] that makes biodiesel economically
unfeasible and leads to environmental concerns
with uncontrolled glycerol disposal [6].
Therefore, it is necessary to convert surplus
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September2020, Kayseri-Turkey
glycerol into high-value products to support
the effects of glycerol ethers on combustion and
sustainable biodiesel production. There are
exhaust emissions were investigated.
numerous routes for the transformation of
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
glycerol
into
chemical
products.
But
Glycerol ethers are not sold commercially, and
etherification of glycerol has appeared as an
hence a sufficient amount of glycerol ethers
appealing pathway to produce glycerol ethers [7]
were synthesized by etherification reaction.
that used as an oxygenated fuel additive to
Glycerol ether synthesis was performed at the
diesel, biodiesel, and gasoline [8], [9]. Glycerol
Renewable Energy Laboratory of Chemical
ethers are valuable glycerol derivatives since
glycerol ethers are an excellent blending
University.
component for fuel formulation [7]. Glycerol
Glycerol tert-butyl ethers were obtained by the
ethers can be used as improvers of kinematic
etherification reaction of glycerol with tert-butyl
viscosity and cold flow properties of biodiesel
alcohol (TBA) at the presence of Amberlyst-15
[10]. The use of glycerol ethers can considerably
as an acidic heterogeneous catalyst. The
reduce PM emissions due to the oxygen content
etherification reaction was carried out in a highof glycerol ethers without any substantial effect
pressure stainless steel batch reactor of 500 cm3
on combustion characteristics and efficiencies
at 363 K, and for 3 h of reaction time under 1200
[11], [12]. Besides, Frusteri et al. [13] showed
rpm stirring speed. In this etherification reaction,
that blending glycerol ethers with diesel fuel by
glycerol/TBA molar ratio and amount of
10% vol. led to improve the typical diesel sootAmberlyst-15/ glycerol were 4/1 and 7.5% wt.,
NOx trade-off with an enhancement of
respectively. The details of glycerol ethers
combustion efficiency. An evaluation of the use
synthesis can be found elsewhere [15]. The
of glycerol ethers in a diesel engine was
produced glycerol ethers mixture was firstly
performed by Beatrice et al. [14], and it was
blended by 10% vol. with canola oil biodiesel.
proved that glycerol ethers were useful for diesel
This blending ratio was chosen because it is a
soot suppression without deteriorating of other
practicable mixing ratio. For every 90 litres of
emissions. Also, it was indicated that the life
biodiesel, approximately 10 litres of glycerol is
cycle assessment revealed that glycerol ethers
obtained, so a 10% vol. the blending ratio was
could cause a lower environmental impact than
selected for experiments. Then the glycerol
that of diesel fuel. Apart from the blending of
ethers-biodiesel mixture was blended in a
glycerol ethers with diesel or biodiesel, it is also
concentration of 20% vol. to the diesel fuel and
possible to blend glycerol ethers with gasoline.
the final fuel mixture was designated as B18G2
Bozkurt et al. [8] showed that combining high
that contained 80% vol. diesel fuel, 18% vol.
glycerol ether in gasoline resulted in an increase
canola oil biodiesel and 2% vol. glycerol ethers.
in octane number and a decrease in vapour
A diesel-biodiesel blend denoted as B20G0,
pressure. Furthermore, their study revealed that
which includes 80% vol. diesel and 20% vol.
glycerol ethers-gasoline blends provided similar
canola oil biodiesel and 0% vol. of glycerol
engine performance and exhaust emissions
ethers were also used. Commercial diesel fuel
compared to MTBE (methyl-tert-butyl ether)(D) was selected as a reference fuel. The main
gasoline blends, which indicate that high
fuel properties of these test fuels were
glycerol ethers are a good substitute for MTBE.
determined and represented in Table 1.
Although it has been emphasized that glycerol
The engine tests were performed in a Kirloskarethers have the potential to be used as an
TV1, single-cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled,
oxygenated fuel blending agent, studies dealing
and direct injection diesel engine. The detailed
with the utilization of glycerol ethers in a diesel
specification of the engine is given in Table 2.
engine are scarce in the existing literature. Also,
The engine test setup layout was presented in
the impact of the compression ratio on
Figure 1. The engine was connected to a watercombustion and emissions of a diesel engine
cooled Eddy current dynamometer (AG series,
fuelled with glycerol ethers is not presented so
Model: AG10) to measure engine torque. A
far in the literature. For this, in the present study,
piezoelectric
pressure
transducer
(PCB
the use of glycerol ethers as an additive in a
Piezotronics, Range; 0-350 bar) and a shaft
diesel-biodiesel blend has experimented in a
encoder (speed 5500 rpm with TDC pulse) were
diesel engine in various compression ratios, and
used to capture cylinder pressure with the
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September2020, Kayseri-Turkey
resolution of 1 ºCA. Then, the average of
volume of the combustion chamber, and this was
measured 100 consecutive cycles cylinder
readily granted by varying the tilting the
pressure vs. crank angle data was analyzed by an
cylinder block. Since the stroke volume was
"ICEngineSoft 9.0 V" combustion software
constant, as the clearance volume was changed,
analyzer. This software calculates the heat
the compression ratio was also changed.
release rate practising the below formulas based
Table 2. Specification of the Engine
on the first law of thermodynamics and
Specifications
assuming the air-fuel mixture inside the cylinder
Bore/stroke, mm
87.5/110
is an ideal gas and uniform in temperature and
Speed, rpm
1500
pressure [16].
Max. torque, Nm
21.8@1500rpm
Max. power, kW
3.5@1500rpm
(1)
Compression ratio
12:1-18:1
Where
,
, and
are net
Standard
CR
17.5:1
heat release rate, the heat release rate of fuel
Stroke volume, cc
661
combustion, and rate of heat transfer (loss) from
Injection
timing
23 ºCA bTDC
the cylinder wall, respectively.
(2)
Where
and V are
crank angle, cylinder pressure, and cylinder
volume, respectively.
Table 1. Fuel Properties
Property
LHV, kJ/kg
Cetane index
Diesel
835.0
2
/s 2.79
42484
55.6
212.6
280.4
339.9
3
B20G0
844.5
3.31
41325
55.1
221.8
299.4
341.9
B18G2
844.1
2.95
41078
54.7
210.3
281.8
340.0
A TESTO 350-XL gas analyzer was used to
measure CO, NOx, and CO2 emissions. HC
emissions were measured by the KTEST exhaust
emissions device with 8 ppm accuracy. The
specifications of the TESTO 350-XL gas
analyzer were given in Table 3. The values of
exhaust emissions were recorded with 40 s
intervals and repeated six times. Then, the
averaged values were used for the comparison.
Engine tests were made at a constant engine
speed of 1500 rpm and low, medium, high, and
full engine loads that were corresponding to
25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of the maximum
engine torque output, respectively.
Regarding the effect of compression ratio on
emissions and combustion characteristics, the
compression ratios of 16:1, 17.5:1 (standard),
and 18:1 were selected. The compression ratio
adjustment was made by changing the clearance
Figure 1. The engine test setup layout
Table 3. Specification of the TESTO 350-XL
gas analyzer
Specs./Gas
CO
NOx
M. Range 0-10000 ppm 0-4000 ppm
Sensitivity
1 ppm
1 ppm
Accuracy
±10 ppm
±5 ppm
CO2
0-50%
0.1%
±0.5%
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The combustion characteristics considered for
this study is the cylinder pressure (CP), net heat
release rate (NHRR), rate of pressure rise rate
(RPRR), ignition delay (ID), and combustion
duration (CD). All combustion characteristics
were presented at full engine loads and
compression ratios of 16, 17.5, and 18.
Cylinder pressure traces are an essential tool to
scrutinize the fuel combustion since cylinder
pressure directly influences the engine
performance and exhaust emission [17]. The CP
vs. compression ratio (CR) for test fuels is
shown in Figure 2. As seen in this figure, CP
values increased with increasing in CR and
advanced, as expected. This is due to the faster
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September2020, Kayseri-Turkey
combustion as a result of enhanced in-cylinder
The NHRR of fuels is presented in Figure 3. One
temperature, which increased engine efficiency
can easily see that as the CR has increased, the
[18]. Also, it can be noticed that the peak CP for
peak NHRR occurred earlier crank angle (CA)
diesel fuel is slightly higher than that of B20G0
and increased for all fuels. It could be because at
and B18G2, except at CR of 17.5. At the
higher CRs, the higher cylinder temperatures
standard compression ratio, B18G2 offered in
that reduce the ignition delay and improve the
slightly high CP, compared to other fuels. At this
combustion, which leads to the higher and
operation point, the maximum CP for D, B20G0,
advanced peak of NHRR. Diesel fuel presented
and B18G2 was measured as 49.35 bar, 49.04
the highest peak of NHRR among fuels due to
bar, and 51.05 bar, respectively, and at 367 ºCA.
its high heating value, lower viscosity, and
The peak cylinder pressure strongly depends on
higher cetane number, compared to B20G0 and
the premixed combustion phase [19] that mainly
B18G2, except at CR of 17.5. However, the
affected by the physical and chemical properties
addition of glycerol ethers to diesel-biodiesel
of the fuel [20]. Due to fuel properties such as
blend affected the NHRR at CR of 17.5 and
high oxygen content, lower boiling point
caused slightly higher peak NHRR and occurs
temperature, and lower viscosity of the glycerol
earlier in terms of the crank angle, compared to
ethers, B18G2 fuel presented faster premix
D and B20G0. This can be attributed to the
combustion that gave rise to the peak cylinder
chemical structure and physical properties of
pressure. This trend can also be observed from
glycerol ethers since fuel properties have a direct
the NHRR and RPRR figures illustrated for CR
influence on the heat release rate [21].
of 17.5.
Figure 2. CP vs. CR for test fuels
Figure 3. NHRR vs. CR for test fuels
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September2020, Kayseri-Turkey
The RPRR for test fuels at various compression
the start of injection and the start of combustion
ratios is presented in Figure 4. It is evident that
is defined as the ignition delay (ID). Combustion
the RPRR increased and advanced to earlier CA
duration (CD) is the difference between the start
with the increase of CR, for all tested fuels. The
of the combustion and end of the combustion,
peak RPRR of D is higher than that of other
and it is determined by the interval between the
fuels at CRs of 16 and 18. This may be
CA10 and CA90 [16]. Where CA10 and CA90
attributed to the higher heating value and more
indicate the mass of 10% and 90% of fuel
efficient combustion of diesel fuel compared to
burned, respectively. A decrease in ID has
others. Moreover, there is a noticeable
observed with all test fuels when the CR is
distinction in the RPRR at standard CR where
increased. The increase in-cylinder temperature
B18G2 presented the maximum RPRR. At this
and pressure could be the reason for the
CR, the RPRR of D, B20G0, and B18G2 were
reduction of ID as CR increased. The ID for
determined as 3.62 bar/ºCA, 3.28 bar/ºCA, and
diesel fuel was found to be lower than that of
3.80 bar/ºCA at 356 ºCA, 357 ºCA, and 356
other fuels, as observed from Figure 5. This
ºCA, respectively.
could be attributed to diesel fuel's low viscosity
and high cetane number because low viscosity
and high cetane number have a significant effect
on shortening the ignition delay [20]. B18G2
presented the highest ID delay among the fuels
at all CRs. This is consistent with the results
from Ref [14]. The glycerol tert-butyl ethers is
an ether mixture with a branched-chain and thus
low cetane number [7]. This could have a
significant effect on increasing the ID. A similar
trend was observed for CD. As increasing the
CR, the CD decreased due to efficient
combustion and short ignition delay. However,
fuel blends caused a longer CD than that of D.
This could be due to the higher fuel consumption
for B20G0 and B18G2. Since the heating value
of biodiesel and glycerol ethers are lower than
that of diesel, in the case of fuel blends running,
more fuel must be consumed to produce the
same torque output at 1500 rpm.
Figure 5. ID vs. CR for test fuels
Figure 4. RPRR vs. CR for test fuels
The variation of ID and CD with CR for test
fuels are presented in Figure 5, and Figure 6,
respectively. The crank angle interval between
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September2020, Kayseri-Turkey
generally. The reason for this could be high
viscosity, density, and lower calorific value of
fuel blends [23]. Furthermore, the high HC
emissions could be explained with ID. In diesel
engines, the level of HC emissions from the
overlean regions depends on the amount of fuel
injected during the ID [16]. Therefore, the
increase in the ID with the use of fuel blends
resulted in a rise in HC emissions. The highest
average increase in HC emissions with the use of
glycerol ethers was determined as 173% at CR
Figure 6. CD vs. CR for test fuels
of 16, compared to diesel.
The CO emission of the test fuels at various CR
and engine load is shown in Figure 7. The CO
emissions are reduced with the increase in CR
and engine load for all fuels. This is due to
enhanced
combustion
temperature
with
increasing the CR that leads to more complete
combustion. At low engine load, CO emissions
were higher than that of other loads due to the
too lean mixture. B18G2 caused an increase in
CO emissions at CR 16 but, CO emissions
reduced with the use of glycerol ethers at other
CRs. At low CR, the cylinder temperature is
low, and it gets further decrease with the use of
glycerol ethers since glycerol ethers' heating
value is the lowest among the fuels. However,
this adverse effect can be compensated at high
CR because combustion takes place at a higher
temperature environment, thereby less CO
emissions formed. It was determined that with
the utilization of B18G2, CO emissions
increased average by 48 % at CR 16, while CO
emissions reduced by 50% at CR 18, compared
to diesel fuel.
HC emissions for all test fuels are demonstrated
in Figure 8. It is observed that HC emissions
decreased as the CR increased while HC
emissions raised as the engine load increased.
The decrement of HC emissions with an increase
in CR was due to favourable cylinder conditions
for complete combustion. High cylinder
temperatures facilitate fuel evaporation and airFigure 7. CO emissions vs. CR for test fuels
fuel mixing, which enhances the burning of fuel
NOX emission of the test fuels at various CR and
result in lower HC emissions. The increment of
engine load is shown in Figure 9. As seen in this
HC emissions with an increase in engine load
figure, NOX increased with increasing CR and
was linked with the air-fuel ratio. With the rise
engine load for all test fuels due to higher
in engine load, more fuel is injected in the
combustion
temperature.
However,
the
cylinder, and this causes locally rich mixture
formation of NOX reduced with fuel blends.
regions that contribute to the formation of HC
B18G2 presented the lowest NOX emissions
emissions [22]. Also, it can be seen from the
among the test fuels for all CRs and engine
figure that fuel blends produced more HC
loads, which is a remarkable outcome
emissions that that of diesel fuel, at all CRs,
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September2020, Kayseri-Turkey
concerning exhaust emissions. This could be as a
result of increasing CD in the case of B18G2
use. The longer CD reduces the peak cylinder
temperatures as the combustion proceeds
towards expansion stroke [20] (the peak of
NHRR was shifted to expansion stroke, as seen
in NHRR figures), which results in fewer NOx
emissions. Besides, the reduction of NOx
emissions may be due to the low calorific value
of the fuel blends [24]. The maximum mean
decrease in NOx emissions with the use of
B18G2 was determined by 68% at CR 17.5,
compared to diesel. The highest NOx emissions
were observed for diesel fuel. It could be due to
its high calorific value and fast-burning
characteristics that increase the RPRR and hence
the cylinder temperature. Diesel fuel presented
the highest peak RPRR than that of the other
fuels, and this could be one of the reasons for the
highest NOX emissions.
Figure 9. NOX emissions vs. CR for test
fuels
The CO2 emission of the test fuels at various CR
and engine load is shown in Figure 10. It is
noticed that CO2 emissions did not significantly
vary with the CR and engine load. However, a
strong relationship between CO2 emissions and
fuel was observed. As seen in CO2 figures,
diesel produced higher CO2 emissions than those
of fuel blends at all CRs and the engine loads.
This is directly related to the enhanced
combustion. Because diesel fuel provided a
better fuel-air mixture due to its low viscosity,
improved fuel combustion, and accelerated the
formation of CO2. The level of CO2 emissions is
also associated with the fuel consumption and
C/H ratio. Fuel with a high C/H ratio produces
higher CO2 emissions. Fuel blends have a lower
C/H ratio than that of diesel because of oxygen
in the chemical structure of the biodiesel and
Figure 8. HC emissions vs. CR for test fuels
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September2020, Kayseri-Turkey
glycerol ethers. Therefore, CO2 emissions
characteristics except for increasing the ID and
decreased with fuel blends operation.
CD. The benefits of glycerol ether addition to a
diesel-biodiesel fuel seem to be low CO, NOX,
and CO2 emissions. However, using biodiesel
originated glycerol as a fuel additive could
mitigate the problems associated with high
biodiesel production cost and environmental
concerns. And lastly, the utilization of glycerol
ethers as fuel additive could be an efficient way
to maximize the share of waste-based biofuels in
the transport and hence to reach renewable
energy goals.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was financially supported by the
University
under
project
ID:
PYO.MUH.1904.19.016.
Abdülvahap
ÇAKMAK has been awarded a doctoral
scholarship by the Scientific and Technical
2211-C).
Figure 10. CO2 emissions vs. CR for test
fuels
4 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, the combustion and emissions
characteristics of a diesel-biodiesel-glycerol
ethers blend were investigated, and the obtained
results were compared with those obtained a
diesel-biodiesel blend and neat diesel. The
engine tests were revealed that CRs showed the
same effects on combustion characteristics and
exhaust emissions for all test fuels. However,
B18G2 showed slightly better combustion
characteristics at CR of 17.5, compared to other
fuels and CRs. It was also observed that the use
of a diesel-biodiesel blend containing 2% vol.
glycerol ethers caused an increase in HC
emissions while reduced the NOX emissions for
all CR and engine loads. Glycerol ethers showed
no
substantial
effect
on
combustion
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
COMBUSTION AND EMISSIONS CHARACTERISTICS OF DI DIESEL
ENGINE FUELED WITH DIESEL-BIODIESEL-GLYCEROL ETHERS. PART II:
EFFECT OF INJECTION TIMING
Abdülvahap ÇAKMAK1 and Hakan ÖZCAN2
1. Department of Motor Vehicles and Transportation Technologies, Kavak Vocational School, Samsun
University, Samsun; email: abdulvahap.cakmak@samsun.edu.tr
2. Department of Mechanical Engineering,
ozcanh@omu.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, the effects of injection timing on combustion and exhaust emissions of a direct injection diesel
engine operated with diesel-biodiesel-glycerol ethers experimentally investigated. Experiments were
performed at 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% engine loads and three different injection timings as -25 ºCA, -23
ºCA, and -18 ºCA. As in Part: I of the research, the test fuels were diesel fuel (D), B20G0 (80% vol. diesel +
20% vol. canola oil biodiesel), and B18G2 (80% vol. diesel + 18% vol. canola oil biodiesel + 2% vol.
glycerol ethers). From the results, it was determined that ignition delay, combustion duration, CO emissions,
HC emissions decreased while, cylinder pressure, net heat release rate, and rate of pressure rise rate
increased for all fuels as the injection timing retarded. NOX emissions reached the maximum values at the
manufacturer's setting injection timing (-23 ºCA) and then decreased with retarding or advancing the
injection timing for all fuels. When compared to D and B20G0, B18G2 resulted in higher NOX emissions
and cylinder pressure at -25 ºCA injection timing. At this injection timing, the relative increment in NOX
emissions with B18G2 was determined as 173.5% and 46.5% compared to D and B20G0, respectively.
However, at other injection timings, B18G2 presented achievement in terms of emissions than D and
B20G0. The best performance for B18G2 concerning NOX and CO emissions were observed at original
injection timing wherein an average decrease in NOX and CO emissions by 69% and 34% was observed
compared to D. Consequently, it was seen that glycerol ethers should be utilized as blending fuel at original
injection timings on the tested diesel engine.
Keywords: Injection Timing, Biodiesel, Glycerol Ethers, Emissions, Combustion Characteristics.
1 INTRODUCTION
Diesel engines commonly used in many
applications such as propulsion of a vehicle,
electric generation, agricultural, and construction
facilities due to their high torque output and best
fuel economy [1]. Even today, the primary
energy source for powering the diesel engine is
petroleum diesel fuel. Therefore, diesel engines
are designated and manufactured corresponding
to diesel fuel, and the optimum operating
conditions/design parameters are determined
according to diesel fuel. So, the operating
condition/ design parameters of a diesel engine
should be re-optimized when different fuels are
utilized to maintain low emissions and high
engine performance [2]. There is no apparent
need for extensive structural modification on
diesel engines when biofuels are used at low
blending ratios [3] [5]. However, when a diesel
engine being fuelled with a different fuel, the
operating conditions/design parameters such as
speed range, injection timing, injection pressure,
EGR rate, etc. can be re-optimized so that the
benefits of biofuels may be exploited more
efficient way. Injection characteristics of a diesel
engine are significantly influenced by fuel type
[6]. Injection timing (IT) is the time when fuel
injection being started into the cylinder, and it is
also termed as the start of injection (SOI) and
expressed in terms of crank angle. Injection
timing is a vital parameter for combustion and
hence performance and emissions characteristics
of a diesel engine [7] [9]. The crank angle
where fuel injection is started can be altered
(retarded or advanced) so that it gets maximum
engine performance providing the emissions
level is low adequate [10], [11]. Commonly,
advancing the injection timing results in better
fuel economy and high engine performance, but
it leads to elevated NOx emissions [12].
However, injection timing can be retarded to
decrease NOx emissions that cause an increase
in PM emissions [13]. Therefore, optimum
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
injection timing being selected in a diesel
blend. The findings indicated that the ignition
engine, and it depends on engine operating
delay of the main injection decreased with the
conditions and fuel type employed.
pilot injection. A combined injection strategy
Ganapathy et al. [7] showed that advancing the
(pilot + main injection) with slightly retarded
injection timing from the factory setting in
main injection timing led to a decrease in PM
Jatropha biodiesel fuelled engine caused a
and NOX emissions.
reduction in brake specific fuel consumption,
The short review presented above manifests that
HC, CO, and smoke emissions. Brake thermal
injection timing has a significant effect on
efficiency, maximum cylinder pressure, and
performance, emissions, and combustion
NOX emissions also increased with advancing
features when different fuels used in diesel
the injection timing. However, retarding the
engines. Each fuel has its specific and different
injection timing led to an effect opposite trend.
fuel properties such as density, viscosity, air/fuel
The optimum injection timing for Jatropha
ratio, heating value, etc., and these fuel
fuelled diesel engine with minimum emissions
properties affect the injection strategy. So,
and maximum performance is determined as -20
investigation of the effect of injection timing is
ºCA. But the minimum NOX emissions were
crucial to improve the performance of the new
observed at injection timing of -10 ºCA. Kannan
fuel. In this study, as a continuation of Part I, the
and Anand [14] studied the combined effect of
effects of glycerol ethers on combustion and
injection pressure and injection timing on
exhaust emissions of a diesel engine at various
combustion and emissions of a diesel engine
injection
timings
were
experimentally
powered with waste cooking oil biodiesel. The
investigated.
injection pressure of 280 bar and injection
From an economic and production method point
timing of - 25.5 °CA was found to be optimal for
of view, glycerol tert-butyl ethers appear to be
biodiesel. Murcak et al. [15] investigated the
the best glycerine derived fuel additive [19].
effect of injection timing on the performance of
Moreover, glycerol ethers act as improvers of
a diesel engine powered with diesel ethanol
some important fuel properties such as cold flow
mixture. According to their results, engine
properties and viscosity, especially of biodiesel
performance was improved with the addition of
[20], and as an octane enhancer for gasoline
ethanol and advancing the injection timing. The
[21]. Glycerol ethers were chosen as biofuel in
optimum performance values were obtained at
this study because the utilization of glycerol
the injection timing of - 25 ºCA and 5% vol.
ethers as an oxygenated fuel additive appears a
ethanol mixing rate. Gnanasekaran et al. [16]
promising way to evaluate excess glycerol.
carried out engine tests with fish oil biodiesel
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
and its blend to research the effect of injection
Biodiesel and diesel fuel were purchased from
timing on engine performance, emissions, and
local suppliers. However, glycerol ethers are not
combustion characteristics. Thermal efficiency
commercially available; therefore, the needed
was increased, and NOX, CO, and HC emissions
amount of glycerol ethers were synthesized by
decreased by retardation in the injection timing
etherification reaction. All studies related to
for biofuel blends. A similar trend was observed
glycerol ether synthesis was performed at the
in combustion features; peak cylinder pressure,
Renewable Energy Laboratory of Chemical
ignition delay, combustion duration, and heat
release rate decreased as the injection timing
University. Glycerol tert-butyl ethers were
retarded. Pal et al. [17] studied the utilization of
obtained by the etherification reaction of
waste plastic pyrolyzed oil-diesel blends in a
glycerol with tert-butyl alcohol (TBA) at the
single-cylinder diesel engine with varying
presence of Amberlyst-15 as an acidic
injection timing. It was indicated that retarded
heterogeneous catalyst. The etherification
fuel injection timing resulted in lower thermal
reaction was carried out in a high-pressure
efficiency and fewer NOX emissions while it
stainless steel batch reactor of 500 cm3 at 363
caused higher CO, HC, and soot emissions.
K, and for 3 h of reaction time under 1200 rpm
Plamondon and Seers [18] performed a
stirring speed. In this etherification reaction,
parametric study of the pilot main injection
glycerol/TBA molar ratio and amount of
strategies on the performance of a diesel engine
Amberlyst-15/ glycerol were 4/1 and 7.5% wt.,
fueled with waste cooking biodiesel diesel
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
respectively. The details of glycerol ethers
determined with this software. The star of
synthesis can be found elsewhere [22].
combustion and the end of combustion was
To preparation of diesel-biodiesel-glycerol
determined by processing the NHRR and CHRR
ethers blend, firstly, 10% vol. glycerol ethers
data. Then, ignition delay (ID), and combustion
were incorporated in canola oil biodiesel and
duration (CD) were also determined. The crank
mixed with mechanical mixer through fifteen
angle interval between the start of injection and
minutes. Then, this biofuel blend was
the start of combustion (CA10) is defined as the
incorporated in 20% vol. in the diesel fuel that
ignition delay (ID). CD is the difference
resulted in a diesel-biodiesel-glycerol ethers
between the start of the combustion and end of
mixture. This final blend was named as B18G2
the combustion, and it is determined by the
includes 80% vol. diesel, 18% vol. canola oil
interval between the CA10 and CA90 [23].
biodiesel, and 2% vol. glycerol ethers. Diesel
Where CA10 and CA90 indicate the mass of
fuel (D) and a diesel/canola oil biodiesel mixture
10% and 90% of fuel burned, respectively.
(80/20% by volume) named as B20G0 were also
CO, NOx, and CO2 emissions were measured by
used in experiments.
the TESTO 350-XL gas analyzer. HC emissions
The determined main fuel properties of test fuels
were measured by the KTEST exhaust emissions
are represented in Table 1. The addition of
device with 8 ppm accuracy. The technical
glycerol ethers in the diesel-biodiesel blend
specifications of the TESTO 350-XL gas
reduced the fuel's density, kinematic viscosity,
analyzer are given in Table 3. The values of
lower heating value, and cetane index. On the
exhaust emissions were recorded with 40 s
other hand, when glycerol ethers added to the
intervals, and the readings repeated six times.
fuel, a substantial decrease in T10 temperature
Then, the averaged values were used for the
was observed due to the low boiling temperature
comparison. Engine tests were carried out at a
of glycerol ethers.
constant speed of 1500 rpm and low, medium,
high, and full engine loads that were
Table 1. Fuel Properties
corresponding to 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of
Property
Diesel B20G0 B18G2
the maximum engine torque output, respectively.
3
835.0 844.5 844.1
Regarding the study of the effect of injection
2
/s 2.79
3.31
2.95
timing, the injection timings of -25 ºCA, -23
LHV, kJ/kg
42484 41325 41078
ºCA (standard), and -18 ºCA were selected. The
Cetane index
55.6
55.1
54.7
test engine has a mechanical fuel injection
212.6 221.8 210.3
system. The fuel system consists of a cam
280.4 299.4 281.8
operated single-plunger fuel pump with a
centrifugal governor, fuel filter, high-pressure
339.9 341.9 340.0
fuel line, and fuel injector with an injection
A Kirloskar-TV1, single-cylinder, four-stroke,
opening pressure of 200 bar. The recommended
water-cooled, and the direct injection diesel
injection timing by the engine manufacturer is
engine was used in this study. The engine
-23 ºCA. The fuel injector has a three-hole
specification is given in Table 2, and the test
nozzle of 0.2 mm settled at 120 degrees, and the
setup layout is presented in Figure 1. The engine
injector installed on the cylinder head at an angle
was connected to a water-cooled Eddy current
of 60 degrees to the cylinder axis. The test
dynamometer (AG series, Model: AG10) to load
engine has an injection point adjustment nut, and
the engine and measure engine torque. A
the injection timing was easily adjusted by the
piezoelectric
pressure
transducer
(PCB
turn of the nut. Retarding or advancing the start
Piezotronics, Range; 0-350 bar) and a shaft
of injection depends on the rotation direction of
encoder (speed 5500 rpm with TDC pulse) were
the adjustment nut. This fuel injection point
used to capture cylinder pressure with the
adjustment nut varies the injection timing by
resolution of 1 ºCA. The LabVIEW based
adjusting the relationship between the camshaft
ICEngineSoft 9.0 V combustion software was
drive and the bottom edge of the plunger.
used to analyze the average of measured 100
consecutive cycles cylinder pressure vs. crank
angle data. The net heat release rate (NHRR),
rate of pressure rise rate (RPRR), and
cumulative heat release rate (CHRR) were
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Table 2. Specification of the Engine
46.71 bar, 45.07 bar, and 50.86 bar, respectively.
At baseline injection timing (-23 ºCA) the peak
Specifications
cylinder pressure was measured by 49.05 bar
Bore/stroke, mm
87.5/110
49.04 bar, and 51.05 bar for D, B20G0, and
Speed, rpm
1500
B18G2, respectively. B18G2 presented higher
Max. torque, Nm
21.8@1500rpm
CP at injection timings of -25 ºCA and -23 ºCA
Max. power, kW
3.5@1500rpm
compared to D, and B20G0. The reason for this
Compression ratio
12:1-18:1
could be attributed to B18G0's high volatility
Stroke volume, cc
661
and oxygen content that shortened the ignition
Standard injection timing
23 ºCA bTDC
delay by faster vaporizing, and enhancing the
Injection timing variation
0-25 ºCA bTDC
mixing rate results in accelerated combustion
Injection Pressure
200 bar
and thus higher cylinder pressure. Also, the
viscosity and volatility of the fuel have a very
crucial function to increase the atomization rate
and to improve air-fuel mixing formation [24].
At injection timing of -18 ºCA, there is no
noticeable difference in maximum CP for test
fuels that indicates the CP is not sensitive to fuel
types at maximum retardation in injection
timing.
Figure 1. The engine test setup layout
Table 3. Specification of the TESTO 350-XL
gas analyzer
Specs./Gas
CO
NOx
CO2
M. Range
0-10000 ppm 0-4000 ppm 0-50%
Sensitivity
1 ppm
1 ppm
0.1%
Accuracy
±10 ppm
±5 ppm
±0.5%
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The combustion characteristics considered for
this study is the cylinder pressure (CP), net heat
release rate (NHRR), rate of pressure rise rate
(RPRR), ignition delay (ID), and combustion
duration (CD). All combustion characteristics
were presented at full engine loads and injection
timings of -25 ºCA, -23 ºCA, and -18 ºCA.
The CP vs. injection timing or in the other name
as the start of injection (SOI) for test fuels is
shown in Figure 2. As seen in this figure, CP
values increased with retarding injection timing.
However, this increment was rapid when the
injection timing retarded from -25 ºCA to -23
ºCA. Further retarding the injection timing led to
a slight increase (about 2.3 bar) in CP. The
reason for this is the fact that the maximum CP
was obtained away from the TDC when
injection timing was further retarded. At
advanced injection timing (-25 ºCA) the peak CP
for D, B20G0, and B18G2 was determined as
Figure 2. CP vs. SOI for test fuels
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
The NHRR curves of fuels are presented in
The RPRR for test fuels at different injection
Figure 3. It is seen that as the injection timing
timing is presented in Figure 4. RPRR decreased
advanced the peak NHRR occurred earlier crank
with injection timing advance and increased with
angle (CA) and peak values decreased for all
retardation in injection timing. It is consistent
fuels. B18G2 presented advanced peak NHRR
with the result of Ref. [16]. When the RPRR of
compared to the other fuels at injection timings
test fuels is compared with each other, it is seen
of -25 ºCA, -23 ºCA. Despite the low cetane
that the RPRR increased and advanced to earlier
number of glycerol ethers, the low viscosity and
CA for B181G2 at injection timings of -25 ºCA
oxygen content of B18G2 fuel caused fasterand -23 ºCA. At injection timing of -25 ºCA, the
premixed combustion phase, and thus higher and
maximum RPRR for D, B20G0, and B18G2
advanced the peak NHRR. In other words,
were determined by 2.94 bar/ºCA at 357 ºCA,
B18G2 fuel decreased the ignition delay (refer
2.57 bar/ºCA at 359 ºCA, and 3.26 bar/ºCA at
Fig. 5), and as a consequence, it led to an
355 ºCA, respectively. However, no significant
increase in the NHRR. The maximum NHRR for
change in RPRR was observed at retarded
D, B20G0, and B18G2 was determined by 35.01
injection timing. As the injection timing
J/ºCA, 34.68 J/ºCA, and 34.94 J/ºCA at the
retarded, the peak RPRR increased, and the
retarded injection timing (-18 ºCA). At this
maximum RPRR was found at -18 ºCA. At this
injection timing, the test fuels showed nearly the
injection timing, the maximum RPRR was
same trend in terms of NHRR, but B18G2
determined as 3.86 bar/ºCA at 357 ºCA, 3.83
delayed the peak NHRR location by 1 ºCA.
bar/ºCA at 357 ºCA, and 3.76 bar/ºCA at 358
ºCA for, D, B20G0, and B18G2, respectively.
Figure 3. NHRR vs. SOI for test fuels
Figure 4. RPRR vs. SOI for test fuels
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
The ID and CD vs. SOI for test fuels are
injection timing was retarded. But, no consistent
presented in Figure 5, and Figure 6, respectively.
trend was observed in CO emissions for test
These two figures show ID and CD decreased as
fuels at the start of the injection of -25 ºCA and the injection timing retarded. The one reason for
18 ºCA. However, there is a clear tendency in
the reduction in CD with the retardation in
the CO emissions graph for test fuels at baseline
injection timing could be a decrease in ID. High
injection timing. At standard injection timing,
cylinder pressure and temperature could be the
B18G2 presented the lowest CO emissions
cause of the decline in ID as the injection timing
among the fuels for at all engine loads, and the
retarded. Furthermore, accelerated combustion
decrement in CO emissions is more evident at
may take place in the cylinder owing to high inlow engine loads. Because the in-cylinder
cylinder temperature, in turn, lessened the total
temperature is low at low engine loads, thus high
combustion duration [25]. The ID for B18G2
CO emissions formed. B18G2 lowered the CO
was shorter compared to D and B20G0 at
emissions averagely by 35 % and 34% at
injection timing of -25 ºCA. The reasons for that
standard injection timing, compared to B20G0
could be the low boiling point temperature,
and D, respectively. This could be described by
higher oxygen content, and low viscosity of
fuel properties such as oxygen content and
glycerol ethers. These features might have
viscosity. B18G2 includes oxygen by about 3%
provided better atomization, evaporation, and
wt. in its chemical composition while diesel fuel
air-fuel mixing. But all test fuel presented the
does not. This accelerates the CO oxidation and
same ID delay and closer CD at retarded
reduces the CO emissions level. Moreover, the
injection timing.
addition of glycerol ethers reduced the fuel's
kinematic viscosity leads to better fuel-air
mixing, and it causes more efficient combustion.
Hence, lower CO emissions occurred when
B18G2 used, compared to B20G0.
HC emissions for all test fuels are demonstrated
in Figure 8. It is observed that HC emissions
decreased as the injection timing retarded, but
HC emissions raised as the engine load
increased. The decrement of HC emissions with
retarding the injection timing was due to
convenient cylinder temperature for better fuelair
mixture
formation.
High
cylinder
Figure 5. ID vs SOI for test fuels
temperatures facilitate fuel evaporation, and airfuel mixing that improves the combustion of fuel
results in lower HC emissions. The increment of
HC emissions with an increase in engine load
was linked with the air-fuel ratio. With the rise
in engine load, more fuel is injected in the
cylinder, and this causes locally rich mixture
regions that contribute to the formation of HC
emissions [8].
Also, it is seen that B18G2 produced fewer HC
emissions than that of diesel fuel at the injection
timing of -25 ºCA and -18 ºCA. However, it
Figure 6. CD vs. SOI for test fuels
caused a considerable increase in HC emissions
The CO emission of the test fuels versus star of
at standard injection timing compared to diesel.
injection and engine load is shown in Figure 7.
At this operating condition, B18G2 generated
Retarding the injection timing from -25 ºCA to
higher HC emissions by 37% and 92%
-18 ºCA reduced CO emissions because of
averagely, compared to B20G0 and D,
enhanced combustion as a consequence of high
respectively. The decrease in HC emissions with
in-cylinder temperature. For this reason, fewer
retarding the injection timing could depend on
CO emissions emitted from the engine when
high exhaust gas temperature. Some formed
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
hydrocarbons could be oxidized at both
expansion stroke and exhaust stroke due to high
temperatures that caused fewer HC emissions
[8], [23], [26]. Additionally, the rate of HC
oxidation for blended fuel might have increased
owing to the oxygen content of biodiesel and
glycerol ethers.
Furthermore, the low HC emissions of B18G2 at
injection timing of -25 ºCA was because of
shorter ignition delay. In diesel engine
combustion, the level of HC emissions from the
overlean regions depends on the amount of fuel
injected during the ID [23]. An increase in ID
could promote the quenching effect in the leaner
mixture zones in the cylinder that causes higher
HC formation [27]. Therefore, the shorter ID
with the use of B18G2 resulted in a decrease in
HC emissions.
Figure 8. HC emissions vs. SOI for test fuels
Figure 7. CO emissions vs. SOI for test
fuels
NOx emission of the test fuels at various
injection timings and engine load is shown in
Figure 9. As seen in this figure, NOx emissions
increased with increasing engine load for all test
fuels due to higher combustion temperature
brought about by the increasing fuel-air
equivalence ratio [8]. Moreover, it is clear from
the figure that NOx emissions reached up to the
maximum level for all test fuels at standard
injection timing, and reduced by advancing or
retarding the injection timing beyond standard
injection timing. The reasons for this trend might
be the maximum cylinder pressure and its
location. The maximum cylinder pressure values
substantially increased by changing the injection
timing from -25 ºCA to -23 ºCA; however,
further retarding the injection timing beyond to 23 ºCA did not cause a significant increase in the
maximum cylinder pressure.
Also, as the
injection timing retarded, the combustion
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
process is shifted to expansion stroke, leads to
Figure 10. As witnessed in CO emissions, no
lower combustion temperature, and hence
consistent trend in CO2 emissions was observed
reduces the level of NOx emissions. Glycerol
among the test fuels. All test fuels led to
ethers' cetane number is low [19], [28].
improved combustion at standard injection
However, the low boiling point temperature of
timing, resulting in high CO2 emissions.
glycerol ethers might have caused a decrease in
However, biofuels appear to be a potent means
physical ignition delay, in turn, more fuel was
for diminishing CO2 emissions because CO2
burned before TDC that leads to higher cylinder
emitted when biofuels are burned will be
pressure, and hence higher NOX formation rate.
absorbed in the photosynthesis process as the
This event could be dominant on NOX formation
nature of the carbon cycle [29].
at the advanced injection timing. However, the
utilization of glycerol ethers as a fuel additive
seems to be an effective way to reduce NOX
emissions at the standard injection timing. It was
determined that B18G2, averagely lessened the
NOX emissions by 35% and 69%, at injection
timing of -23 ºCA, compared to B20G0 and D,
respectively.
Figure 10. CO2 emissions vs. SOI for test
fuels
Figure 9. NOX emissions vs. SOI for test
fuels
The CO2 emission of the test fuels at various
injection timing and engine load is shown in
4 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, the combustion and emissions
characteristics of a diesel-biodiesel-glycerol
ethers blend were investigated at three different
injection timings, and the obtained results were
compared with those obtained a diesel-biodiesel
blend and neat diesel. B18G2 resulted in a
decrease in HC emissions at advanced and
retarded injection timing, but it caused an
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
increase in HC emissions at standard injection
engine application: A review, Renew.
timing for all engine loads. At this operating
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condition, an opposite trend was observed in CO
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lowest CO and NOx emissions among the test
injection pressure on the performance and
fuels. When taking into account the combustion
emission characteristics of a diesel engine
characteristics, B18G2 caused an advanced and
fuelled with waste cooking oil biodieselhigher CP, NHRR, and RPRR than the other test
diesel blends, Renew. Energy, vol. 132,
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However, at retarded injection timing, no
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in
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University
under
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J. B. Heywood, Internal combustion
engine fundamentals. 1988.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
PELET YAKITLI KAZANL
Bilal Sungur1 and
1. SamsunÜniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi,
bilal.sungur@samsun.edu.tr
2. Ondok
Türkiye; email: btopal@omu.edu.tr
2
; email:
Özet
içerisindeki primer (birincil)
-
Anahtar Kelimeler:
eme
NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF PRIMARY AIR HOLE
DIAMETERS ON COMBUSTION IN PELLET FUELLED BOILERS
Abstract
Most of the world's energy needs are met by fossil sources. However, the depletion of fossil energy
resources has led researchers to search for new fuels that may be alternatives to existing resources. One of
the alternative fuels is pellet fuel, which is a completely natural fuel from biomass. In this study, the effect of
primary air hole diameters on combustion in a sample pellet boiler was investigated numerically.
Calculations were performed at three dimensional conditions. RNG kand Finite rate/Eddy dissipation model was used as combustion model. Temperature contours, velocity
vectors, flue gas temperatures and efficiencies were evaluated according to primary air hole diameters.
Keywords: Biofuels; Pellet; Pellet boilers; Grate design; Primary air; Numerical modelling
1
. Enerji hem elektrik
karbon nötrdür; yanma sonu
fotosentetik reaksiyonlar yoluyla biyokütlenin
u sebeple yenilenebilir enerji
tüketiminin 2011-
tanesidir
Genellikle 6-
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
-11 mm
simulasy
modellenmesinde Finite rate/Eddy dissipation
sonucu olarak; kazan içerisinde bulunan su
yüksek emisyonlara neden olan önemli faktörler
lanarak
hale
getirmektedir.
Kazanlar,
içerisinde
yle modelleme
parametrelerin deneysel olarak incelenebilmesi
ler
HAD
Eddy dissipation model, türbülans modeli olarak
Standart k- model, Radyasyon modeli olarak P1
yanma gibi kompleks problemlerin çözümünde
oldukça tercih edilir.
in Aspen
gerçek
buharFLUENT pr
korunum denklemlerinin çözümünde SIMPLE
model ve radyasyonun modellenmesinde
rate/Eddy di
erdir. Nümerik hesaplamalarda
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Ordinates (DO) modelini ve türbülans modeli
olarak Standart k-
mevucttur;
Laminar Finite Rate: Türbülans etkileri
içerisindeki primer hava deliklerinin yanmaya
olan etkisi nümerik olarak FLUENT paket
Arrhenius denkleminden çözülür.
Finite-Rate/Eddy
Dissipation:
Türbülans modeli olarak RNG kmodeli olarak Finite rate/Eddy dissipation
hesaplar ancak bunlardan hangisinin
Eddy Dissipation:
hesaplar.
(Magnussen
EDC (Eddy
2
ve
Hijertager
Dissipation Concept):
MATERYAL VE METOD
Türlerin
problemlerinin çözümünde nümerik yöntemler
olarak yanma problemlerin çözümünde, analitik,
deneysel ve nümerik yöntemler uygulanabilir.
Türbülans modeli olarak RNG kmodeli olarak finite rate/eddy dissipation
modeli, radyasyon modeli olarak P1 radyasyon
-
tli seçenekler mevcuttur
[9]. Bunlar;
Model
-
-premixed) Model
denklemi
Magnussen ve Hjertager denklemleri ile hesaba
üzerinde karbon partikülleri enjekte edilerek
reaksiyonlar programa girilerek hesaplamalar
g
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
du
7.5 mm ve 10 mm)
(velocity in
-6
mertebesine
(discrete phase model-
geler (yanma haznesi çevresi) daha
CO2, H2, H2O, NH3, hafif hidrokarbonlar (CH4)
ve katrandan (C6H6
[10].
Kaba (Proximate) analiz
Nem [küt.%]
8.50
Kül [küt.%]
0.62
Sabit karbon [küt.%]
16.20
Uçucu madde [küt.%]
74.68
18330
3
hazne mer
tüm durumlarda hazne içerisinde ve hazneye
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
aksimum
görülmektedir.
-2170
buradan 6 adet duma
-
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Bir kaz
(1)
ile hesaplanabilir [11]. Burada
sto
p,exh
(kJ/kgK), Texh
0
U
Buna
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
4
içerisindeki
primer
(birincil)
hava
delik
Primer hava d
(5 mm, 7.5 mm ve 10 mm) primer hava
deliklerine sahip hazneler ile hesaplamalar
yanma
modeli
olarak
Finite
rate/Eddy
pozisyonu,
hazne
geometrisinin
biçimi
(yuvarlak, kare gibi) gibi parametrelerin
yanmaya olan etkisi incelenebilir.
REFERENCES
[1] B. Sungur, M.
ve
verimler
incelenerek
sonuçlar
Tüm durumlarda hazne içerisinde ve
ve L.
mikro kojenerasyon sistemlerinin teknik ve
Mühendis ve
Makina, Vol.58(686), pp.1-20, 2017.
[2] T. Klason, X.S. Bai, Computational study of
the combustion process and NO formation in a
small-scale wood pellet furnace, Fuel, Vol.86,
pp.1465-1474, 2007.
[3] J. Porteiro, J. Collazo, D. Patino, E. Granada,
J.C.M. Gonzalez, J.L. Miguez, Numerical
modeling of a biomass pellet domestic boiler,
Energy and Fuels, Vol.23, pp.1067-1075,2009.
[4] J. Collazo, J. Porteiro, J.L. Miguez, E.
Granada, M.A. Gomez, Numerical simulation of
a small-scale biomass boiler, Energy Conversion
and Management, Vol.64, pp.87-96, 2012.
[5] C. Ryu, Y.B. Yang, V. Nasserzadeh and J.
Swithenbank, Thermal reaction modeling of a
large municipal solid waste incinerator,
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Combustion
Science
and
Technology,
Vol.176(11), pp.1891-1907, 2004.
[6] A. Hussain, CFD modeling of grate furnace
designs for municipal solid waste combustion,
Asian Transactions on Engineering, Vol.2(3),
pp.41-50, 2012.
[7] S. Begum, M. Rasul, D. Akbar, and D. Cork,
An experimental and numerical investigation of
fluidized bed gasification of solid waste.
Energies, Vol.7(1), pp. 43-61, 2014.
[8] Y.-W. Lee, C. Ryu, W.J. Lee and Y.K. Park,
Assessment of wood pellet combustion in a
domestic stove. Journal of Material Cycles and
Waste Management, Vol.13(3), pp.165-172,
2011.
[10] M.A. Gomez, R. Comesana, M.A. Alvarez
Feijoo, P. Eguia, Simulation of the Effect of
Water Temperature on Domestic Biomass Boiler
Performance, Energies, Vol.5, pp.1044-1061,
2012.
[11] B. Sungur, B. Topaloglu, An experimental
investigation of the effect of smoke tube
configuration on the performance and emission
characteristics
of
pellet-fuelled
boilers,
Renewable Energy, Vol.143, pp.121-129, 2019.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
EtanolM.Vargün1, M.Hürpekli2 ve A.N.Özsezen3
1.
,
-
,
-
email: mustafavargun@gmail.com
2.
-
3.
email: email: nozsezen@kocaeli.edu.tr
Özet
lindirli bir dizel motorun
-dizel
silindirli dizel motor ve Eddy Current tipi
, %50 yük ve 1600 dev/dak sabit
Ölü Noktadan Önce (ÜÖNÖ) 6,3o KA
püskürtme
Anahtar Kelimeler:
Abstract
In this study, fuel injection timing of a single cylinder diesel engine was changed and performance,
combustion and emission characteristics of ethanol-diesel blends were investigated. Engine tests were
performed using single cylinder diesel engine and Eddy Current type dynamometer under 50% load
and 1600 rpm constant engine speed conditions. Since the classic injection time of the engine at 1600
rpm Before Top Dead Center (BTDC) was 6,3° KA (crank angle), the engine tests were carried out
first by positioning the classic injection timing. Then the tests were completed by changing the
injection timing and fuel type. At the end of the study, the test data were compared according to the
injection timing and fuel type with reference to conventional injection time and fossil based diesel fuel.
Key Words:
1
edecek
[2]. AB t
direktifler
[3,4].
Ülkemizde,
milyar
en az %3
(Vol.
beklenirken, yenilenebilir ene
[1]. Bu
.
Etanol C2H5 OH kimyasal formülü ile
gösterilmektedir ve % 52.18 karbon, % 34.78
oksijen ve % 13.04
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
[5].
kaynaklar
f
[6].
Alkol
Alkol
Maksimum indike termik verimde en erken
[16].
P
X ve
CO2
olan etanol ve
[17].
[7,8].
Etanol-
motorin (FKDY) ve hacimsel olarak etanol-dizel
(E5,
[9].
E
yükünde
ilk
olarak silindir içerisine standart enjeksiyon
üst ölü noktadan önce
6.3
stratejilerine uygun olarak standart enjeksiyon
2
içindeki
edilmektedir [10].
[11].
z
özelliklerden
dol
da
2
MATERYAL VE METOT
direkt püskürtmeli, co
-Dizel
ki
n
içersinde
art m
esi
süresini
]. Fosil kökenli dizel
nma
]. E
fosil
faz
görülmektedir [12,13]. Etanol-Dizel
testleri, 1600 dev/dak sabit motor devrinde ve
tek silindirli dizel motorun teknik özellikleri
filtresi
ve motor kontrol ünitesidir (EKU).
[12]. Literatürde
alkol-
ve
-propanol, n-propanol, iso-bütanol ve
n-bütanoldür [14].
-dizel
Motor testl
-735 model öl
2-
kg/kWh birimden
deva
test
hücresine
AVL-FITR
2
[15].
emisyon ölçüm
ve NOx emisyon
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Tablo 1. Tek Silindirli Deney Motorun
Supercharger
Özellikleri
Boost Air
AVL 515X
±10mbar
Pressure
Motor
AVL-577
Motor
Motoru
a ve
±1K
Tipi
Enjeksiyon tipi
Silindir hacmi
Direk Enjeksiyonlu
1800 bar
1120 cm3
4
Maksimum
190 bar
Maksimum motor
Tüketimi
Blow-by
NOx
CO2
2500 d/d
Maksimum güç
Maksimum tork
Bore
Stroke
<0.15%
AVL 442
Chemiluminescence
Detector
Non-Dispersive
Infrared Rays
±1.5%
PT100 (K Type)
Sensörleri
50 kW
160 Nm
106.5 mm
127 mm
16.4
AVL-735
. Motor
Motor
parametresi için hesaplanan hata analizi Tablo
2.
. Motor sistemi dinamometre
motor üzerindeki etkileri gözlemlenebilmektedir.
Motor, yanma karakteristikleri ve silindir gaz
görünümü
Tablo 2.
Ölçüm
Tork
Motor Devri
Hücre Nem
Testi
Hücre
Cihaz
HBM Torque
Flange
AVL Encoder
Baker ve 2±0.1%
-
Vaisala
HMT 330
±1% RH
Vaisala
HMT 330
±0.2°C
Testi
AVL Flowsonix
<±0.25%
Kistler PFP Sensörü
0.05CA
-bütanol
(FKDY), hacimsel olarak %5 (E5) etanol içeren
Silindir Gaz
Sensörü
Enjeksiyon
Angle Encoder
Supercharger
Boost Air
AVL 515X
Temperature
±0.1CA
±5°C
% 5 etanol
+ % 1 2-butanol + % 94 FKDY
% 10 etanol + % 2 2-butanol + % 88
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Özellikler
3
)
Viskozite (mm2/sn)
o
C)
o
C)
o
C)
Motorin
820 845
2,0 - 4,5
160
55
0,020
o
°
Bütanol (
805
5
102
-115
20,5
99.0
0.2
-
0.2
-
gösteren
verilmektedir.
sonucunda, test verileri püskürtme zaman
2
°
°
0.1
Etanol (C2H6O)
790
78
-114.5
12
°
toplam çevrimin
r. Testlerde FKDY,
3
%10
(E10)
hacimsel
etanol-
edilen silindir
üst ölü noktadan önce (Ü.Ö.N.Ö) 6.3
)
.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
75,3 bar ve FKDY için 74,7 bar olarak elde
edilirke
3.1
3.
-
3,3 bar,
(E5, E10), silin
(FKDY
için 5,3 bar ve FKDY
4,3o
elde
edilerek,
8,3
3
Minimum
FKDY
FKDY(83,4
o
Ü.Ö.N.Ö 4,3
o
3.2 Karbondioksit (CO2) Emisyonu
4.
o
(-2o
KA, klasik, +2 KA) CO2
2
6,3o
(Ü.Ö.N.Ö
e
KA)
o
ppm olarak ölçülürken minimum CO2 emisyon
o
o
KA)
80,6 bar iken FKDY
o
,3o
E10 ve FKDY
.
püskür
Klasik enjeksiyon z
6,3o KA) maksimum CO2
FKDY (49284 ppm)
%2,96 (1012 ppm) ve
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
90
90
1600 dev/dak
1600 dev/dak
°C
80
C
80
70
70
60
60
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
FKDY (-2° KA)
E5 (-2° KA)
E10 (-2° KA)
10
10
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
o
40
50
-20
60
-10
0
10
20
30
o
KA)
40
50
60
KA)
o
o
o
-2
o
3o
2
ile 48819 pmm, E5
o
o
o
3.3 Azot Oksit (NOx) Emisyonu
z
E10 ve FKDY
x
KA
elde edilen CO2
FKDY)
-2o KA, klasik, +2o KA)
E10 ve
minimum NOx emisyonu klasik
o
2
gözlemlenirken
o
maksimum
o
yak
51
1600 dev/dak
C
51
50
50
49
49.284
49
48.272
48.311
48
emisyon
o
-2
52
NO x
o
52
FKDY (+2° KA) 1600 dev/dak
E5 (+2° KA)
E10 (+2° KA)
C
51
50
48.819
47.968
49
FKDY (-2° KA) 1600 dev/dak
E5 (-2° KA)
E10 (-2° KA)
°C
49.689
48.951
48.889
47.915
48
48
47
47
47
46
46
45
46
45
45
o
4.
o
o
-2oKA) CO2 emisyon
o
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
650
1600 dev/dak
625
C
600
575
559
557
550
540
525
500
475
450
425
400
o
o
o
o
o
-2 KA) NOx emisyon
x
x
emisyonla
enjeksiyon zam
-2)
6,3o KA), NOx emisyonu FKDY ile 540 ppm
olarak tespit edilirken E5 (557 ppm) ve E10
testlerde,
Ü.Ö.N.Ö
8,3o
2o
KA
enjeksiyon
Enjeksiyon
x
ppm), E10 (474 ppm) ve ,FKDY (463 ppm)
2o
o
KA
enjeksiyon
o
x
.
o
emisyon
pm),
ppm) ve FKDY ile (672 ppm)
Deneylerde,
enjeksiyon
x
4
E5 ve E10
2
2
SONUÇLAR
anol-
(
dizel
motorda
enjeksiyon zaman
performans
o
ve
emisyon
ik
o
,3 KA) ve 2o
FKD
2
njeksiyon
2
bir
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Manufacturing and Automation, Sy. 1013
1022, 2015.
[8] S. Özer,
o
x
Dergisi
NOx
x
Mükemme
.
lojisi
ekibine ve Kocaeli Üniversitesine
ederler.
REFERANSLAR
[1] T
Enerji Görünümü, Oda Raporu,
Nisan 2018-Ankara.
Enerji Bitkileri
(Biyomotorin,BiyoetanoliBiyomas)-2008.
Türkiye ve Avrupa
,
Bilimleri Dergisi, Sy. 26-33, 2015.
ve D. Koçtürk,
EnerjilerNobe
2011.
[5] A. Bulur, Çukurova Bölgesinde Üretilen
, Çukurova Üniversitesi Fen
Bilimleri Enstitüsü
Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 2010.
[6
Ankara2015.
[7] S. Iliev, , A Comparison of Ethanol and
Methanol Blending with Gasoline Using a 1-D
Engine Model, Procedia Engineering, 5th
DAAAM International Symposium on Intelligent
2014.
[9] B. Likos, T. J. Callahan ve C. A. Moses,
Performance and Emissions of Ethanol and
-Injected and
Pre-Chamber Diesel Engines, Society of
Automotive.
[10] M. Balat, H. Balat ve C. Öz, Progress in
bioethanol processing, Progress In Energy And
Combustion Science, pp. 551 573, 2008.
[11] C. Stan, R. Troeger, S. Guenther, A.
Stanciu, L. Martorano, C. Tarantino ve R. Lensi,
Internal Mixture Formation and Combustion from Gasoline to Ethanol, Society of Automotive,
2001-01-1207.
[12
Fuel, An overview
on the light alcohol fuels in diesel engines, Fuel,
pp. 890-911, 2019.
[13] S. A. Shahir, H. H. Masjuki, M. A. Kalam,
A. Imran, I. M Rizwanul Fattah ve A. Sanjid,
Feasibility of diesel biodiesel ethano l /
bio ethano l blend as exist ing CIengine fuel:
An assessment of properties, material
compatibility, safety and combustion,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
pp. 379-395, 2014.
[14]
Alkollü Benzinlerin
,
Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi, 1990.
[15] N. Raeie, S. Emami ve O. K. Sadaghiyani,
Effects of injection timing, before and after top
dead center on the propulsion and power in a
diesel engine, Propulsion and Power Research,
pp. 59-67, 2014.
[16
RCCI Bir Motorda
Motor Performans Karakteristikleri,
International Congress of the New Approaches
and Technologies for Sustainable Development,
Sy. 60-69, September 21-24, 2017 Isparta /
TURKEY.
[17] S. A. Ahmed, S. Zhou, Y. Zhu, Y. Feng, A.
Malik ve N. Ahmad, Influence of Injection
Timing on Performance and Exhaust Emission
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
of CI Engine Fuelled with Butanol-Diesel Using
a 1D GT-Power Model, Processes, 2019.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
EFFECTS OF FUSEL OIL ON A THERMAL COATED ENGINE
Ö. Salih1, V. Erdinç2 and Ö. Serkan3
1. Mus Alparslan University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Mus/Turkey,
s.ozer@alparslan.edu.tr
2.
,
erdinc009@hotmail.com
3. Bitlis Eren University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Bitlis/Turkey, s.ozel@bitliseren.edu.tr
Abstract
This study aims to cover the valves and piston with Al2O3+13% powders by plasma spray method in order to
improve the engine's emissions. In addition, the effects of using fusel oil with natural water content of 9.6%
were investigated in reducing negative emissions in coated engines. For this purpose fusel oil is added to
diesel fuel by 25% by volume. The resulting mixture-coated and uncoated engine was tested starting at 1400
rpm and up to 3200 rpm. Changes in the NOx, is and CO emissions of the engine were observed at this
stage. With the addition of fusel oil to diesel fuel, NOx and CO emissions decreased and is emissions
increased. Thermal barrier coating has reduced emissions in all fuel mixtures and at all engine speeds.
Key words: Diesel engine, exhaust emission, fusel oil, thermal barrier, coating
1
INTRODUCTION
Diesel motor vehicles play an important role in
our daily lives. Since it provides effective power
at a minimal cost, transportation, construction,
agriculture, industry, generator it is very widely
used in areas. Despite being used in so many
areas, harmful wastes from the exhaust of dieselpowered vehicles cause health problems on
living things and pollute the Environment [1].
Therefore, the researchers are working on
reducing the fuel consumption of diesel engines,
increasing their efficiency, reducing exhaust
emissions [2-5].Alternative fuel studies in which
different fuel combinations are tried, combustion
chamber and cylinder piston surface operations,
fuel injection strategies and processes related to
exhaust gases after combustion are the beginning
of these studies [6-8]. These methods include
thermal barrier coating (TBC), a surface
modification process with an enhancing effect
on performance and a reducing effect on exhaust
emissions. The main purpose of TBC is to
reduce the amount of heat transferred from the
combustion chamber components by an
insulating layer with low thermal conductivity.
In this way, the amount of heat energy to be
converted into mechanical energy in the
combustion chamber increases. In addition,
increased in-cylinder temperature and pressure
causes more HC to react in the combustion
chamber, resulting in a reduction in exhaust
emissions [9]. Reducing exhaust emissions in
diesel engines one of the promising methods to
improve performance is the use of alternative
fuel additives [10]. Biodiesel is an alternative
type of fuel that can be produced from
renewable sources such as vegetable and animal
fats for diesel engines in the class of internal
combustion engines. Biodiesel is a non-toxic,
environmentally friendly fuel that breaks down
easily in nature. Use of biodiesel in certain
diesel fuel ratios in diesel engines; Depending
on operating conditions, the structure of the
engine and the characteristics of the biodiesel
fuel have different effects on engine
performance and emissions [11]. Biodiesel has
lower thermal values than diesel fuel. But
biodiesel - diesel fuel mixtures increase specific
fuel consumption while reducing harmful
emissions [12]. Therefore, high combustion
chamber temperature can be achieved by
reducing heat loss of combustion chamber
components with surface modification process
TBC. Thus, TBC engine, various biodieseldiesels blends; prepared fuel sample during
combustion temperature increase and excess
oxygen due to diesel is thought to show superior
performance characteristics. Therefore, various
studies in the literature have investigated the
effects of biodiesel fuel on performance and
emission formations in diesel engines in TBC
application. Selman and colleagues in their study
[13], single cylinder, four stroke, 3 LD 510
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
model Lombardino ci engine combustion
2 MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL
chamber elements (piston and Valve) using
METHODS
plasma spray method, 100 µm of NiCrAl
intermediate decking and on it 88% ZrO2, 4%
The valves and pistons of the diesel engine are
MgO, 8% Al2O3 mixture coating powder formed
coated with plasma spray coating method. The
a thermal barrier. They then produced residual
image of the coated materials is given in Figure
frying oil of cottonseed biofuel and tested
1 fusel oil is supplied from Eskisehir Sugar
performance,
emission
and
combustion
Factory. The sample was analysed and its
experiments on the TBC coated engine at full
contents were determined and given in Table 1.
load and at various speeds. They reported that
It is often used by distilling fusel oil. However,
they observed partial increases in exhaust
it was not subjected to distillation because it was
manifold temperature and engine noise, partial
chosen to be used without distillation in this
decreases in brake specific fuel consumption
study. Diesel fuel (D), 25% fusel oil contribution
(BSFC), partial reductions in carbon monoxide
is shown by shortening as D75F25.
(CO), hydrocarbon (HC) and smoke opacity
Specifications of experimental fuels are given in
emissions, but partial increases in nitrogen oxide
Table 5
(NOx) emissions. Karthickeyan Viswanathan
and colleagues [14] produced renewable
alternative biodiesel from curry leaf (Murraya
koenigii) oil, creating four different fuel
mixtures such as B25, B50, B75 and B100. They
also coated the combustion chamber elements of
an internal combustion diesel engine using
Figure 1. Coated piston valve images and
yttrium stabilized zirconia and thermal barrier
schematic drawing.
coating and examined the thermal efficiency and
exhaust emissions of B25, B50, B75 and B100
fuels. Experiments showed that Curry Leaf
Table 1. Alcohol ratios of distilled fusel oil.
biodiesel fuels increased thermal efficiency and
Alcohol Name
% [Mass]
decreased fuel consumption in the yttrium
Ethanol
9.61
stabilized zirconia-coated engine, and decreased
1-propanol
3.68
Co, HC and smoke due to oxygen and high in2-methyl 1-propanol
11.75
cylinder temperature. They reported that they
2-methy
1-butanol
68.45
detected high NOx emission due to high inOther alcohol
6.5
cylinder pressure and temperature.
In this study a thermal barrier was coated to
improve the emission values of a diesel engine.
For this purpose, Al2O3+%13TiO powders were
applied to valves and Pistons by plasma spray
method. As is known, NOx emissions of thermal
barrier coated engines are rising [15-17]. It is
generally reported that water is added to the fuel
in order to reduce NOx emissions [18]. Fusel oil
is a mixture of alcohol produced from sugar beet
plants with 8-12% water by volume [19]. In this
study, it was planned to use fusel oil with water
content in a thermal coated engine. By adding
25% fusel oil to the fuel, the emission values of
diesel fuel (NOx, CO and smoke opacity) in
coated and uncoated engines were compared.
Table 2. Physical and chemical properties of
fuel mixtures.
Viscosity
Calorific
Density
Fuel
(mm2/s,
value
(g/cm3)@20
o
40 C)
(Mj/kg)
D
3.8
845
43.1
D75F25
5.8
935
41.4
Engine experiments were carried out on a singlecylinder
diesel engine.
The technical
specifications of the engine are given in Table 3.
All fuels used in engine experiments were
primarily used with uncoated parts of the engine.
After all measurements were finished, the
experiments were repeated by inserting coated
parts. The engine experiments were carried out
on a Netfren brand engine dynamometer.
Exhaust emission values were measured with a
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Mobydic 5000 Model emission device and
recorded. The measurement range of the
emission device is given in Table 2. The
schematic image of the experiment Assembly is
given in Figure 2. The engine experiments were
carried out by increasing the engine speed from
1400 rpm to 3200 rpm at full throttle position at
Figure 2. Engine test mechanism
300 rpm. The data obtained is recorded and
schematic view.
charted and examined in the discussion section.
Table 3. Technical feature of the test
engine.
Engine type
Bore*stroke[mm(in)]
Single cylinder, 4stroke,
air-cooled,
direct injection, diesel
engine
78×62(3.07×2.44)
Displacement[ml(cu.in)] 296(18.06)
Engine speed(rpm)
3600
Compression ratio
20:1
Rated output
power[kW(HP)/rpm]
4.0(5.44)/3600
Crank Angle (CAo)
310
Injection pressure [bar]
200
Table 4. Mobydic 5000 exhaust gas
analyser features.
O2 (% Vol.)
Measurement
range
0...10,00
0...20,00
0...5000
0...50000 nhexan
0...21
n (%Vol.)
0...100
Measurement
CO (%Vol.)
CO2 (%Vol.)
NOX (ppm)
HC (ppm)
Sensitivity
±0,06%
±0,5%
±5
±12
±0,1
Sensitivity to
OIML 0
standard
Particles
0...1000
(mg/m3)
72/306 EEC approuved / ISO 11614 certified
3
NS
3.1.
NOx emissions
Figure 3 shows the effects of NOx emissions. It
is a significant emission value undesirable in
diesel engines. By the combustion of the air
taken into the cylinder at a temperature of 1800
o
C, emissions such as no and its derivatives are
revealed. These emissions are generally referred
to as NOx emissions in motor science. NOx
emissions are an undesirable emission in diesel
engines and a lot of work is being done on it. In
the studies conducted in thermal barrier coated
engines, it is reported that the thermal barrier
increases the combustion end temperature in the
engine [20]. Increased end-of-combustion
temperatures also partly lead to increased NOx
emissions. For this reason, NOx emissions
increase is seen as a negative indicator, although
it increases engine performance indicators in
thermal coated engines. In general, it has been
reported that the addition of water into the fuel is
effective for reducing NOx emissions [21]. With
the addition of fusel oil to diesel fuel, NOx
emissions tend to decrease compared to D fuel.
When combined with the use of fusel oil in the
coated engine, it tends to increase compared to
the standard engine. In this case, it can easily be
seen that the coating forms a thermal barrier. It
is also understood that the amount of water in
fusel oil is also effective in reducing NOx
emissions. The highest NOx emission occurred
in the engine coated with D fuel. In this case, an
emission value of 389 ppm was measured at
3200 rpm. The lowest emission value was
determined to be 303 ppm at 1400 rpm with
D75F25 fuel in the uncoated engine.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
opacity emissions. So much so that the use of D
fuel in a coated engine tends to reduce soot
emissions at all engine speeds. In addition, the
highest smoke emission value is seen in the
engine without coating with fusel oil added. The
amount of water in fusel oil has the ability to
adversely affect combustion. In this case, it
smoke thought that the partially unburnt regions
in the cylinder increase the smoke emission.
However, it is seen that using fusel oil-doped
Figure 3. Variation of NOx emissions.
fuel in a coated engine reduces smoke emissions.
The highest is emission value was measured as
3.2.
CO emissions
75 in an uncoated engine with D75F25 fuel,
while the lowest value was obtained with 8 in a
Because diesel engines operate with the air
D coated engine.
redundancy coefficient, CO emissions are very
small [22]. CO emissions appear as an indicator
of incomplete combustion within the cylinder.
Figure 4 shows the variation of CO emission.
The highest emission value was obtained when
using D fuel and standard engine materials.
Engine cladding has been found to be effective
in reducing emissions. With the addition of fusel
oil to diesel fuel, CO emissions tend to decrease.
Figure 5. Exchange of smoke opacity.
The downward trend increases with the use of
fuel in the coated engine. The coating is thought
4 CONCLUSIONS
to form a thermal barrier and to be effective in
reducing CO emissions. In addition, the total
This study examines the effects of fusel oil with
carbon count decreases with the addition of fusel
water content on emission values in a coated
oil to the fuel. In addition, the oxygen content of
engine. The general results obtained in the study
fusel oil is thought to be effective in reducing
are as follows.
CO emissions. The lowest CO emission value
Coating has been shown to be effective on
was measured as 0.23 ppm at 2900 rpm with
D75F25 fuel in a coated engine.
CO, is and NOx emissions in all fuel
mixtures.
It was observed that the amount of water
in the fusel oil content did not prevent
combustion in the engine.
NOx emissions have decreased with the
use of fusel oil. This reduction showed a
further increase in the coated engine.
CO emissions are reduced with the use of
fusel oil. With the introduction of the
Figure 4. Exchange of CO emissions.
coating, the amount of reduction in all
engine speeds increases even more.
Is emissions increase with the addition of
3.3.
Smoke opacity
fusel oil to diesel fuel. However, with the
use of fusel oil doped diesel fuel in the
Figure 5, shows the effects of smoke opacity
engine, soot emissions were reduced.
change. Soot emissions in diesel engines are
For the future of the study, focusing on
caused by the oxidation of partially unburned
motor performance indicators and
fuels in the cylinder [23]. The results of the
study show that coating has an effect on smoke
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
different mixture ratios is important for a
Biocatalysis and Agricultural Biotechnology
better understanding of the effect.
Vol. 15, pp. 72 77, 2018.
[9] S. Hüseyin and H. Hanbey, Investigation of
performance and exhaust emissions of a
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
1.
2.
3.
4.
4
M.Hürpekli1, M.Vargün2, A.N.Özsezen3
Automotive Engineering, Kocaeli University; email: mhurpekli@gmail.com
Automotive Engineering, Kocaeli University; email: mustafavargun@gmail.com
Automotive Engineering, Kocaeli University; email: nozsezen@kocaeli.edu.tr
Thermodynamics and Heat, Marmara University; email: ahmethamit.apaydin@tubitak.gov.tr
Abstract
Investigation of combustion of ethanol-diesel fuel blends has been carried out with a single cylinder diesel
engine that has 1.12L cylinder volume, by real-time monitoring combustion pressure.
In this study, pure petroleum-based diesel fuel was used as reference fuel and total injected fuel at base
condition was kept constant through whole experimentation with different ethanol-diesel fuel blends. The
injection of fuel completed in one injection, and combustion was observed during the study.
Keywords: Compression ignition engine, ethanol-diesel blend, combustion, start of injection timing, burn
duration, emission
1 INTRODUCTION
In 2018, 80 million vehicles were sold around the
world, and 99% of the vehicles are using an
internal combustion engine (ICE) with fossil fuel.
According to the published reports, ICE share
will be at least 80 million in 2040. In addition,
emissions regulation requires the use of more
efficient and environmental friendly vehicles.
Engine manufacturers continue to work on more
environmental friendly and sustainable engine
technologies.
The most important parameters that determine the
performance and exhaust emissions of a diesel
engine are the fuel injection and properties of the
fuel. The spray characteristics of alternative fuels
have been studied with test models or research
engines. It is stated that the spray characteristics
of alternative fuels are close to petroleum diesel
fuel in some studies. There are many studies
related with use of ethanol and ethanol blended
fuels in spark ignited engines. However, the
studies related to the use of ethanol-diesel blend
fuel as an alternative fuel in diesel engines are
quite limited. Therefore, it was decided to
examine the combustion images of ethanol-diesel
blends in a single cylinder diesel engine.
In diesel engines, the spray characteristics are
significantly affected by ambient conditions,
injection parameters (injection pressure, start of
injection, etc.) and the physical properties of the
fuel [1]. Although there have been different
researches on the use of ethanol-gasoline blends
in the literature, the combustion and flame
investigation of ethanol-diesel blend fuels are not
fully clarified [2]. In addition, new exhaust
emission regulations for diesel engines are getting
stricter. CO2 emission of vehicles are criticized by
environmental organizations due to their
significant contribution to global warming [3].
Similarly, EU applies stringent restriction to the
exhaust emission that forces car manufacturers to
find a way for cleaner cars with engine design or
exhaust system layout. So, reduction of emission
is a hot topic of car manufacturers, and they try to
find a way to reduce emissions. One of the ways
is using alternative fuels or fuel blends.
Therefore, performance, combustion and exhaust
emission studies for alternative fuels in internal
combustion engines are still in existence. Within
the scope of the investigation, the combustion and
exhaust emission of ethanol-diesel blend fuel was
examined experimentally.
Experiments were being carried out using a single
cylinder diesel engine. The fuel injection map
was kept same for fuel injection to see the effect
of ethanol addition to diesel fuel, prepared as 5%
(E5), 10% (E10), and 15% (E15) by volume. The
results of injection, combustion and emission
measurement of diesel fuel to be considered as
reference was compared with ethanol-diesel fuel
tests. In order to compare the combustion
characteristics (cylinder gas pressure, heat
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
release, and ignition delay) and emission of fuels,
Oil and cooling pumps are the parts of engine test
constant load with varying speed tests were
bench. The oil and cooling water conditioning
performed. The effects of fuels to be used in
were stabilized by the engine test bench. Hence
diesel engine tests on nitrogen oxides (NOx),
parasitic loads other than fuel pump are
carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2)
eliminated.
and soot emissions were measured and compared.
The test cell is equipped with other conditioning
and measurement units such as fuel conditioner
and intake air conditioner that is supercharger,
2 MATERIAL AND METHODS
fuel consumption, air flow measurement,
The methodology followed is summarized as in
humidity, temperature and pressure sensors, and
the Figure 1 shown below.
in cylinder pressure measurement. On top of
them, the test cell was equipped with emission
Experimental
Study
measurement devices for the study. Engine
system works fully integrated with the
Test Setup
Data Acqusition
dynamometer and the equipment of the test cell,
and all systems are controlled with a controller.
In-cylinder
Engine Dyno
Pressure Data for
Each Crank Angle
The used test cell and the dynamometer in this
study are shown in Figure 2. The devices that
In-cylinder
Intake Manifold
Pressure
Air Flow Rate
Transducer
were utilized during the experiments and the
accuracy of the measurements that acquired from
Intake Manifold
Engine ECU
Air Temperature
Interface
devices are summarized in Table 2.
and Pressure
The air intake pressure and temperature can be
Emission Benches
Fuel Flow Rate
controlled and set to a desired value between 02500 mbar and 20-40 °C, respectively. The oil
Fuel Pressure and
Injection Timing
and cooling water temperature can be controlled
and set desired value as well. But the oil
Combustion
Visualization
temperature is set to 90 °C and cooling water
temperature is set to 90 °C to protect the engine
Exhaust Emission
from any undesired wear.
The engine ECU is open to user that means
Following Each
Steps for Each Fuel
defined ECU maps such that SOI, main injection
Blends
quantity, pilot injection quantity and rail pressure
Figure 1. The Flow Path of Experiments
maps can be modified instantaneously, and
effects on the engine operation can be observed
The experimental study is done by following the
simultaneously.
steps defined in Figure 1.
The engine is equipped with in-cylinder pressure
sensor to perform calculations for combustion
2.1 Test Setup
characteristics and cylinder gas pressure.
Experiments were conducted with a single
The interface of the control system with the test
cylinder research engine that is compression
cell and engine dynamometer is schematically
ignition (CI), 4-stroke, supercharged, and
shown in Figure 3.
equipped with a common rail direct injection fuel
injection system, located in Gebze Campus of
.
The
laboratory
dynamometers have been working since 2011 and
annual maintenance and calibration of the devices
have been performed periodically. The engine
main dimensions and parameters are given in the
table below (Table 1).
The main components of the engine test bench are
an electric eddy current dynamometer, fuel
injection system (including common rail,
injector, fuel filter and fuel pump) and engine
control unit (ECU).
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Table 1. Engine Specification
Table 2. The Test Cell Devices and
Accuracies
Engine Type
Single Cylinder 4 stroke
Fuel System
Cylinder Volume
Valves
Common Rail Direct Injection
1800 bar
1120 cm3
3 (2 intake 1 exhaust)
(OHV)
Cylinder Firing
Pressure
Max. Engine Speed
2500 rpm
Max. Power
50 kW
Max. Torque
160 Nm
Bore
106.5 mm
Stroke
127 mm
Compression Ratio
16.4
190 bar
Measurement
Device
Accuracy
Torque
HBM Torque Flange
Engine Speed
AVL Encoder
Test Cell Humidity
Test Cell
Temperature
In-cylinder Pressure
Vaisala
HMT 330
±1% RH
Vaisala
HMT 330
±0.2°C
Injection timing
Supercharger
Boost Air
Temperature
Supercharger
Boost Air Pressure
Engine Coolant &
Oil Conditioning
Fuel Consumption
AVL Xion
0.05CA
Angle Encoder
±0.1CA
AVL 515X
±5°C
AVL 515X
±10mbar
AVL-577
Smoke
AVL-735
Chemiluminescence
Detector
Non-Dispersive Infrared
Rays
Non-Dispersive Infrared
Rays
AVL 415SE
Temperature Sensors
PT100 (K Type)
NOx
CO2
CO
±0.1%
±1K
<0.15%
0.001 FSN
Figure 3. Engine Control System and Test
Cell Devices Interface
Figure 2. Engine Test Cell (testbench) and
Dynamometer
2.2 Preparation of Fuel Blends
The diesel fuel that is suitable to EN590 Euro 6
was bought from a national gas station in Kocaeli.
The ethanol was produced by a chemical
manufacturer. Four different fuels were prepared
for testing, and they were named according to
volume percentage of ethanol added. Pure diesel
is used as reference for all test conditions, and it
has no ethanol content. E5 fuel blend consists of
5 % ethanol and 95% pure diesel. E10 fuel blend
consists of 10 % ethanol and 90% pure diesel.
E15 fuel blend consists of 15 % ethanol and 85%
pure diesel. After preparation of fuel blends, they
were stayed in container to observe whether there
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
is any separation of ethanol and diesel. Moreover,
the fuel during the first stage, together with the
all blends were stirred before testing. The
production of free chemical radicals, increases
properties of fuels are given in the Table 3. The
the pressure inside the cylinder by a small
expected lower heating values for fuel blends
amount. In parallel with this chemical mobility,
were calculated according to blend ratio and
the fuel, which is mixed with hot gas, continues
properties from Table 3, and given in
to increase its temperature. The time elapsed from
the start of spraying to start of combustion is
defined as the phase of ignition delay [5], [6].
After the ignition delay phase, the self-ignition
Table 4.
phase starts. This step is usually referred to as the
preliminary mixing phase. The amount of fuel
Table 3. Standard Diesel and Ethanol Fuels
burned at this stage is directly correlated to the
Properties
interval of the ignition delay phase. Diffusion
Properties
EN590
Ethanol
combustion (controlled combustion) starts after
Diesel
(C2H5OH)
premixed combustion phase. During this phase
Density (kg/m3 )
820 - 845
790
in-cylinder temperatures reaches to very high
Viscosity (mm2/s)
2,0 - 4,5
0,001519
levels. Due to high in-cylinder temperature, time
Boiling Point (oC)
160
78
is not sufficient for evaporating the fuel and
Freeze Point (oC)
-114.5
mixing it with air for fully oxidation. Therefore,
Flash Point (oC)
55
12
soot emission formation starts under these
Purity (%)
circumstances. However, during the fourth
Water Content (%)
0,020
0,2
combustion phase (late combustion), limited
Cetane Number
combustion of the soot and unburnt fuels on the
LHV( kJ/kg) [4]
42612
26952
o
cylinder walls, which were formed during the
Autoignition ( C) [4]
315
422
diffusion phase, occurs. The figure below
indicates the combustion phases with the rate of
heat release to crank angle.
Table 4. Calculated LHV for Fuel Blends
Fuel Blend
E0
E5
E10
E15
Lower Heating Value
kJ/kg
42612,0
41869,2
41122,4
40371,5
2.3 Definition and Calculation of the
Combustion Parameters
The combustion of a liquid fuel in a compression
ignition engine can be defined as break down of
injected liquid fuel into small droplets, the
transition from the liquid phase to the gas phase
with increasing fuel temperature during
compression, and finally self-ignition and
combustion of the fuel. After the atomization of
the liquid fuel in the hot air, the temperature of
the liquid fuel increases and begins to evaporate.
Liquid fuel starts to evaporate, especially at the
spray boundaries. No chemical reactions occur in
this period. After evaporation occurs, the first
stage of the self-ignition process starts around
750K where the combustion chamber
temperature is relatively low. Slow oxidation of
Figure 4. Heat Release Rate and Phases of
Diesel Combustion [6]
In-cylinder pressure and injection signal were
plotted from measurements. Rate of heat release
(ROHR) was calculated by using Equation 1;
where
dividing specific heat at constant pressure (cp) to
specific heat at constant pressure volume (cv), P
is the in-cylinder pressure and V is the swept
volume of the cylinder.
(1)
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
The volume and pressure change over crank angle
During each step, engine was run for 120 seconds
to be sure that all residuals from previous step was
Scheme (CDS) as shown in Equation 2 [7]:
cleaned and engine was get in regime for the new
step. Later, 60 more seconds it was run for
measurement. All measurement data for engine
(2)
speed, engine torque, emission and fuel
consumption were averaged for 60 seconds.
Figure 4 summarizes the combustion parameters
After completion of studies for a fuel-blend, all
start of injection (SOI), start of combustion
fuel lines and filters were purged. The fuel lines
(SOC), Ignition Delay Duration (ID), and Burn
and filters were filled with the next fuel-blend and
Duration (BD). SOC can be determined based on
then new set of experimentation was started.
sudden increase trend in cylinder gas pressure
aftermath of the fuel spraying. After computing
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
SOC, IDD was found by calculating the CA
Engine torque and power, exhaust emissions (CO,
difference between the SOC and the SOI. In
CO2 and soot), and in-cylinder pressure data
addition to SOC and IDD calculation, burn
evaluation were performed to investigate the
duration (BD) was calculated by ROHR. Burn
effects of ethanol-diesel blend on engine
duration indicates the time between the start and
performance and emissions. However different
finish of the heat release of the injected fuel in
volumetric proportion of the ethanol was not the
CA. CA difference between 90% and 5% of the
only parameter that may affect the experimental
cumulative heat release give the BD [8].
results. In order to avoid the effects of test cell,
In cylinder gas pressure measurement performed
the test cell was conditioned according to ISO
for 50 cycles and calculation of the combustion
8178, and power and torque measurement were
parameters were performed with the average of
performed according to ISO 14396. Moreover,
these 50 cycles. AVL Concerto software was used
the engine oil, coolant and intake temperature
to calculate the combustion parameters; such that
were conditioned to 90 °C, 70 °C and 25 °C
ROHR, SOC and BD.
respectively. Table 6 summarizes the engine
parameters that were kept constant during the
3 EXPERIMENTATION
experiments.
The experiments were carried out with the single
cylinder research engine under constant load and
Table 6. Engine Parameters During the
varying engine speeds. It was decided to keep the
Experiments
engine pedal position to 50%, and sweep different
engine speeds starting 1000 rpm to 1600 rpm with
Engine Speed
[rpm]
200 rpm increment. There were 4 different fuel
1000
1200
1400 1600
blends such that 100% diesel (E0), 95% diesel E5,
E0
E0
E0
E0
90% diesel E10 and 85% diesel E15 used during
E5
E5
E5
E5
Fuel Blend
experiments, and all points shown in the Table 5
E10
E10
E10
E10
repeated for each of fuels. Hence 16 points were
E15
E15
E15
E15
examined during experimentation.
Load
%
50
50
50
50
Table 5. Experiment Matrix and Fuel Blend
Naming
Engine Speed Range
rpm
1000
1200
1400
1600
Ethanol Fuel Blend
Percentage
0
5
10
15
Fuel Naming
E0
E5
E10
E15
In cylinder gas pressure measurement was
performed for 50 cycles and 50 cycles average
was used for each case.
Engine
Coolant
Temperature
Engine Oil
Temperature
Air
Temperature
Total
Injected Fuel
Quantity
°C
70
70
70
70
°C
90
90
90
90
°C
25
25
25
25
mg/stroke
45,1
45,1
45,1
45,1
Combustion Characteristics
In order to understand the effects of ethanol
addition to diesel fuel on combustion
characteristics, roots cause of variations on
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
engine performance and emission combustion
added ethanol blend. Ethanol improves the
parameters like heat release rate (ROHR),
mixing between fuel and air, which leads to
ignition delay duration (IDD), start of combustion
higher peak heat release rate and higher in(SOC) and burn duration (BD) can be analysed.
cylinder temperature [9]. Increased ethanol
Moreover, understanding effects of the ethanol
content caused earlier rise of in-cylinder pressure
blends on IDD, SOC, and BD will give the
up to TDC. It is probable that oxygen content of
opportunity to further improvement on the
the ethanol leads to rise of in-cylinder pressure
performance and the exhaust emissions of diesel
earlier. E15 reaches peak pressure earlier than E0
engine.
and E15 has higher peak pressure compared to E0
Therefore, measured in-cylinder pressure data
as can be seen in zoomed section of Figure 5.
and recorded injection parameters during the
In addition to in-cylinder pressure graph, heat
experiments were used to evaluate and find
release rate of all fuel blends are plotted for 1000
ROHR, IDD, SOC and BD.
rpm operation point in Figure 6. Similar to inFigure 5 and Figure 6 are given for comparison of
cylinder pressure data rise of heat release rate of
in-cylinder pressure and heat release at 1000 rpm
ethanol added fuel start earlier however pure
with main injection only. The ethanol-diesel
diesel release more heat due to its higher LHV
blend fuels results show that in-cylinder pressure
compared to ethanol.
rise is steeper than pure diesel fuel, and the
maximum pressure of E5, E10 and E15 is a bit
higher than E0.
Although start of fuel injection was set same for
all fuels, in-cylinder pressure was affected from
Figure 5. In-Cylinder Pressure Comparison at 1000 rpm of E0, E5, E10 and E15 with Main
Injection Only
Figure 6. Heat Release Rate at 1000 rpm of E0, E5, E10 and E15 with Main Injection Only
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
SOC of ethanol-diesel blends occurs later than
diesel SOC as shown in Figure 7, and that leads
to longer IDD. Increasing ethanol content leads to
longer IDD up to 2°CA as summarize in Figure 8.
Figure 8 indicates that increasing ethanol content
in fuel blend increases the IDD for all engine
speeds. The longer IDD is probably the result of
higher auto ignition temperature of ethanol [4].
Figure 7. Start of Combustion (SOC) for E0,
E5, E10 and E15 with Main Injection Only
for Different Engine Speeds
Figure 8. Ignition Delay Duration (IDD) for
E0, E5, E10 and E15 with Main Injection
Only for Different Engine Speeds
Engine Performance
The experimentations were done under same
throttle position that is related with percentage of
the load. According to LHV calculation for
different fuel blends, which was summarized in
Table 4, increasing ethanol percentage decreases
LHV of the fuel. So, it is expected that power of
the engine for each of engine speeds will decrease
with the same throttle position without changing
injection parameters. It is clearly seen in Figure 9
that the engine power decreases with increasing
ethanol content.
To compare reduction of the engine power for
each case, neat diesel fuel results were used as
reference for each engine speed and injection
strategy. The Table 7 summarizes the
comparison. It is seen that the power reduction
percentage increases with speed and content of
ethanol in fuel. In order to evaluate promising
result of ethanol diesel blend, it is beneficial to
compare specific fuel consumption. Figure 10
shows comparison of brake specific fuel
consumption (bsfc) of each fuel blend for
different injection strategy and engine speeds.
Although the engine power was reduced with
ethanol blends, Figure 10 shows that ethanol
blends have promising results in view of bsfc that
means combustion of diesel with ethanol is
efficient than neat diesel one, especially at 1200
rpm and 1400 rpm. This may the result of oxygen
availability in the ethanol chemical composition,
which may lead to more complete combustion
[10].
Figure 9. Engine Power Comparison for E0,
E5, E10 and E15 with Main Injection Only
for Different Engine Speeds
Table 7. Power Reduction Comparison
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 11. Engine CO Emission
Comparison for E0, E5, E10 and E15 with
Main Injection Only for Different Engine
Speeds
Figure 10. Engine Specific Fuel
Comparison for E0, E5, E10 and E15 with
Main Injection Only for Different Engine
Speeds
Emissions
Internal combustion engine emit CO emissions
due to incomplete combustion [8],[11]. Although
diesel engines work under lean operation
conditions, excessive oxygen in the combustion
chamber cannot burn all carbon atoms in the fuel
chain [8]. Addition of ethanol to the diesel fuel
increases oxygen content in the combustion, and
this stimulates more oxygen reacts with fuel in
combustion chamber. Therefore, CO emission
reduction under all engine speeds, which is given
in Figure 11 can be associated to the oxygen
content of the ethanol. The effect of oxygen
content of fuel blends on CO emission presented
in different studies shows similar results as
revealed in this study [12].
More CO2 emission was expected with ethanoldiesel blend fuels, since CO is reacted with O2 in
the system and generates CO2. However, this
effect could not be observed from the experiment
results.
Figure 12. Engine CO2 Emission
Comparison for E0, E5, E10 and E15 with
Main Injection Only for Different Engine
Speeds
Figure 12 shows CO2 emission for different fuels
and engine speeds. The results indicate that E0,
E5, E10 and E15 have similar CO2 emission trend
for main injection. The reason behind
contradiction of CO and CO2 reduction with
increasing ethanol content is probably related
with the diesel fuel and ethanol combustion
products. The chemical reaction equilibrium of
diesel and ethanol show that more CO2
production than ethanol. Almost 3 times more
CO2 is generated with diesel combustion when
same mass of fuel burns.
Diesel chemical reaction:
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
C12H23+17.75(O2+3.773N2) 12CO2+11.5H2O+ 66.97N2
Chamber Diesel Engines, SAE Trans., vol. 91, pp.
3252 3265, Apr. 1982.
Ethanol chemical reaction:
[3] T. L. A. and R. L. McCormick, Biodiesel
C5H5OH+3(O2 + 3.773N2) 2CO2+3H2O+11.32N2
Handling and Use Guide, November, 2010.
[4] L. Wright, B. Boundy, B. Perlack, S. Davis,
Soot is produced during the high temperature
and B. Saulsbury, Biomass Energy Data Book,
combustion of hydrocarbons, which is mostly
Volume 1, Sep. 2006
carbon; other elements such as hydrogen and
[5] W. W. Pulkrabek, Engineering Fundamentals
oxygen are usually present in small amounts.
of the Internal Combustion Engine, 2nd Ed., pp.
Engines emit soot due to incomplete combustion.
198 198, 2004.
Figure 13 shows the result of experiments under
[6] H. Pucher, K. Mollenhauer, Á. Helmut
different engine speeds. Soot number (FSN) is
Tschoeke, Handbook of Diesel Engines, 2010.
used to compare results. It is clear that ethanol
[7] J. H. Ferziger, M. Peric, and A. Leonard,
blend reduces soot formation. Addition of ethanol
Computational Methods for Fluid Dynamics, vol.
to the diesel fuel increases oxygen content in the
50, no. 3. 1997.
combustion, and this stimulates more complete
[8] J. B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engine
combustion and reduction of soot.
Fundamentals, John-Wiley, 1988.
[9] H. Liu, X. Wang, Y. Wu, X. Zhang, C. Jin,
and Z. Zheng, Effect of diesel/PODE/ethanol
blends on combustion and emissions of a heavy
duty diesel engine, Fuel, vol. 257, no. August,
2019.
[10] T. Kaya, Experimental Combustion Analysis
of Diesel Engine, Istanbul Technical University,
2019.
Figure 13. Engine Soot Emission
Comparison for E0, E5, E10 and E15 with
Main Injection Only for Different Engine
Speeds
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was performed in Engine
Excellence Centre
Gebze Campus.
The authors would like to thank
Internal Combustion Engine Technology team for
their support of the work.
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and E. Rijk, The Influence of Fuel Properties on
Transient Liquid-Phase Spray Geometry and on
CI-Combustion Characteristics, SAE Int. J.
Engines, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 300 311, Apr. 2010.
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The
effects of biodiesel obtained from canola on
performance, emissions and combustion
characteristics under NEDC and cruise speeds,
Journal of the Faculty of Engineering and
Architecture of Gazi University, 35:3, p.14371453, 2020.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
R. Sener*, 1 and M.Z. Gul1
1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Marmara University, Istanbul;
* Email: ramazan.sener@marmara.edu.tr
Abstract
Diesel engines are widely used in both non-road and on-road purposes for years. Besides its many advantages,
exhaust emissions constitute the biggest disadvantage. One of the most important methods to eliminate this
disadvantage is optimizing the combustion chamber and the injection parameters. These are directly related to
the engine performance and exhaust emissions. In this study, a single-cylinder diesel engine was modeled
using the multi-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software. After the baseline CFD
simulation, the injection parameters of the diesel engine were optimized for minimizing NO X and soot using
the MOGA (multi-objective genetic algorithm). The main purpose of this study is to minimize emissions while
meeting the IMEP target. The spray angle of the injector, SOI and injection height were parametrized to meet
the optimization targets. A significant reduction in NO X and soot emissions was observed with the
optimization results. According to the engine parameters obtained, the optimization with CFD and MOGA
method is very useful in order to maximize performance and minimize emissions.
Keywords: Diesel engine, injection parameters, optimization, combustion, emission.
1 INTRODUCTION
Diesel engines are widely used with many
advantages. However, its emissions cause global
warming and climate change. This disadvantage
can be minimized with optimization techniques.
The clean combustion can be occurred with
minimizing emissions by making improvements
in the cylinder geometry, injection and operating
parameters, and also after-treatment methods [1
3]. It is important to understand the relationship
between the input and output parameters of diesel
engines and make it a function, to optimize these
values and to minimize or maximize the
necessary values. Sobol sequence and Latin
hypercube methods are suitable for investigating
these effects [4]. The dual-fuel usage also
contributes to reducing emissions. In the
literature, the effect of double fuel use and
emissions has been investigated [5]. Up to 12%
reduction in GHG emissions was observed, using
dual fuel and optimizing this rate [6].
performance and emission characteristics of the
CI engine fueled with biodiesel-diesel fuel blends
using the ANN method. Then, they tried to
optimize the parameters of the engine with the
RSM method. Firstly, it was obtained the data
from experiments at different loads and speeds.
The optimum parameters of the engine were
determined with the RSM method as 32% of
biodiesel ratio, 816-watt engine load and 470 bar
injection pressure [7].
It is a complex process for calibrating the engines
with many mechatronic parts. Air induction and
fuel injection parameters can be obtained by
using ANN algorithms. With this method, it can
be guaranteed that maximum torque can be taken
at full load and at all speeds. It must be achieved
that minimize emissions and fuel consumption
with the maximum possible torque [8].
Hu et al. used NLPQL and MOGA algorithms to
optimize the NO X, soot and specific fuel
consumption values of a test engine. According to
the studies, it is reported that while the NLPQL
method could not approach the optimal design,
the MOGA method gave the appropriate optimum
designs. Accordingly, the design with the lowest
soot and NO X emission was obtained using the
MOGA algorithm. They found that late injection
and small swirl constituted the main reasons for
minimizing NO X. They used RSM contour maps
to understand the change of NO X, soot and
specific fuel consumption [9].
Optimizing the operating parameters of the
engine is very important for emissions and engine
performance. MOGA and RSM techniques are
useful. The injector height, spray angle and SOI
values of the test engine are optimized to ensure
minimum emissions.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
A single-cylinder direct injection diesel engine
was used in these studies. The operating
parameters of the engine are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Test engine specifications
2.2 Optimization
MOGA is the modified version of a genetic
algorithm to obtain the best parameters, which
contain more than one objectives. RSM method is
used to understand the effects of the design
parameters on the objective [12]. A total of 23
cases were simulated using CAESES software to
find the optimum spray angle, injector height, and
SOI.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The injection parameters combination of
minimum emission situation was tried to be
determined by using CFD simulation, MOGA
and RSM methods. It is aimed to achieve
minimum NO X and soot emission without
compromising engine power. It is known that
NOX and soot emissions have a trade-off effect.
However, simulations were carried out for the
situation where NO X and soot emissions would be
minimum in combination. A total of 23 CFD
simulations were performed according to the
different injector height, SOI and spray angle
values (Fig. 2).
2.1 CFD modelling
The test engine modeled using Converge CFD
commercial code. Only one-sixth of the cylinder
is simulated as a sector, which consisted of about
0.6 million cells. The adaptive mesh refinement
applied to the domain in order to refine the mesh
based on fluctuating and moving conditions.
Simulations were performed at full load and 2800
rpm. The RNG kwas selected for
solving in-cylinder turbulent flow. The ECFM-3Z
model was preferred for the combustion process
[10]. Species of CO, CO 2, and UHC are solved
with the combustion model. The extended
Zeldovich mechanism is used for calculating NO
formation, and Hiroyasu-NSC soot model used
for simulating soot oxidation [11].
Figure 2. Exhaust emission values of the
simulated cases
While Design 1 gives the minimum soot
emission, Design 23 emits the minimum NO X
value. When the effects of emissions are
examined together, Design 9 and Design 18 give
minimum emission values.
Table 2. Results of optimum cases
Figure 1. Surface model of the combustion
chamber at TDC
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 4. In-cylinder velocity distribution of the
optimum cases
Figure 3. In-cylinder temperature distribution of
the optimum cases
The indicated power of Design 18 and Design 23
is 1.2% and 2.4% lower than the baseline case,
respectively. Design 9 has the same indicated
power with baseline Design 1 case (table 2).
Figure 3 shows the in-cylinder temperature
distribution of the optimum cases at various crank
angles. Design 1 and Design 9 have homogenous
temperature distribution inside the cylinder, while
the combustion occurs in the upper zones of
Design 18 and Design 23.
The fuel injection is intended to coincide with the
convex edge in this type of bowl design. In
Design 1 and Design 9, the fuel injection reaches
the convex edge. Thus, it increases the fuel-air
mixture ratio in the cylinder with its swirl effect.
However, it is seen in Design 18 and Design 23
that this effect of the piston bowl cannot be
utilized (fig. 4 and 5).
4 CONCLUSION
It is very useful to use optimization methods in
the cases of combustion and internal combustion
engines where many parameters affect together.
Figure 5. In-cylinder equivalence ratio
distribution of the optimum cases at TDC
In this study, optimization methods are used to
determine the injection parameters of a diesel
engine. The combined effect of different design
parameters on the objective function was
investigated. Injection timing and spray angle are
critical for mixture formation and combustion.
The location of the injector is likewise important
because where the injection hits in the piston
bowl design is significant. These parameters
affect combustion and therefore exhaust
emissions. A total of 23 simulations were carried
out that minimum NO X and minimum soot
emission
parameters
were
determined.
Accordingly, a total of about a 23% reduction in
exhaust emissions was achieved.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The research was supported by Marmara
University Scientific Research Commission
through the projects FEN-C-DRP-131217-0676.
We gratefully acknowledge the Convergent
Science Company for providing the academic
version of the CONVERGE CFD software.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
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afame R,
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
CO2
Transportation Case
O. Özener1, O. Gezer2, M. Ozkan3, N. Zacharof4 and G. Fontaras5
1. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Y
Technical
University,
;
email:
oozener@yildiz.edu.tr ,
2. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
ogezer@yildiz.edu.tr ,
3. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
muaozkan@yildiz.edu.tr
4. Laboratory of Applied Thermodynamics of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, e mail:
zacharof@auth.gr
5. Joint Research Centre of European Commission, Ispra, Italy, e mail: georgios.fontaras@ec.europa.eu
Abstract
The fossil fueled public transportation which circulates at inner city routes is an important focus area for
CO2 emission researches. As the number of vehicles in the fleets and the cumulative distances covered by
these fleets are considerably huge, the understanding of effects such as; cruising speeds, auxiliary loads,
operating planning and bus stop location choosing becomes more important on CO2 emissions. The
European Commission has already set a framework to regulate pollutant emissions and is underway to
monitor and regulate CO2 emissions with the use of Vehicle Energy Calculation Tool (VECTO). VECTO is
a vehicle simulation tool developed for the certification and monitoring of fuel consumption and CO 2
emissions from heavy-duty vehicles. Trucks are already certified using VECTO since in 2019, while work is
on-going for extending the tool and methodology to buses and coaches. In this context, a route in one of the
biggest bus transport system- Istanbul Metrobus Rapid Bus Transport- System is modelled in VECTO
environment. The model is validated with real driving fuel consumption and CO 2 emission results of the
buses. The obtained results showed difference in the range of 1-5%. Further analyses indicated that VECTO
could be used for assessing on-road CO2 emissions of conventional buses and assist urban transportation
planning and potentially for other regulatory purposes in Turkey as well.
Keywords: fuel consumption, CO2 emissions, certification, VECTO, city bus, heavy-duty
1 INTRODUCTION
Public transportation is used worldwide for daily
commute and further development and
integration of such systems could contribute in
reducing pollutant road emissions. Additionally,
under certain conditions and measures, it is
possible that public transport can ensure shorter
travel time. However, public transportation
vehicles still cause significant emissions, due to
their long operation time and frequency of stopand-go operation, especially in the ones that are
deployed in urban areas.
A
direct
comparison
between
public
transportation would show that for example a
bus has a lot higher emissions compared to a
passenger car. Such a comparison could be
misleading however as buses demonstrate a high
occupancy rate that minimizes emissions per
passenger and reduces overall road vehicle
emissions. For this is reason, there is a high
incentive to focus on developing a transportation
system that will attract more passengers,
preventing them from taking their private
vehicles and to improve vehicles to reduce their
emissions. The main driver for the vehicle
emissions is their mass and configuration, while
vehicles are highly sensitive to operational
conditions, number of passengers and road grade
[1].
Recently, many researchers have carried out
numerous studies in public transportation field
especially in metropolitan areas [2-4]. The main
focus has been on integrated approaches to
reduce travel time by increasing the average
speed and increase carrying capacity. Bus rapid
transit system (BRT) is one of them. Vehicles
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
within the BRT system travel completely or
intercontinental BRT system. The bus was
largely on special road lanes, which significantly
operated with a 13,000 kg payload that was
reduces travel time compared to conventional
simulated with sandbags, while the relevant fuel
public transportation strategy. BRT systems are
consumption, emission and vehicle data were
becoming widespread rapidly, because the startmeasured and logged during tests. Subsequently,
up period is much shorter than competitors.
the vehicle was modelled in VECTO simulation
Additionally, BRT systems require very low
environment and the results were compared and
costs compared to metro lines and light railway
analyzed. Also, further assessments were made
application.
for cleaner public transportation.
Transient operation conditions, which are
dominant in urban routes, internal combustion
engines lead to higher fuel consumption and
higher emissions. In addition to the frequent of
stop-and-go conditions, the mass of the vehicle
varies throughout the trip as passengers enter
and exit the vehicles. There have been several
studies that focused on fuel consumption,
emissions, travel time and operating condition of
conventional public transportation vehicles and
BRT systems are presented below.
Zhang et al. [5] observed that average fuel
consumption of vehicles operating with
conventional diesel on different routes in
Beijing, China, as 39.4 l/100km during non-peak
hours and 44.7 l/100km during peak hours,
which corresponds to a 13% increase. When
compared to CO2 emission in this study 14%
emission increasing was observed as average
cruise speed is inversely proportional to the
intensity of the traffic conditions. Alam and
Hatzopoulou [1] worked on a certain route in the
city of Montreal. According to their findings, if
the road grade increases, GHG emission values
increase more, especially in of higher speeds. In
this study, it was observed that, GHG emissions
were quite volatile
certain trend
at negative road grade, acceptable raising was
observed at zero grade, but significantly
increasing occurred at positive grade with
respect to increasing of passenger. For an 7.5%
road grade GHG emissions increased by 26.96%
between and empty vehicle and a vehicle
carrying 75 passengers. Yu and Li [6] collected
real-time emission data in Nanjing, China, and
evaluated the characteristics. They observed that
21% of CO2, 22% of CO emission, 20% of NOx
and 21% of HC emission emitted during bus
stop along the whole operation. In addition, an
extensive literature can be found at [7, 8].
2
2.1 Measurement System
The vehicle that was utilized for the
measurements was a Euro 5 public bus which is
powered by a diesel engine. The properties of
the vehicle and the measurement system details
are given at Table 1 and Table 2 respectively.
Additionally, the relevant CAN data (actual
torque, accelerator pedal position, gear, and
wheel based vehicle speed) was logged. All
systems were controlled by AVL system
controller equipment.
Table1. Vehicle and Engine Properties
Gross Vehicle Weight
Type
Vehicle Length
Number of cylinders
Engine capacity
Power
Torque
Compression Ratio
Min. Brake Specific Fuel
Consumption
@Full Load-1400 rpm
Emission Certification Level
32 tonnes
Articulated
18 m
6
11.9 l
260kW@2000 rpm
1600Nm@1100rpm
17.75:1
185 gr/kwh
Euro 5
Table 2. Measurement System P
System
Device
Method
Fuel
Consumption
AVL
KMA
Mobile
Rotational type flow
meter
Emission
AVL Gas
PEMS
NO - UV-RASi
i
Emission
NDUV
NDIR
ii
AVL PM
Pems
Accurac
y
±0.1%
± 0.2%
NO2- NDUV
± 0.2%
O2 - Oxygen Sensor
± 1%
ii
i
line (Metrobus line), which worlds unique
METHOD
CO-NDIR
± 30ppm
CO2- NDIR
± 0.1%
Soot Photoacoustics
~5
µg/m³
: Non Dispersive Ultraviolet
: Non Dispersive Infrared
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
2.2 Test Route and Procedure
according to technical specifications regulated
The test was
by European legislation. On the other hand, in
Line. that consists of 3 main parts:
Engineering mode, users can set more
parameters to try and experiment vehicle models
-Zincirlikuyu (SZ)
11 km
[13].
length with 8 stations
Zincirlikuyu(ZA)
25 km length
Vehicle components operation are inserted by
with 25 stations
using tables (e.g. engine fuel maps transmission
Beylükdüzü (AB)
16 km length
torque loss maps), scalar values (e.g. rolling
with 12 stations
resistance) or a combination of those. An
The tests was carried on
example for the latter is air drag at zero yaw
Zincirlikuyu (SZ) direction The test route is
angle, providing the side winds effect in air drag
given Figure 1. [9].
at different angles that is described by a scalar
value accompanied by a table. Map-type entries
contain information about dynamic parameters
that vary depending on engine or vehicle speed,
while data considered constant during the route,
such as mass and air entrainment area, are
entered directly into the tool. Drop-down menus
often contain categorical data such as axle
configuration (e.g. 4x2, 6x2) and transmission
type (e.g. Manual, AMT). [14] The job file
window of VECTO is given at Figure 2.
Figure 1
- Zincirlikuyu (SZ)
Test route Google Earth image [9].
For safety issues the loading condition was
simulated with sandbags, instead of passengers.
One loading condition is considered with 13
tonnes of sandbag as payload. The detailed test
procedure and emission analyses are described
in [9] paper.
2.3 VECTO SIMULATION
Vehicle Energy Consumption calculation Tool
VECTO, is a simulation tool that has been
developed by the European Commission and is
used for determining CO2 emissions and Fuel
Consumption from Heavy Duty Vehicles
(trucks, buses and coaches) with a Gross Vehicle
Weight above 3500 kg [10].
Figure 2- Job file window Vecto.
The scheme of Vecto model is also given in
Figure 3.
The tools capacity for predicting CO2 and fuel
consumption accurately and the development of
the simulation models are described in detail in
previous works [11, 12].
The VECTO tool offers two modes for vehicle
simulation; declaration and engineering modes.
In declaration mode, a vehicle configuration is
selected and most of the underlying parameters
(e.g. axle weight distribution) are predefined
Figure 3. Scheme of VECTO model [15]
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The actual measured speed and the simulated
velocity with VECTO is given at Figure 4 and
both signals show a good agreement. The
measured distance during the real trip was
11,410 meters and the simulated trip distance is
obtained as 11,3547 meters in VECTO. The
difference is noted -0.48 % lower for VECTO
simulation . The regression plot for target and
actual velocity regarding to distance is noted as
99% which is given at Figure 5. Also the
acceleration event group histograms are
compared at Figure 6 and as it is seen the
acceleration values number of observations are
in presents a good agreement.
Figure 6- Acceleration values histogram
The cumulative measured and simulated fuel
consumption is shown in Figure 7 and the
respective values are 7727 g and 7461 g. the
difference is noted as -3.5%. Also the measured
average fuel consumption is calculated as
677.21 g/km and he simulated average fuel
consumption is 657.15 g/km, the difference is
calculated as -3%. As the differences for total
and average fuel consumption are small this
these differences can be decreased with a more
precise altitude and detailed powertrain
auxiliaries modelling.
Figure 4- Actual (simulated) and target
velocity comparison.
Figure 7- Cumulative measured and
simulated fuel consumption comparison.
Figure 5- Actual (simulated) and target
velocity comparison.
The measured and simulated CO2 results are also
compared, with the total CO2 mass being at
24.249 g and 23.355 kg respectively with the
difference of -3.7%. On the other hand, the
measured average CO2 emission was found at
2125.24 g/km, the simulated average CO2 was
calculated at 2056.90 g/km with the difference
of -3.3%.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
BIL-86 with the partnership of Istanbul Public
Transportation Company (IETT).
REFERENCES
[1] Alam, A., & Hatzopoulou, M. (2014).
Investigating the isolated and combined effects
of congestion, roadway grade, passenger load,
and alternative fuels on transit bus
emissions. Transportation Research Part D:
Transport and Environment, 29, 12-21.
[2] Yu, H., Li, M., Li, J., Liu, Y., Lv, H., & Ma,
K. (2019). Real-road NOx Emission and Fuel
Figure 8- Logged and simulated torque
speed points
The logged and simulated engine speed-torque
points are given at Figure 8. As its seen the
actual and simulated torque-speed points are
matching with a good prediction capability and
it can be said that simulation torque-speed points
cover the real test (cruising) torque-speed points
widely.
4 CONCLUSION
This work assessed one of the most important
-Metrobus
Line. For this reason, a vehicle was simulated in
VECTO and the results were validated with the
logged data. The simulated values were found to
be in acceptable range so the model can be
considered as representing the real time
operation in terms of Fuel Consumption and
CO2. VECTO has the capability to be used for
public transportation analyses and planning as
deploys several features that are needed to
describe on-road conditions, such as driver
models,
acceleration
and
deceleration
identifications, velocity profile applications.
Additionally, there are several features that will
be implemented in the future, such as predictive
cruise control, hybrid vehicles etc. that will
It is
recommended that a further research is should
focus on modelling the behavior of additional
components or energy consumers like auxiliaries
etc.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The experimental part of this research was
supported by the Istanbul Development
Agency ISTKA, under Information Focused
Economic Development Program, project No.
Transit Buses. Energy Procedia, 158, 46234628.
[3] Pelkmans, L., De Keukeleere, D., Bruneel,
H., & Lenaers, G. (2001). Influence of vehicle
test cycle characteristics on fuel consumption
and emissions of city buses. SAE Transactions,
1388-1398.
[4] Rosero, F., Fonseca, N., López, J. M., &
Casanova, J. (2020). Real-world fuel efficiency
and emissions from an urban diesel bus engine
under transient operating conditions. Applied
Energy, 261, 114442.
[5] Zhang, S., Wu, Y., Liu, H., Huang, R., Yang,
L., Li, Z., Fu, L., Hao, J. (2014). Real-world
fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of urban
public buses in Beijing. Applied Energy, 113,
1645-1655.
[6] Yu, Q., & Li, T. (2014). Evaluation of bus
emissions generated near bus stops. Atmospheric
Environment, 85, 195-203.
[7] Kaymaz, H., Korkmaz, H., & Erdal, H.
(2019). Development of a driving cycle for
Istanbul bus rapid transit based on real-world
data
using
stratified
sampling
method. Transportation Research Part D:
Transport and Environment, 75, 123-135.
[8] Bel, G., & Holst, M. (2018). Evaluation of
the impact of bus rapid transit on air pollution in
Mexico City. Transport Policy, 63, 209-220.
[9] O. Ozener, Real driving emissions and fuel
consumption characteristics of Istanbul public
transportation. Thermal Science, 2017, 21.1 Part
B: 665-667.
[10]https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/
vehicles/vecto_en , 08.08.2020
[11] Fontaras, G., Rexeis, M., Dilara, P.,
Hausberger, S., & Anagnostopoulos, K.
(2013). The development of a simulation tool for
monitoring heavy-duty vehicle co 2 emissions
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
and fuel consumption in europe (No. 2013-240150). SAE Technical Paper.
[12] Fontaras, G., Rexeis, M., Hausberger, S.,
Kies, A., Hammer, J., Schulte, L., ... & Dilara, P.
(2014). Development of a CO2 Certification and
Monitoring Methodology for Heavy Duty
Vehicles Proof of Concept Report. Joint
Research Centre Report, 87799.
[13] JRC and TUG. (2016). VECTO user
manual. European Commission, 2016.
[14] Zacharof, N., Fontaras, G., Grigoratos, T.,
Ciuffo, B., Savvidis, D., Delgado, O., &
Rodriguez, J. F. (2017). Estimating the CO 2
emissions reduction potential of various
technologies in European trucks using VECTO
simulator (No. 2017-24-0018). SAE Technical
Paper.
[15] Fontaras, G., Rexeis, M., Dilara, P.,
Hausberger, S., & Anagnostopoulos, K.
(2013). The development of a simulation tool for
monitoring heavy-duty vehicle co 2 emissions
and fuel consumption in europe (No. 2013-240150). SAE Technical Paper.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
THE EFFECTS OF POST INJECTIONS OF HYDROGEN ON DIESEL
ENGINE POWERED BY ETHANOL FUMIGATION
Hüseyin Gürbüz 1
1.
key, huseyinngurbuz@gmail.com
Abstract
In this study, the effects of ethanol fumigation on performance and emissions in diesel engines and the
effects of hydrogen post injections on performance and emissions in the simulation model of the same
engine operating with diesel-ethanol fumigation and developed with numerical software were investigated. Firstly, in the real experiment setup, 10% ethanol in volume was used by fumigation method in
a turbo-aspirated diesel engine. Then, it was modelled with the same engine AVL Boost software and
the model was verified. Hydrogen injections were injected as post-fuel at 5° CA (HydPost1) and 10°
CA (HydPost2) crank angle after the main fuel injection in the model engine running with ethanol fumigation and diesel main fuel in simulation software. Engine power increased significantly at all engine speeds with ethanol fumigation and hydrogen post-injections. Compared to ethanol fumigation,
the engine power obtained with HydPost1 increased more than the engine power obtained with
HydPost2. Also, according to the D-exp, with ethanol fumigation, the BSFC decreased at medium and
low engine speeds, but increased slightly at high engine speeds. In addition, according to ethanol fumigation, the BSFC decreased at all engine speeds with hydrogen injections. NOx emissions increased
with ethanol fumigation at low and medium engine speeds, but NOx emissions were reduced at high
engine speeds. With hydrogen injection strategies, a slight increase in NOx emissions was determined
when compared with ethanol fumigation. However, the soot emission declined significantly with hydrogen injections.
Keywords: Hydrogen, ethanol fumigation, post injection, diesel engine, NOx, Soot
1 INTRODUCTION
Emissions standards for vehicles using
petroleum-based fuels have become more
stringent with Euro 6 [1]. However, because
fossil fuels cause significant global warming,
they have become a serious threat to
environmental, human health and the healthy life
cycle of the whole world [2]. Only 30% of the
global greenhouse gas originates from the
transport sector, which consists of light
passenger cars [3]. In addition, the cost of
petroleum-based fuels has increased in recent
years. However nevertheless the transport sector
continues to derive its energy needs from fossilbased fuels, particularly diesel and gasoline [4].
In particular, diesel combustion causes
greenhouse gas effective NOx emission as it
creates high temperatures [5]. Light alcohols
such as ethanol are also important renewable
alternative fuels to reduce these emissions [6],
[7]. In addition, ethanol is an important
renewable energy resource for the European
Parliament Directive 2009/28 / EC, which
encourages to meet 10% of energy by using
renewable energy sources by 2020 [8,9]. But
ethanol is not used directly in diesel engines due
to its low cetane number, high auto-ignition
temperature and high heat of evaporation[10].
Nevertheless, in diesel engines, ethanol can be
used by mixing, emulsification, fumigation and
double injection methods [11 13]. On the other
hand, alcohols and diesel fuel don't mix
homogeneously due to their polar structures and
problem of stability and phase separation of
blends [10]. Even so, the solubility of anhydrous
ethanol in diesel is better than that of aqueous
ethanol [14 16]. In the emulsion method, an
emulsifier should be added to the ethanol diesel
mixture to prevent phase separation, increase the
solubility of ethanol in diesel and provide
homogeneous mixture [4,17]. In addition, when
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ethanol is used with emulsion method, it must be
and low pollution [28]. Hydrogen enables afterheated and mixed together with the emulsifier
treatment devices such as the lean NOx trap
[7]. In the fumigation method, ethanol is injected
(LNT) to improve NOx reduction performance
into the intake air flow of the engine [18 20].
and desulfurization operations [29,30]. The
Therefore, fumigation method is suitable for the
study by Poulston and Rajaram showed that the
use of ethanol in diesel engine compared to the
use of hydrogen increases LNT performance for
emulsion method [21]. In this method, fuel air
thermally old catalysts [31]. Heffel observed that
mixture very close to a homogeneous mixture
the hydrogen-powered dual-fuel engine could
occurs during the intake stroke. Ignition delay
work with a lean mixtures at no load and at
and HRR increase with ethanol fumigation in the
partial load and reduce NOx [32]. In addition,
diesel engine [22]. Also this mixture is ignited
NOx level decreases with the use of hydrogen
by direct injection of diesel fuel into the
compared to diesel fuel at low and medium
combustion chamber [23]. Besides, this method
partial loads and low hydrogen ratios [33].
requires an extra injector, electronic control card
Combustion efficiency can be increased with
and a small design variation in the intake
multiple fuel injection strategies [34]. Pilot
manifold [21]. The presence of carbon element
injection may be effective in reducing NOx
in the structure of ethanol and its use with
emissions, while it may be effective in reducing
conventional fuel does not fully utilize the
soot emission post injection [35]. Quadais et al.
advantages of ethanol blend fuel, since the
in the diesel engine, they studied in the effect of
combustion product still produces harmful gases.
ethanol on emission and performance by both
It can be used as an additional fuel to hydrogen
fumigation and emulsion methods. They
ethanol-diesel mixture fuel with high
detected 51% reduction in soot mass
flammability for internal combustion engines
concentration and 55% increase in CO emission
producing clean and efficient energy. Because,
with 20% ethanol by fumigation method [36].
as there is no carbon element in the hydrogen
Ghadikolaeia et al. worked with fumigation and
structure and consists of hydrogen molecules
emulsion method in diesel engine. With the
(H2), only water is formed as a result of the
fumigation method, there was an increase in heat
combustion reaction. The main benefit of using
release and ignition delay compared to diesel
hydrogen is its wide combustibility range. This
[22]. Mariasiu et al. in the study in which they
feature enables the engines to run at high
compared the fumigation and emulsion method,
efficiency and minimum NOx emission is
15% ethanol by volume was used. NOx, specific
manufactured [24]. Hydrogen can be used in
fuel consumption and HC emissions decreased
diesel engines by injection method into the
with the fumigation method compared to the
intake manifold, such as ethanol, and also by
emulsion method [37]. Ekholm et al. observed
direct injection into the combustion chamber.
that NOx emission decreased and HC and CO
However, injection of hydrogen into the intake
emissions increased when using the fumigation
manifold results in low volumetric efficiency
method of ethanol compared to diesel fuel [38].
and poor power output. It is difficult to use of
Talibi et al. experimentally examined the effects
hydrogen with direct injection in the diesel
of hydrogen, which were sprayed to the intake
engine due to the high self-ignition temperature
air of a naturally aspirated diesel engine. The
of hydrogen [25]. However, in order to use
tests were run at fixed injections and different
hydrogen directly in the diesel engine, an igniter
loads. They reported a reduction in particulate
such as a spark plug is required [26]. When
matter (PM), THC emissions and CO with the
hydrogen is used directly as additional fuel, a
addition of hydrogen while NOx emissions were
combustion cycle occurs close to the ideal
seriously increased [39]. Saravanan and
constant volume combustion cycle due to the
Nagarajan conducted a dual-mode study with
very high flame velocity and diffusion
diesel and hydrogen. They used an electronic
coefficient [27]. In internal combustion engines
control unit to control the injection timing and
operating in dual mode, it is desired to mix
injection times of hydrogen injection into the air
secondary fuel easily with main fuel and air.
intake port and diesel injection in compression
Therefore,
hydrogen
is
an
important
stroke. The results showed that thermal
supplementary fuel due to its high burning rate
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
efficiency and NOx emission increased but
than 99.5% pure ethanol with diesel [47]. The
smoke emission decreased each time of
experimental setup is shown in Figure 1.
operation load [40]. Jafarmadar et al.
implemented exergy analysis on diesel-hydrogen
double fuel engine. They found that the energy
share of hydrogen increases the temperature and
pressure inside the cylinder and reduces the
exergy efficiency [41].
Due to the high combustion rate and emission
reduction effect compared to conventional fuels,
the use of hydrogen with different methods in
internal combustion engines is seen the subject
of many studies in the comprehensive research
conducted in the literature [42 46]. In addition,
although there are studies examining the effects
of using hydrogen on main fuel (pilot diesel) or
intake port injection, studies examining the
effects of using hydrogen post-injection on
performance and emissions in diesel engine
powered by ethanol fumigation are very few. In
the study, firstly a diesel engine was run with
normal diesel fuel, and performance and
emission characteristics were determined. Then,
the effects of 10% ethanol fumigation on
emissions and performance were investigated
experimentally in a diesel engine. Then, in AVL
Boost simulation program, engine models
working with normal diesel fuel and ethanol
fumigation were made. After verifying the
numerical models, the effects of the injection
strategies of hydrogen as the post fuel after the
main fuel in different scenarios in the ethanol
fumigation model were analyzed on NOx,
Particulate Matter emissions and engine
performance.
2 METHODOLOGY
In the study, a CI engine was coupled to an
electrical DC dynamometer with resistance
loading. The engine was operated at intervals of
100 r/min between 1100 and 2200 r/min. Firstly,
the diesel engine was run with normal diesel fuel
and performance and emission characteristics
were determined. The next stage, the effects of
ethanol fumigation with an injector placed in the
air intake port in the diesel engine, which
controlled with the ECU card designed with
Arduino on performance and emission were
examined experimentally. The ethanol used in
the experiments is 99.9% purity. Because 99.9%
purity ethanol provides a better mixture more
1-Engine, 2-DC dynamometer, 3-Control panel,
Fuel tank, 5-Precision balance, 6-AVL emission
analyzer, 7-AVL Soot analyzer, 8-Amplifier, 9Computer, 10-Oscilloscope, 11-Pressure sensor,
12-Ethanol injector, 13-Proximity speed sensor, 14Load cell, 15-Arduino ECU, 16-Radiator, 17Turbochargers, 18-DC motor controller, 19-Load
indicator,
20-Voltmeter,
21-Ammeter,
22Emergency stop button, 23-Engine speed indicator,
24-Coolant inlet temperature, 25-Coolant outlet
temperature, 26-Exhaust temperature, 27-Fuel
temperature, 28-Air moisture meter, 29-Date and
clock, 30-Pressure sensor
Figure 1. Experimental Setup
The engine speed was measured by a proximity
sensor. Fuel consumption was determined with
precision scales and fuel meters. Emission
measurements were measured with AVL Dicom
4000 and AVL 415S filter paper smoke meter.
In the third stage, test engine model working
with both diesel and EF10 was created with
AVL BOOST 2016v software. The experimental
data obtained using diesel and EF10 fuels were
confirmed by tests with this model engine. To
analyze the effects of hydrogen post injection
strategies, the simulation model created with
EF10 fuel was redesigned in accordance with
engine injection strategies. The same amount of
hydrogen was sprayed in each post injection
strategies. Thus, in addition to the effect of
ethanol fumigation on diesel-sourced pollutant
emissions, the effects of post-injections of
hydrogen on ethanol fumigation were analyzed.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3 SIMULATION MODEL
In the study, three cylinder, turbocharged test
engine was modeled in one-dimensional form
with AVL BOOST. The block diagram of the
developed one-dimensional (1-D) model is
shown in Figure 2. The model was verified by
operating with diesel fuel. Model Ethanol was
modeled and validated according to fumigation
experiment data.
a
b
Figure 2. Diagram Model of AVL Boost Test
Engine
Experimental and simulation test cylinder
pressure results were compared for validation of
models. Comparison of simulation and
experimentally obtained pressure data is given in
Figure 3 for 1400 r/min, 1600 r/min and 2000
r/min engine speed. The results showed that
cylinder pressure data overlapped. In accordance
with the use of hydrogen, the ignition delay was
changed according to the average effective
pressure curve to recalibrate the designed model.
The combustion duration with the shape
parameters were re-determined according to the
combustion rate of the hydrogen. Experimental
and simulation cylinder pressure at low, medium
and high engine speeds were compared. The
results showed that cylinder pressure data
overlapped and there were negligibly small
differences. Therefore, this indicated that it was
acceptable for model validation.
c
Figure 3. Comparison and Approval of
Experimental and Simulation Results of inCylinder Pressure a) 1400 r/min b) 1600
r/min c) 2000 r/min
4 INJECTION STRATEGY
In injection strategies, only hydrogen was
injected as a post fuel on main fuel diesel and
pure ethanol injected into the air intake port.
Two different injection strategies seen in Figure
4 were applied. In the first strategy, 1 post
injection of hydrogen (HydPost1) was
performed at 5° CA (crank angle) for each test
condition after the main injection was
completed. In the second strategy, 1 post
injection of hydrogen was applied at 10° CA
(crank angle) after the main injection was
completed. An equal amount of hydrogen was
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
used for each post-injection administered in all
injection strategies.
Figure 5. The Effect of Ethanol Fumigation
and Multiple Injection of Hydrogen on
Engine Power.
Figure 4. Injection Test Strategies
5 RESULTS
The effects of EN590 diesel and ethanol
fumigation as main fuel on engine performance,
heat release rate (HRR), brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC) and emission formation
were investigated by real experiment. Then, the
effects of post-hydrogen injection strategies on
the ethanol fumigation were numerically tested
with the experimental engine modeled. All
testing was performed at twelve different engine
speeds, between 1100 r/min and 2200 r/min. In
the graphics, only diesel real experiment results
(D-Exp), real experiment results of 10% ethanol
fumigation (FE10-Exp), simulation test results
of 10% ethanol fumigation (FE10-Sim), first
post injection results with hydrogen (HydPost1),
second post injection results with hydrogen
(HydPost2) are shown.
Figure 5 shows Motor power. The engine power
was determined as 35.49 kW with an increase of
7.8% at 2000 rpm in ethanol fumigation. In the
first and second post hydrogen injections at the
same engine speed, the engine power was
determined as 37.14 kW and 36.35 kW with an
additional 4.76% and 2.53% increase,
respectively.
The change in the brake-specific fuel
consumption (BSFC) due to different engine
speeds are shown in Figure. 6 With ethanol
fumigation, specific fuel consumption decreased
significantly at low engine speeds compared to
diesel fuel consumption. However, specific fuel
consumption increased slightly with ethanol
fumigation at high engine speeds. In the
simulation tests, the specific fuel consumption in
both post injection strategies of hydrogen
decreased at all engine speeds compared to
FE10-Sim. With HydPost2, this reduction was
more noticeable than HydPost1. With HydPost1
and HydPost2, total specific fuel consumption
decreased by 10.04% and 11.07%, respectively,
compared to ethanol fumigation total specific
fuel consumption. When hydrogen is blended
with sufficient oxygen, BSFC reduces as
injected hydrogen increases due to complete
combustion [48].
Figure 6. The Effect of Ethanol Fumigation
and Multiple Injection of Hydrogen on
BSFC.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 7. The Effect of Ethanol Fumigation
and Multiple Injection of Hydrogen on NOx
Emission.
Figure 8. The Effect of Ethanol Fumigation
and Multiple Injection of Hydrogen on Soot
Emission.
NOx emission trends for different engine speeds
are shown in Figure. 7. NOx emission showed
some increase with ethanol fumigation
compared to D-Exp. This increase may be due to
the high evaporation temperature of ethanol, the
self-ignition temperature of the mixture and the
temperature increase in the cylinder, depending
on the ethanol ratio in the mixture [49,50]. With
the injecting of hydrogen as a post fuel, some
more increase in NOx emission compared to the
FE10-Sim occurred. If there is an excessive
delay post-injection without changing the spray
amount, a reduction in NOx emission may be
observed [51]. It can also be explained as the
reason for the increase in NOx emissions
because high temperature gases such as
hydrogen remain in the cylinder longer [52].
6 CONCLUSION
In this study, the effects of ethanol on
performance and emissions by fumigation
method in diesel engine were investigated
experimentally. The effects of hydrogen postinjection strategies on performance and
emissions were analyzed numerically in the
engine modeled with simulation software and
operated with ethanol fumigation and the
following results were obtained:
Figure 8 shows the change of soot emission.
With low engine speed ethanol fumigation
significantly reduced soot emission. However,
some increase in soot emission occurred at
medium and high engine speeds. In HydPost1
and HydPost2 tests, especially at low engine
speeds, there was a significant reduction in soot
emission. When there is enough oxygen,
additional
hydrogen
positively
affects
combustion efficiency [53]. Nevertheless, with
HydPost2, soot emission increased slightly
compared to HydPost1.
Engine power increased at all engine speeds
with ethanol fumigation compared to diesel
fuel. This increase was approximately
9.59% on average of all engine speeds.
Additional increase in engine power with
HydPost1 and HydPost2 injections of
hydrogen was 6.57% and 4.87%,
respectively.
With HydPost1 and HydPost2 injections,
the specific fuel consumption decreased
significantly compared to FE10-Sim,
especially at high speeds.
NOx emission increased with FE10-Exp
compared to D-Exp. With hydrogen
injections, NOx emission increased a little
more. However, NOx emission decreased
somewhat with HydPost2 compared to
HydPost1.
Soot emission decreased compared to
ethanol fumigation with post hydrogen
injections.
NOMENCLATURE
BSFC
Brake specific fuel consumption
CA
Crank angle
DC
ECU
g
H2
HRR
J
kW
LNT
NOx
r/min
THC
PM
Direct current
Electronic control unit
Gram
Hydrogen
Heat release rate
Joule
Kilowatt
Lean NOx trap
Oxides of nitrogen
Revolution per minute
Total hydrocarbon
Particulate matter
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
on combustion features, cyclic irregularity, and
regulated emissions balance in heavy-duty diesel
Energy, vol. 174, pp. 1145 1157, 2019.
[8]
European Wind Energy Conference
and Exhibition 2008, vol. 1, pp. 32 38, 2008.
[9]
nal recast RED II: Renewable
Energy Directive for 2021-2030 in the European
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Ebubekir Beyazoglu1 and Erhan Pulat2
1. Graduate Assistant, Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa;
ebeyazoglu@uludag.edu.tr
2. Associate Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa;
pulat@uludag.edu.tr
Abstract
Gas production from solid materials is a very sophisticated phenomenon where combine physical and chemical
events occur, including multiphase turbulence flow, phase change, heat transfer, compressibility, pyrolysis,
devolatilization, gasification, combustion, and all the non-linear interactions among them. Gasification is also
challenging to collect data by an experimental study to measure parameters since this gasification system
contains much quantity. Likewise, a 3D, simple, accurate, and comprehensive Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) model was developed to solve, investigate, and optimize this complex problem. ANSYS FLUENT
commercial code was used to calculate the boundary value problem (BVP). The discrete Phase Model (DPM)
method was used for solid particle modeling, gas-phase species considered as an eulerian continuum approach.
Gasifier design parameters (pipe length, diameter, and radius) were optimized with primary process parameters
by using the response surface optimization method. The results were presented on contours and charts. They
were discussed and ended up with some contributive ideas for the gasification research field.
Keywords: Gasification, Combustion, CFD, Optimization, Reactive flow
1
INTRODUCTION
Since 1850, the gasification process has provided
gaslight for major cities of the world and energy
supply and power for industrial, commercial, and
residential properties [1]. Moreover, in recent
years we have seen a dramatic increase in the use
of gasification models and designing reactors.
They have been used in areas such as agriculture,
petroleum, metallurgical industry, chemistry,
thermal- fluid sciences (particularly concerning
generating energy from solid materials), and in
energy economics (finance). In fact, in each area
where there is an interaction among many
variables, we attempt to define functions with
these variables to investigate a variety of
gasification processes by constructing equations
from these functions.
Energy conversion, thermoelectric power
generation, economics, reactor feasibility, and
chemical reactions, etc. are the variables and
generating the primary purpose of this research
effort [2].
The process occurs at high temperatures and
oxygen-starved environment to convert biomass
into synthesis gas, as shown in Figure 1. As
mentioned, the process is called gasification,
which is differentiated from combustion with
several valuable features, as illustrated in Table 1.
Figure1. Gasification is a thermochemical
conversion of solid fuel into a gas fuel.
Table1. Gasification and Combustion
Features
Specification Gasification
Combustion
Oxygen Use Limited amount Uses excess
use
Process Type Endothermic
Exothermic
Basic
C+H2O=CO+H2 C+O2=CO2
Chemical
C+CO2=2CO
Equations
Products
Combustible
Heat
gas
Analysis of different types of gasifiers and their
applications in the industry shows that the next
challenging task for engineers is to increase the
efficiency of fluidized beds. This can be done
using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
based modeling of processes occurring inside
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
fluidized beds [3]. It should be emphasized that
gasifiers, entrained flow gasifiers, and fluidized
recently computer modeling became one of the
bed gasifiers. They have studied optimum
most fundamental elements in the design and
operation parameters, the effect of turbulent mixing,
optimization of novel technologies in the field of
reaction kinetic parameters, etc. and compared
mechanical engineering. One of the advantages of
their works with experimental data.
computer modeling is that the behavior and
On the other hand, generally, k- turbulence
characteristics of the fluidized bed reactor may be
models were used in literature. In turbulent
investigated without fabricating a prototype.
gasification, the modeling of turbulence is one of
Thus, the total costs of product development can
the most critical processes because of its role in
be reduced significantly [4].
establishing the flow, mixing, and gasification
For this reason, more research is required to
processes [18]. So, using of most efficient
increase the overall efficiency of gasification
turbulence model is highly required to simulate
processes, and reactor design should be optimized
the gasification process accurately, and
by using computational technology as well.
turbulence should be studied more in detail than
Conversely, the numerical simulations of
any other physical phenomena.
multiphase flows in fluidized beds have to be
By the above literature review, most gasification
modeled using advanced mathematical models
analyses are based on several assumptions. Those
implemented into a CFD software. By the way,
assumptions should be necessary due to the
impressive developments were recently done in
complexity of the problem and computational
commercial CFD software, e.g., ANSYS
time-consuming. However, they might make
FLUENT, CFX to be used [5].
oversimplified the Boundary Value Problem
In literature, Beyazoglu and Pulat [3] have
(BVP). Non-linear partial differential equations
developed a two-dimensional Euler-granular
of the BVP might not give accurate results. New
model for fluidized bed gasification to investigate
multiphase flow models should be used to
some research problems, especially on turbulence
simulate
3D
fluidized
beds
without
modeling. They compared RANS based
oversimplifications.
turbulence models. They also developed a subIn addition to that, researchers have mostly tried
model
to
simulate
more
accurately
to enhance the chemical part of the process, but
devolatilization and char combustion steps.
they did not much pay attention to improve heat,
Nakod and Shelke [6] have then reviewed broad
mass, momentum transfer parameters.
coal gasification CFD simulations with all subAnother conclusion from the literature review is
models developed until now. They have indicated
that the Gasification process is very challenging
that research should still be done on the
to simulate all thermochemical phenomena
gasification process.
accurately with the CFD model. Therefore,
Ma and Zitney [7] have investigated and
researchers are still interested in different
optimized the coal gasification process by using
approaches to calculate and increase products of
ANSYS FLUENT code. They used the discrete
gasification reactors. A correct heat and mass
phase model for an entrained- flow gasifier. They
diffusion model among solid and gas particles are
improved solution approaches to the process with
still needed to predict the most accurate species
chemical and physical submodels they developed.
distribution inside of the multiphase reactive
Liu et al. [8] developed a 3-D, steady-state,
gasifier.
eulerian-eulerian model for circulating fluidized
Lettieri and Mazzei [19] have also mentioned that
bed gasification. They investigated the impacts of
fluidized bed gasification was still a challenging
turbulence models, radiation model, water gas
issue. They have published an article about CFD
shift (WGS) reaction, and equivalence ratio (ER).
challenging of the fluidized bed gasification.
Hwang et al. [9] studied a one-dimensional model
They revied fluidization technology and
for entrained-coal gasification. They simulated
concluded that fluidized bed technology used in
the performance of the gasifier reactor with
many industrial processes and accurate modeling
various operating parameters. They concluded
of the fluidized bed process is still necessary for
with optimal conditions.
both academia and industry.
Like the
a significant
Bogdanova et al. [20] then mentioned that CFD
number of CFD effort was done and published in
gasifier models have to be improved to
the literature [10-17]. They used moving bed
incorporate detailed physics and chemistry with
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
enhanced submodels in all relevant areas to guide
Gas Inlet
gasifier design and system optimization.
=15 m/s, =0, =0,T=1200 K
Even though models to account for additional
Solid Inlet
effects have been continuously developed and
=15 m/s, m=0.1 kg/s, T=300 K
incorporated into many commercial codes,
Outlet
research in this area is still incomplete [21].
Gauge Pressure=0 Pa
With all the above literature summary, it should
Wall
be noted that no attempt has been made to explore
Wall is insulated, heat flux is equal to zero
all the aspects of fluidized-bed-fluid mechanics
Wall roughness is equal to zero (neglected)
with a comprehensive CFD model.
Wall thickness is equal to zero (neglected)
For this reason, the main goal of this present work
Ambient Conditions
is to develop a correct CFD model and to be able
Ambient Pressure:101325 Pa
to research all aspects of the gasification process;
2.2 Grid Generation
this study develops a more realistic CFD
approach by using ANSYS FLUENT to evaluate
the in-service performance of fluidized bed
gasification.
2 METHODOLOGY
2.1 Geometry Generation
Figure 3. Mesh type and structure
Figure 2. Geometry generation of the
Boundary Value Problem (BVP).
The diagram in Figure2 shows a pipe, which is a
circular section, pipe diameter 0.25m and pipe
length 2 m with a solid particles inlet and gas inlet
sections, to which a zero heat flux is attached to
the wall. Heated air flows from the left to the end
of the pipe. We would use the ANSYS FLUENT
code to solve the related boundary-value problem
and achieve the distribution of velocity,
temperature, pressure, and density in the pipe.
Inputs required for simulation, such as the speed
at the pipe gas inlet and solid particles inlet and
the insulated wall, were obtained from a
particular experimental study. For this study,
simulation results would not be compared with
corresponding experimental values because the
experimental setup of a fluidized bed gasifier
would not be yet installed.
The following entries are required to determine
the computational domain, boundary conditions,
and material properties to solve the boundary
value problem.
64362 hexa elements and 66755 nodes were used
according to mesh independent study in section
4.1. The skewness number was a maximum of
0.87. The aspect ratio was min 1.1996. A
boundary layer mesh was also generated, as
shown in Figure 3.
2.3 Physical Definition of the Boundary
Value Problem
Double precision, 16 CPU parallel processing,
and 8 GB RAM, personal computer (PC) were
used to compute the boundary value problem.
As seen in Figure 4, cylindrical coordinates
were used to solve those following values.
,
,
,
,
Figure 4. Boundary Conditions and the
Computational Domain.
Governing Equations
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
spherical harmonics. P1 model solves a simple
diffusion equation for the incident radiation (G).
(1)
This value is the sum of all radiative intensity in
all directions [22]
(2)
(6)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Reynolds-Averaged governing equations, which
were multiphase continuity, Equation (1),
momentum, Equation (2), energy Equation (3),
species, Equation (5), and ideal gas, Equation (4),
were solved. Rans based realizable k-epsilon
scalable wall function is used as a turbulence
model. An incompressible ideal gas is used for
the gas density model. The Discrete Phase Model
(DPM) approach was used for multiphase
modeling. The discrete phase was modeled by the
Lagrangian method(Solid Phase). The continuous
phase was modeled by the Eulerian method (Gas
Phase). The DPM was described by ordinary
differential equations (on the contrary, the
continuous flow was described by non-linear
partial differential equations). Therefore, the
DPM used its own numerical mechanisms and
discretization schemes. The discrete and the
continuous phases are coupled through sources
terms in the governing equations. Mass and
species sources to account for phase change.
Momentum source for the change of momentum
of the phases. An energy source for heat transfer
between two phases and the temperature
reduction due to evaporation.
Particle motion and properties were updated due
to its interaction with the continuous phase.
Particle Trajectory Fundamentals which mainly
consist of drag force, lift force, and gravitation.
Convection/diffusion-controlled model modeled
moisture vaporization. Coal devolatilization was
modeled by using the Two-competing rates
model. Char oxidation and gasification reactions
were then modeled by multiple particle surface
reaction model. Radiation heat transfer was
modeled by P1.
The P1 model implementation in ANSYS
FLUENT is a four-term truncation of the general
P-n model, which expands the Radiative Transfer
Equation (RTE) into an orthogonal series of
They are, respectively, diffusion, emission, and
absorption terms, as shown in Equation (6).
Chemical reactions of the gasification process
were then model by nine gas-phase reactions and
five particle surface reactions and coupled by the
eddy dissipation/finite rate model.
(7)
(8)
The reaction rate was described by the Arrhenius
equation, as seen above Equations (7) and (8).
Material Specifications of Gas- mixture and solid
particles are as follows.
Gas-mixture
Density= Incompressible ideal gas
Viscosity= 1.72e-05 kg/ms
Specific Heat = Mixing-law
Thermal Conductivity= 0.0454 W/mK
Mass Diffusivity= 2.88e-05 m2/s
Refractive Index=1
Solid Particles
Density= 1300 kg/m3
Specific Heat = 1000 J/kgK
Min. Diameter (m)=7e-05
Max. Diameter (m)=0.0002
Mean Diameter (m)=0.000134
Number of Diameter for different particles=10
Table 2. Solid Particle Proximate and
Ultimate Analysis
Proximate
Percent Ultimate Percent
Analysis
Analysis
Volatile
0.5
C
0.822
Fixed Carbon
0.3
H
0.096
Ash
0.1
O
0.038
Moisture
0.1
N
0.009
S
0.032
Table 2 shows the required solid particle inputs to
solve the above-mentioned equations. Boundary
conditions, geometrical dimensions, and
materials specifications define the physical
features of the problem.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
2.4 Numerical Solution
Discretization and linearization errors would
occur in the process, as discussed in the previous
analyses step, to solve our non-linear BVP. In the
solution menu, there are many options that BVP
can be improved while to solve numerically. We
would not confuse most of them as the default
settings provide an adequate numerical solution
for our problem.
The solver converts our BVP into a series of
algebraic equations through a process called
discretization. We would use the second-order
discrepancy, where the error is in the order of the
square of the network range. It is more accurate
(although less stable) than first-order
discrimination where the error is within the scope
of the network. Default Under Relaxation
Factors, Second-Order Upwind, and PressureVelocity Coupling to SIMPLE were selected for
solving the numerical problem. The convergence
criteria for all solving parameters were
approximately 10-6.
3 RESPONSE SURFACE OPTIMIZATION
3.1 Design of Experiments
First, response surface optimization needs to be
placed in the Project Schematic, and all the
systems are connected, as seen in Figure 5.
This step samples specific points in the design
space. It uses statistical techniques to minimize
the number of sampling points since a separate
CFD calculation (and associated stiffness matrix
inversion) is required for each sampling point.
This step is the most time-consuming in the
optimization process.
Figure 6. Design Variables and Objective
Function
Now that the diameter, length of the pipe were
appropriately chosen as the design variables, as
shown in Figure 6 and Table 3. The optimization
method just picked what it thinks are the best
sampling points according to an algorithm. Note
that these sampling points are not necessarily
linearly spaced.
Table 3. Design Variable Constraints
Parameter
Pipe
(L)
Minimum
Value
Length 1.8 m
Pipe
Diameter (D)
0.225 m
Maximum
Value
2.2 m
0.275 m
Radius of the 0.01190m
Entrance for
Solid
Particles (R)
0.01455m
Inlet
Gas 0.
Velocity (V)
10 m/s
The solver right now performs some timeconsuming matrix inversions.
3.2 Response Surface
Figure 5.Project Schematic for Optimization
Step
These parameters are the design variables named
Input parameters with their constraints. The
output parameter is then the objective function, as
shown in Figure 6.
In this step, the solver builds a surface by
interpolating the discrete sampling points
selected in the previous step. This can be thought
of as building a model of the terrain in the design
space. The response has completed seeing a plot
of the CO Outlet mass fraction as a function of
pipe diameter.
3.3. Setup of Optimization
At this point, the solver must be told that the
objective function (volume) is to be minimized or
maximize while staying with design variables
Temperature,[C]
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
constraints. After executing the optimization and
temperature percent change was getting very
clicking to view the results, The optimization
close to each other when the element number was
should yield similar results to the above Figure 7.
increased. Medium mesh, 64362, was chosen for
all simulation applications since the temperature
of fine mesh, 439509, and medium mesh were
changed only less than one percent, as shown in
Figure 8.
4.2 Optimization Methods
Additionally, the optimization results were
verified by using different optimization methods
and comparing results. The optimization was
done using each of the four optimization methods
in ANSYS workbench. The default optimization
Figure 7. Optimization Candidate Points
method was used as a MOGA. As one can see
The optimization tool that found three candidate
from Table 4, there are no significant differences
points matched our given constraints. This
among the results from the four methods.
computation was pretty fast because the
optimization tool used the response surface model
Table 4. Optimization Method Verification
(plots) that previously generated. It would not
Optimization Inlet Gas Pipe
CO
solve our model by doing a matrix inversion. The
Method
Velocity Length Mass
response surface model is only an approximation
Name
Fraction
of the relationship between the parameters and so
our results might not be very accurate.
MOGA
4.3921
2.199 m 0.34601
Thankfully, we can solve our model using these
m/sn
candidate points to verify that they do satisfy our
constraints.
NLPQL
4.4398
2.2 m
0.34982
4
VERIFICATION and VALIDATION
m/sn
The level of numerical errors was check in the
Screening
6.5577
2.199m 0.34959
Verification & Validation steps.
m/sn
4.1 Mesh Refinement (Verification)
Verification and validation are great significance
MISQP
4.4398
2.2 m
0.34982
as with using any numerical method. There is no
m/sn
analytical solution for this boundary value
4.3 Validation
problem. Thus, the results cannot be compared to
Since exact experimental data was not available
theory. Therefore, in this section, other
for this fluidized bed gasification, the validation
verification and validations would be used. The
study was done with the case that data was
solution was initially examined as the mesh is
already measured, as seen in Figure 8. The same
refined to see if it has converged.
boundary conditions and geometry was used to
validate the problem. As seen in Figure 9, the
1400.0
results of the experimental study and this
1200.0
numerical study were good agreement with each
1000.0
other.
800.0
16999 cells
Two-stage, up flow, prototype entrained flow
600.0
64362 cells
gasifiers were tested as named 200 TPD MHI
400.0
Coal Gasifier [23]. Operation pressure was 2.70
439509 cells
MPa. Boundary Conditions; Combustion burners;
200.0
Air
Total 4.708 kg/s from 4 burners, 521 K,
0.0
Coal
0.472 kg/s. Char burners Air
Total
0.000 0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500
Length X, [m]
4.708 kg/s from 4 burners, 521 K, Coal 1.112
kg/s.Reducer burners; Air
Total 1.832 kg/s
Figure 8. Mesh Refinement Study
A grid independence study was done to ensure
from 4 burners, 521 K, Coal
1.832 kg/s.
that the solution to the problem was not
Outlet
Pressure outlet.
dependent on the grid resolution used. The
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
diameter, and radius of the entrance for solid
particles).
The plot shows the CO Mass Fraction of the outlet
as a function of the pipe diameter and is shown
above in Figure 11. In this case, after executing
optimization, the results showed that CO mass
fraction did not change within this constrained
geometrical design variables. It means that the
volume of the pipe did not affect gasification
efficiency by itself.
Figure 8. Validation case geometry and
boundary conditions [23]
Figure 9. Validation Results with the present
study [23]
5 RESULTS and DISCUSSION
The optimization results of CO mass fraction and
pipe length, pipe diameter, and the radius for solid
particles were shown in the following Figure 10.
they were quite trivial to compute, and any
change in each other was not seen.
Figure 10. The relation between CO mass
fraction and pipe volume (pipe length, pipe
Figure 11. Pipe Length and CO Mass
Fraction Change
In the second optimization case, inlet gas
Velocity and the Pipe Length were calculated to
maximize CO mass fraction at the outlet. The
optimization results, which is the maximum CO
mass fraction when to change inlet gas velocity
and pipe length, were shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12. the relation between CO Mass
Fraction Change with Pipe Length and Inlet
Gas Velocity.
Figure 13 displays a plot of the CO mass
fraction(objective function ) as a function of the
pipe length, change the value assigned to Yaxis to CO Mass Fraction. As expected, the CO
mass fraction increases as the pipe length
increases.
Figure 13. CO Mass Fraction Change with
Pipe Length
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 14 shows the plot above, which is the CO
Figure 16. CO mass fraction distribution at
mass fraction as a function of the inlet gas
outlet after optimization.
velocity. CO mass fraction is maximized, as the
Figure 17 shows the velocity magnitude and
inlet gas velocity decreases. That is the exact
directions of the gas phase and the solid particles
opposite of the pipe length.
mixture. Both were combined to react with each
other.
Figure 14. CO Mass Fraction Change with
Inlet Gas Velocity
We would now select candidate point 2 as the
design point. It is a good idea to review the CO
mass fraction at the chosen design point.
We have just duplicated the parameters from the
original geometry into the new design point DP2.
model with our
optimized pipe length and inlet gas velocity. We
should realize that It does get much better after
the optimization problem. CO mass fraction 0.32
was increased to 0.346, as seen in Figures 15 and
16.
Figure 17. Streamline and vector distribution
of the computational domain.
The velocity magnitude decreases in the mixing
location. The mixing place is also the same
location at the beginning of the chemical
reactions. The Chemical reactions and mixing
process make a little slow the multiphase flow,
but after the mixing and reacting process, velocity
again increases, as shown in Figure 18.
Figure 18. Contour velocity distribution at the
r-z plane (
of the
boundary value problem)
Figure 15. CO mass fraction distribution at
the outlet before optimization
The temperature distribution was also decreased
at the beginning of the reacting and mixing place.
However, this reason was the mixing of cold solid
particles with the hot gas flow. After the reaction,
temperature values were dramatically increased
to the inlet, as shown in Figure 19.
Figure 19. Temperature distribution at the r-z
plane, (
of the boundary value
problem)
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 20 shows the pressure range from inlet to
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
outlet, and the pressure values were decreased
This study is part of Ph.D. dissertation research,
when to begin reaction and mixing processes.
which is supported by YOK, TUBITAK with
these grand numbers, respectively 100-2000, and
2211. The paper authors would also like to thank
in advance the Bursa Uludag University (BUU)
for supporting their Ph.D. study and technical
projects.
Figure 20. Pressure distribution at r-z plane,
(
of the boundary value problem)
Figure 21 shows the CO mass fraction, which is
the main product after gasification. The figure
shows precisely where the reactions have
occurred. The chemical reactions have mostly
occurred close to the top wall. It means that solid
particles and gas phase are not mixed adequately
with increasing gasification efficiency. The
reactive place is tiny compared to the whole
gasifier.
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Figure 21. CO mass fraction distribution of
the computational domain.
6 CONCLUSION
This study has provided a model for the transport,
mixing, and the reaction of chemical species. It is
beneficial and efficient to use in industry or
academia.
Reaction design helps energy companies rapidly
achieve their clean technology goals by
automating the analysis of chemical processes in
the commercial, government, and academic
markets.
The Reaction Model also helps to many
engineers, researchers to optimize the systems
and increase efficiency.
Reaction Design can be modeled by using the
CHEMKIN-CFD software module. It may
provide more detailed kinetics modeling and
more accurate results.
The reactive flow might be modeled when to
consider fully developed flow effects.
[5] H. Lee, S. Choi, B. Kim, Understanding coal
gasification and combustion modeling in general
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[6] P. M. Nakod, R. E.Shelke, A Review of submodels for computation fluid dynamics (CFD)
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[7] J. Ma and S. E. Zitney, Computational fluid
dynamic modeling of entrained-flow gasifiers
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submodels,energy&fules,Vol26, pp.7195 7219,
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[8] H. Liu A. Elkamel, A.Lohi, and M. Biglari,
Computational fluid dynamics modeling of
biomass gasification in circulating fluidized-bed
reactor using the eulerian eulerian
approach, Industrial & Engineering Chemistry
Research, pp. 18162 18174,2013.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Using RANS and LES: A validation study,
[9] M. Hwang, E. Song, and J. Song, OneEnergy & Fuels, V
dimensional modeling of an entrained coal
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[19] P. Lettieri and L. Mazzei, Challenges and
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Issues on the CFD modeling of fluidized beds: a
review, Journal of Computational Multiphase
Flows, Vol 1, pp.83-131,2009.
[10] Roy A. Dowd, CHMM, Wabash river coal
gasification repowering project, Final Technical
[20] V. Bogdanova, E. George, N. Meynet, Y.
Report, 2000.
Kara, A. Barba, Numerical CFD simulations for
optimizing a biomass gasifier and methanation
[11] J. Phillips, Different types of gasifiers and
reactor design and operating conditions, Energy
their integration with gas turbines, Technical
Procedia, Vol 120, pp.278 285,2017.
notes, EPRI, Advanced Coal Generation.
[21] Fox, R.O., Computational models for
turbulent reacting flows. New York, USA: 149
[12] C. Y. Wen, and T. Z. Chaung, Entrainment
Cambridge University Press, 2003.
coal gasification modeling, Ind. Eng. Chem.
Process Des. Dev., Vol 18, pp. 684-695.1979.
[22] ANSYS, Inc., Heat transfer modeling using
ANSYS Fluent, radiation heat transfer
Lectures,2015.
[13] M. Syamlal and L. A. Bissett, METC
Gasifier advanced simulation (MGAS) model,
[23] P. Nakod, S. Orsino, A. Walavalkar, M.
technical note, DOE/METC-92/4108,
Sami, Development, and validation of a volatile
NITS/DE92001111, National Technical
break-Up approach for gasification
Information Services, Springfield, 1992.
simulations.,38th International Technical
Conference on Clean Coal and Fuel Systems,
[14] S. Gerber, F. Behrendt, M. Oevermann, An
ANSYS, Inc., 2013.
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gasification in a bubbling fluidized, Fuel, Vol
89 pp.2903 2917, 2010.
[15] A Silaen and T Wang, Investigation of the
Coal Gasification Process under Various
Operating Conditions Inside a Two-Stage
ntrained flow gasifier, J. Thermal Sci. Eng. Appl.
Vol 4, pp 102-113, 2012.
[16] M Kumar and A F Ghoniem, Multiphysics
simulations of entrained flow gasification. Part I:
Validating the nonreacting flow solver and the
Particle turbulent dispersion model, Energy
Fuels, Vol 26 , pp. 451-463. 2012
[17] M. Kumar and A. F. Ghoniem,
Multiphysics simulations of entrained flow
gasification. Part II: Constructing and validating
the overall model, Energy Fuels, Vol 26, pp.
464-479, 2012.
[18] Chen, L., Ghoniem, A. F., Simulation of
oxy-coal combustion in a 100 kWth Test Facility
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
A.Ergenç1, O. Özener2, G.
3,
S.Eyüb
4,
A.Kaya 5, B.Karayel6
1.
Türkiye, aergenc@yildiz.edu.tr
2. Y
Türkiye, oozener@yildiz.edu.tr
3.
Türkiye, gökhunakpinar@gmail.com
4.
Güç Aktarma Çözümleri, Dizel Püskürtme Sistemleri Birimi, BursaTürkiye, sertac.eyuboglu@tr.bosch.com
5.
Güç Aktarma Çözümleri, Dizel Püskürtme Sistemleri Birimi, BursaTürkiye, alper.kaya@tr.bosch.com
6.
Güç Aktarma Çözümleri, Dizel Püskürtme Sistemleri Birimi, BursaTürkiye, burak.karayel@tr.bosch.com
Özet
olan enjektör memesi belirlenen motor performans ve emisyon hedeflerinin
malzeme seçiminde büyük rol
meme malzemesinde
litre
malzeme seçimi için
Anahtar Kelimeler: Dizel Motor,
tor çevriminin
, Sertlik
1
Günümüzde dizel motorlarda ortak
(Common Rail) sistemleri
an
oldukça önem arz etmektedir. Püskürtme
Motor üreticisine test için gönderilen memelerin
parametrelerin bilgisi motor üreticisinden tam
olarak edinilememekte ve bu durum görülen
sebebini bulmada zorluk
maruz kalan ekipman ise enjektör memesidir.
Enjektör memesinin
ve meme malzemesinin bu
sertlik durumu belirlenerek malzeme seçimi
güvenilir hale gelmektedir. Bu
hatal
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
r. Bu sayede
meme malzemesi daha iyi
2
METOT
2.1
Bosch Arseri
süresi2.2 Motor Test Sistemi ve Test Çevrimleri
bit
320°C
360°C
2h
ta
4h
380°C
8h
340°C
Testlerde kullanmak üzere üniversitede bulunan
dizel
HDI 75 HP dizel
kontrol ünitesi EDC16C34 seviye BOSCH
kontrol sistemi ile kontrol edilmektedir. Motor
için, 120
ile tahrik edilen hidro-kinetik bir dinamometre
- Motor test sistemi
Tüm testler boyunca dört silindirden bir tanesine
monte edilecek olan termo-enjektör, Bosch Arsüresi-
element sayesinde motor içerisinde meme
kubbesinin
Bosch Türkiye Ar-
-enjektör
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3
3.1
-2-4-8-
- Termo enjektör resmi
motor çevrim profili
5 te A, B ve C grubu
testleri olarak
saat olup toplam 2,6,10,14,18 ve 22 saat olacak
3-7]
malzemesinin
yüksek sertlik
de
-
simum
Motor test çevrimleri
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3.2
için A,B ve C grubu8-
-
- A Grubu
22 Saat test meme kubbe
memelerin
ortalama
sertlik
dü
ortalama %11-
- B Grubu 22 Saat test meme kubbe
k için gerekli test süresi 10
saat olmakla beraber daha uzun testlerde dikkate
[2]
sonuçlar
i)
- C Grubu 22 Saat test meme kubbe
testlerinde benzerlik göstermektedir.
ii) Meme malzemesinde maksimum sertlik
- Maksimum ve ortalama
a
iii) Motor testlerinde görülen en yüksek
ortalama
olarak
~11-
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
62
iv)
malzemesinde,
gözlemlenmesi
sebebiyle malzeme sertlik
Malzemesinin
Yeni
Nesil
Diesel
Motor
KAYNAKLAR
[1] A. Gökhun., Dizel enjektör memesinin
,
Üniversitesi Yüksek Lisans Tezi , 2015.
[2]
Meme Malzemesinin Yeni Nesil Diesel Motor
[3
Engine Brake Systes and Comparison between
Europe and South America Ap
International, 2012-36-0146. [11] F. Königsson,
[4] P. Stalhammar, H.-E. Angstrom, (2012).
Technical Paper 2012-01-0826.
[5] K. Alark, R. Morton, R. Carter, (2009).
Technical Paper 2009-01-1098.
[6] E. Schwarz, E. Danielson, W. Bryzik,
Diesel 8V71-TA Engine at 530 BHP with
International Technical Paper 2000-01-0524.
[7] R. C. Laboratory, Military Adaptation of
Commercial Items Laboratory, Evaluation of the
Code 4-430 Engine, Technical Report, US Army
Tank-Automotive Command Research and
Development Center .
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
TARIMSAL ATIKLARIN Y
N.ÇAYCI, N.DURANAY, M.YILGIN
email: nzl123@windowslive.com, nduranay@firat.edu.tr, myilgin@firat.edu.tr
Özet
biyokütleden
elde
etmek için umut verici bir tekniktir.
.B
t
uygulanarak,
ir. Torrefaksiyon
. Yakma deneyleri 873, 923
.
-
.
. Torefiye biyokütlenin ham biyokütlede
in biyokütlenin yanma
taraftan
ve
.
Keywords:
1
Biyokütle,
dünyadaki
ve orta vadede umut verici olan,
en büyük yenilenebilir enerji
[1]. Dünya toplam enerji tüketiminin
%10'u ve toplam yenilenebilir enerjinin % 78'i
[2,3]. Küresel iklim
indirmek için
önemli bir seçenektir.
Biyokütleler genel olarak odunsu ve odunsu
abilir. Odunsu
ol
Bununla
birlikte,
deza
engellemektedir.
uzun mesafelere
olumsuz etkilerken [1,6 8],
termo-kimyasa
[9]. Hidrofilik
süreli depolama
[11]. Heterojen
endüstrisinden elde edilirken, odunsu olmayan
üretilir [4
matrisi
belirtmek için genel olarak lignoselüloz terimi
da uzun
[6,8,10].
süreç
getirmektedir.
duman
1].
olan (%30-40) selüloz, hemiselülozlar (% 25-35)
ve ligninden (% 12[5].
n
biri,
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ve hafif bir termo
uygulanmadan torrefaksiyon
incelemektir.
orijinal hem de pellet halinde torrefiye edildikten
biyokütleden, azalan
ile daha homojen, reakt
hidrofobik bir biyochar üretmektedir [12,13].
Biyochar
umune ile
, daha büyük yüze
daha küçük partikül boyutuna sahip ol
, daha
verimli yan
[15]. Original ve
2 MATERYAL VE YÖNTEM
Çal
köyünden
k
(PB)
atmosferinde kurutuldu.
-100
analizde
Numunelerin
analizleri
ASTM
na göre (kül için ASTM D-3174,
uçucu madde için ASTM D-3175)
.
Pimchuai ve ark.
[6], laboratuar tipi bir yakma sisteminde hem
ham hem de torrefiye
yanma
ve torrefiye
verimli
larda uçucu madde içer
[16] ve
ile
n
hemiselülozda meydana gelen
parçalanmadan kay
Bunun sonucu olarak ham biyokütle ile
orrefiye biyokütlenin daha
yüksek aktivasyon enerjisi [16], daha yüksek
17
16],
17] ve daha uzun yanma
süresine [18]
torefaksiyon öncesi s
[13], torrefaksiyon
on
küçü
üretilmektedir.
Genel
olarak
torrefaksiyon
5'inden daha fazla
Toz biy
1
hidrolik
13 mm çap ve 5 mm
de peletler (PBP)
.
(PBÇ)
a 533 K
ne
10 dk süreyle torref
[19] ve torrefiye çubuk ve peletler
2.1 Yanma deneyleri
Y
1'de gösterilen sistemde
. Sistem
mm yük
oluklu
n
refrakter kamaradan
ucuna
çelik elek sepet, bölmenin içine dikey olarak
(± 1 mg
hassasiyette)
. Bu
bir ayna
.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
n torefaksiyon sonucu
Torefaksiyon
pellet
halindeki
numunelerin
Çubuk ve
torrefaksiyon
[19]. Bu
beklenen bir sonuçtur ve uygulanan torefaksiyon
Sabit yatak yakma sistemi
k
kamara
için
sepetin hemen üzerine
termoçift
Yanma deneylerin
önce kamara
[20-25].
pelet halindeki numunenin
içindeki
anda zaman ve kütle
.
Numunenin kütlesi, uçucu madde ve takip eden
karbon (char) yanma
nda 5 saniyelik
uçucu maddelerin alev alma ve kaybolma
süreleri ve daha sonra
süreleri kaydedildi. Uçucu maddeler ve kömür
yanma o
lerinden
3.1
Ham ve torrefiye
verileri
torrefiye haldeki çubuk ve pellet PB numuneleri
ve uçucu madde yanma sürelerinin daha uzun
bi
göstermektedir.
torrefaksiyon
edilmektedir.
yanma sürelerinin ham numunelerden daha uzun
R=(1/W0) (dW/dt)ort., burada W0,
numunenin
uçucu madde veya sabit karbon
.
Yanma deneyleri 873, 923 ve 973K
numuneler için
.
3
2.
Tablo 1.
Numune
PB
TPBÇ
TPBP
ile pelet ve çubuk halinde torrefaksiyonu sonucu elde e
ürünlerinin özellikleri.
%Uçucu
madde
76.99
60.09
58.22
% Sabit
karbon
16.88
33.80
29.37
% Kül
verimi
6.13
6.12
12.41
64.34
58.45
(Mj/Kg)
14.10
19.367
17.137
% Enerji
verimi
88.15
71.31
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Tablo 2.
ve
in uçucu
madde yanma verileri.
Numune
R2
-1
3
süresi (s) ve yanma süresi (s)
)x10
(K)
PBÇ
873
9.7
33.5
30.4
0.98
923
5.3
26.0
30.2
0.98
973
4.5
31.9
32.0
0.99
PBP
873
12.9
79.0
13.5
0.98
923
6.8
72.2
13.7
0.96
973
4.8
72.0
13.5
0.94
TPBÇ
873
13.2
37.7
32.5
0.97
923
7.9
30.4
41.7
0.95
973
7.3
36.4
34.0
0.93
TPBP
873
85.0
10.5
0.97
923
18.9
113.5
14.0
0.95
973
7.2
134.0
15.0
0.98
Alevin görünme ve kaybolma sürelerine göre
belirlenen tutu
süreleri ortamda bulununan hidrokarbon
konsantrasyonuna
[13,26]. Uygulanan
mikta
ve numunelerden daha geç
(özellikle peletlerde) için kritik
süresi
art
a
n
daha k
ham numuneler
.
ha
torrefiye PB çubuk ve
3'te her üç
yakma
için verilmektedir. B
uçucu madde ve karbon
, uçucu
madde ve karbon
mla
içermektedir. Ham ve
torrefiye numuneler için küt
nden hesaplanan uçucu
madde
Tablo 2'de verilmektedir.
ait R2
k
h
edil
. Genel olarak torrefiye numunelerin
numunelerden
3.
e
mi
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Tablo 3.
ve
(char) yanma verileri.
Numune
(K)
PBÇ
873
923
973
PBP
873
923
973
TPBÇ
873
923
973
TPBP
873
923
973
in karbon
Karbon yanma
süresi (s)
167.1
157.0
165.1
260.1
239.1
219.7
256.0
210.2
191.4
334.5
248.5
296.5
Karbon yanma
-1
)x103
6.3
5.6
5.5
5.5
4.9
4.9
3.1
4.0
5.0
2.9
3.5
2.8
R2
0.97
0.95
0.94
0.96
0.95
0.95
0.95
0.94
0.94
0.94
0.97
0.93
4 SONUÇ
Tablo 3 küt
,
ham ve torrefiye PB numunelerinin karbon
yanma süreleri ve R2
göstermektedir. Karbon yanma süreleri, yanma
alev sönme süresi ile akkor halindeki
sönmesi ara
süre olarak
a
yakma
sisteminde
karbon yanma süreleri artarken karbon yanma
uy
sürelerinin artmas
on yanma
ve
[13, 27]. Karbon
,
(kül vb.)
morfolojisine
[13].
enerjinin büyük bölümü uçucu madde yanma
per
uçucu madde yanma periyodu numunelerin
Torrefiye numunelerdeki azalan uçucu madde
etkilemektedir [13].
ham ve torrefiye pelet numunelerin
karbon yanma periyodunun çubuk numunelerden
. Bu durum karbon
yanma periyodunda oksijenin pelet içine
ham veya
torrefiye peletlerin büzülen çekirdek modeline
göstermektedir. Çubuk numunelerde
enerjisinin %70edil
Torefiye biyokütlenin ham biyokütleden
ve yanma süresinin
görülmü
. A
edil
Her iki numune
torefaksiyon i
tipine
uygulanan
Torrefiye
numunelerdeki azalan uçucu
karbon yanma periyodunu
etkile
.
Ham ve torrefiye pelet numunelerin karbon
yanma periyodunun çubuk numunelerden
ve ham veya torrefiye
peletlerin büzülen çekirdek modeline göre
.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
P
iyokütlenin
cellulose and lignin as well as torrefaction of
yakma
some basic constituents in biomass, Energy,
esn
Vol.36, pp.803 11, 2011.
iye edilerek
[11] W.H. Chen, J.H. Peng, X.T. Bi, A state-ofthe-art review of biomass torrefaction,
tespit
densification and applications, Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 44, pp.847
866, 2015.
[12] P. Basu, A.K. Sadhukhan, P. Gupta, S. Rao,
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A. Dhungana, B. Acharya, An experimental and
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theoretical investigation on torrefaction of a
D.Wang, S. Hui, Biomass torrefaction:
large wet
wood particle.
Bioresource
properties, applications,
challenges,
and
Technology, Vol.159, pp.215 22, 2014.
economy Renewable and Sustainable Energy
[13] M.
, N. Duranay, D. Pehlivan,
Reviews, Vol.115, 109395 pp.1-18, 2019.
Torrefaction and combustion behaviour of beech
[2] S.K. Satpathy, L.G. Tabil, V. Meda, S.N.
wood pellets, Journal of Thermal Analysis and
Naik, R. Prasad ,Torrefaction of wheat and
Calorimetry, Vol.138, pp.819 826, 2019.
barley straw after microwave heating. Fuel,
[14] A. Pimchuai, A. Animesh Dutta, P. Basu,
Vol.124, pp.269 278, 2014.
Torrefaction of Agriculture Residue To Enhance
[3] Q.V. Bach, Ø. Skreiberg, Upgrading biomass
Combustible Properties, Energy Fuels, Vol.24.
fuels via wet torrefaction: A review and
pp.4638 4645, 2010.
comparison with dry torrefaction. Renewable
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and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol.54, pp.
torrefaction on the grindability and fuel
665 677, 2016.
characteristics of forest biomass. Bioresource
[4] J.J. Chew, V. Doshi, Recent advances in
Technology, Vol.102, pp.1246 53, 2011.
biomass pretreatment Torrefaction fundamentals
[16] T. Botelho, M. Costa, M. Wilk, A.
and technology, Renewable and Sustainable
Magdziarz. Evaluation of the combustion
Energy Reviews, Vol.15: pp.4212 4222, 2011.
ace
[5] J.M. Prins, J.K. Ptasinski, F.J.J.G. J.Janssen,
in a thermogravimetric analyzer and in a drop
Krzysztof Torrefaction of wood Part 1. Weight
tube furnace. Fuel, Vol.212, pp.95 100, 2018.
loss kinetics. Journal of Analytical and Applied
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Pyrolysis, Vol.77, pp.28 34, 2006.
Falcon, A.Sutton, Grindability and combustion
[6] A. Pimchuai, A. Dutta, P. Basu, Torrefaction
of agriculture residue to enhance combustible
ages
of
Bambusa
balcooa,
properties. Energy Fuel,; Vol.24, pp.4638 45,
Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy,
2010.
Vol. 37, pp.2100 8, 2018.
[7] Q. He, Q. Guo, L. Ding, Y. Gong, J. Wei, G.
[18] T.G. Bridgeman, J.M. Jones, I. Shield,
Yu, Co-pyrolysis behavior and char structure
P.T.Williams, Torrefaction of reed canary grass,
wheat straw and willow to enhance solid fuel
blends. Energy Fuel, Vol. 32, pp.12469 76,
qualities and combustion properties. Fuel
2018.
Vol.87, pp.844 56. 2008.
[8] P.Rousset, C. Aguiar, N. Labbe, J.M.
[19] N. D. Duranay, N.
, Production of
Commandre, Enhancing the combustible
solid fuel with torrefaction from agricultural
properties of bamboo by torrefaction, Bioresour
wastes, Research on Engineering Structures &
Technology, Vol.102, pp.8225 31, 2011.
Materials. Vol.5(3), 311-320, 2019.
[9] H. Haykiri-Acma, S. Yaman, S.
[20] N. Kaliyan, V.R. Morey, Factors affecting
Kucukbayrak, Combustion characteristics of
strength and durability of densified biomass
,
products, Biomass Bioenergy, Vol.33, pp.337
The 4th Ieee international conference on Smart
359, 2009.
energy grid Engineering (Sege). pp. 226 30,
[21] W. Stelte, J.K. Holm, A.R. Sanadi, S.
2016.
Barsberg, J. Ahrenfeldt, U.B..Henriksen, Fuel
[10] W.H. Chen, P.C. Kuo, Torrefaction and copellets from biomass: the importance of the
torrefaction characterization of hemicellulose,
pelletizing pressure and its dependency on the
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
processing conditions, Fuel, Vol.90, 3285 3290,
2011.
[22] J.M. Castellano, M. Gomez, M. Fernandez,
L.S. Esteban, J.E. Carrasco, Study on the effects
of raw materials composition and pelletization
conditions on the quality and properties of
pellets obtained from different woody and non
woody biomasses, Fuel, Vol.139, pp.629 636,
2015.
[23] P. Pradhana, S.M. Mahajanib, A. Aroraa
Production and utilization of fuel pellets from
biomass: A review, Fuel Processing Technology,
Vol.181, pp.215 232, 2018.
[24] R.H.H. Ibrahim, L.I. Darvell, J.M. Jones, A.
Williams, Physicochemical characterisation of
torrefied biomass, Journal of Analytical and
Applied Pyrolysis, Vol.103, pp. 21 30, 2013.
[25] C. Gong, J. Huang, C. Feng, G. Wanga, L.
Tabil, D. Wang, Effects and mechanism of ball
milling on torrefaction of pine sawdust,
Bioresource Technology, Vol.214, pp.242-247,
2016.
[26] J. Riaza, J. Gibbins, H. Chalmers, Ignition
and combustion of single particles of coal and
biomass. Fuel, Vol.202, pp.650 5, 2017.
[27] F.S. Akinrinola, N. Ikechukwu, L.I. Darvell,
J. M. Jones, A. Williams, The potential use of
torrefied Nigerian biomass for combustion
Applications, Journal of the Energy Institute,
Vol.93, pp.1726-1736, 2020.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ETER KULLANIMININ
SINIRLARININ
2
Ahmet Alper Yontar1
1. Makine
Mühendislik Fakültesi, Tarsus Üniversitesi, Tarsus, Mersin; email:
aayontar@tarsus.edu.tr
2.
Mersin; email: duygu_sofuoglu@tarsus.edu.tr
Özet
Dimetil eter, alternatif, ucuz ve gelec
-
e iyi bir alternatiftir. Enerji
metil
3OCH3)
basit bir kimyasal
önem
tlerde DME ile
birlikte oksijen
Anahtar Kelimeler: Dimetil eter, Ters a
Biyo
1
kütleler
Yakma
Çevre
elde
dimetil eter (DME)
termo-kimyasal özellikleri sebebiyle yakma
sistemleri
olarak kabul gören
[1, 2]. DME,
motorinden
da
[3].
CH3
%35,8 ini
3-Ooksijen
-C b
[4-8].
hidrojen giderme reak
elde edilebilir [2, 9]. Literatürde yer alan
[6-10,11-15
,
geleneksel
emisyonu
x
.
kaynaklanan genellikle yüksek SOx
x
üretmek
emisyonu
d
yakma
sistemlerinde;
in,
enjeksiyon sistemlerinin ve yanma sistemlerinin
yeniden dizayn edilmesini veya modifiye
edilmesi
gerekmektedir
[3].
Bu
gibi
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
t olarak
yanma kombinasyonunu, bir DME motorunda
17-20].
x
Bu
DME gönderim m
yüklerde DME gönderim
ile
. Bugüne kadar
gönderim
g
.
2
O2
ilavesi
alev
x
n
1].
22],
enjeksiyonlu dizel motorda yanma ve emisyon
x
evirlerinde HC ve
emisyon
x
2
ÜMLER
sistemi
st
ters
ana kirletici olan formaldehid
probu,
anomemetresi,
23], y
kamera
lazer
sistemi,
doppler
debimetre
m
motorun
geciktirme CO, CH2
debimetre kontrol sisteminden
x
göstermektedir.
amera sistemi
ir yakma
sistemi içerisine
d
konveksiyonel
moleküler
sprey penetrasyonunun
maktad
birlikte oksitleyici olarak oksijen ve buhar faza
gözlemlen
edilmezse DME için, NOx
olabilir [3, 12].
HCCI, PCCI, LTC gibi yenilikçi
yanma
ileri
yanma
yöntemlerinden HCCI ve LTC yöntemleri
m etmektedir.
1],
40-0,80-1,20
m/s
üç
Testlerde oksijen ve
in
net
olarak
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
arda bir yada daha fazla y
deformasyon
deformasyon
lazer-doppler anemo
alev görülü
ölçümler
ük seviyelerde meydana
;
gecikmesi gibi olaylarda ve yakma sisteminin
bir alev
için
ve görüntü
faydalanarak
alev,
evrilir.
da alevlenme yada
.
-
belirlenebilir. S-
3
terin
kma sisteminde inert
Aleve ait S-
nda bilgi
irçok
Salanlar ve bu limitler tespit edilebilir.
ve
bir arada olacak
in üzerinde
alev
rülm
ise sistemde çok hassas bir
ve
meydana gelmektedir.
. Aleve ait
ciye ait hacimsel
d
debi
bir yerde yer
meydana gelmektedir.
1.
, çift
a
veyahut
gözlemleye
bunlardan
sadece
Bir yakma sisteminde 500-600 K
birini
2.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
;
girmektedir.
iken alev stabilizasyonu tamamen
8
da ekstrem
önemli
parametrelerden
biri
de
reaksiyon
yakma si
etki etmektedir.
en
ihtimali sistemde görülmektedir.
Alev d
durumuna ge
ise;
direkt olarak sönme trendi gösterir. Reaksiyon
olarak
kontrol etmek çok zordur.
4.
3.
bunun sonucunda difüzyon
5.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
görülmektedir.
g
;
etmektedir.
,
um transferi
ile enerji transferi daha az molekülün reaksiyona
Alanlardaki
-
6.
m/s-
8.
7.
alev
ortamdaki moleküller ile daha fazla temas ve
moleküler
gözlenmektedir.
(NOx
gelmektedir. A
göstermektedir.
9 a
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
4
ters
stokiyometrik havaÖlçümler alev
stabilizasyonu
içinde
sisteminde
minimum
gözlenmektedir.
akma
emisyonu
CO
mevcuttur.
momentum
ve
enerji
transferine
olanak
nun
CO
daha etkin
difüzyon ve daha uzun momentum transfer
Testlerde
seçilmesinin sebebi iki metil kökünün bir oksijen
Testlerde
sistemde meydana gelen maksimum alev al
Ölçümlerde
en yüksek CO
ir. Yine en
10.
alev
Bunun sonucunda bölgesel olarak eksik yanma
CO emisyonu
için
sebeple eksik yanma yada tam oksidasyon
olamayan bölgeler meydana gelmektedir. Bu
durumda ön reaksiyon
molekülleri CO2
sistemi terketmektedir.
-dokt
Makine
ve
Uzay-
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
[12] L. Xinling and H. Zhen, Emission reduction
REFERANSLAR
potential of using gas-to-liquid and dimethyl
[1] D. Coady, I. Parry, L. Sears and B. Shang,
ether fuels on a turbocharged diesel engine,
How large are global fossil fuel subsidies?,
Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 407, pp.
World development, Vol. 91, pp.11-27, 2017.
2234 2244, 2009.
[2] S. Park, H. Kim and B. Choi, Emission
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characteristics
of
exhaust
gases
and
H. Zhen, Experimental investigation of lownanoparticles from a diesel engine with
temperature combustion (LTC) in an engine
biodiesel diesel blended fuel (BD20), Journal of
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Mechanical Science and Technology, Vol. 23,
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pp. 2555 2564, 2009.
[14] D. Kittelson, J. Johnson, W. Watts, Q. Wei,
[3] I. M. Youn, S. H. Park, H. G. Roh and C. S.
M. Drayton, D. Paulsen and N. Bukowiecki,
lee, Investigation on the fuel spray and emission
Diesel aerosol sampling in the atmosphere, SAE
reduction characteristics for dimethyl ether
transactions, 2247-2254, 2000.
(DME) fuelled multi-cylinder diesel engine with
common-rail injection system, Fuel Processing
[15] Z. Zhu, D. K. Li, J. Liu, Y. J. Wei, and S.
Technology, Vol. 92, pp. 1280 1287, 2011.
H. Liu, Investigation on the regulated and
unregulated emissions of a DME engine under
[4] S. Park, Optimization of combustion
different injection timing, Applied Thermal
chamber geometry and engine conditioned for
Engineering, Vol. 35, pp. 9-14, 2012.
compression ignition engines fuelled with
dimethyl ether, Fuel, Vol.97, pp.61 71, 2012.
[16] W. Ying and Z. Longbao, Experimental
study on exhaust emissions from a multi[5] K. Yeom and C. Bae, Knock characteristics
cylinder DME engine operating with EGR and
in liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) = dimethyl
oxidation
catalyst,
Applied
Thermal
ether (DME) and gasoline DME homogeneous
Engineering,
Vol.
28,
pp.
1589-1595,
2008.
charge compression ignition engines, Energy
&amp; Fuels, Vol. 23, pp. 1956 1964, 2009.
[17] W. Ying, L. Genbao, Z. Wei, and Z.
Longbao, Study on the application of
[6] S. Park, Numerical study on optimal
DME/diesel blends in a diesel engine, Fuel
operating conditions of homogeneous charge
processing technology, Vol. 89, pp. 1272-1280,
compression ignition engines, Energy &amp;
2008.
Fuels, Vol. 23, pp. 2909 2918, 2009.
[18] W. Ying, Z. Longbao and W. Hewu, Diesel
[7] L. B. Zhou, H. W. Wang and D. M. Jiang,
emission improvements by the use of
Study of performance and combustion
oxygenated
DME/diesel
blend
fuels,
characteristics of a DME fuelled light-duty
Atmospheric
Environment,
Vol.
40,
pp.
2313direct injection diesel engine, SAE Paper, 1999.
2320, 2006.
[8] T. Fleisch, C. McCarthy and A. Basu, A new
[19] Z. Wang, X. Qiao, J. Hou, W. Liu and Z.
clean diesel technology: demonstration of ULEV
Huang, Combustion and emission characteristics
emissions on a Navistar diesel engine fuelled
of
a
diesel
engine
fuelled
with
with dimethyl ether, SAE Technical Paper,
biodiesel/dimethyl
ether
blends,
Proceedings
of
1995.
the
Institution
of
Mechanical
Engineers,
Part
D:
[9] H. J. Kim, S. H. Park, K. S. Lee and C. S.
Journal of Automobile Engineering, Vol. 225,
Lee, A study of spray strategies on improvement
pp. 1683-1691, 2011.
of engine performance and emissions reduction
[20] Z. Bo, F. Weibiao and G. Jingsong, Study
characteristics in a DME fuelled diesel engine,
of fuel consumption when introducing DME or
Energy, Vol. 36, pp. 1802 1813, 2011.
ethanol into diesel engine, Fuel, Vol. 85, pp.
[10] S. Lee, S. Oh and Y. Choi, Performance and
778-782, 2006.
emission characteristics of an SI engine operated
[21] S. Kajitani, Z. L. Chen, M. Konno and K. T.
with DME blended LPG fuel, Fuel, Vol.88, pp.
Rhee, Engine performance and exhaust
1009 1015, 2009.
characteristics of direct-injection diesel engine
[11] W. Ying, H. Li, Z. Jie and Z. Longbao,
operated with DME, SAE transactions, pp.1568Study of HCCI DI combustion and emissions in
1577, 1997.
a DME engine, Fuel, Vol. 88, pp. 2255 2261,
2009.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
[22] Y. Zhang, J. Yu, C. Mo and S. Zhou, A
study
on
combustion
and
emission
characteristics of small DI diesel engine fuelled
with dimethyl ether, SAE Technical Paper,
2008.
[23] Z. Zhu, D. K. Li, J. Liu, Y. J. Wei and S. H.
Liu, Investigation on the regulated and
unregulated emissions of a DME engine under
different injection timing, Applied Thermal
Engineering, Vol. 35, pp. 9-14, 2012.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
FARKLI YAKIT
KAYNAKLI AKKORLUK
2
Ahmet Alper Yontar1
1. Makine
Mühendislik Fakültesi, Tarsus Üniversitesi, Tarsus, Mersin; email:
aayontar@tarsus.edu.tr
2.
Mersin; email: huseyin_degirmenci@tarsus.edu.tr
Özet
büyük
(LII) yöntemidir. Bu yöntem bir yakma sistemine gönderilen
amaçla mevcut
-oktan, izolen testlerde is bölgeleri ve is
-
Anahtar Kelimeler
1
Dünya
azer, Akkorluk, Hidrojen, Metan
çevre
olan etkisi her geçen
is
risk
Avustralya
[2, 3].
k
nda ve uzun bir zaman
ilde
is
gösterilebilir.
Alev
içerisindeki
is
kaynaklanan termal radyasyon
etkili bir
parametredir. Herhangi bir alevde is
oksidas
fonksiyonudur. Bu nedenle, is
alevde ger
[1].
a, yanma
is
ve
son
ileri
konusunda artan bir hassasiyet gözlenmektedir.
ve çevre
devam
etmektedir [4, 5].
ve
ilavesiyle is
büyümenin devam etmesini içerir.
i ana
edilir. Bunlar
polisiklik ar
)
dispersif veya Van der Waals kuvvetleri ile
ile ifade
6].
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
her ne kadar polisiklik aromatik
bir araya gelmesi ve tam olarak
okside edilememesi sonucunda meydana gelsede
akkorluk (LKA) yönteminin is hacim
kantitatif
ölçümleri
[7].
yani birkaç karbon atomu içeren bir hidrokarbon
içeren
bir
(agglomerate)
için
[13].
modeller
bölgelerde
büyüme
prosesindeki
daha
küçük
Genel olarak, yeni modeller;
ve boyutu için enerji ile kütle denklemlerini
çözmekt
[12].
hidrokarbon
ine
zaman aromatik halkalar meydana getirir. Daha
ise esas
olarak asetilen (C2H2)
Üçüncü boyutta ise birincil is
radikallerin
gerç
[8]. Sonuç olarak, is
için hidrokarbon
aromatik
hidrokarbonlarla
i gereklidir.
yada yüzlerce
boyutlarla karakterize edilebilir [9, 10, 11].
prosesi
[4] adapte edilerek
göstermektedir.
yönelik
karbonlu
temeld
gelmektedir.
koagülasyonla
ileriye
n çok
Yanma
akkor (Laser-induced incandescence - LII)
y
is hacmi fraksiyonu ve
Roth ve Filippov [13
yöntemi için temel te
n
, nanosaniye lazer darbeleri
yöntem ile
;
bir foto-
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
iti
m
Bladh ve Bengtsson [14], y
l
yönteminde sinyallerin zaman
genellikle is
luk (LKA)
n
k için
.
is
LKA yöntemi sinyali ile tespit
edilebilme ihtimalinin daha y
.
Snelling ve ark. [15
lazer
)
yöntemi ile tespiti için sistemin mevcut nano
öl
,
üzerindeki
etkisini
.
hesaba
katarak
Filippov ve ark. [16], LKA yöntemi ile
5lerde aerosol
ve
. Bir lazer darbesi
;
olarak partikül büyüklüklerini tespit etmeye
Schittkowski ve ark. [17], metan (CH4) ile etan
(C2H6) alevleri için
2
beki, b
-YAG lazer; 532 nm
dalga boyuna, 430 mj sinyal enerjisine, 5 ns pals
süresine ve 1
(kütlece
; ilave
sabit tutularak, stokiyometrik hava; hekzan, toluen, n-oktan, izo-oktan
birlikte Bunse
kütl
Testlerde özel
.
Bladh ve ark. [18
-
Bunsen beki için hava-
LKA yöntemi için
elde edilen
e
analiz
büyüme
.
Bambha ve ark. [19],
(pa
kütlesi analizörü
mikroskobu
ve
transmisyon elektron
) ile elde ettikleri
Ölçümler
. Lazer k
sistemi
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
türü için 10 dakika boyunca süren ölçümlerde
oktan, izorluk
için
hidrojen-
ilavesinin etkilerini gözlemleyebilmek, alev
Ölçümlerde 532 nm dalga boyuna sahip NDiçin 10 dakika boyunca
türbülans
elde edilen görüntüler filtrelenerek is o
görüntüler ve alev görüntülerinden faydalanarak
A
ölçüleri tespit ed
(C6H14) ilaveli h-metan alevi için gözlenen is
görüntüleri filtrelene
Elde edilen
görüntülerin;
Fortran
arak;
çökelme
(microgravity
effect)
4. Ö
görüntü
3
5. H-metan+hekzan için i
toluen (C7H8
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
-metan
oktan için elde edilen görüntüye benzer olarak is
-oktan
görülmektedir.
Genel
itibariyle
ise
toluen
-oktan ku
. H-metan+izo6. Hbulunan n-oktan için
içerisine benzen ilavesi için gözlemlenen is
ol
Testlerde kulla
H/C
is
alevin
etkisine
ragmen
ple yerçekimi kuvveti
alevin tepe bölgesinde
7. H-metan+n-
alev ölçümlerinde en yüksek seviyede alev
. H-
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
sto
estlerde
Elde edilen görüntüler üzerinde ölçülebilen
; alev içerisindeki is
n mevcut durumda alev yüzey
yüklüklerine ait
görülmektedir. Hesaplama sonucu elde
edilen veriler
11 e
fraktal küme örnekleri
fraktal
it
kümesi
13
11
1
faktör ö
sahip olan izogözlemlenmi
veriler
Burada iki
. Bunlar benzenin
yüksek oranda
rken yüksek aromatik içerik bu yap
birbirleriyle bir araya gelerek daha kompleks
-oktanda
ora
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
sini ve kompleks
[2] C. A. Pope, C. Arden, and D. W. Dockery,
Health effects of fine particulate air pollution:
Benzen
ile izolines that connect, Journal of The Air & Waste
Management Association, Vol. 56(6), pp.709742, (2006).
mevcuttur.
[3] J. H. Ware, L. A Thibodeau, F. E. Speizer, S.
Colome, B. G. Ferris, Jr. Assessment of the
health effects of atmospheric sulfur oxides and
4
particulate matter: evidence from observational
rma
studies, Environment Health Perspective, Vol.
seviyesi minimum düzeyde olan hidrojence
41, pp. 255-276, 1981.
[4] H. Bockhorn, Soot formation in combustion:
olarak hekzan, toluen, n-oktan, izo-oktan ve
mechanisms and models, Schäfer FP and
Toennies JP, 1994.
[5] M. Frenklach, and H. Wang, Detailed
seçilmesinin ana sebebi gündelik hayatta en çok
mechanism and modeling of soot particle
kullan
formation, Soot formation in combustion,
Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 165-192, 1994.
Testlerde l
[6] H. Wang, Formation of nascent soot and
elde edil
other condensed-phase materials in flames,
Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, Vol. 33
pp. 41 67, 2011.
ölçülebilen fraktal kümeleri için maksimum is
[7] K. O. Johansson, M. P. Head-Gordon, P. E.
Schrader, K. R. Wilson, and H. A. Michelsen,
Resonance-stabilized hydrocarbon-radical chain
reactions may explain soot inception and
Yine
growth, Science, Vol. 361, pp. 997-1000, 2018.
fraktal küme
[8] H. Bockhorn, A short introduction to the
alan
problem - Structure of the following parts, Soot
Formation in Combustion, pp. 3-7, 1994.
[9] Ü. Ö. Köylü, and G. M. Faeth, Structure and
overfire soot in buoyant turbulent diffusion
flames at long residence times, Combustion and
Flame, Vol. 89, pp. 140 56, 1992.
[10] P. Bambha, A. Dansson, E. S. Hope A.
Michelsen, Effects of volatile coatings and
coating removal mechanisms on the morphology
Dr. Ahmet Alper
of graphitic soot, Carbon, pp. 80 96, 2013.
post-doktora
[11] Ü. Ö. Köylü, G. M. Faeth, T. L. Farias, M.
Princeton Üniversitesi,
G. Carvalho, Fractal and projected structure
Makine ve Uzayproperties of soot aggregates, Combustion and
Bölümü, Yanma,
Flame, Vol. 100, pp. 621 33, 1995.
[12] C. Schulz, B. F. Kock, M. Hofmann, H.,
, Princeton Üniversitesi
ve Tarsus
Michelsen, S. Will, B. Bougie, and G.
Smallwood,
Laser-induced
incandescence:
recent trends and current questions, Applied
Physics, Vol. 83(3), 2006.
KAYNAKÇA
[13] P. Roth, and A. V. Filippov, In situ ultrafine
[1] S. J. Brookes and J. B. Moss, Measurements
particle sizing by a combination of pulsed laser
of soot production and thermal radiation from
heatup and particle thermal emission, Journal of
confined turbulent jet diffusion flames of
Aerosol Science, Vol. 27(1), pp. 95-104, 1996.
methane, Combustion and Flame, Vol. 116(1-2),
[14] H. Bladh, and P. E. Bengtsson,
pp. 49-61, 1999.
Characteristics of laser-induced incandescence
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
from soot in studies of a time-dependent heatand mass-transfer model, Applied Physics B,
Vol. 78(2), pp. 241-248, 2004.
[15] D. R. Snelling, F. Liu, G. J. Smallwood, and
Ö. L. Gülder, Determination of the soot
absorption function and thermal accommodation
coefficient using low-fluence LII in a laminar
coflow ethylene diffusion flame, Combustion
and Flame, Vol. 136(1-2), pp. 180-190, 2004.
[16] A. V. Filippov, M. W. Markus, and P. Roth,
In-situ characterization of ultrafine particles by
laser-induced incandescence: sizing and particle
structure determination, Journal of Aerosol
Science, Vol. 30(1), pp. 71-87, 1999.
[17] T. Schittkowski, B. Mewes, and D.
Brüggemann, Laser-induced incandescence and
Raman measurements in sooting methane and
ethylene flames, Physical Chemistry Chemical
Physics, Vol. 4(11), pp. 2063-2071, 2002.
[18] H. Bladh, N. E. Olofsson, T. Mouton, J.
Simonsson, X. Mercier, A. Faccinetto, and P.
Desgroux, Probing the smallest soot particles in
low-sooting premixed flames using laserinduced incandescence, Proceedings of the
Combustion Institute, Vol. 35(2), pp. 1843-1850.
2015.
[19] R. P. Bambha, M. A. Dansson, P. E.
Schrader, and H. A. Michelsen, Effects of
volatile coatings on the laser-induced
incandescence of soot. Applied Physics B, Vol.
Vol. 112(3), pp. 343-358. 2013.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
KIZGIN BUHAR TEKNOLO
E
Z. Kahraman*,1 , M.
1
, K.
1
, R. Timur1 ve H. S. Soyhan2,3
1.
Ar-Ge ve Teknoloji Merkezi,
Türkiye; email: zkahraman@oztiryakiler.com.tr
2. Team-San Co., Sakarya Üniversitesi, Teknokent, Serdivan, Sakarya, Türkiye
3. Sakarya
i Bölümü, Sakarya, Türkiye
Özet
e
-üniversite
Anahtar Kelimeler:
,
.
1
olan fi
Far
-20 dk.) renk, nem,
[1].
onksiyonlu
üzerinde bulunarak yiyecek türüne özgü seçim
ve
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
2 MODELLEME
e
buhar üretim sistemi, su haznesi ve ana kontrol
nik
.
göre prototip imalat öncesinde teknik çizimler
siyonlu
çizim
ga yönteminde en fazla
yöntemler
[3].
.
2.1
2.
-8].
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
nolojisi ile çok fonksiyonlu
me
-
6. Yenilikçi prototip içinde gastronom
.
.
çok
.
.
halde ik
3.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Tablo 3. Yenilikçi prototipte konveksiyon
modunda tavuk eti
8.
nolojisi ile çok
Tablo 4. Yenilikçi prototipt
modunda tavuk
meleri Tablo 1 ve
Tablo 2
Tablo 1. Yenilikçi prototipte konveksiyon
4. SONUÇLAR
fonksiyonlu (konveksiyon ve kombi özellikleri
de
Tablo 2. Yenilikçi prototipte
prototipinin elde edilmesi en önemli yenilikçi
otipe
yönelik
-Ge
Ülkemizde ilk kez Arile
yiyecekler
kombi özellikleri içeren) yenilikçi endüstriyel
iyi
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
of Marinated Chicken Steak, Korean J Food Sci
Anim Resour., Vol. 36, pp 1-7, 2016.
[3] Domínguez, R., Gómez, M., Fonseca, S., M.
nolojili
Lorenzo, J., Influence of thermal treatment on
formation of volatile compounds, cooking loss
and lipid oxidation in foal meat, LWT - Food
Science and Technology, Vol 58, pp. 439-445,
2014.
yenilikçi prototip ile en az %10 daha
[4] Yeon Chun, J., Gu Kwon, B., Hyun Lee, S.,
Gi Min, S., Pyo Hong, G., Studies on Physicochemical Properties of Chicken Meat Cooked in
Electric Oven Combined with Superheated
Steam, Korean J. Food Sci. An., Vol 33, pp.
103-108, 2013.
[5] Zzaman, W., Yang, A.T., Effect of
Superheated Steam and Convection Roasting on
Changes in Physical Properties of Cocoa Bean
(Theobroma cacao), Food Sci. Technol. Res, Vol
19 (2), pp. 181-186, 2013.
[6] Iyota, H., Sakai, H., Mamiya, Y., Color
Measurement Methods for Optimization of Oven
fonksiyonlu
Operation (Baking of Sliced Bread with
Superheated Steam and Hot Air), Food Sci.
-1, EN 60335-2-42
Technol. Res., Vol 19 (6), pp. 939-947, 2013.
[7] Fraile, P., Burg., P., Reheating of a Chilled
Dish of Mashed Potatoes in a Superheated
Steam Oven, Journal of Food Engineeting, Vol
33, pp. 57-80, 1997.
[8] Wu, J., McClements, D.J., Chen, J., Hu, X.,
-TEYDEB 1501 kodlu
Liu, C., Improvement in nutritional attributes of
rice using superheated steam processing, Journal
of Functional Foods, Vol 24, pp. 338-350, 2016.
TEYDEB
Makina-
KAYNAKLAR
[1] Primo-Martín, C., Van Deventer, H., Deepfat fried battered snacks prepared using super
heated steam (SHS):Crispness and low oil
content, Food Research International, Vol 44,
pp. 442-448, 2011.
[2] Zanoni, B., Peri, C., Pierucci, S.,
Comparative Study on the Effects of Boiling,
Steaming,
Grilling,
Microwaving
and
Superheated Steaming on Quality Characteristics
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
METAN VE
MLER Ç N FARKLI
YANMA ODASI TASARIMLARINDA YANMA KARAKTER ST KLER N N
Ahmet Alper Yontar1, Tahir Ayaz2*,
2
3
ve
1. Makine
Mühendislik Fakültesi, Tarsus Üniversitesi, Tarsus, Mersin; email:
aayontar@tarsus.edu.tr
2.
Mersin; email: tahir_ayaz@tarsus.edu.tr, huseyin_degirmenci@tarsus.edu.tr
3.
, Tarsus Üniversitesi, Tarsus,
Mersin; email: duygu_sofuoglu@tarsus.edu.tr
Özet
-
alkol
2,
x
H2O, N2, NOx
2
Anahtar Kelimeler:
1
etmektedir.
Dünya
genelinde
emisyon
-ge
üze kadar hem kuramsal hem
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
kg
Johansson ve Olsson [1], kamyon ve otobüs DI-
otor üzerinde
geometrisinin yak t
uva
ç
emisyon
(HAD)
motor
lam
modellemesi
kullanarak
Arjmandi ve Amani [3], bir gaz türbini yanma
s
simülasyonu
Commondört
silindirli
HSDI
dizel
motorda
ölçütlerinde dizayn edilebilmesi içi
ve
anma
ve
emisyon
nda
hidrojenin, metan ve propana göre daha çabuk
Shibata ve ark. [9], etil alkolün HCCI motor
edilen sonuçlar 8.9 L Cumming Dizel motor
üzerinde
yürütülen
test
r.
Bianchi ve ark. [5], Common-Rail enjeksiyon
ve
I y
ve
-Rail
enjeksiyon
en
erken
metil
alkol
kendi
kendine
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
. Durum 3 i
2 MATERYAL VE YÖNTEM
Say l m
uygulamalarda modelleme yöntemini kullanarak
-akustik
kin
analizlerinde uygun matematiksel modeller
seçilerek, simülasyonun gerçek çözümüne
pro
bir çözüm ile yanma analizi simülasyonu, 4
ilmi
yanma od
l
miktarda
anma
hava
eksenel simetrik olarak gerçek tir
Eksenel simetrik model, dörtgen
örgü
tepkimesinin
Durum 1 i
na
Tas
stokiometrik
a.
Yanma
ö
sürecinin
belirgin
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
süreklilik, enerji, momentum ve kç b
-ortalama formda
özelliklerinin
simülasyonunu
b. Durum 3 için Me
kul
Kimyasal reaksiyonlarda yer alan hacimsel türler
(CH4, O2, CO2, H2O, N2) ve (C2H5OH, O2, CO2,
H2O, N2
hava, etil alkol-
ama
gönderim ile egzoz
3 SONUÇLAR
modell
2
2O ve N2
y
x
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
na
-
görülmektedir. Bahsi edilen yanma tipleri için
zamanda azotoksit (NOx
etmek için önemlidir.
-
i
2)
ki CO2
-
2
alkolde CO2
a
-
emisyon
te
, metanda ise CO2
2
alkol i
sebebiyle, silindir içerisinde daha çok noktada
il alkol
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
-
2
2
2
-
2
2
-
göre daha fazla H2
yanma tiplerinin etkilerini görmek mümkündür.
emektedir. Tüm
2
-
2
-
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ekil 16. Durum 2 için H2
2O
2
-
2
-
2
-
için N2
-
-
-
2
olarak 0,
e hem metan hem de etil
alkol 0,
77
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
-
2
x
-
x
-
için NOx
-
x
-
NOx
x
silindir
Yanma modellemesinde sistem
yaparken NO, NO2, NO3
serbest
hesaplama
N2
O2
x
r
ve
eser
NOx
til alkolde NOx
metanda ise eser miktarda bulunan NOx
x
x
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
diesel combustion, SAE transactions, pp. 793803, 1986.
[7] Y. Zhu, H. Zhao, D. A. Melas, and N.
Ladommatos, Computational study of the effects
of the re-entrant lip shape and toroidal radii of
t
piston bowl on a HSDI diesel engine's
performance and emissions, SAE Technical
Paper, 2004.
4
NOx
rindeki pozitif etkisini
de çevreyle uyumlu olan bir yöntemle ihmal
r.
u
Tarsus
Üniversitesi
eder.
KAYNAKÇA
[1] B. Johansson and K. Olsson, Combustion
chambers for natural gas SI engines part I: Fluid
flow and combustion, SAE transactions, pp. 374385,1995.
Modelling in Dedicated Naturel Gas Engines,
Mathematical and Computational Applications,
pp. 119-125, 1996.
[3] H. R. Arjmandi and E. Amani, A numerical
investigation of the entropy generation in and
thermodynamic optimization of a combustion
chamber, Energy, Vol. 81, pp. 706-718, 2015.
[4] Y. Chen and L. Lv, The multi-objective
optimization of combustion chamber of DI diesel
engine by NLPQL algorithm, Applied thermal
engineering, pp. 1332-1339, 2014.
[5] G. M. Bianchi, P. Pelloni, F. E. Corcione, E.
Mattarelli and F. L. Bertoni, Numerical study of
the combustion chamber shape for common rail
HSDI diesel engines, SAE Technical Paper,
2000.
[6] T. Saito, Y. Daisho, N. Uchida and N. Ikeya,
Effects of combustion chamber geometry on
O
Mühendis ve Makine, pp. 35-44,
2006.
[9] G. Shibata, K. Oyama, T. Urushihara and T.
Nakano, Correlation of low temperature heat
release with fuel composition and HCCI engine
combustion, SAE Technical Paper, 2005.
[10] M. Tongroon and H. Zhao, Combustion
characteristics of CAI combustion with alcohol
fuels, SAE Technical Paper, 2010.
[11] T. Jiyuan, Y. G. Heng and L. Chaoqun,
Computational Fluid Dynamics: A Practical
Approach, Elsevier publications, pp. 1-31, 2007.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
-
PERFORMANS
L OLARAK
Yunus Emre Öztürk1
1
, Ali Türkcan1
1.
email:
aturkcan@kocaeli.edu.tr
Özet
-biyodizel
d/dk motor
dört
nde (40, 80, 120 ve 160 Nm
ilavesinin
I15
Yüksek yüklerde üçlü ka
genel olarak
x
160 Nm yükte dizele
genel olarak fren termik verimi ve Pmaks
dizele göre NOx
x
e
Anahtar kelimeler
Abstract
Alternative fuels such as biodiesel and alcohols have become widespread due to their environmental benefits
and availability. In this study, we aimed to expose the performance and emission characteristics of isobutanol
addition into diesel-biodiesel blends. Engine tests were performed on a CRDI engine at constant engine speed
of 1800 rpm and four engine loads (40, 80, 120 and 160 Nm). Six blends including pure diesel were prepared
by mass basis. Mixtures of biodiesel and isobutanol with diesel fuel (B20 and I15) were tested firstly and then
three ternary fuels having increasing amounts of isobutanol (I15B20, I25B20 and I35B20) were tested and
compared with diesel. The results show that adding biodiesel and isobutanol into diesel increased brake
specific fuel consumption (bsfc) from low to mid load, but the gap decreased at high loads. I15B20 and I15
fuels had the closest bsfc to diesel at 160 Nm. Ternary blends generally increased brake thermal efficiency
and Pmax value at high loads. While B20 fuel resulted higher NOx emissions, all of the fuel blends increased
NOx emissions compared to diesel. Increasing isobutanol proportion in the blends decreased NO x emissions
especially at low and full loads. I15B20 and B20 give optimum bsfc at high loads among the blends.
Keywords: Isobutanol, biodiesel, diesel, emission, performance
1
gibi
G
karayolu
r. Bu etkiyi
emisyon
limitleri
(EURO V, VI vb.)
[1]. Alkol, biyodizel
eri ile emisyon
üretilebilmesi il
alternatif olma potansiyeline sahiptir. Biyodizel
ve
iyi bir
,
kirletici
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
iyi kombinasyonlar
2].
Bu yüzden, üçlü
ve
Sastry vd. [11] izobütanol ve
etanolün dizeloksijensiz fermantasyonla üretilebilir olup besin
[3].
ve is
an etanol ve metanol
g
Ahmed vd. [12]
dizele %5
nedeniyle dizel motorlarda emisyon azaltma
potansiyeline sahiptir [4].
izobütanol
, dizel motorla
5].
(dört
oranda
an [13] yüksek
biyoetanolün
dizel-biyodizel
yanma, performans ve
edilmektedir. Yüksek karbonlu alkoller, ilk
yüklerde, NOx
üretim potansiyeli ile tercih edilmezken, son
verimi
yüksek
teknikler
(modern
izobütanol gibi
[6, 7].
kull
Bu
üretilebilen
performans ve emisyon parametrelerine etkileri
Singh ve Sandhu [8]
-50
de ve
izobütanol-dizelnda
performans ve emisyon parametrelerine etkileri,
motorda test e
nin
x
bütanol
NOx
[9].
Hoseini vd. [10
izobütanol, etanol
biyodizell
gibi
alkollerin
2
MATERYAL VE METOT
common rail enjeksiyon sistemine sahip Fiat 1.9
JTD model dizel motor
. Motor
Test motoru
birincisi pilot, ikincisi ana enjeksiyon olmak
üzere iki kademeli enjeksiyon (two stage
injection-TSI) sistemine sahiptir. Test motorunun
,
dizel-
Motor
sisteminin
test
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ivar
AIDkar
)+ (Kütle
1.ykt x AID
x
AID
)
(3)
2.ykt
Tablo 2. FTIR
Ölçüm Sistemlerinin Teknik Özellikleri
çökelme veya heter
Tablo 1. Test Motoru Özellikleri
Motor
Fiat 1.9 JTD
CRDI, turbodizel, 4
stroke, water cooled
4
Tip
- Kurs boyu
Enjeksiyon sistemi
Maksimum güç
Maksimum tork
82 mm-90.4 mm
18.45:1
Common Rail DI
77 kW @4000 d/dk
205 Nm @1750 d/dk
Parametre Birim Hassasiyet
HC
ppm
<±
%10hangisi küçükse
CO
ppm
±
CO2
%
±
NOx
ppm
±
Ölçümler
Yük
Nm
± %2
ölçümü
d/dk
±1
g
±1
tüketimi
°C
±1
bitkisel
Biyodizel
± %1,
Enerji
Dicle Kimya Ticaret ve Sanayi
izobütanol ve biyodizel kütlesel yüzdesini
-%80 biyodizel
biyodizel ve %65 dizel içermektedir. Test
Tablo 3
Özellik
Kimyasal formül
Dizel
56.8
43.2
63
Biyodizel
57.8
37.5
176
C4H9OH
24.6
32.6
35
(kg/m3
829
881.5
808
(mm2/s
3.0
4.181
2.26
63
176
27.8
(MJ)
1
(°C)
AVL FlexIFEM IndiCom platformu silindir içi
iyonizasyon
detector-
dedektörü
(Flame
ionization
@15°C)
Viskozite
@40 °C)
(°C)
NOx, HC ve CO emisyonu ölçümü için
(ÖYT), fren
termik verim ve
(AID)
(1)
(2)
3
Bu bölümde dizel-biyodizel-izobütanol üçlü
motor performans ve emisyon
karakteristiklerine etkileri TSI stratejisine sahip
Bu
Motor yükleri
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ve
motor devri
enerjisinin daha
3.1 Performans Karakteristikleri
fazla
oranda
Y
ile azalma
kademeli enjeksiyon stratejisi (pilot enjeksiyon
ve daha uzun süren ana enjeksiyon)
[4].
pedal pozisyonu ile belirlenmektedir. Fakat bu
,
bir
Bu
bölümde
rmesi
performans
termik verim incelenecektir.
(ÖYT)
en yüksek termik
görülmektedir. Tüm yükler
izobütanol-dizel-
Orta
ve yüksek yüklerde
larda fren
bir miktar fazla
neden
[14].
2
Formül 2
oranlarda fren termik
- Motor Yükü
3. Fren Termik Verim - Motor Yükü
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
120 ve 160 Nm
l 4) ve maksimum gaz
maks
ve
birlikte tam y
[5].
[15, 16].
3.2 Yanma Karakteristikleri
Bu bölümde sili
elde
edilen
yanma
karakteristikleri
160 Nm motor yükü için
5 Pmaks
maks
biyodizel ilavesi
ile artan oksijen i
Pmaks
-orta
olarak Pmaks
4 Silind
(160 Nm)
maks
iki adet
,
ktivitesi
ile Pmaks
yüksek
Yüksek izobütanol içeren
3.3 Emisyon Karakteristikleri
Bu bölümde emisyon karakteristiklerinden
toplam HC (THC), CO ve NOx
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
emis
Tüm yüklerde (özellikle 40
ve 80 Nm yüklerde)
bu
-
7. CO
- Motor Yükü
x
x
yük bölgelerinde, özellikle 1800 K ve üzeri
ile
göstermektedir
[19].
yük
görülebilir.
T
x
e yanma veriminin
d
x
emisyonu
görülmektedir.
6
- Motor Yükü
r.
Bu
zengin bölgeye gidildikçe CO2
[17, 18
40 Nm
,
yanma veriminin
8. NOx
- Motor Yükü
da
4
SONUÇLAR
izobütanol
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Orta ve yüksek yüklerde tü
NOx
ve dizel-biyodizelda artan izobütanol
testleri 4 silindirli common rail dizel bir motorda
ir.
Fren termik verimi ve emisyon parametreleri
e I35B20
;
Dicle
sisteminin
120 ve 160 Nm yüklerde
B20 ve
Nm yüklerd
maks
-orta
yük
maks
yüksek Pmaks
seviyelerde
NOx
kurulumunu
KAYNAKLAR
[1] M. Williams, R. Minjares, A technical
summary of Euro 6/VI vehicle emission
standards, The International Council on Clean
Transportation, Technical Briefing, June 2016.
[2] O. Ogunkunle and N.A. Ahmed, A review of
global current scenario of biodiesel adoption and
combustion in vehicular diesel engines, Energy
Reports, Vol. 5, pp. 1560-1579, 2019.
[3] B.R. Kumar and S. Saravanan, Use of higher
alcohol biofuels in diesel engines: A review,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol.
60, pp. 84-115, 2016.
[4] A. N. Ozsezen, A. Turkcan, C. Sayin and M.
Canakci, Comparison of performance and
combustion parameters in a heavy-duty diesel
engine fueled with iso-butanol/diesel fuel blends,
Energy Exploration & Exploitation, Vol. 29, pp.
525-541, 2011.
[5] M. Karabektas and M. Hosoz, Performance
and emission characteristics of a diesel engine
using isobutanol diesel fuel blends, Renewable
Energy, Vol. 34, pp. 1554-1559, 2009.
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engineering of Clostridium cellulolyticum for
production of isobutanol from cellulose, Appl
Environ Microbiol, Vol. 77, pp. 2727-2733, 2011.
[7] C. Formighieri, Cyanobacteria as a platform
for direct photosynthesis-to-fuel conversion.
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emission and combustion characteristics of multicylinder CRDI engine fueled with argemone
biodiesel/diesel blends, Fuel, Vol. 265, 117024,
2020.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
[9] Z. He, G. Liu, Z. Li, C. Jiang, Y. Qian and X.
Lu, Comparison of four butanol isomers blended
with diesel on particulate matter emissions in a
common rail diesel engine, Journal of Aerosol
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Mamat, N. A. C. Sidik and W.H. Azmi, The effect
of combustion management on diesel engine
emissions fueled with biodiesel-diesel blends,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol.
73, pp. 307-331, 2017.
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Effect of Fuel Injection Pressure, Isobutanol and
Ethanol Addition on Performance of DieselBiodiesel Fuelled D.I. Diesel Engine, Energy
Procedia, Vol. 66, pp. 81-84, 2015.
[12] H. A. Ahmed, M. A. Obed, E. M. Awad, W.
D. Raid and K. I. Thamir, Enhancement of engine
performance with high blended dieselbiodiesel
fuel using iso-butanol additive, IOP Conf. Series:
Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 518,
032013, 2019.
[13] A. Turkcan, Effects of high bioethanol
proportion in the biodiesel-diesel blends in a
CRDI engine, Fuel, Vol. 223, pp. 53-62, 2018.
[14] N. Yilmaz, F. M. Vigil, K. Benalil, S. M.
Davis and A. Calva, Effect of biodiesel butanol
fuel blends on emissions and performance
characteristics of a diesel engine, Fuel, Vol. 135,
pp. 46-50, 2014.
[15] X. Gu, G. Li, X. Jiang, Z. Huang and C. Lee,
Experimental study on the performance of and
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[16] Z. Zheng, C. Li, H. Liu, Y. Zhang, X. Zhong,
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fueling four isomers of butanol, Fuel, Vol. 141,
pp. 109-119, 2015.
[17] J. B. Heywood, Internal combustion engine
fundamentals. USA: McGraw-Hill,Inc., 1988.
[18] E. Alptekin, Emission, injection and
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oxygenated fuel blends in a common rail diesel
engine, Energy, Vol. 119, pp. 44-52, 2017.
[19] Y. B. Zeldovich, P. Y. Sadovnikov and D. A.
Frank-Kamenetski, Oxidation of Nitrogen in
Combustion, Academy of Sciences of USSR,
Institute of Chemical Physics, MoscowLeningrad,1947.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Samet Uslu1, Faruk Alkan2 ve Mustafa Bahattin Çelik1
1. Mühendislik Fakültesi, Karabük Üniversitesi, Karabük; email: sametuslu@karabuk.edu.tr
2. TOBB Teknik Bilimler Meslek Yüksek Okulu, Karabük Üniversitesi, Karabük; email:
farukalkan@karabuk.edu.tr
3. Mühendislik Fakültesi, Karabük Üniversitesi, Karabük; email: mcelik@karabuk.edu.tr
ÖZET
ü
(1500, 2000, 2500 ve 3000 d/d
(OD) uygun deney
.00 ve 10.00) seçilerek L8 ortogonal dizisinin
.
,
593.5875 g/kWh,
Anahtar Kelimeler: Metanol, Taguchi dizayn, optimizasyon, benzinli motor
ABSTRACT
In this study, it is aimed to find and improve the optimum levels of operating parameters of a spark ignition
engine in which methanol is used as fuel by Taguchi method. The engine speed and compression ratio (CR)
were selected as operating parameters of the spark ignition engine. By selecting four different levels of the
engine speed (1500, 2000, 2500 and 3000 rpm) and two different levels of CR (8:00 and 10:00), it was
decided that the L8 orthogonal array (OA) was the appropriate experimental design. In addition, the effect
of these operating parameters on brake thermal efficiency (BTE), brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC),
carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emission was determined, and an optimization study was
conducted. According to the optimization results, 2500 rpm engine speed and 10:00 CR were determined as
optimum results. The optimum responses according to the determined optimum engine variables were
determined as 29.8082%, 593.5875 g/kWh, 1.5163% and 450.50 ppm for BTE, BSFC, CO and HC,
respectively.
Keywords: Methanol, Taguchi design, optimization, gasoline engine
1.
[7,8].
[1 3]. Dünya genelinde
üreticil
ve i
[4 6]
devam etmektedir. Benzinli motorlarda benzine
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ça
popüler
hale
Taguchi L 8
[9,10]
Tablo 1. M
seviyeleri
1
ve kömürden üretilebilmesi nedeniyle alternatif
[11,12].
Motor
(d/d)
SO
[13 16].
Seviyeleri
2
3
1500 2000
8
10
4
2500
3000
-
-
Tablo 2. L8
Deney
gerekmektedir. Ancak, her bir deney hem
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
demektir [17]
ve etkilerinin incelenmesi son derece önemlidir.
ile
Faktör
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
Faktör
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
deneylerde, Lombardini (LM250) marka tek
Tagu
bir
2000, 2500 ve 3000 d/d motor
[18].
e ölçümler
metanolün
Elde edilen sonuçlar ile Taguchi optimizasyon
celenmesi ve
2. MATERYAL VE YÖNTEM (MATERIAL
AND METHOD)
or
Tablo
1
parametreleri seviyeleri göz
önünde bulundurularak Tablo 2
gösterilen
faktörlerinin performans üzerindeki etkisinin bir
-
küçük daha iyidir' ve 'Nominal en iyisi' gibi
ve FÖYT, CO ve HC emisyonu için 'Daha küçük
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
'Daha büyük daha iyidir';
(1)
'Daha küçük daha iyidir';
(2)
Burada
ve de her bir test sonucunu ifade etmektedir.
1.
3. BULGULAR (FINDINGS)
Taguchi dizayn ile FEV, FÖYT, CO ve HC için
1,
3 ve
4
2
2,
1
ortalama bir motor devrine kadar azalan ve daha
FEV
üksek motor
2. FÖYT
CO emisyonu bir eksik yanma ürünüdür.
Herhangi bir sebeple motorda meydana gelen
gösterir.
motor devri
3
incelend
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
silindir içerisindeki
optimizasyon için tercih edilen kriterler Tablo
3
Yüksek SO
parametrelerini belirlemektir. Buna istinaden
FÖYT, CO ve HC
5
Elde edilen sonuçlara göre seçilen motor
%29.8082, 593.5875 g/kWh, %1.5163 ve 450.50
Tablo 3. Optimizasyon kriterleri
3. CO
seviye
1500
Kriter
En
yüksek
seviye
3000
8
10
FEV (%)
19.45
30.28
FÖYT
(g/kWh)
HC (ppm)
591.2
920.4
343
570
CO (%)
1.42
2.31
Faktörler
Seviyeler
En
(d/d)
4
motor
devri
ile
4. HC
hava-
Maksimize
et
Minimize
et
Minimize
et
Minimize
et
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
d/d motor devri ve 10.00 SO olarak
%29.8082, 593.5875 g/kWh, %1.5163 ve
optimize etmek için etkili bir araç olarak
metanolün benzinli motorlarda saf halde
5
4. SONUÇLAR (CONCLUSIONS)
silindirli
benzinli
motor devri için 1500, 2000, 2500 ve 3000
10.00 olarak seç
FÖYT, CO ve HC kabul eden Taguchi L 8
olarak seçilen faktör ve seviyelerin en iyi
kombinasyonunu belirlemek için bir
Elde edilen sonuçlara göre seçilen motor
KAYNAKLAR (REFERENCES)
[1]
Passaponti, M., Rosi, L., Savastano, M.,
Giurlani, W., Miller, H. A., Lavacchi, A., Filippi,
J., Zangari, G., Vizza, F., and Innocenti, M.,
"Recycling
of
waste
automobile
tires:
Transforming char in oxygen reduction reaction
catalysts for alkaline fuel cells", Journal Of Power
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[2]
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compression ignition engine fueled with biodieseldiesel blends: A combined application of ANN and
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exhaust
emission
characterizations of a diesel engine operating with
a ternary blend (alcohol-biodiesel-diesel fuel)",
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2018.
[4]
L.
Anantha
Raman,
B.Deepanraj,
S.Rajakumar,
and
V.Sivasubramaniand,
"Experimental investigation on performance,
combustion and emission analysis of a direct
injection diesel engine fuelled with rapeseed oil
biodiesel", Fuel, 246, 69 74, 2019.
[5]
Yesilyurt, M. K. and A. M., "Experimental
investigation on the performance, combustion and
exhaust emission characteristics of a compressionignition engine fueled with cottonseed oil
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
biodiesel/diethyl ether/diesel fuel blends", Energy
Conversion and Management, 205, 2020.
[6]
Simsek,
S.
and
Ozdalyan
B.,
"Improvements to the Composition of Fusel Oil
and Analysis of the Effects of Fusel Oil Gasoline
Blends on a SparkPerformance and Emissions", Energies, 11 (3), 625
2018.
[7]
Zhang, Z. H., Cheung, C. S., Chan, T. L.,
and Yao, C. D., "Experimental investigation of
regulated and unregulated emissions from a diesel
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44 (8): 1054 1061, 2010.
[8]
Schifter, I., González, U., Díaz, L.,
Sánchez-Reyna, G., Mejía-Centeno, I., and
González-Macías,
C.,
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Of
Performance And Emissions For GasolineOxygenated Blends Up To 20 Percent Oxygen And
Engine", Fuel, 208, 673 681, 2017.
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Uslu, S. and Celik, M. B., "Combustion and
emission characteristics of isoamyl alcoholgasoline blends in spark ignition engine", Fuel,
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Najafi, G., Abdullah, N. R., Masjuki, H. H., Ali, O.
M., Najafi, G., and Yusaf, T., "Evaluation On
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Performance And Emission Characteristics Of A
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[11] Greenwood, J. B., Erickson, P. A., Hwang,
J., Jordan, E. A., "Experimental results of hydrogen
enrichment of ethanol in an ultra-lean internal
combustion engine", International Journal Of
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[12]
hydrogen addition to methanol-gasoline blends in
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equi-volume blend of methanol and gasoline",
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[14]
Tosun, E., "Variation of spark plug type and spark
gap with hydrogen and methanol added gasoline
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ethanol and methanol", Fuel, 180, 630 637, 2016.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF AN INNOVATIVE INDUSTRIAL COMBI
COOKING OVEN PROTOTYPE TO IMPROVE TEMPERATURE AND AIR
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION AND ENERGY SAVING
Z. Kahraman*,1 , M.
1
, N. Emekwuru2 and H. S. Soyhan3,4
1.
Ar-Ge ve Teknoloji Merkezi,
Türkiye; email: zkahraman@oztiryakiler.com.tr
2. Coventry University, School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Automotive Engineering, Coventry, CV1
2JH, United Kingdom
3. Team-San Co., Sakarya University, Teknokent, Serdivan, Sakarya, Türkiye
4. Sakarya University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Sakarya, Türkiye
Abstract
Turkey, an emerging economy, depends on foreign sources to meet up to 70% of the energy need. The
energy needs increase every yearly at around 7-8% making independent energy production and energy
saving increasingly important. Industrial cooking ovens are one of the most used products in the industrial
kitchen area for cooking various foods in different models and capacities. The type of food cooked by the
existing convection industrial cooking ovens is limited compared to the combi cooking ovens and the
international industrial combi ovens stand out as high-tech products. In order to save energy in industrial
combi cooking ovens, the difference in air flow and temperature distribution in the existing cooking chamber
compared to trays of gastronomic sizes in international standards (tray depths used, filling capacities,
differences in distance between trays, etc.) has to be evaluated. With the scientific data obtained in this
study, an innovative industrial combi cooking oven prototype and design has been developed. Unlike
existing products, an innovative prototype has been obtained in accordance with international standards (EN
60335-1, EN 55014-1, EN 55014-2, etc.) that aim to improve air flow and temperature distribution and
provide energy saving solutions.
Keywords: Industrial cooking ovens, Cooking with convection and combi features, Energy saving,
Simulation.
1
INTRODUCTION
To model the cooking process in the ovens a
mathematical definition is introduced. This also
presents the interactions between the
environment inside the oven and the product
being baked, revealing the temporal changes.
The baking processes in the oven, which are
often simultaneous heat and mass transfer
precesses, are examined and modelled [1,2].
In a heat treatment model; Physical, chemical
and biological changes during the process should
be defined, the mathematical basis of the process
should be developed with appropriate
assumptions, the problem should be solved with
the necessary mathematical knowledge and the
model should be verified for many process
conditions [3].
In mathematical modeling of systems and
processes computational fluids dynamics are
used. Computer-based simulations involving the
heat transfer, fluid flow, and chemical systems
containing reactions can be analyzed.
Commercial CFD codes have been developed
within the framework of numerical algorithms
that solve nonlinear partial differential
equations.
Numerical
and
experimental
dependent parameters validate CFD solutions
against experimental data. CFD technology is
used commonly by engineers since the 1990s;
nowadays they are indispensable in system
design. The CFD method is commonly used in
modelling and analysis of heat transfer in oven
cooking dynamics [4-6].
Dishes cooked in ovens are made with a large
number of ingredients. The functions of these
ingredients and the cooking technology used
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
play a major role in producing good quality food
[7]. The method used in cooking processes is
very important in making a quality meal [8,9].
Depending on the method used, the temperature
distribution in the meal and the moisture content
of the meal are also important in the cooking
quality. Therefore, the temperature distribution
and moisture content of the food should be
controlled by determining the parameters of heat
and mass [10, 11].
2 MODELING
The geometry and boundary conditions of the
model are given in Figs. 1 and 2.
Figure 1. 3D solid model of the electric oven.
Figure 2. 3D solid model of fan and electrical
resistance.
As mesh strategy, solution-adaptive mesh
refinement is used. The mesh of the fluid
volume is set as dynamically changing while the
specific size of the grids. A mesh optimization
study was carried out by defining mesh levels by
changing the refinement criteria from 1 to 7 as
shown in Figure 3. Figure 4 shows the mesh
structure of the fluid volume at the beginning of
the simulation.
Figure 3. Mesh optimisation.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. Mesh structure of the fluid volume at
the beginning of the simulation.
2.1 Validation of The Model
The turbulence model used was the RANS kturbulence intensity was 2 % and turbulence
length was 0.0068938 m. The simulation case is
run with improved designs to find the optimum
shape of the stainless sheet between heating
system and the oven.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
As seen in Figure 5, air warmed is going
velocity and temperature depending of the meal
upwards without a force coming from the fan
being cooked in the oven. So overheating is also
only under gravity forces. The velocity vectors
not acceptable in gastronomy science and
and the temperature variation validate the
technology. Thus the desired design should help
existing situation in the oven having no
keep the environment in the cooking area on the
improvement on heat transfer. Here it is clearly
optimum temperature with the optimum hot air
seen that heat transfer can be improved to have
flow. Thus in the coming section, we carried out
uniform distribution and thus the oven can be
two types of experiments to validate our results
more efficient in terms of cooking quality as
obtained from numerical solutions: physical
well as energy consumption.
measurements
and
Thermal
Imaging
Visualisation approach.
As can be seen from the analysis, it is observed
that there are cold surfaces in the lower and
upper parts of the left surface where the fan part
is absorbed and pressed inside the oven. In order
to eliminate these, it has been observed that the
suction and compression force of the fan can be
between the fan and the oven sections.
Figure 6. 3D solid model of the electric oven.
Figure 5. Validation of the model.
Results of the simulations with having the most
holes in the sheet shown in Figs. 6 and 7. These
figures are showing both the effect of the hot air
entrance and the position of trays on the heat
distribution. As can be seen in these figures the
heat distribution is better compared to the
standard oven but the temperature and velocity
of the air increases dramatically. In cooking
technology, there are several optimum levels of
Figure 7. Temperature and velocity variation
with trays.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3. EXPERIMENTS
CONCLUSIONS
Figure 8 shows the experimental setup for
The subjects related to the modelling of heat
physical measurements. As seen in this figure
transfer in ovens are examined. One of the
there are 10 racks in the oven and thermocouples
biggest benefits of modelling heat transfer
are positioned to measure temperature on these
during cooking is that it forces people to fully
racks.
understand the system or process during
modelling. As a result, valuable ideas and
comments can be developed. Mathematical
modelling has a great application potential in the
food industry. With the activation of this
situation, significant economic gains may arise
during the design and production stages.
In this study, the cooperation between partners
in innovation systems in the engineering field
has been developed and strengthened in order to
achieve the goal of achieving energy saving by
improving the air flow and temperature
distribution in the innovative industrial combi
cooking oven prototype developed with a unique
design.
Figure 8. Measurement points in the oven.
As seen in Figure 9, best cooking and thus heat
distribution is obtained by the revised oven
called new design cooking oven inner stainless
steel plate.
problem, new partnerships have been developed
in engineering research and information sharing
with the cooperation of industry and academia
partners to increase the demand for energy
efficiency with scientific data.
In line with the project objectives, engineering
R&D studies and solution methods based on
academia-industry cooperation are given below:
With benchmarking studies, the existing
industrial cooking oven was examined with
similar systems in the international arena, and
the original design and effective working
conditions of the innovative prototype were
evaluated.
Design verification data (various engineering
calculations, simulation for cooking oven,
different interior equipment designs, etc.) have
contributed significantly to prevent possible
time, labor and material losses during the
prototype manufacturing and assembly phase.
Figure 9. Variation of baking performance by
standard fan guard and the revised cooking oven
inner stainless steel plate.
Simulation has been made for the efficient
distribution of hot air and heat distribution in the
cooking chamber, in an energy-saving manner,
of the innovative prototype that will cook with
combi (hot air and steam) technology.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
within convection ovens, Journal of Food
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the
Engineering, Vol. 72(3), pp. 293 301, 2006.
funds provided by Royal Academy Engineering
and Newton Fund of England (Project Number:
IAPP18-19/310) that allowed this research to be
conducted.
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[1] Thorvaldsson, K., Janestad, H., A model for
simultaneous heat, water and vapor diffusion,
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[2] Zanoni, B., Peri, C., Pierucci, S., A study of
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Measurements of heat transfer coefficients
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Semih Yilmaz1 and
1. Maritime Faculty, Dokuz Eylul University,
2.
2
; email: semih.yilmaz@deu.edu.tr
; email: kubilay.bayramoglu@deu.edu.tr
Abstract
Hydrogen has been widely used in power generation systems as an alternative energy source in recent years.
The use of hydrogen as a renewable energy source in diesel engines increases engine performance while
decreasing emissions. In this study, the effect of hydrogen injection into the intake air at different rates on
engine performance and emissions in a dual fuel engine has been numerically investigated. The study has been
applied under 25% load conditions at 910 rpm and the numerical analysis study has been carried out with
Ansys Forte commercial software using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) method. As a result of the study,
engine performance parameters such as cylinder pressure, temperature, heat release rate, and NOx and CO
emissions have been determined. Engine performance and NOx emissions have increased with increased
hydrogen addition, while CO emissions have decreased.
Keywords: Hydrogen Combustion, Diesel Engine, CFD, NOx Emissions
1 INTRODUCTION
Due to the high-power needs of the industry,
diesel engines are suitable in heavy-duty vehicles
and industrial machinery. Nowadays, diesel
engines are growing in heavy-duty operations and
consume an enormous quantity of fossil fuels.
This situation causes destruction with harmful
impacts on the environment.
Many methods such as enhancement of fuel and
Many methods such as enhancement of fuel and
injection technologies are investigated by the
researchers to reduce these impacts such as
smoke emissions, particulate matter (PM) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) [1]. After this researches,
it is found that the injection of different suitable
fuels inside diesel fuel reduces emissions and
improves the power of diesel engines [2].
In recent years, hydrogen fuel has emerged as a
promising fuel with the properties of rapid mixing
and higher flame speed for various injection
strategies [2 4]. Besides that, the usage of
hydrogen fuel in compression ignition (CI)
engines significantly improve thermal efficiency.
Hydrogen usage affects positively on reducing
emissions of NOx, CO and PM. Furthermore,
engine efficiency increase reaches up to 16% on
CI engines [2].
In recent studies, dual fuel engine technology is
presented as an alternative to improve
performance and reduce emissions comparing
with conventional engine technology.
Combustion in dual fuel engines basically takes
place in two stages. In the first stage, heat
dissipation occurs at low temperatures with the
effect of hydrogen fuel injected into the intake air,
while in the second stage, heat dissipation takes
place at high temperatures as a result of direct
injection of diesel fuel. Thanks to the dual fuel
engine technology consisting of these stages,
combustion can occur under sufficient pressure
and temperature conditions before diesel fuel is
started to be injected.
Many research efforts have been implemented
about hydrogen fuel addition on dual fuel
engines. In these types of engines, hydrogen
addition can reduce smoke, CO and unburned
hydrocarbons in contrast to NOx emissions are
increased due to higher combustion chamber
temperatures [5 11].
Besides that, other studies have shown that
hydrogen addition affect substantially flame
temperature, efficiency of the combustion,
ignition delay, etc. Also, some researchers found
that hydrogen addition cause shorter burning
periods and increase combustion performance on
diesel engines [12, 13].
In this study, the dual fuel engine is simulated
with ANSYS Forte commercial software under
running conditions of 25% load and 910 rpm
speed. The diesel fuel is injected into the cylinder
directly and hydrogen fuel is added into the intake
air. Hydrogen is supplied with four different
conditions as 0% (H0), 5% (H5), 10% (H10) and
15% (H15) by volume ratios respect to intake air.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
2 NUMERICAL STUDY
Numerical analysis studies used in combustion
processes are among the most common methods
used in determining the thermodynamic and
combustion properties of systems in addition to
experimental studies. CFD applications in diesel
engines allow the combustion chamber
temperature, pressure, engine performance and
emissions to be estimated as an alternative to
experimental studies [14]. In the study, naturally
aspirated, single-cylinder, direct injection diesel
engine was used. Table 1 shows the main
characteristics of the engine [15].
The diesel engine is numerically modelled as an
dual fuel engine, adding hydrogen from the intake
manifold. The numerical analysis study was
carried out at 910 rpm at 25% load conditions.
Table 1. Engine Specifications
Parameter
Engine type
Bore stroke
Connecting rod length
Displacement vol.
Compression ratio
Number of valves
Diesel fuel injection
type
Hydrogen injection
type
Nozzle type (hole x
diameter)
Inlet valve opening
(IVO)
Inlet valve closing
(IVC)
Exhaust valve opening
(EVO)
Exhaust valve closing
(EVC)
Unit Value/Type
- Caterpillar 3400
mm 137.2 x 165.1
mm
261.62
L
2.44
16.25
4
-
Direct injection
-
Direct injection
mm
6 x 0.23
-
-358.3° ATDC
-
-169.7° ATDC
-
145.3° ATDC
-
348.3° ATDC
Valve
Manifolds
Combustion
Chamber
Figure 1. Engine Geometry
2.1 Boundary Conditions
The numerical model was realized in 3D and in
the calculations, n-heptane (C7H16) was used as
diesel fuel and H2 as hydrogen fuel. In
combustion processes, to accurately predict the
combustion reactions of the fuels that react, the
combustion reactions in which the selected fuel
will be carried out under suitable ambient
conditions must be defined in the system.
Considering all these conditions, reduction
reactions of suitable chemical reactions should be
verified with experimental data with the help of
appropriate software [16]. In the study, the
physical properties of the fuel were taken as
tetradecane (C14H30) and the reduction reactions
of the fuel consist of 35 species and 173 reactions.
Figure 2 shows the mesh structure and boundary
conditions of the dual fuel engine.
Cylinder Head
Injector
The most important engine characteristics in
numerical modelling of diesel engines are the
combustion chamber geometry, valve and fuel
injection timing. The Caterpillar 3400 model,
single-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine is
modelled in 3D as shown in Figure 1.
Line
Piston
Figure 2. Computational Model
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
The computational model consists of 205k
diffusion and the source terms which derived
elements as 60° sector mesh. Reynolds Average
from injection, respectively.
Navier-Stokes
(RANS)
equations-based
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Renormalization Group (RNG) k- turbulence
In this study, effects of hydrogen fuel that is
model is used in the CFD model. Spray
supplied by mixing into the intake air have been
atomization and droplet breakup of solid cone
investigated for different volumetric ratios on a
sprays
are
modelled
with
Kelvindual fuel engine with CFD. Hydrogen injection
Helmholtz/Rayleigh-Taylor (KH/RT) hybrid
ratio range changes from 0% to 15% by volume.
breakup model [17]. Table 2 shows the numerical
The combustion parameters of cylinder pressure,
model initial and boundary conditions.
cylinder temperature and heat release rate are
Table 2. Initial and Boundary Conditions
Parameter
Unit
Value
Fuel injection temperature
K
400
Fuel injection pressure
bar
1.02
Piston temperature
K
400
Cylinder head temperature
K
400
Liner temperature
K
400
Nozzle diameter
mm
0.23
Mean cone angle
-
20°
examined. The performance parameters of power,
IMEP and thermal efficiency are calculated over
the engine. Furthermore, emission parameters of
CO and NOx are determined numerically under
the determined boundary conditions.
3.1 Combustion Parameters
Engine performance and efficiency enhance due
to fast mixing and higher flame speed properties
of hydrogen in the combustion chamber. Figure 2
depicts the variation of cylinder pressure over
crank angle for different hydrogen injection
ratios. As can be seen from the figure that, the
peak pressures are observed after 360 °CA for all
situations. One can clearly see that cylinder
pressure rise with increasing hydrogen ratio in the
intake air.
2.2 Governing Equations
In CFD analyses, gas phase flow motions are
governed by Navier-Stokes equations. The
continuity equation for any selected control
volume in the combustion chamber geometry can
be expressed as follows [18].
(1)
where, , U and are fluid density, fluid velocity
and source terms. For the combustion chamber
control volume, momentum or the Navier Stokes
equation is expressed as follows.
+
(2)
Where, p, ,
and
is pressure, viscous
stress tensor, spray induced source term and the
The energy
equation for computational volume [18, 19].
+
(3)
where e, ,
and
are sensible energy, the
heat flux arise from heat conduction and enthalpy
Figure 2. Variation of cylinder pressure over
crank angle for different hydrogen injection
ratios
Figure 3 shows the variation of cylinder pressure
over crank angle for different hydrogen injection
ratios. The peak temperatures are observed
between 380 and 400 °CA for all situations. From
the graph, one can see that cylinder temperatures
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
reach higher values with increasing hydrogen
as CO and NOx. The maximum power, IMEP and
injection ratio.
thermal efficiency are observed for hydrogen
injection ratio of H15.
Table 3. Performance and Emission
Parameters
H15
kW
7.9
11.2
14.8
17.6
MPa
0.43
0.60
0.78
0.95
%
42.78
42
42.6
41
ppm
847
1260
2055
3334
ppm
659
164
74.5
506
Power
IMEP
NOx
(EVO)
CO
Figure 4 depicts the effect of hydrogen fuel on
heat release rate over crank angle. As clearly
observed from the figure that the heat release rate
consists of three distinct phases. For each phase,
three different peak values are observed between
360 and 400 °CA for all cases. From the results,
with the higher amount of hydrogen injection, the
heat release rate increases in parallel with
combustion efficiency.
Value
H5
H10
Unit
Thermal
efficiency
Figure 3. Variation of cylinder temperatures
over crank angle for different hydrogen
injection ratios
H0
Parameter
(EVO)
3.2 Emissions Parameters
Figure 5 shows the effects of hydrogen injection
on NOx emissions versus crank angle for four
different hydrogen injection ratios. The
maximum NOx emissions have been observed for
hydrogen injection ratio of H15. The results of the
emissions show that the increase in the
combustion temperature negatively affect the
NOx emissions because of the thermal NO
mechanism. Therefore, maximum value of the
NOx emission is observed at the peak temperature
interval during combustion.
Figure 4. Heat release rate over crank angle
for different hydrogen injection ratios
Figure 5. The effects of hydrogen injection on
NO x emissions versus crank angle
Table 3 illustrates main characteristics of
performance parameters such as power, IMEP,
thermal efficiency and emission parameters such
Figure 6 presents the effects of hydrogen
injection on CO emissions versus crank angle for
four different hydrogen injection ratios. One can
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
understand from the figure that CO emissions are
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Figure 6. The effects of hydrogen injection on
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4 CONCLUSIONS
It is clearly observed in dual fuel diesel engines
that the addition of hydrogen into the intake air
has a better effect on engine performance and
emissions than engines operating in single diesel
mode. Since hydrogen and air are homogeneously
mixed in dual fuel engines, more effective
combustion occurs than diesel engines operating
in normal mode. Thanks to the hydrogen injected
from the intake manifold, the total amount of fuel
increases, so the power obtained from the engine
has also increased. The results obtained from the
numerical analysis study showed that as the
hydrogen addition added to the intake air
increased, the combustion chamber temperature
and pressure values increased in the same
direction. This situation brought about an
increase in engine performance parameters such
as power and IMEP. NOx emissions in internal
combustion engines increase due to the rising
combustion chamber temperature. Therefore,
maximum NOx emissions have been generated
depending on the maximum combustion chamber
temperature under H15 hydrogen addition
conditions. Carbon emissions, on the other hand,
tend to decrease with the quality of combustion,
unlike NOx emissions. As a result, hydrogen
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method in diesel engines will be developed and
used in future studies due to its positive effects on
engine performance and parameters.
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
OPTIMIZATION OF PISTON BOWL GEOMETRY IN TERMS OF FUEL
CONSUMPTION AND EMISSIONS USING COMPUTATIONAL FLUID
DYNAMICS IN A DIESEL ENGINE
C. Akkus1 and S. Uslu2
1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, TOBB University of Economics and Technology,
Ankara; caner.akkus18@gmail.com
2. Department of Mechanical Engineering, TOBB University of Economics and Technology,
Ankara; suslu@etu.edu.tr
Abstract
In order to reduce specific fuel consumption (SFC) of a diesel engine, the piston bowl geometry has
been optimized using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The numerical investigation of omega
shaped piston bowl geometry optimization has been carried out at 2300 rpm full load condition. Reacting
between 600-800 crank angles while the intake and exhaust valves are closed. ECFM-3Z, Extended
Coherent Flame Model, was used as combustion model. A Lagrangian approach was used for two phase
modelling of the liquid Diesel fuel, Reitz & Diwakar primary break-up modelling coupled with either
Bag Break-Up or Stripping Break-Up modelling was used to simulate the spray formation and
atomization. Spatial and temporal discretization and turbulence modelling effects have been carefully
studied. The CFD predictions of the in-cylinder pressure and Apparent Heat Release are compared with
the measurement data to validate the fidelity of the results. The reactive CFD predictions using the
discrepancy of 2.3% compared to the measured data. After the validation of the predictions, nine
parameters of the piston bowl geometry were determined for optimization study. Sherpa algorithm of
Heeds program was used to achieve minimum SFC for the given Diesel. After analyzing 92 new designs,
SFC has been improved %5.43.
Keywords: Internal Combustion Engine, Computational Fluid Dynamics, ECFM-3Z, Piston Bowl
Geometry Optimization
1 INTRODUCTION
In order to reduce emissions and fuel
consumption, engine companies have developed
their products as changing engine components.
The first thing to do about developing the engine
is understanding the engine characteristics and
analyzing the engine performance. Better airfuel mixture inside the cylinder is the key factor
of having high combustion efficiency. Swirl,
squish and tumble fluid motions defines the
engine performance. Horizontal rotational fluid
motion inside the cylinder is defined as swirl [1].
It directly depends on intake port geometry.
Squish can be defined as radial inward fluid
motion [1]. At the piston top dead center (TDC),
squish motion generates a secondary rotational
motion which is called squish generated tumble
[1]. Tumble fluid motion is directly affected by
piston bowl geometry. These fluid motions have
a huge impact on combustion efficiency also on
SFC, specific fuel consumption. In order to
understand in-cylinder fluid motions CFD,
Computational Fluid Dynamics, simulations are
carried out [2].
Fuel-air mixture formation is one of the key
factors affecting engine performance and
emissions in diesel engines [3]. Fuel air mixture
quality has a huge impact on combustion
performance. Shape of the piston bowl geometry
influences the fluid motion inside the cylinder
and that directly affects the engine SFC and
emissions. [4].
In this study, the piston bowl geometry is
optimized to understand which design
parameters has a direct impact on specific fuel
consumption.
2
NUMERICAL MODELS
2.1 Engine Parameters and Operation
Conditions
A stage 3B emission level three cylinder 55 kW
Diesel engine is studied. Engine parameters is
shown at Table 1. The engine has two intake port
and has an omega type piston bowl with 104 mm
bore and 115 mm stroke. Total swept volume of
three cylinders is 2.93 liter. Common Rail
System is mounted to the engine and rail
pressure is 1600 bar with eight fuel hole
injectors. Hole diameter of the injector is 0.131
mm.
Table 1: Engine parameters
Power [kW] @ 2300 rpm
55
Maximum Tork [N.m] @1400 rpm
338
Bore x Stroke [mm]
104 x 115
Compression ratio
17,5
Connecting Rod Length [mm]
182
Turbocharger pressure [bar]
1,4
Number of injector holes
8
Injector holes diameter [mm]
0,131
Rail Pressure [bar]
1600
Engine operation conditions are shown in Table
2. Engine is operated at full load 2300 rpm. Start
of injection (SOI) is 2 degree Crank Angle
(DCA) before TDC and it lasts 12 DCA. Injected
total fuel is 64 mg per stroke at 2300 rpm. Engine
runs at an AFR (Air Fuel Ratio) of 25.6 with an
EGR (Exhaust Gas Recycle) value of 11% at full
load conditions.
(2)
Turbulence Model Equations
Turbulent kinetic energy and dissipation rate of
turbulence equations [5] is solved to calculate
viscous effects in the flow for Standard k-e
turbulence model is given at Equation (3) and
Equation (4).
Turbulent kinetic energy;
(3)
Dissipation rate of turbulence kinetic energy;
(4)
Turbulent (eddy) viscosity is given as;
(5)
k-e
turbulence model are given in Table 3.
Table 3: Coefficients of the Standard k-e
Turbulence Model
Table 2: Operation Conditions
Engine Speed (rpm)
2300
Star of Injection (dCA)
718
Injection Duration (dCA)
12
Injected Fuel Quantity (mg/st)
64
EGR Rate (%)
11
AFR
25.6
Engine parameters and operating conditions are
used to initialize and perform reacting CFD
simulations. A fuel flow rate of 8 mg/stroke is
used for the 45 degree sector simulations which
corresponds one hole fuel injector.
2.2 Mathematical Models
The instantaneous form of continuity and
momentum equations in Cartesian Tensor form
are given as;
(1)
0.09
1
1.22
1.44
1.92
1.44
-0.33
0.419
The turbulence dissipation rate equation solved
for the RNG version [5] differs from the
dissipation equation solved for Standard k-e
equation as;
(6)
The coefficients of RNG k-e turbulent
dissipation equation is given in Table 4.
3
Table 4: Coefficients of RNG k-e turbulent
model
0.085
1
1.22
0.9
0.9
1.42
K
1.68
1.44
-0.33
0.4
9
Combustion Model - ECFM-3Z
In the present study the ECFM-3Z (Extended
Coherent Flame Model - Three Zone) by Colin
and Benkenida [6] is used for the Diesel
combustion which is a non-premixed diffusion
flame type. The ECFM-3Z splits each
computational cell into three mixing zones: a
pure fuel zone, a pure air plus possible residual
gases (EGR) zone and a mixed zone.
In ECFM-3Z model, transport equations are
solved for mean values
, ,
, CO, ,
, O, H, N, OH and NO. For each chemical a
transport equation is solved as Equation (7).
+
=
3.1 Spatial Discretization
Numerical discretization studies are of great
importance in CFD simulations to obtain more
accurate predictions when compared with
measurements.
Numerical
discretization
methods, which are divided into two as Spatial
and Temporal Discretization, are the studies that
must be done before starting the optimization
studies to minimize errors [7].
(7)
-
is the source term of combustion and is the
mean mass fraction of the dissolved chemical
species.
and
indicates the molecular and
turbulent Schmidt numbers respectively.. Fuel is
included into 2 region as burnt gases
and
unburnt gasses
.
=
CFD
COMPUTATIONS
AND
RESULTS
The engine being analyzed includes an 8-hole
injector with angles of 45 degree. A sector of 45
degree is chosen as computational domain
making use of the periodic boundary conditions
on the two sides of the sector. The sector
combustion simulations are performed for the
period when both intake and exhaust valves are
closed. For this reason, the studies were carried
out
between
600-800
DCA.
Sector
computational domain analysis provides a big
saving on computational efforts, namely, in CPU
and memory overheads.
Cylinder
Wall
Cylinder
Head
=
Periodic
Surface
(8)
=
=
Piston
(9)
Equation (9) gives us total fuel in computational
cell.
is the mass of fuel in unburnt gases. In
order to calculate
, a general transport
Equation (10) given below is solved:
(10)
indicates the evaporation of the liquid fuel
and
is the source term at unburnt and burnt
regions.
Figure 1. Sector Geometry
Figure 1 shows the computational mesh at TDC.
The Es-ICE model uses a hexahedral mesh for
the industry model. A mesh that is orthogonal to
fuel spray has been chosen as it provides better
accuracy in two-phase flow CFD simulations. A
coarse, medium and fine mesh were studied for
a mesh independence study. The cell numbers in
TDC are 31100, 53600 and 100800 respectively,
as shown in Figure 2. A cell-layer deletion and
addition methodology is used when piston
moves up and down in order to keep the cell
aspect ratios reasonable in the cylinder region.
At 800 DCA, which is the end point of the sector
analysis, the number of cells is 145000, 310000
and 610000, respectively.
A: 31100
Cells
B: 53600
Cells
C: 100800
Cells
indicate a difference of 4.91%, 2.37% and 1.14%
using coarse, medium and fine mesh
computations. That difference basically comes
from the differences in prediction the ignition
delay. For coarse mesh simulation, pressure
increase starts before TDC at 719.7 DCA and
reaches maximum value which is 128 bar at 728
DCA. Because of wrong prediction of maximum
in-cylinder pressure and timing, coarse mesh
simulation is not suitable for next simulations.
After TDC a pressure increase starts at 720.7
DCA and 721.3 DCA for medium and fine mesh
simulations which then results in a 1.2%
difference in peak pressure values. It is surely
good news to see a closer agreement with the fine
mesh as a result of better prediction of ignition
delay.
In Figure 4, the apparent heat release predictions
are compared with measured data for different
meshes. The heat released is directly related to
the change in pressure and volume compared to
the previous step [1]. For this reason, small
changes in the pressure value cause oscillation in
the
resulting
heat
graph.
Inaccurate
measurements in the cylinder pressure sensor
explain the oscillations in Figure 4.
Figure 2. Sector Mesh at TDC (A: Coarse
Mesh; B: Medium Mesh; C: Fine Mesh)
140
The predicted in-cylinder pressure and Apparent
Heat Release are compared with the
measurements in Figure 3 and Figure 4
respectively. In-cylinder pressure values are
shown in Figure 3.
100
140
120
Pressure [bar]
AHR [J/dcA]
Coarse Mesh
80
Medium Mesh
60
Fine Mesh
40
20
0
Experimental
-20 700
Coarse Mesh
-40
100
Experimental
120
720
740
760
780
800
Crank Angle
Medium Mesh
80
60
Figure 4. Apparent Heat Release for
Spatial Discretization Studies
Fine Mesh
40
20
0
700
720
740
760
Crank Angle
780
800
Figure 3. In-Cylinder Pressure for Spatial
Discretization Studies
The peak pressures were calculated as 128.2 bar,
125.1 bar and 123.6 bar using coarse, medium
and fine mesh respectively compared to a
measured value of 122.2 bar. The predictions
It is readily seen that the apparent heat release
obtained with medium and fine mesh
computations are very close to each other. Due
to different estimates in combustion start times,
there is a difference in spray-induced heat
transfer and combustion. There is a 1%
difference between the maximum values
depending on the crank angle. When the first
sharp increases in terms of 720 DCA in the graph
were examined, it was observed that fine mesh
approached the experimental result. The reason
for this situation can be explained by the fact that
the ignition delay is estimated more accurately
than medium mesh and coarse mesh simulations
and the increase in pressure gradient is closer to
the experimental result.
2500
Accm. [J]
2000
1500
Experimental
Coarse Mesh
Medium Mesh
Fine Mesh
1000
500
Figure 7. Temperature Contours for
Medium Mesh (Side View)
0
720
740
760
780
800
Crank Angle
Figure 5. Accumulated Heat Release for
Spatial Discretization Studies
The accumulated heat release for medium and
fine mesh analysis compared with experimental
data is shown in Figure 5. The maximum
discrepancy between the predictions and
measurements is 7.7%, 2.5% and 1.7% for
coarse, medium and fine mesh computations
respectively.
In-cylinder temperature contours are examined
for medium mesh study and the results are
displayed in Figure 6 and Figure 7. Local
maximum temperature is calculated as 2569 K at
732 DCA, which is near the maximum pressure
point. This value is much higher than 1710 K
calculated as the average temperature value. In
order to reduce the NOx released, local
maximum temperatures should be lowered in its
formation.
No differences in temperature contours are
observed between the medium and fine mesh
computations at 720 DCA. At this point,
combustion has not started yet. The road taken
by the fuel is clearly observed at a 726 DCA.
3.2 Temporal Discretization
Temporal discretization study was carried out
using time step sizes that correspond to 0.5, 0.1
and 0.05 degree crank angles. The comparison
for different time step sizes and experimental
data are plotted in Figure 8 and Figure 9 for incylinder pressure and apparent heat release rate
respectively.
140
Experimental
120
100
0.1 dcA
80
0.05 dcA
Pressure [bar]
-500
700
60
40
20
0
700
720
740
760
Crank Angle
780
800
Figure 8. In-Cylinder Pressure for Time
Discretization Studies
Figure 6. Temperature Contours for
Medium Mesh (Spray Axis)
No differences are seen in the cold flow
compression stroke until the SOI, Start of
Injection, point of 718 DCA. Small differences
could be observed only after the fuel injection
started. As the predictions obtained with the time
step corresponding 0.5 DCA yields in highly
unrealistic results they were not shown here. Incylinder peak pressure of 125.1 bar and 123.7 bar
were obtained compared to a measured value of
122.2 bar that indicates a discrepancy of 2.3%
and 1.2% respectively for the medium and small
time steps.
Apparent heat release (AHR) rate for the two
time step sizes are compared with the
measurements in Figure 9. The largest difference
between the two solutions is about 1%,
indicating that the medium time step size
corresponding to 0.1 DCA can easily be used for
the
rest
of
the
computations.
140
Experimental
AHR [J/dcA]
100
0.1 dcA
80
60
0.05 dcA
40
20
0
-20 700
720
-40
740
760
780
800
Crank Angle
140
Figure 9. Apparent Heat Release for
Temporal Discretization Studies
In Figure 10, the total amount of heat released
according to the time step is compared. In the
700-800 DCA solution range, the difference in
total released heat amounts for different time
steps is about 0.5%. The study, the time step of
which is 0.05 DCA, is closer to the experimental
result. However, the accumulated amount of heat
released for both time steps is quite close to each
other. With this study, which was carried out to
make it temporal discretization, 0.1 crank angle
time step was shown to be suitable for
optimization studies.
2500
Accm. AHR [J]
2000
1500
Experimental
1000
0.1 dcA
0.05 dcA
500
0
-500
700
720
740
760
780
Experimental
120
800
Crank Angle
Figure 10. Accumulated Heat Release for
Temporal Discretization Studies
Pressure [bar]
120
3.3 Turbulence Model
Effects of the turbulence model, which has the
major role in determining the flow characteristic,
will be examined. The turbulence model study
was carried out using the optimum number of
mesh and time step obtained. The effects of
turbulence models on combustion were
investigated using RNG k-epsilon and
Realizable k-epsilon turbulence models.
The cylinder pressure graphic obtained as a
result of different turbulence models is given in
Figure 11. The RNG k-epsilon turbulence model
estimated the ignition delay more accurately than
the Realizable k-epsilon turbulence model. In the
realizable k-epsilon model, since the combustion
starts earlier, the maximum pressure value inside
the cylinder is higher. For the realizable kepsilon turbulence model, the maximum
pressure was calculated as 125.8 bar at a crank
angle of 730.6 degree. For RNG k-epsilon
turbulence model, this value was calculated as
125.1 bar at 732 DCA.
100
RNG k-
80
Realizable k-
60
40
20
0
700
720
740
760
780
800
Crank Angle
Figure 11. In-Cylinder Pressure for
Different Turbulence Models Studies
The apparent heat release for turbulence models
are displayed in Figure 12. The amount of heat
released between 720-740 DCA is quite different
from each other. This is due to different ignition
delay estimations and differences in maximum
pressure. The solution made with the RNG kepsilon turbulence model is closer to the
experimental result.
AHR [J/dcA]
140
120
Experimental
100
Realizable k-
80
RNG k-
60
40
20
0
-20 700
720
-40
740
760
780
800
Crank Angle
Figure 12. Apparent Heat Release Different
Turbulence Models Studies
In Figure 13, a comparison was made between
Realizable k-epsilon and RNG k-epsilon
turbulence models in terms of the accumulated
heat release. While RNG k-epsilon turbulence
model results are close to 2.5% for the
experimental result, while it is 3.5% for
Realizable k-epsilon turbulence model.
2500
Accm. AHR [J]
2000
R1
1500
D1
Experimental
1000
R2
Realizable k-
500
D2
RNG k-
700
720
740
760
780
D3
H2
R3
H1
0
-500
consumed per unit of time produced [1]. To
minimize specific fuel consumption, it is
necessary to minimize the amount of fuel at
constant power or to maximize the power at
fixed fuel amount. In this study, it is aimed to
keep the amount of fuel constant and obtain
maximum power. The most important thing to
consider when optimizing the piston bowl
geometry is to keep the compression ratio
constant. Since the change in the compression
ratio will directly affect the power to be obtained,
new geometries have been prepared so that the
compression ratio of the existing engine has the
same compression ratio 1: 17.5.
Piston bowl geometry is a rather complicated
geometry. As seen in Figure 14, it is a structure
prepared by considering the production
conditions consisting of 9 design parameters.
The volume of the cylinder while piston is at
TDC position is 59206 mm3 and swept volume
is 976909 mm3.
Since the piston bowl geometry is symmetrical,
optimizing the area instead of optimizing the
volume will give the same result. In Figure 14,
optimization area of the piston bowl geometry is
displayed.
R4
800
Crank Angle
Figure 13. Accumulated Heat Release for
Different Turbulence Models Studies
Analysis durations and CPU requirements for
both turbulence models are very close. However,
considering the ignition delay estimation, the
maximum pressure in-cylinder and the
accumulated heat release, the RNG k-epsilon
turbulence model has come closer to the
experimental result. For this reason, it was
decided to use RNG k-epsilon turbulence model
in optimization studies.
3.4 Determination of Optimization
Parameters
The current piston bowl geometry parameters
will be optimized to reduce specific fuel
consumption using HEEDs program. Specific
fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel
Figure 14. Piston Bowl Geometry
Parameters
While optimizing the piston bowl geometry, the
cylinder diameter and the distance between the
cylinder head and the piston when the piston
reaches TDC are defined as fixed lengths. The
optimized parameters consist of five lengths
(D1, D2, D3, H1 and H2) and four radiuses (R1,
R2, R3 and R4). The lengths specified here as H1
and H2 are the intersection lengths that provide
the tangent condition of the two circles. To avoid
creating erroneous geometry, H1 and H2 are
specified as length instead of angle. The radius
length R4 was defined as the area control
parameter and its value was determined by
calculating it to be the same area according to the
values taken from the space defined in the
HEEDs program. While determining the
optimization space, the maximum values for
each parameter are defined as 15% more than the
current value and the minimum values are less
than 15% of the current value.
4 Results and Discussion
In order to optimize the existing piston bowl
geometry in terms of the power it produces, total
of 92 different geometries have been analyzed.
No error was taken in the solution of 92
geometries and the analysis was successfully
completed. 49 of the analyzes performed gave an
output above the current power. While the best
design was the 74th design, the worst design was
the 60th design. In Figure 15, at which stage of
optimization, maximum powers are displayed.
Each point shows the power obtained as a result
of the analysis. The local maximum power curve
(indicated by the blue line) is created. As noticed
in Figure 15, there are points with lower power
after local maximum power is found. This is due
to the change in the space scanned by the HEEDs
program. With this approach, the local maximum
power is found for all parameters and the general
maximum power point is reached.
Figure 15. Obtaining Power According to
Design ID
In the study made in the range of 700-800 DCA,
the power produced by the current piston has
been calculated as 33.35 kW. In the 74th design,
which is the best design, this value was
calculated as 34.42 kW and a 3.21%
performance increase was observed in this
design. The worst design was the 60th design
with 30.68 kW of power generation. However,
since the analyzes are performed only in the
expansion stroke, this value is smaller than the
value to be taken in the full cycle. Recovery in a
full cycle is estimated at approximately 5.78%.
The power obtained from a piston is
approximately 18.5 kW. Since 33.35 kW was
obtained in the expansion stroke, the loss in the
intake, compression and exhaust strokes in the
other three strokes was calculated as
approximately 14.85 kW. Due to has not been
changed in volumetric efficiency and
compression ratio, the total loss of intake,
compression and expansion strokes remains
approximately the same. Specific fuel
consumption was calculated according to the
power generation. In Table 5, calculated power
and specific fuel consumption of the top 10
designs and the current design were compared.
Table 5. Comparison Obtaining Power and
SFC Among Best 10 Designs
Design #
Power
(kW)
7 CA Imp.
(%)
Full
Cycle
Imp.
(%)
SFC
(g/k
Wh)
SFC Imp.
(%)
Design _74
34,42
3,21
5,78
222
5,47
Design _72
34,16
2,43
4,38
225
4,19
Design _41
34,15
2,40
4,32
225
4,15
Design _47
34,09
2,22
4,00
226
3,85
Design _34
34,06
2,13
3,84
226
3,70
Design _42
34,04
2,07
3,73
227
3,60
Design _33
33,98
1,89
3,41
227
3,29
Design _64
33,98
1,89
3,41
227
3,29
Design _11
33,98
1,89
3,41
227
3,29
Design _45
33,97
1,86
3,35
227
3,24
Current
Design
33,35
-
-
235
-
The change interval of parameters is shown in
Figure 16. Here, the values shown at the top and
bottom are the maximum and minimum values
of the space selected for that parameter. For the
top 10 designs, some parameters were chosen at
the maximum and minimum values of space.
Current piston bowl geometry parameters are
indicated with a dark gray line. The region where
the parameters of the top 10 designs are selected
is painted in green.
Figure 16. Change Range of Best 10
Design Parameters
Figure 17. The Relationship Between the
Design Parameters and Power and Each
Other
In Figure 18, the in-cylinder pressure graphs of
the first, third, fifth, seventh and ninth best
designs of the new designs are displayed. Since
there is not a big difference in the surface areas
of the piston bowl geometries, the largest area
under the pressure graph belongs to the design
with the most power. Maximum pressure of
Design-74 was calculated as 128.1 bar at 732
DCA.
135
130
Pressure [bar]
125
120
115
110
105
100
Design_33
95
Design_11
90
Current Design
710
720
730
740
Crank Angle
Figure 18. In-Cylinder Pressure
Comparison
In Figure 19, the cylinder temperature graphs of
the first, third, fifth, seventh and ninth designs
selected from the top 10 designs are displayed.
The main purpose of displaying in-cylinder
temperature graphic is to establish the
connection of the NOx amount formed by the
temperature inside the cylinder. The ranking of
the top 10 designs according to their power is
given in Table 5. The maximum pressure
sequence within the cylinder is parallel with
Table 5. The highest temperature belongs to the
design-74 with 1730 K as in the pressure graph
and power table. However, while design-34 was
in 5th place in power and pressure ranking, it
took second place in temperature ranking.
Design-34 is therefore predicted to emit more
pollution in terms of NOx emissions.
Temperature [ K]
The relationship between geometric parameters
and power for the top 10 designs is shown in
Figure 17. D1, D2, D3, R1, R2, R3, H1 and H2
parameters are the result of optimization, in
which the parameters are directly related to the
generated power. It shows a value between +1
and -1
denotes
the direct
proportion. The growth of the H2 parameter
made a positive contribution to power, while H1
made a negative contribution. In Figure 17, the
relationships of the parameters are also given.
D1 radius is the most effective parameter to
increase power. On the other hand, D2 radius can
be used decrease temperature and power.
Therefore, it can be easily said that depth
parameters of the piston bowl geometry have a
huge impact on power. Deeper piston bowl
geometry will be resulted lower power while
keeping compression ratio same.
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
Design_74
Design_41
Design_33
Design_11
Current Design
710
730
750
770
Crank Angle
790
Figure 19. In-Cylinder Temperature
Comparison
In-cylinder temperature contours of the design74, which obtained the best results according to
power optimization, are given in Figure 20 and
Figure 21. Temperature contours started in terms
of 720 DCA and displayed in steps of 6 DCA.
While combustion starts at 720 DCA,
combustion slowly loses its effect after 750
DCA.
0,14
0,12
NO [mg]
0,1
Design_74
Design_72
Design_41
Design_47
Design_34
Design_42
Design_33
Design_64
Design_11
Design_45
Current Design
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0
700
720
740
760
780
800
Crank Angle
Figure 20. Temperature Contours for
Design_74 (Side View)
Figure 22. NO Formation Comparison
Between Best 10 Design and Current esign
The design-74, which gives the best results
according to the power output, ranks 4th in terms
of NO emissions. NO emission was increased by
15% in Design-74 compared to the current
design. In NO emission, the best result was
obtained in the current design. The worst result
in NO emission is design-34 and an increase of
32% has been observed compared to the current
design. Among the top 10 designs in terms of
power, the best NO emission took place at design
45. However, there has been an 8% increase in
NO emissions compared to the current design.
Figure 21. Temperature Contours for
Medium Mesh (Spray Axis)
According to Figure 20, the local maximum
temperature is measured as 2533 K around the
733 DCA at which the maximum pressure
occurs. For the current bowl geometry, the local
maximum temperature on the side axis was
calculated as 2569 K at 732 DCA.
In Figure 22, the comparison of the NO formed
between 700-800 DCA for the top 10 designs
and the current design is given. The aim is to
ensure that the optimization result is selected to
give maximum power, i.e. minimum fuel
consumption and minimum NO emissions.
5 Conclusion
For the specific fuel consumption optimization
studies, the parameters of the existing piston
bowl geometry were studied and an optimization
space was created for these parameters. Here, it
was ensured that the compression ratio of 1: 17.5
remained constant. Depth parameters have been
shown to have the greatest effect on specific fuel
consumption. Deeper piston bowl geometry
worsens the power obtained.
As a result of 92 different analyzes, instead of the
geometry that gives the best results in terms of
power, NO-emissions are also considered and
the design that gives the best results in terms of
power was chosen. In the light of these results,
testing processes of the new piston will be
carried out for the next steps. In the new study, it
is desired to reduce the amount of fuel by
keeping the engine power constant. Therefore,
some improvement is expected in terms of NO
emissions produced.
According to specific fuel consumption
optimization results, a new piston bowl
geometry was obtained to improve the existing
piston bowl geometry. It has been demonstrated
with the results of the reactive HAD analysis that
this geometry showed an improvement of 5.8%
in terms of power generation and 5.5% in terms
of specific fuel consumption.
REFERENCES
[1] W.W. Pulkrabek, Engineering Fundamentals
of the Internal Combustion Engine, Prentice
Hall, NewJersey., (2003).
[2] H. Sushma and K.B. Jagadeesha, (2013).
CFD Modeling of the in-Cylinder Flow in Direct
Injection Diesel Engine, International Journal of
Scientific and Research Publications, 3(12), 1-7.
[3] X. Li, H. Zhou, L. Su, Y. Chen, Z. Qiao and
F.
Liu,
Combustion
and
Emission
Characteristics of a Lateral Swirl Combustion
System for DI Diesel Engines Under Low Excess
Air Ratio Conditions, Fuel, 184(15), 672-680,
(2016).
[4] L. Cao, A. Bhave, H. Su, S. Mosbach and M.
Kraft, Influence of Injection Timing and Piston
Bowl Geometry on PCCI Combustion and
Emissions, SAE International Journal of
Engines, 2(1), 1019-1033 , (2009).
[5] STAR[6] O. Colin and A. Benkenida, The 3-Zones
Extended Coherent Flame Model (ECFM3Z) for
Computing Premixed/Diffusion Combustion,
and Technology, 59(6), 593609, (2004).
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Analysis of Flow and Combustion of a Tier IV
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Technology, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Ankara (2014).
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
PRODUCTION AND APPLICATION OF GRASS WASTE
CATALYST FOR HYDROGEN PRODUCTION BY THE DEGRADATION OF
SODIUM BOROHYDRIDE IN METHANOL
*
*
urkey;
email:duyguelma@siirt.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, grass waste supported Ni catalyst (GW-HCI-Ni-Cat) was used as catalyst for the first time in
the methanolysis reaction of NaBH4. The grass waste (GW) was initially pretreated with different
concentrations of hydrochloric acid (1M, 3M, 5M and 7M). Effect of different concentration of Nickel (%10,
%20, %30, %40, %50) was also analyzed. Furthermore, different burning temperatures (300, 400, 500 and
600 °C), and burning times (15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes) were examined to test the activity of GW-HCI-NiCat catalyst by the methanolysis reactions. Under optimum conditions, the most active catalyst was obtained
by burning with 7M HCl and 6 mL Ni2+ solution at 400 oC for 45 min. 0.1 g of this GW-HCI-Ni-Cat catalyst
was dissolved in 10 mL of a methanol solution containing 0.25 g NaBH4 at 30 °C to measure the timedependent amounts of hydrogen. In the experiments, the efficiency of the catalyst in hydrogen generation by
methanolysis of NaBH4 in the presence of the GW-HCI-Ni-Cat catalyst was investigated using different
temperatures (30, 40, 50, and 60 °C). Thus, the maximum hydrogen generation rate (HGR) obtained from
the methanolysis reaction of NaBH4 at 30 °C and 60 oC were found to be 6642,9 and 9995.5 mLmin -1gcat-1,
respectively. The activation energy of the catalyst was calculated as 12.47 kJmol-1. Furthermore, FTIR, XRD
and SEM analyses were performed for characterization of the GW-HCI-Ni-cat catalyst.
Keywords: Grass waste, Sodium Borohydride, Methanolysis, Nickel.
1 INTRODUCTION
Factors such as the gradual increase of the world
population, the growth of the economy and the
rapid depletion of fossil fuels have brought
many environmental problems such as air
pollution and the increase in the amount of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere[1, 2].
Therefore, the world needs a sustainable,
renewable and environmentally friendly energy
to meet its increasing energy needs[3, 4].
Hydrogen is the most well-known clean energy
source and water is released as a result of
hydrogen burning. In this respect, research on
hydrogen has recently gained
further
importance[5, 6]. As hydrogen source, mostly
NH3BH3[7-9], LiBH4[10], MgH2 [11] and
NaBH4 [12-15] compounds are used. Among
these metal hydride compounds, sodium
borohydride (NaBH4), which is low cost and
chemically stable, stands out. On the other hand,
NaBH4 is considered as an ideal source of
hydrogen due to its non-toxic structure, its
ability to safely store and transport hydrogen, as
well as its high theoretical hydrogen content
(10.8% by weight). NaBH4 can be transported
safely in aqueous or alcoholic solutions[16, 17].
The by-product (NaBO2) formed as a result of
NaBH4 hydrolysis reaction has disadvantages
such as low solubility, easy precipitation and ice
formation at sub-zero temperatures[18]. Due to
the properties of methanol such as low freezing
point (-97.6°C) and high hydrogen/carbon ratio,
it has been observed that the methanolysis
reaction of NaBH4 shows higher catalytic
performance even at temperatures
compared to the hydrolysis of NaBH4 [19, 20].
However, the methanol released as a result of
hydrolysis of the by-product of the methanolysis
reaction (NaB(OCH3)4) can be recycled and
reused[21]. The methanolysis reaction equation
to be used to produce hydrogen from NaBH4 is
given below.
(1)
Supported or unsupported catalysts are used to
accelerate such reactions. Several materials such
as graphene, activated carbon, carbon nanotube,
aluminium oxide, silica, titanium oxide,
magnesium oxide, polymer and clay are mostly
used as support materials[22-30]. However,
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
catalysts obtained from these support materials
50, 60°C) and performing reusability tests.
have a certain cost. For this reason, the use of
FTIR, SEM and XRD analyses were performed
agricultural wastes as support materials both
for the characterization of GW-HCI-Ni-Cat,
reduces production costs and helps to reduce
which presents the best activity.
environmental pollution.
In this study, increasing grass wastes in parallel
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
with the increasing urbanization were used as
3.1. FTIR Analysis
support materials. In order to achieve higher
efficiency in the methanolysis reaction of
sodium borohydride, the catalyst was prepared
using cheaper nickel-metal instead of precious
metals such as Pt and Ru. To prepare GW-HCINi-Cat, firstly grass waste was protonated with
HCI in different concentrations, Ni +2 solution
was added in certain percentages (10, 20, 30, 40
and 50%) and the most active metal ratio was
determined. Different burning temperatures
(300, 400, 500 and 600°C) and different burning
times (15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes) have been
tested for the optimization studies of GW-HCINi-Cat. Thus, the most effective catalyst was
Figure 1. FT-IR spectrum of Pure GW (a)
obtained by treating the grass waste with 7M
HCI and burning it for 45 minutes at 400°C after
and GW-HCI-Ni-Cat (b)
the addition of 30% Ni +2. Finally with the
obtained GW-HCI-Ni-Cat catalyst, methanolysis
FTIR spectrum of Pure GW (a) and GWreactions were tried at four different
HCI-Ni-Cat (b) is given in Figure 1. When the
temperatures (30, 40, 50, 60°C) and reusability
spectra of pure GW and GW-HCI-Ni-Cat are
experiments were tested. FTIR, XRD and SEM
compared, it is seen that the peaks of some
analyses were performed for the characterization
functional groups disappear and the absorbance
of the prepared GW-HCI-Ni-Cat.
intensity of the peaks of some functional groups
2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
The preparation process of GW-HCI-Ni-Cat
consists of 3 steps. In the first step, 1M, 3M, 5M
and 7M HCI (37%, Merck) solution (20 mL)
was added on 3 grams of grass waste,
respectively, and mixed at 200 rpm for 15
minutes. Then, the prepared samples were kept
in the drying oven at 75°C for 24 hours and then
burned in the oven at 400°C for 45 minutes. In
the second stage, parameters such as different Ni
+2 metal ratios (10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and
50%), different burning temperatures (300, 400,
500 and 600°C) and different burning times for
GW-HCI-Ni-Cat were tested and optimum
conditions
were
determined.
Hydrogen
production experiments were generally carried
out by adding 0.1 g of catalyst to a 10 mL
methanol (>99.9%) solution containing 0.25g
NaBH4 (98%) at 30°C. And in the last stage,
performance tests of GW-HCI-Ni-Cat were
completed with at different temperatures (30, 40,
decrease after the GW is processed. In the
spectrum of Pure GW, it was observed that there
are -OH stress at 3289 cm-1
2917, 2848 cm-1wavelength peaks. However, it
was observed that the peaks of these two
functional groups disappeared with the effect of
the acid treatment of the GW-HCI-Ni-Cat
catalyst and the burning[31, 32]. The spectrum
of Pure GW includes vibrations of unconjugated
-C-O (1243 cm-1) and C=O (1632 cm-1) found in
hemicellulose[33]. However, while GW spectra
gave a strong absorbance at 1031, which is the
typical signal of C-O-C stress, the absorbance
intensity of the peak in GW-HCI-Ni-Cat 1081
decreased[34].
3.2. XRD Analysis
- 80 ° for GW (a) and
GW-HCl-Ni-Cat (b) catalyst are given in Figure
2. Three distinct peaks of typical cellulose were
o
observed at a
, 22 ° and 36
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
° for pure GW, respectively[35, 36]. For the
GW-HCI-Ni-Cat (b) catalyst, the presence of
and 73.8 ° degrees. It is seen that peaks are
sharper where nickel is concentrated. It was
nickel oxide, while the other nickel peaks were
metallic nickel. Thus, it can be said that some of
the nickel molecules in the pre-treated grass
waste by adding NiCl2 during carbonization turn
into metallic nickel and some of it into nickel
oxide[37, 38]. The shar
indicate the oxygen-containing functional groups
attached to the carbon formed as a result of the
burning of grass waste[39].
Figure 2. XRD spectrum of GW and GWHCI-Ni-Cat
3.3 SEM Analysis
SEM images of Pure GW (a) and GW-HCI-NiCat (b) catalysts are shown in Figure 3.
Alongside the acid (HCI) treatment and nickelmetal addition of Pure GW, there were some
changes in the surface structure after burning.
While the SEM images of GW (a) were
observed to have a compact and fibrous pure
structure, the SEM image of the GW-HCI-NiCat (b) catalyst showed that nickel-metal
adhered to the surface. SEM-EDX (c, d) images
also support these results[40, 41]. It is thought
that the nickel-metal in the catalyst sintered as a
result of burning, increasing the catalyst activity.
Meanwhile, looking at the SEM-EDX images of
the catalyst, Ni and Cl ratios were determined to
be 9% and 24.7%, respectively.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 3. GW SEM (a), GW-HCI-Ni-Cat
minutes and the hydrogen production rate as
6642.9 mL.min-1g.cat-1. With the effect of
SEM (b) and GW-HCI-Ni-Cat SEM-EDX (c,
decreasing metal ratios, the reaction completion
d) images
time appeared to be 3, 2.8, 4.3, and 4.3 minutes
3.4. Effect of Different HCI Ratios
for catalysts containing 50, 40, 20 and 10% Ni2+,
respectively. Subsequent experiments were
The effect of GW-HCI-Ni-Cat catalysts prepared
continued with 30% Ni2+, which was determined
by treating with different HCI concentrations
as the best metal ratio.
(1M, 3M, 5M and 7M) on hydrogen production
rate in methanolysis reaction was investigated
and the results are given in Figure 4. The
increased acid concentration had a positive
effect on the hydrogen production rate. It was
determined that 7M HCI treated GW-HCI-NiCat had the shortest reaction completion time
(2.3 minutes) and the highest hydrogen
production rate (6642.9 mL.min-1g.cat-1). In
addition to this, the reaction completion time for
catalysts treated with 1M, 3M and 5M HCI is 3,
3.8 and 3.0 minutes, respectively. The most
appropriate acid concentration in terms of both
the hydrogen production rate and reaction
Figure 5. Time dependent change of the
completion time is 7M HCI.
effect of different metal ratios on hydrogen
production volumes and hydrogen
production rates (Reaction Conditions: 2.5%
NaBH4, catalyst = 0.1 g, T = 30 oC,
Vmethanol = 10 mL)
3.6.
Effect
Temperatures
of
Different
Burning
.
Figure 4. Time dependent change of the
effect of different acid concentrations on
hydrogen production volumes and hydrogen
production rates (Reaction Conditions: 2.5%
NaBH4, catalyst = 0.1 g, T = 30 oC,
Vmethanol = 10 mL)
3.5. Effect of Different Metal Ratios
The effect of Ni2+ (10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and
50%) added to GW catalyst treated with 7M HCI
at increasing rates on hydrogen production rate
was investigated and the results are presented in
Figure 5. The best metal ratio for the GW
supported nickel catalyst was determined as
30%. For this catalyst, the reaction completion
time was determined as approximately 2.3
Figure 6. Time dependent change of the
effect of different burning temperatures on
hydrogen production volumes and hydrogen
production rates (Reaction Conditions: 2.5%
NaBH4, catalyst = 0.1 g, T = 30 oC,
Vmethanol = 10 mL)
b
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
The effect of the catalysts prepared by burning
completed in 2.8, 2.8 and 3 minutes,
the GW-HCI-Ni-Cat catalyst at four different
respectively. Thus, it was determined that GWburning temperatures (300, 400, 500 and 600°C)
HCI-Ni-Cat, which was burned at 400°C for 45
for 45 minutes was investigated and the results
minutes, had the shortest reaction completion
are presented in Figure 6. For GW-HCI-Ni-Cat
time and the highest hydrogen production rate.
treated with 7M HCI and burnt for 45 minutes at
400oC, the minimum reaction completion time
3.8. Effect of temperature
was 0.6 minutes, while at other temperatures
(300, 500 and 600°C), this time was determined
2.5% NaBH4 catalysed by 100 mg GW-HCI-Nias 3.3, 3 and 4.3 minutes, respectively. When the
Cat were tested at four different temperatures
catalytic performance of GW-HCI-Ni-Cat,
(30, 40, 50 and 60°C) in the methanolysis
which was prepared by burning at 400°C for
reaction and its effect on hydrogen production
hydrogen production, was increased above the
rate was investigated. The results are presented
burning temperature (400°C), it appeared that
in Figure 10. When the temperature was
the hydrogen production rate was falling. This is
increased from 30oC (6642.9 mLmin-1g.cat-1) to
probably because GW's pore structure was
60oC (9995.5 mLmin-1g.cat-1), hydrogen
deformed when it was raised above the burning
production rate increased 1.5 times. In Figure
temperature[32, 42]. After the best burning
10, it is seen that as the temperature increases,
temperature was determined as 400°C, the
the hydrogen production rate also increases.
experiments were continued by examining the
effect of the burning time.
3.7. Effect of Different Burning Times
Figure 7.Time dependent change of the
effect of different burning times on hydrogen
production volumes and hydrogen
production rates (Reaction Conditions: 2.5%
NaBH4, catalyst = 0.1 g, T = 30 oC,
Vmethanol = 10 mL)
The catalytic activity of GW-HCI-Ni-Cat treated
with 7M HCI and prepared by burning at 400°C
with four different burning times (15, 30, 45 and
60 minutes) in methanolysis reaction is given in
Figure 7. While the decomposition time of the
solution containing 2.5% NaBH4 was completed
in 2.3 minutes with the GW-HCI-Ni-Cat catalyst
that was burned at 400°C for 45 minutes, the
reactions at 15, 30 and 60 minutes were
Figure 10. Time dependent change of the
effect of different reaction temperatures on
hydrogen production volumes and hydrogen
production rates (Reaction Conditions: 2.5%
NaBH4, catalyst = 0.1 g, T = 30, 40, 50 and
60 oC, Vmethanol = 10 mL)
In addition to that, the comparison of the
activities of Ni catalysts used for hydrolysis or
methanolysis of sodium borohydride in previous
studies for hydrogen production rates and
activation energies is presented in Table 1. It is
seen that the hydrogen production rate of the
GW-HCI-Ni-Cat catalyst is higher than the other
studies given in Table 1. ((Raney Ni[43] (228.5
mLmin-1g.cat-1), NiB[44] (330 mLmin-1g.cat-1),
Co-Ni-B[45] (1175 mLmin-1g.cat-1), Co-Ni-P/Cu
sheet[46] (2172.4 mLmin-1g.cat-1), Co-P/CNTsNi[14]
(2430
mLmin-1g.cat-1),
SSMSCH3COOH-NiB[47] (3420 mLmin-1g.cat-1), Ni
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
rate (mLmin prepared in the 0.25 M HCI + ethanol[48] (1526
-1
-1
mLmin g.cat ), Co-Ni-Mo- -Al2O3 [49](3680
1
gcat -1)
mLmin-1g.cat-1), Ni-Co- -Al2O3 [50](6599.6
mLmin-1g.cat-1)).
Raney Ni
228.5
-50.7
[43]
The Arrhenius equation (k: reaction rate
NiB
330
[44]
constant, A: reaction constant, Ea: activation
Co-Ni-B
1175
34
[45]
energy (kJ/mol), T: temperature (K) and R: ideal
gas constant (8.314 JK -1 mol-1) was used to
Co-Ni-P/Cu
2172.4
53.5
[46]
determine the activation energy of NaBH4
sheet
methanolysis catalysed by GW-HCI-Ni-Cat.
(2)
Co-P/CNTs-
2430
49.94
[14]
3420
28.8
[47]
1526
49
[48]
3680
52.43
[49]
-
6599.6
52.05
[50]
GW-HCI-Ni-
6642.9
18.68
This
Ni
SSMSCH3COOHNiB
Ni prepared
in the 0.25
M HCl
+ethanol
Co-Ni-Mo-
Figure 11. Kinetics plot of GW-HCI-Ni-Cat
catalyst.
Ni-CoAl2O3
As seen in Figure 11, for the methanolysis
reaction, lnk versus 1 / T is linear and the
activation energy calculated from the slope of
this graph was determined to be 18.68 kJ mol-1.
It is clearly seen in Table 1 that the activation
energy of GW-HCI-Ni-Cat catalyst is
compatible with the activation energy of other
catalysts in the literature (Raney Ni: -50.7 kJ
mol-1, Co-Ni-B: 34 kJ mol-1, Co-Ni-P/Cu sheet:
53.5 kJ mol-1, Co-P/CNTs-Ni: 49.94 kJ mol-1,
SSMS-CH3COOH-NiB: 28.8 kJ mol-1, Ni
prepared in the 0.25 M HCI+ethanol: 49 kJ mol1
, Co-Ni-Mo- -Al2O3: 52.43 kJ mol-1, Ni-Co-Al2O3: 52.05 kJ mol-1).
Table 1. Comparison of hydrogen production
rates and activation energies of various Ni
catalysts for hydrolysis or methanolysis of
NaBH4.
Catalyst
P/ -Al2O3
Hydrogen
Ea
generation
( kJmol-1)
Ref.
Cat
study
3.9. Reusability
The reusability tests of GW-HCI-Ni-Cat for
hydrogen production were repeated 5 times
under the same conditions and the results are
presented in Figure 12. The experiments were
carried out by catalysing 2.5% (by weight)
NaBH4 in 10 mL of methanol at 30oC by 100 mg
of GW-HCI-Ni-Cat catalyst. Following the first
use, it was washed with distilled water and dried
in the drying oven to separate the GW-HCI-NiCat from the reaction medium and free it from
impurities. While 100% conversion is achieved
at the end of each use, it was also seen that the
catalytic activity decreased gradually. The
hydrogen production rate (6642.9 mLmin -1g.cat1
) in the first use of GW-HCI-Ni-Cat decreased
by 61% (2609.7 mLmin-1g.cat-1) in the second
use. And in the last use, the hydrogen production
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
rate dropped to a level as low as 2195.3 mLmin structure. It is possible to say that the presence
1
g.cat-1 and its catalytic activity was still
of nickel in the XRD spectrum of the GW-HCIcalculated to be 33%. The reason for the drop in
Nihydrogen production rate is thought to be related
52.8 ° and 73.8 ° degrees. For the production of
to the formation of insufficient catalytic active
hydrogen, pure metal salts and many nickelareas for methanolysis of NaBH4 due to catalyst
containing catalysts supported or unsupported
loss that may occur during washing and
have been produced and these will continue to
recycling. Additionally, the increase in the
be produced. In addition to that, it was seen that
concentration of metaborate and the viscosity of
organic waste supported catalysts have many
the solution during the methanolysis reaction of
advantages over chemically supported catalysts
sodium borohydride can result in a decrease in
such as being low cost, environmentally friendly
catalytic performance [41].
and efficient. In this study, it was seen that the
activity can be increased by using low activity
nickel-metal salts as organic waste support
materials.
REFERENCES
Figure 12. Reusability of the GW-HCI-NiCat. (Reaction Conditions: 2.5% NaBH4,
catalyst = 0.1 g, T = 30 oC, Vmethanol = 10
mL)
4. CONCLUSION - DISCUSSION
In this study, waste grass supported Ni +2
catalyst (GW-HCI-Ni-Cat) was prepared to
obtain hydrogen from the NaBH4 methanolysis
reaction. Optimization experiments of GW-HCINi-Cat were carried out and the most active
conditions (7M HCI, 400oC - 45 minutes) were
determined. Reaction rates of 2.5% NaBH4
methanolysis experiment catalysed by 0.1 g
GW-HCI-Ni-Cat catalyst were found as 6642.9
and 9995.5 mLmin-1g.cat-1 at 30°C and 60°C,
respectively. The activation energy of the GWHCI-Ni-Cat catalyst in the methanolysis reaction
of NaBH4 was calculated as 18.68 kJmol-1 by
using the Arrhenius equation. XRD, FTIR and
SEM analyses were performed for the
characterization of GW-HCI-Ni-Cat catalysts.
From the SEM and SEM-EDX (9% Ni +2
loaded) images of the prepared GW-HCI-Ni-Cat,
it was clearly seen that Ni metal adhered to the
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1
, Ahmet Alper Yontar2,
3
4
,
,
5
1.
,
, K
ydogu@kku.edu.tr
2. Mühendislik Fakültesi, Makina
aayontar@tarsus.edu.tr
3.
emrahkantaroglu@kku.edu.tr
4.
abdulkadir0671@outlook.com
5.
ugurbaran41@hotmail.com
; email:
, Tarsus Üniversitesi, Mersin; email:
kkale; email:
Özet
3-Boyutlu (3-B) silindir içi
etkisi; sadece benzin-B HAD modelinin
-hava
-B HAD
2,
H2O, HC, NOx
-
hesaplan
2
x
x
hariç egzoz gaz
Anahtar kelimeler: Hidrojen, Benzin,
hidrojen ve bor türevleri gibi daha
[1-5]. Bu
I.
, enerji
ni
gündem
.
Ülkemizde
enerji
verimlilik kelimesini
daha önemli hale getirmektedir. Günümüzde
motorlarda Arzin ve
sayesinde tamamen elektrikli ya da hibrit olarak
Ancak,
hibrit veya sadece elektrik motorlu otomobillerde
yanma
motor
performans
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
x gibi
Motor teknolojileri;
Motor Ar-Ge
yerine maliyet ve
motor simülasyon
zaman
-
Batmaz [6
bir motorda
herhangi
bir
modifikasyon
deneysel
olarak motor performans ve emisyonlara etkisini
u
paket
me manifoldundaki
havaya %4
performans parametrelerinden volümetrik verim,
kabiliyetleri
Paket programlar ile emme
egzoz
na kadar 1-B olarak komple
test sistemi
-B silindir içi
yanma HAD
çal
,
üretilmektedir.
monoksit
(CO)
ve
hidrokarbon
(HC)
Baghdadi [7],
test motorunda etil alkol ve hidrojen
kullanarak tam yükte yap
, emme
motorda
hidrojen oran
test edilen
LPG'dir (LPG100).
otor benzinle
%10 CNG (CNG10) ve
%5 LPG (LPG5) kütle oran
Motoru
%25 50
aseton (A25-A50) ve %50 naftalin (N50) ekleyerek
olarak bor türevlerinden boraks-pentahidrat (BP),
susuz boraks (AB) ve borik asit (BA)
benzine
Test ettikleri
motor
.
NOx
emisyonunun 4-5 kat
test edilen
-benzin
benzine
göre torkun BP için%4,0, AB için%4,4 ve BA
için%4,4; volümetrik verimin BP için%6,3, AB
için %7,3 ve BA için%
acimce %30 etil alkol ve kütlece %8
%48,5, NOx emisyonu %31,1 ve özgül ya
tüketimi %58,
%10,1 ve efektif
gücü %4,
Baghdadi ve Janabi [8]
x
emisyonunun yüksek
sistemlerinin
için tek boyutlu bir
,
,
, NOx ve
için%
, AB için %
için %
çözünen bor türevlerinin ya
ve BA
. Benzinde
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Fathi vd. [9],
-B
olarak
AVL-B model ile enjeksiyon
saf
için ANSYSsilindir içi yanma
-
RNG k olarak
da
A
o
olarak
130o KMA)
2, 2.25 bar)
o
, 100 ,
.25, 1.5, 1.75,
için
-B
HAD
- Post
. Bu
-B silindir içi yanma modeli;
Proce
Modelde türbülans modeli olarak
modeli
x
modellemesi
-
hareketl
yanma
modellerine göre ila
Pre-Processing
.
i
x
denklemleri
motor için 3-B silindir içi yanma HAD analizi ile
hidrojen
.
Bu
;
ticari bir motorda benzin ve benzine hidrojen
ilavesinin silindir içi yanmaya etkileri 3-B silindir
içi yanma HAD analizi ile
sonlu
hacimler
yöntemi
ile
.
çlar istenen
. Silindir
genel olarak
3-B HAD modelinde, Honda L13A4 tipi i-DSI
motor hacmi 1339 cc, maksimum
5700d/dk'da 63kW ve maksimum
gücü
torku
üzerinde emm
Hidrojen ilavesinin kütlesel olarak %2 seçilmesinin
sebebi çok küçük bir miktarda hidrojen ilavesinin
-1,36) ve güçlü
30o
[10].
G100
[11
HYD2
k
x
ve
H2
Böylece, iki
-roo
motorun bir silindiri
13]. 3-B
model
Bu
[12, silindir
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ANSYS1 mm
sonucunda; n
-B hexahedral
240130 adet ve polyhedraa
ANSYSmesh metrikleri olan en-boy
aspect ratio)
narinlik
(skewness)
.
il 4
[14].
ANSYS-Forte'de 3-B silindir içi yanma
ANSYS-Chemkin-
ile daha önceden
ol
Türbülans modeli olarak RANS RNG k-epsilon
modeli
anma modeli olarak da
izlemek için bir dizi Favre-Averaged NavierStokes denklemi
-equation modeli
kimyasal formu,
ile model bölgesini çevreleyen
literatür
mevcut
2. Silindir içi yanma 3-
ve
test
.
sisteminde
3-B HAD analizlerinde motor çevrimi, 360-1080
simülasyonlar
320-1080
3. Silindir içi yanma HAD modeli
,
analizler benzin ve %2 hidrojen ka
benzin için
Analizlerden okunan parametreler
takip eden
i
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Motor performans parametrelerinden tork, güç,
Nm olara
4. Silindir içi yanma HAD modeli mesh
gözükmektedir. Testte ölçülen torkun katalogda
III.
-DSI motorun
iki
3B Silindir içi yanma HAD modellemesi için
ANSYS3-B
gibi 3-
CO, CO2, H2O, HC, NOx
HAD analizlerinde
özellikleri Tablo 1
-
Tablo 1
o
o
Benzin Hidrojen
C8H18
H2
0.44
0.00
114.218
2.016
14.7
34.3
44.3
120.7
270
461
99
-259.16
C)
C)
o
C)
3
)
3
)
o
C, 1atm)
o
C, 1atm)
16
bilgi yok.
2138
2254
228-470
560
690
82
4.60
0.07
33
296
2.02
14.32
1.64
10.16
(piston, emme manifoldu, egzoz manifoldu, silindir
bujiler), test
den elde edilen performans
gözükmektedir.
azalma,
%18.65
azalma,
azalma, %14.8
%14.8 azalma
benzerlik göstererek G100 ve HYD2 için 35,795
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
2
emisyonu
ise
Hidrojenin çok
azalma CO2
fonksiyonudur. Vo
2O
oldukça
yüksek
seviyelerde
emisyonu,
hesaplanm
2O
emisyonunda
3-B HAD analizlerinden elde edilen silindir
CO2, H2O, HC, NOx
CO, CO2, H2O, HC ve NOx
x
silindir içindeki egzoz
2, H2O, HC,
NOX
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
150
40
140
38
130
36
120
119.000
122.079
34.893
34
115.650
35.795
33.910
32
110
104.009
30.497
30
100
28
90
26
80
24
70
22
60
20
350
12.0
320.000
300
11.455
11.5
11.165
250
200
11.0
189.119
10.852
10.5
153.841
150
100
50
0
10.0
9.5
9.0
8.5
9.759
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
REFERANSLAR
[1]
board generation of hydrogen-rich gaseous
fuels
Hydrogen Energy, 19(7), 557-572.
[2]
review, 23(4), 507-511.
[12]
(1989),
Hydrogen Energy, 14(7), 449-474.
[3] Horman, H.S., Boer, P.C.T, McLean, W.J.
x
emissions and undesirable combustion for
hydrogen-fuelled
piston
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,
8(2), 131-146.
[4] Verhelst, S. and Wallner, T. (2009),
Hydrogen-fueled
internal
combustion
engines Progress in Energy and Combustion
Science, 35(6), 490-527.
[5] Dogu, Y., Yontar, A. A., Kantaroglu, E.,
(2020 Experimental investigation of effects
of single and mixed alternative fuels (gasoline,
CNG, LPG, acetone, naphthalene, and boron
derivatives) on a commercial i-DSI engine
Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization,
and
Environmental
Effects,
doi:
10.1080/15567036.2020.1800864.
[6]
Etkisinin
J. of Hydrogen Energy, 22(4), 423 427.
[11] Migita, H., Amemiya, T., Yokoo, K., and
-Liter 2-Plug
Deneysel
22(1), 137-147.
[7] Al-Baghdadi,
M.,
Analizi
Gazi
A-R
S.,
(2000),
-stroke spark
ignition engine working with both of hydrogen
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 25,
1005-1009.
[8] Al-Baghdadi, M., A-R S. And Al-Janabi,
H.A.K.S, (200
spark ignition supercharged hydrogen
,
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 44,
3143-3150.
[9] Fathi, V., Nemati, A., Jafarmadar, S.,
charge conditions on engine performance and
emission of a DISI hydrogen-fueled engine
Journal Eng. Env. Sci., 35, 159-171.
[10] Jorach, R., Enderle, C., Decker, R., (2017)
NOx Truck Hydrogen
equivalence ratio and CNG addition on engine
performance and emissions in a dual sequential
, International Journal of
Engine Research, 21(6), 1067-1082.
[13]
E
Üniversitesi
Fen
Bilimleri
Enstitüsü,
[14] Anysy-Forte, Theory Guide, Version 19,
Ansys, 2019.
[15]
Yanma, Performans ve Emisyonlar Üzerine
-107.
[16] Shivaprasad, K.V., Raviteja, S., Chitragar, P.,
Investigation of the Effect of Hydrogen
Addition on Combustion Performance and
Emissions Characteristics of a Spark Ignition
Technology, 14, 141 148.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
YUMURTA KABUKLARININ
NDA YAKILMASINDA BACA GAZI
B. GUREL1
Mühendislik Fakültesi, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Isparta;
1.
email: barisgurel@sdu.edu.tr
Özet
2
sisteminde öncel
2
ve NOx
%50-
-
2
ortalama NOx
sayesinde % 3Anahtar Kelimeler:
1
önlenmesidir.
2
LITERAATÜR TARAMASI
orununa ve
harcamamak
ve
çevreye
zarar
vermeden
termokimyasal(gazifikasyon, piroliz) yöntemleri
kükürt içerikleri yüksektir. Bu yüzden normal
-
hacimsel olarak minimum (% 3.3 ± 0.4) CO2
konsantrasyonuna ve maksimum hidrojen
lerdir[3].
n
Sorbentler az miktarda (% 5 a / a) alkalin ve
alkalin toprak karbonatlar Si02 ve Zr02 ile
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
-jel
3 MATERYAL VE METOT
sistemi kull
SrCO3 modifikasyonunun modifiye Pechini
ters
reaksiyonuyla
birlikte
ksiyonunu,
tavuk yumurta
350 c
karbonasyon döngüsünden sonra gözeneklerin
rejim
adsorpsiyon analizi, X2.Deney: 2 kg/dak Kale linyit + 0,8 kg/dak
veya
tamamen
kal
emisyon ölçümleri ge
kapasitesi 100 nm'den daha dar gözeneklerin
dar gözeneklerin hem CO2'i emmesi için yüzey
rencinin,
ma
ve
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Resimleri
Deney Sistemi
4
Kale Linyiti yakma deneylerindeki CO ve SO2
Bu emisyo
CO Ve SO2 Emisyon Ölçümleri
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Kale linyiti ön yanma deneylerindeki NOx
Deney S
yakma deneylerindeki CO(ppm), NOx(ppm) ve
ortalama CO emisyonu 412±562,759 ppm,
ortalama NOx emisyonu 281±15,055 ppm ve
Ölçümleri
Kale Linyiti ön yanma deneylerindeki yanma
ortalama
Yakma Deneylerindeki % Yanma Veriminin
5
SONUÇLAR VE YORUM
ncelikle
yüzde
yanma
verimi
deney
süresi
boyunca
deneysel
ortalama
olarak
CO
-55
-15
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
sayesinde
%
3-5
-
REFERENCES
https://www.yumbir.org/UserFiles/File/yumurta-
Üniversitesi
Mühendislik Fakültesi Çevre
me Tezi, 72s.
[3] Salaudeen, S. A., Acharya, B., Heidari, M.,
Al-Salem, S. M., & Dutta, A. (2020). Hydrogenrich gas stream from steam gasification of
biomass: Eggshell as a CO2 sorbent. Energy &
Fuels, 34(4), 4828-4836.
[4] Trzepizur, K. (2017). Waste Ca (Eggshells)
natural materials for CO2 capture.
[5] Ives, M., Mundy, R. C., Fennell, P. S.,
Davidson, J. F., Dennis, J. S., & Hayhurst, A. N.
(2008). Comparison of different natural sorbents
for removing CO2 from combustion gases, as
studied in a bench-scale fluidized bed. Energy &
fuels, 22(6), 3852-3857.
ÖZET
ve euro dizel (ED)
-
ilavesinin egzoz emis
Anahtar Kelimeler:
gzoz emisyonu, Motor performans, P
1.
ekonomisinde de önemli bir paya sahiptir. Artan
otomotiv üretimi beraberinde lastik üretimini de
nimize
göstergesidir.
görmektedirler
Bu
ve
nedenle
ülkeler
enerjinin
edilmesi
ve
enerji
ekonomik,
lastiklerin çevrede çok uzun süreler sonunda yok
getirmekted
arda
biyokütlenin
büyük
insan nüfusunun
kökenli maddelerden elde edilen enerjiye
biyokütle enerjisi denilmektedir. Bitkilerin
fotosentez tepkimesi sonucu ile elde ettikleri
göre daha
yüksek
oranda NOx emisyonu
dizel ve lastik ya
yüksek potansiyele sahip biyokütle enerjisinin
prosesine
giren
maddelerin
ihtiva
ettikleri
-11].
10-15-25-35-50-10-15-25-35
2. MATERYAL VE YÖNTEM (MATERIAL
AND METHOD)
ve is) ve
sonucu dizel motorlarda %90 orana kadar
edi
Tablo 1.
dizel (%3),
.
Özellikler
Euro Dizel
Pirolize
Analiz Yöntemi
Lastik
Kinematik
2,96
1,6540
TS 1451 ISO 3104
0,01
0,0061
TS EN ISO 6245
829
878,02
ASTM D 5002
0,30
0,0980
EN ISO 10370
Kükürt (mg/kg)
6,50
8784,0
EN ISO 8754
Toplam su (ppm)
200
1624,7
TS 6147
65,0
-*
TS EN ISO 2719
42,9
41,110
ASTM D 240
56,0
-*
TS EN ISO 4264
viskozite (40
o
C,
mm2/s)
Kül (%)
oC,
kg/cm3 )
(%)
(oC)
(MJ/kg)
-*
ölçülememi
veya ölçüm
2.1.
Tablo 2.
Euro
Pirolize
Dizel (%)
Lastik
(%)
ED100
100
0
EPLY10
90
10
EPLY20
80
20
Tablo 3.
özellikleri.
Alt
(MJ/kg)
Euro Dizel 42,900
Tablo 5. Datsu 186FAE teknik özellikleri.
Datsu
(kg/m3)
829,000
(ED100)
Pirolize
41,110
878,020
10-3600
(HP/rpm)
Motor Hacmi (cc)
406
Çap x Strok (mm)
86x70
20:1
(PLY)
1
EPLY10
42,711
833,902
EPLY20
42,525
838,804
için ITALO Plus Spin egzoz gaz analiz
2.2.
ölçmek için SMOKY Smokemeter Opacimetre test
r
egzoz gaz analiz cihaz
2.1.
Tablo 6 da
teknik özellikleri yer
görüntüsü.
Tablo 6. ITALO Plus Spin ve SMOKY
Opacimetre teknik özellikleri.
testler için Datsu marka DDJ8000E jeneratör ve
jeneratöre entegre 186FAE tek silindirli, hava
CO (% hacimsel)
0-15,00 ± 0,01
CO2 (% hacimsel)
0-20,00 ± 0,01
NOx (ppm)
0-4000 ± 5
HC (ppm)
0-20000 ± 12
SMOKY Smokemeter Opacimetre
Tablo 4. Datsu DDJ8000E teknik özellikleri.
Jeneratör
Motor Gücü (HP)
11
Maks.-
7-6
0-100 ± 2
hacimsel)
3. BULGULAR (FINDINGS)
Gücü (kVa)
Frekans (Hz)
50
kalorifik
Monofaze
220
verimini belirleyen ana etkenlerden birisidir.
lmektedir.
yüklerinde ölçülen efektif (termik) verime ait
tüm yüklerde ortalama %5.0422 ve %10.7677
tüm yüklerde ortalama %5.6908 ve %12.8732
yük
verim
üzerind
[12-14].
kendini göstermektedir.
[6]
EPLY10
iz
EPLY20
1500
1250
1000
750
500
250
0
ermektedir.
0.5
ED100
0.75 1 1.25 1.5
Motor Gücü (kW)
Efektif Verim (%)
(g/kWh)
ED100
3.1
3.2. Efektif Verim
EPLY10
EPLY20
15
10
5
0
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
Motor Gücü (kW)
1.5
r.
3.2.
efektif verime etkisi.
a kalan miktar
3.3. Karbonmonoksit (CO) Emisyonu
emis
[15]. Karbon, silindir
3
yerine
CO
molekülleri
olarak
egzozdan
CO
[17]. EPLY10 ve
ortalama %28.2394 ve
[18, 19]
[6]
pit
Karbonmonoksit (%)
ED100
EPLY10
EPLY20
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
3.4
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
Motor Gücü (kW)
3.5. Azot Oksit (NOX) Emisyonu
3.3
tepkimeye
3.4. Hidrokarbon (HC) Emisyonu
da
[15]. PLY üzerine
[20].
x emisyon
ma
[16].Egzozda
emisyonunun
[15].
tespit
edilen
HC
tik içerikx
t
aromatik içe
[4].
motor yükündeki
x emisyonunu yükseltartmak
x
[6].
.0 kg/m3)
3.5 de deneysel
azot oksit emisyonuna
parametreler
dahilinde
3.6 a
test
gösterilmektedir. Ölçülen verilere göre en yüksek
20 (1250 W ve
11.3)
da
ED100
NOx emisyon
(ED100 %196.511, EPLY10 %117.475, EPLY20
EPLY10
EPLY20
15
10
5
0
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
Motor Gücü (kW)
1.5
3.6.
3.7.
ekil 3.5.
NO x
emisyon
etkisi.
3.6.
ED100 ve PLY gibi hidrokarbon ihtiva eden
molekülleri karbon moleküllerine nazaran daha
aktif davranarak ortamdaki oksijeni bünyelerine
temel nedeni Tablo 1
durumda karbon birikmesi meydana gelir ve
Tablo 1
mg/kg
[21].
parametreler
3.7 e
tespit
gösterilmektedir.
yüklerde ortalama %12.8732
fazla silindire giren
aksiyonuna
W
tüm ya
(ED100 167 oC; EPLY10 153 oC;
EPLY20 146 oC;
EPLY10 ve EPLY20
uçuculuk özel
n
C)
ED100
EPLY10
EPLY20
200
150
NOX
100
1500 W
50
0
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
Motor Gücü (kW)
3.7.
st
motor gücünün
giren ya
4. SONUÇLAR (CONCLUSIONS)
yükselm
o
ve %20
büyük
deneysel uygulamada PLY dizel motorlarda
oranlarda
KAYNAKLAR (REFERENCES)
ve EPLY20
ED100 ve EPLY2
EPLY2
[1]
performans ve emisyon üzerine etkilerinin deneysel
2007.
[2]
Mani, M., G. Nagarajan, and S. Sampath,
Characterisation and effect of using waste plastic
oil and diesel fuel blends in compression ignition
engine. Energy, 2011. 36(1): p. 212-219.
eylerde tüm
[3]
Fuel production
from waste vehicle tires by catalytic pyrolysis and
its application in a diesel engine. Fuel Processing
Technology, 2011. 92(5): p. 1129-1135.
[4]
Özdalyan, The effect of tire derived fuel/diesel fuel
blends utilization on diesel engine performance and
emissions. 2012. 95: p. 340-346.
[5]
Koc, A.B., et al. Exhaust emissions of a 4cylinder diesel engine fueled with biodiesel, tire oil
and diesel fuel blends. in 2010 Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, June 20-June 23, 2010. 2010.
American Society of Agricultural and Biological
Engineers.
[12]
performance. 2008. 23(4): p. 306-310.
[13] Simsek, S. and Uslu, S., Comparative
evaluation of the influence of waste vegetable oil
and waste animal oil-based biodiesel on diesel
engine performance and emissions. 2020. 280: p.
118613.
[14] Özer, S., E. Vural, and B.J.E.J.o.V.T.
Özdalyan,
Esterileri.
2011. 3(1): p. 9-18.
[15]
[6]
, in Fen Bilimleri
Enstitüsü. 2012, Karabük Üniversitesi: Karabük.
.
2018, Karabük Üniversitesi: Karabük.
[7]
Lee, S. and T.Y. Kim, Feasibility study of
using wood pyrolysis oil ethanol blended fuel with
diesel pilot injection in a diesel engine. Fuel, 2015.
162: p. 65-73.
[16]
[8]
Lin, Y.-f., Y.-p.G. Wu, and C.-T.J.F.
Chang, Combustion characteristics of waste-oil
produced biodiesel/diesel fuel blends. 2007. 86(1213): p. 1772-1780.
[17] Yamane, K., A. Ueta, and Y. Shimamoto,
Influence of physical and chemical properties of
biodiesel fuels on injection, combustin and exhaust
emission characteristics in a direct injection
compression ignition engine. International Journal
of Engine Research, 2001. 2(4): p. 249-261.
[9]
Murugan, S., M. Ramaswamy, and
G.J.W.m. Nagarajan, The use of tyre pyrolysis oil
in diesel engines. 2008. 28(12): p. 2743-2749.
[10] Devaraj, J., Y. Robinson, and P.J.E.
Ganapathi,
Experimental
investigation
of
performance,
emission
and
combustion
characteristics of waste plastic pyrolysis oil
blended with diethyl ether used as fuel for diesel
engine. 2015. 85: p. 304-309.
[11]
Experimental
investigation on performance and emission
characteristics of waste tire pyrolysis oil diesel
blends in a diesel engine. 2017. 42(36): p. 2337323378.
Özdemir, M., Bir Dizel Motorda Biyodizel
.
2011,
Karabük Üniversitesi Karabük.
[18] Zannis, T. and D. Hountalas, Effect of fuel
aromatic content and structure on direct-injection
diesel engine pollutant emissions. Journal of the
Energy Institute, 2004. 77(511): p. 16-25.
[19] Ickes, A.M., Fuel Property Impact on a
Premixed Diesel Combustion Mode. 2009.
[20] Islam, M. and M. Nahian, Improvement of
waste tire pyrolysis oil and performance test with
diesel in CI Engine. Journal of Renewable Energy,
2016. 2016.
[21] Hall, D., Automotive Engineering. 2008,
Delhi, India: Global Media.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
1
, Güven TUNÇ2
1
1
1. Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Department of Airframe-Powerplant, Erciyes University,
Kayseri ; email: bugrahanalabas@erciyes.edu.tr, mrt@erciyes.edu.tr, iyilmaz@erciyes.edu.tr
2. Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Erciyes University,
Kayseri ; email: guventunc@erciyes.edu.tr
Abstract
Nowadays, researches have been concentrating on alternative fuels in the field of energy. Synthetic gas
mixtures are gaining importance as one of these alternative fuels. By considering synthetic gas mixtures
containing H2 and CO combustible gases, flame instabilities were investigated in case of burning of synthetic
gas mixtures in different H2/CO (3, 1.5, 0.5) ratios with oxygen enrichment. Experiments were carried out
under constant swirl number (1), constant equivalence ratio (0.7) and constant burning power (3 kW). Under
normal conditions, the oxygen rate of 21% by volume in the air was increased to 23% and 25% by supplying
oxygen from an additional tank. The results showed that the oxygen enrichment limit decreases as the
hydrogen content in the fuel mixture increases. While the H2 / CO ratio was 0.5 and 1.5, the oxygen enrichment
rate increased to 25%, but it could be increased up to 23% in the mixture with the H 2 / CO ratio of 3. In
addition, the flame stability was interpreted from the dynamic pressure fluctuations caused by external acoustic
force at different frequencies by means of the speakers placed in the burner arms. Thus, it was determined that
oxygen enrichment in mixtures with high hydrogen ratio triggers instabilities.
Keywords: Synthetic gas, Oxygen Enrichment, Acoustic Enforcement, Instabilities.
1 INTRODUCTION
Hydrogen, which is one of the most intense
elements in nature and draws attention as a
renewable energy source, is one of the main
components of synthetic gas mixtures. Studies
conducted about this field in recent years have an
important place in the liter
examined the combustion and emission
properties of synthetic gas mixtures which used
in two separate power plants called Schwarze
Pumpe and Fife. The researchers took the axial
and radial temperature values along the burner to
investigate combustion instabilities. As a result, it
was revealed that the gas mixture used in the
Schwarze Pumpe plant with H2 / CO ratio of 2.36
and containing 61.9% H2 shows better
performance
in
terms
of
combustion
characteristics and harmful emissions (CO, NOx)
[1]. Bhide and Sreedhara studied the turbulencechemical interaction of a lean pre-mixed synthetic
gas flame. As a result, they observed that as the
rate of hydrogen in the mixture increases, the rate
of heat release increases, especially at low
temperatures, the maximum increase occurs. On
the other hand, it is stated that hydrogen diffusion
decreases with the increase of CO ratio [2].
Li et al. investigated the dilution effect of a premixed swirl-supported synthetic gas flame using
the Large Eddy Simulation method. Researchers
using H2O and CO2 as diluents have shown that
the diffusion and reaction properties of hydrogen
are clearly different from other fuels in the
synthetic gas mixture. Dilution of the fuel with
CO2 significantly reduced the flame temperature,
while the dilution of H2O produced a lower effect
[3]. Armingol et al. conducted research on the
effect of fuel staging for combustion instability
and emissions of synthetic gas fuels. The results
show that the fuel injected into the system from
the second injector reduces the flashback
tendency. They also stated that there was a
significant decrease in combustion instabilities
that caused flashback, without polluting
emissions too increases [4]. Li et al. investigated
the effect of dilution with inert gases on the lean
extinction tendency on synthetic gas mixtures.
The results show that in lean fuel mixtures the
extinction limits generally increase with the
dilution rate. The dilution effect is more evident
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
especially in gases with low H2 content. In this
chemiluminescence showed a non-monotonic
study, the use of Damköhler number is proposed
change as pressure increased [10].
to determine the extinction limits of diluted
As well as the studies on the systems where
synthetic gases [5].
synthetic gas mixtures are used as fuel, the studies
Sun and Xu studied the turbulent combustion
on the burning of different fuel types by enriching
speeds of synthetic gas mixtures of different
them with oxygen are also a current research area.
hydrogen ratios at stoichiometric ratios.
Zhu et al. investigated the NOx formations that
Experiments were carried out at different
occurred during deep-staging combustion of the
turbulence densities in the ratio of 10% to 90%
pulverized coal by oxygen enrichment. The
H2. The effects of initial turbulence intensity and
results show a 40.7% reduction in NOx emission
volumetric ratio of hydrogen on turbulent flame
at 40% oxygen enrichment level during deepspeed were investigated. As a result, a clear
staging combustion. The thermal NOx
correlation with the flame speed was obtained [6].
mechanism has been described as the main cause
Xinlu et al. investigated the laminar flame speed
of reduced NOx emissions. It has been stated that
of a NH3 added synthetic gas mixture in a
deep-staging combustion is more advantageous in
premixed burner by experimental and kinetic
reducing pollutant emissions in oxygen-enriched
modeling. Two types of fuel mixture were used in
combustion [11]. Engin et al. compared the
the experiments (5% H2- 95% CO and 50% H2burning behavior of lignite fuel in an oxygen50% CO). The combustion rates and ignition
enriched environment with the oxy-fuel
delays of synthetic gas mixtures with NH3 added
combustion conditions. Engin et al. They
at different equivalence ratios and pressures have
compared the burning behavior of lignite fuel in
been consistent with experimental data. As a
an oxygen-enriched environment with the oxyresult, reactions have been introduced that may
fuel combustion conditions. Combustion studies
assist in future optimization of NH3 kinetic
were carried out in a circulating fluidized bed
mechanisms [7]. Ren et al. They examined the
burner with a power of 30 kW. The results show
effect of oxygen ratio on the thermal and
that lignites produce stable combustion in all
chemical structure of the flame in synthetic gas
environments, but NOx and SO2 emissions
mixtures burning in O2 / H2O atmosphere. The
increase in oxygen-enriched combustion. On the
results revealed that the measured flame
other hand, NOx emissions have decreased
temperatures match the simulation values. As the
significantly in oxy-fuel combustion [12].
oxygen ratio increases, the maximum flame
Wang et al. compared the laminar burning
temperature increases while the flame length
velocities of CH4 / O2 / N2 and CH4 / O2 / CO2
decreases. While the increase in the oxygen ratio
flames with oxygen enriched conditions using the
had a minor effect on the change of the flame
heat flux method under high pressures. In studies
temperature, it caused a significant increase in the
conducted at different equivalence rates, the
burner tip temperature with the rate of heat
results show that thermal diffusion effects play an
release [8].
important role in reducing the laminar burning
Acompora and Marra conducted the second law
velocity due to CO2 dilution [13]. Vandel et al.
analysis of thermodynamics of premixed
investigated the effects of water vapor and carbon
synthetic gas flames. It has been revealed that
dioxide dilution on flame structure in the oxygenchemical reactions are not always the main
enriched methane flame. In studies, enrichment
contribution parameter in total entropy
rate was kept between 21% and 100%. The
production. The results show that the hydrogen
equivalence ratio was determined as constant
content worsens exergy losses, but the increase in
0.91 swirl number. A comparison was made by
pressure has positive effects about exergy losses
measuring the maximum height of the flame peak
[9]. Wang et al. investigated the effect of dilution
and the minimum height of the lower flame [14].
of lean mixed synthetic gas mixtures on laminar
In this study, unlike in the literature, combustion
flame speed experimentally and numerically.
instability of oxygen-enriched synthetic gas
They stated that the increase in inlet pressure
mixtures in an externally forced thermo-acoustic
decreased the laminar flame speed and this
room have been investigated experimentally.
situation affected the adiabatic flame temperature
negatively. As a result, it was found that peak OH
2 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
2.1. Operating Conditions
Fig 1. The scheme of the combustion system [15]
Before starting the experiments, it was seen that
one of the most important parameters in the
literature for synthetic gas mixtures is the H2 / CO
ratio. For this reason, three different fuel mixes,
high (3), medium (1.5) and low (0.5), were tested.
Based on the stoichiometric combustion equation,
the amount of air required for the theoretical
combustion of these fuel mixtures was calculated.
The value of 0.7, which is the equivalence ratio in
which all fuels burn stably, has been chosen as the
fixed equivalence ratio. The burner is assisted
with a swirl producer and its number is
determined as 1. As the burning power, constant
3 kW value is used. Table 1 presents the
volumetric ratio of fuel used
in the experiments and the test parameters. While
the oxygen enrichment limit of fuels allowed up
to 23% for the mixture with H2 / CO ratio of 3, it
was possible to increase enrichment rates with
25% O2 for other fuel mixtures with low
hydrogen ratio. Since the highest oxygen
enrichment limit was determined as 25.8% in the
fuel mixture with H2 / CO = 0.5, it was tested in
enrichment stages 21%, 23% and 25%. In order
to perform oxygen enrichment, the air supplied
from the compressor was reduced and pure
oxygen was supplied from the tank as much as the
amount of oxygen in the restricted air. Thus, the
O2 / N2 + O2 ratio was increased by reducing the
amount of nitrogen entering the system in the air.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Table 1. Tested Gas Mixture
Synthetic
Gas
CH4
(%)
H2 (%)
CO
(%)
H2/CO
Oxy
Enrichment
(%)
Exp 1
Exp 2
Exp 3
Exp 4
Exp 5
Exp 6
Exp 7
Exp 8
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
52.5
52.5
42
42
42
23.35
23.35
23.35
17.5
17.5
28
28
28
46.65
46.65
46.65
3
3
1.5
1.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
%21
%23
%21
%23
%25
%21
%23
%25
2.2 Test Rig
Figure-1 shows the mechanism in which
combustion tests are carried out. A burner (19)
with a power of 10 kW and a pressure of 20 mbar
is located at the exit of the system. The gases
follow the fuel supply lines and pass through the
mass flow controllers (5). Mass flow controllers
keep the volume of fuel entering the system under
control thanks to the vacuum system controller
(15). After all the fuels (16) are collected in the
collector, the premix meets with air in the premixer (17).
The air mixed with the fuel in the pre-mixer is
supplied with an air compressor with a capacity
of 1500 liters. The mass flow controller on the air
supply line allows up to 300 slm of air to be
supplied. After the air and fuel mix, a flame
appears at the burner outlet. In order to determine
the characteristic features of the resulting flame,
a combustion chamber of 33 cm in diameter and
165 cm in length was manufactured.
Thermocouples, piezoresistive pressure meters
and photodiodes are used around this combustion
chamber. Emission measurements made with the
ports placed at axial intervals around the
combustion chamber and the chimney. A 28channel data received from these pieces are
collected in a logger and displayed on the
computer. The ProfiSignal program on the
computer produces analysis made by reading the
given data.
During
the
combustion
experiments,
loudspeakers (25) are placed on the arms on the
right and left sides of the burner to perform
external acoustic stress. While the sound waves
produced by the function generator (23) are
given to loudspeakers, they can be followed on
the audio amplifier (24) screen. The indecision
values of the experiments performed under
external acoustic forcing are recorded under
different frequencies.
3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Dynamic pressure fluctuations varying with
oxygen enrichment at different H2 / CO ratios
under acoustic forcing at frequencies of 95 Hz
and 175 Hz can be seen in Figure 2a and 2b.,
respectively. As the values are analyzed, it is seen
that in the mixture with H2 / CO ratio 3, the
dynamic pressure fluctuation is measured 438 Pa
under the frequency of 95 Hz, 403 Pa is measured
at 23% oxygen enrichment. Since there is no
significant difference between the two values, it
is necessary to examine the pressure fluctuations
below 175 Hz frequency in order to be able to
compare instability. The pressure fluctuation has
been measured 432 Pa in the case of combustion
with air and the flame extinguished at 1612 Pa
amplitude and 23% oxygen enrichment rate.
Unlike other mixtures, the oxygen adding limit
was lower (23%) in the mixture with H2 / CO ratio
of 3. This shows that when synthetic gas mixtures
with high hydrogen content are enriched with
oxygen, instability increases and a tendency to the
extinction of flame occurs. Especially as the
oxygen enrichment rate is over 23%, the flame
extinguished without any acoustic forcing. The
reason for the increase in combustion instabilities
is thought to be that both hydrogen and oxygen
increase the laminar burning velocity of fuel
mixtures. The number of Lewis decreasing with
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
the increase of the hydrogen rate causes the
Despite this, it is clearly seen that the stability
diffusion instability to increase [16].
increases with the addition of oxygen at 95 Hz,
When the dynamic pressure fluctuations that
the first resonance value of the system [18].
occur as a result of enrichment of the mixture with
the H2 / CO ratio of 1.5 is examined, as seen in
Figure 2, the amplitude value was measured 561
Pa at the combustion with air under the 95 Hz
acoustic forcing and it was also measured 549 Pa
at the rate of 23% oxygen enrichment under 95
Hz acoustic frequency. On the other hand, when
the oxygen ratio was increased to 25%, the flame
became unstable and extinction occurred with a
dynamic pressure fluctuation of 1602 Pa at 95 Hz,
the first acoustic resonance value. This indicates
that as the hydrogen content in the mixture
decreases, the ability to enrich oxygen increases
and the stability values of the flame increase in
oxygen enrichment rates such as 23%. The
current mixture is still considered a fuel mixture
with a high hydrogen content, as 42% of it
consists of hydrogen. Therefore, when the oxygen
enrichment rate was increased to 25%, the flame
became unstable and extinguished. The chemical
effect induced by the addition of hydrogen plays
a dominant role in increase the laminar flame
burning velocity compared to thermal and
diffusive effects. The laminar burning velocity,
which increased with the addition of hydrogen,
combined with high levels of oxygen enrichment,
caused the length of the Markstein to fall below
the critical value and an unstable flame [17].
H2 / CO ratio of the mixture with the highest CO
ratio is 0.5. In this mixture, the hydrogen content
has decreased to the level of 23.35%. Instead,
In the mixture with H2 / CO ratio 3, after 25%
there is a high CO ratio (46.65). When the
oxygen enrichment rate, the combustion did not
experimental data is examined, the dynamic
occur even in the non-forced state, and after the
pressure amplitude of 781 Pa is measured at
flame was extinguished under the acoustic force
acoustic force occurring under the frequency of
in the 1.5-ratio mixture, the flame was able to
95 Hz when the fuel mixture burns with air, while
withstand the instability without extinguishing at
the oxygen rate has increased to 23%, it measured
all acoustic forcing intervals and continued to
503 Pa. When the 25% oxygen ratio, which is the
burn. The increased CO ratio greatly reduced the
highest enrichment ratio in the experiment, was
laminar burning velocity of the fuel mixture.
applied the amplitude was measured as 504 Pa. At
Laminar burning velocity of pure methane from
under the acoustic frequency of 175 Hz, 664 Pa,
the gases in the mixture is 54 cm/s, while
715 Pa, and 612 Pa values were determined in
hydrogen is 770 cm/s and carbon monoxide is 2.7
burning with air, 23% and 25% oxygen
cm/s [19]. Reduced laminar burning velocity was
enrichment rates, respectively. It is known that
balanced by the increase in speed caused by
increasing hydrogen addition causes withdraw
oxygen and contributed to the disappearance of
the backlash signal amplitude. The amplitude of
instabilities.
the signal was not withdrawn due to the decrease
In Figure 3, the effect of change in H2 / CO ratio
of hydrogen in this fuel mixture, and therefore no
in different O2 ratios to dynamic pressure
significant change occurred in the experiments
fluctuations can be seen. Dynamic pressure
performed under the 175 Hz acoustic frequency.
fluctuations of 438 Pa, 561 Pa and 781 Pa,
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
respectively, were measured, respectively,
burning velocity of both oxygen and hydrogen.
according to H2/CO ratios (3, 1.5, 0.5) at the
Fuel with high H2/CO (3) ratio could not be
burning with air under 95 Hz acoustic frequency.
exceeded 23% oxygen enrichment ratio.
This shows that the rate of hydrogen, which
It could be said that in fuels with high
increases by 21% oxygen, increases stability.
hydrogen content, oxygen enrichment triggers
Since the addition of hydrogen increases the
instabilities.
phase difference between heat release and
velocity fluctuation, the effect of external
Although the oxygen enrichment in the fuel
acoustic force on the heat release of the flame is
mixture with the middle H2/CO (1.5) ratio
reduced, thereby increasing thermal stability.
supports stability up to 23% oxygen
Particularly at high frequencies, high hydrogen
enrichment value, a negative effect has
ratio reduces heat dissipation fluctuations [20].
occurred, and the flame has been extinguished
However, due to the high reactivity of hydrogen
when 25% oxygen enrichment is attempted.
and adiabatic flame temperature, dilution with
different gases is recommended in the literature.
Oxygen enrichment process in fuel with low
In the oxygen enrichment process, due to the
H2/CO (0.5) ratio has reduced combustion
reduction of nitrogen gas, which has a diluent
instability in all experimental conditions.
effect in the system, oxygen enrichment increases
instabilities in fuel mixtures with high hydrogen
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
content [21].
The authors wish to thank by The Scientific and
Technological Research Council of Turkey
(TUBITAK) for supporting this study with
project number: MAG-215M821 project and
Erciyes University Research Foundation (Project
No. FDK-2019-8816) for its financial support.
REFERENCES
4 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, combustion instabilities of synthetic
H2 mixtures with different H2 / CO ratios under
acoustic force at oxygen enrichment conditions
were investigated. The results of the study can be
summarized as follows:
Considering
the
dynamic
pressure
fluctuations, the increase in hydrogen ratio in
burning with air conditions supports stability.
As the hydrogen ratios in the synthetic gas
mixtures increase, the enrichment limit of
oxygen has decreased due to the instability
experienced due to the increase in the laminar
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
1
and Habib Gürbüz2
1. Department of Airframe and Powerplant Maintenance, School of Civil Aviation, Süleyman Demirel
University, Isparta, Turkey; email: yasinsohret@sdu.edu.tr
2. Department of Automotive Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Süleyman Demirel University,
Isparta, Turkey; email: habibgurbuz@sdu.edu.tr
Abstract
In the last decade energy consumption and environmental impact of energy conversion systems are hot topics
due to the rapid depletion of energy sources and global warming. SI engines are known to be commonly used
energy devices. Differently from previous studies on SI engines related to energy and environmental concerns
the current paper presents a novel approach and perspective. In this manner emissions data obtained from
experimental investigations is used to measure emissions index, global warming potential, environmental
impact factor, and environmental impact cost of exhaust gases emitted. At the end of the study equivalence
ratio is found to be playing a vital role on emissions index as well as all indicators. According to the main
findings of the research carbon dioxide emissions have the highest environmental impact whereas the
environmental impact of emitted unburned hydrocarbons is the lowest among all exhaust gases. Authors intend
to apply the approach to compare utilization of different fuels in an SI engine in a future study.
Keywords: Emissions, Environmental impact, Cost, SI engine
1 INTRODUCTION
SI engines are one of the most widely utilized
energy generation systems in many fields such as
power plants, vehicles and so on. In this regard
energy consumption and environmental impact of
SI engines draw attention of researchers and
scientists since the rapid depletion of energy
sources and global warming issue emerged [1-3].
In the accessible literature numerous studies
discussing energy consumption, namely
performance, and environmental aspects of SI
engines can be found. In Ref. [4] how i-amyl
alcohol/gasoline fuel blend effects performance
and emissions of an SI engine is experimentally
examined at different engine speeds and
compression ratios. Obtained results are used for
prediction with the aid of artificial neural network
and response surface methodology. At the end of
the study the engine was found to be operating
optimally at 8.31 compression ratio and blend
with 15% ratio of i-amyl alcohol. Zheng et al. [5]
presented experimental results of direct injection
of hydrogen to an SI engine fuelled with methane
at various combustion conditions. It was
concluded that the direct injection of hydrogen
yields decrease in the cycle-to-cycle variations
and increase in indicated thermal efficiency with
whereas combustion duration is shortened. Ilhak
et al. [6] asserted ethanol and acetylene as
alternative fuels to gasoline in their study. For this
purpose a four stroke four cylinder was evaluated
experimentally fed with ethanol and acetylene at
various loads and excess air rates. ethanol and
acetylene were found to have a decreasing effect
on hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions
while acetylene results better thermal efficiency
rather than gasoline and ethanol at high fuel-air
ratios.
Ref. [7] presents experimental
investigation of an SI engine fuelled with biogas.
With this respect piston crown geometry and
compression ratio effects on performance are
investigated. In another study [8] performance
and emissions of an SI engine fuelled with
ethanol/butanol and gasoline blends was
discussed. According to the findings carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions are
reduced as well as fuel consumption is increased
with the increase of ethanol/butanol ratio in the
blend. In Ref. [9] an n-butanol fuel chemically
similar to gasoline was investigated in terms of
combustion characteristics and performance
experimentally and numerically. At the end of
experimental study n-butanol was found to have
similar engine performance indicators compared
to gasoline. So authors concluded n-butanol and
ethanol blend as a promising alternative to
gasoline. Lather et al. [10] evaluated performance
and emissions characteristics of an SI engine
using CNG and HCNG fuels. Within this scope
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
variation of numerous parameters such as thermal
were performed in an air-cooled L-head spark
efficiency, exhaust gas species, specific fuel
ignition (SI) engine having compression ratio of
consumption and so on are presented. In Ref. [11]
7.6, stroke volume of 476.5 cc, maximum 12 HP
effect of ignition timing and compression ratio on
power and 25 Nm torque. The engine was
performance is examined with the aid of first and
coupled to a hydrokinetic dynamometer for
second laws of thermodynamics. The positive
loading. The spark timing was controlled by a
impact of compression ratio on performance and
Motec M4 engine control unit. The air flow rate
exergy parameters is concluded at the end of the
was measured using an Aalborg GFM 77 type
study. As it is understood from the short literature
thermal mass flow meter. The gasoline flow rate
survey most of the previous studies focus on
was measured using a Tecfluid SC250 type metal
effect of different parameters and fuels on
tube variable area flow meter. Exhaust gases were
performance and exhaust gas emissions. However
measured using an IMRFGA4000XDS- type
environmental impact and economic aspect of
emission analyser. The engine was operated with
engine operation is a significant and missing
a conventional carburettor. The throttle opening
topic.
of carburettor has been changed to achieve
In the current paper emissions data obtained by an
different equivalent ratios. The engine was
experimental research is evaluated using a novel
operated different equivalence ratios in range of
approach. In the framework of the analyses global
2 by gasoline fuel. All the experiments
warming potentials, environmental impacts and
were conducted at a constant engine speed of
costs based on environmental impact of emissions
1500 rpm. Experiments were performed with a
conventional carburettor mode, and equivalence
knowledge.
ratio co
varying of throttle opening.
2 MATERIALS AND METHOD
2.1 Experimental Setup and Data
Schematic drawing of the experimental setup is
demonstrated in Fig. 1. The experimental studies
Figure 1. Experimental Layout
Variation of emission species with equivalence
ratio is also plotted in Fig. 2. The combustion
efficiency plotted in the graph is calculated by
[12]:
(1)
where,
and
represent hydrocarbon and
carbon monoxide emissions mass flow rates, and
is mass flow rate of the total fuel injected into
the cylinder. As it is clear in the graph
equivalence ratio leads increase in carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions while
nitrogen oxide emissions decrease. On the other
hand combustion efficiency is variable in the
range of 95% and 97%.
The engine torque (load) and brake power
obtained during at experimental studies are given
in Table 1.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 2. Variation of emission species and combustion efficiency versus equivalence ratio
Table 1. Engine torque (load) and brake
power
Equivalence
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
Engine toque Brake power
(Nm)
(kW)
2.72
0.43
4.89
0.77
10.55
1.66
12.75
2.01
20.31
3.19
2.2 Methodology
Locate in the present paper emissions data is
evaluated in terms of four parameters: (i)
emissions index, (ii) global warming potential,
(iii) environmental impact factor, and (iv)
environmental impact cost.
Emission index is a commonly used parameter for
energy conversion systems. Emission index
basically indicates emitted gas amount per
consumed fuel amount and calculated as follows
[13]:
(2)
In Eq. 2
is the emission index of emission
species of y whereas
and
are mass flow
rates of y and consumed fuel.
Table 2. Global warming potential of
emission species [14]
y
CO
CO2
HC
NOx
GWPy
1
1
21
310
The second parameter used to evaluate emissions
data in the study is global warming potential. As
a known fact emitted gases in the atmosphere act
like a blanket and block heat flux from the earth
through the space. To understand the impact of
each gas on heat blockage global warming
potential is employed [15]. Table 2 summarizes
global warming potential of measured emission
species during the experiments.
To understand environmental risk and hazard of
pollutants environmental impact is the most
common used parameter. Thus environmental
impact factor is the third parameter for evaluation
in the current paper. Using the data given in Table
3 environmental impact of emissions can be
found by:
(3)
In Eq. 3
is the environmental impact of each
species whereas
is the specific environmental
impact and is the operation duration of the
engine.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Table 3. Environmental impact factor of
In Eq. 4
is the environmental cost of each
emission species [16]
species whereas
is the specific environmental
cost and is the operation duration of the engine.
y
by (mPts/kg)
For calculations the engine is assumed to be
CO
8.363
operated 260 days annually and 8 hours daily.
CO2
54.545
HC
114.622
3 RESULTS
NOx
2749.360
In the current paper a gasoline fuelled SI engine
is operated different equivalence ratios in range
Table 4. Environmental cost of emission
2 at a constant engine speed of 1500
species [17]
rpm and emissions data is acquired. The obtained
y
cy (Euro/kg)
data is used to evaluate the engine
CO
0.27
environmentally. For this purpose emission
CO2
0.116
index, global warming potential, environmental
HC
3.538
impact, and environmental impact cost values are
NOx
6.65
calculated for exhaust gases.
Fig. 3 is plotted to indicate emission index of each
exhaust gas species. According to the graph
To protect the environment numerous methods
emission indexes of carbon monoxide, carbon
are applied to distract the emissions from air. So
dioxide and hydrocarbon increase dependent to
these processes cause costs. Another parameter
equivalence ratio. But increase rate of
used in the current study is environmental
hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emission
prevention or distraction costs, namely
indexes are higher relatively to carbon dioxide. It
environmental cost. In Table 4 environmental
is an indicator of carbon monoxide and
cost of each species measured during the
hydrocarbon formation potential of the fuel rather
experiments is listed. For calculation following
than carbon dioxide. In another word increase in
equation is used:
equivalence ratio leads increase in emissions.
(4)
560
CO
1200
CO2
490
1100
420
1000
350
900
280
800
210
700
140
600
2.0
NOx
HC
3.2
1.8
3.0
1.6
2.8
1.4
2.6
1.2
2.4
1.0
2.2
0.8
0.6
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
Equivalence ratio (
1.2
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
Equivalence ratio (
Fig.3. Emission Index of exhaust gases
1.2
2.0
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
480
CO
1100
CO2
1000
420
900
360
800
300
700
240
600
180
500
120
400
36
NOx
HC
900
30
800
24
700
18
600
12
500
6
400
0
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
300
Equivalence ratio (
Equivalence ratio (
Fig.4. Global warming potential of exhaust gases
Fig. 4 is plotted to compare global warming
potential of emitted gases with paying attention to
equivalence ratio. Depending on rise in the
emissions global warming potential of emitted
exhaust gases increases direct proportionally. As
an expected result equivalence ratio yields this
variation.
In Fig. 5 environmental impact of exhaust gases
are graphed. According to the plotting
environmental impact of each exhaust gas species
has an upward trend dependent to equivalence
ratio. Additionally carbon dioxide emissions have
the highest environmental impact compared to all
other species.
4000
3500
60000
CO
CO2
54000
3000
48000
2500
42000
2000
36000
1500
30000
1000
24000
200
NOx
HC
7800
175
7200
150
6600
125
6000
100
5400
75
4800
50
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
Equivalence ratio (
1.2
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
Equivalence ratio (
Fig.5. Environmental impact of exhaust gases
4200
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Fig.6. Environmental cost of exhaust gases
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 5-7 June 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Environmental cost of exhaust gas emissions is
engine, Renewable Energy, Vol. 146, 997plotted in Fig. 6. According to the plot carbon
1009, 2020.
dioxide has the highest environmental cost among
[8] Mourad, M., Mahmoud, K., Investigation
all exhaust gas species.
into SI engine performance characteristics
and emissions fuelled with ethanol/butanol4 CONCLUSION
gasoline blends, Renewable Energy, Vol.
In the current paper a novel approach is intended
143, 762-771, 2019.
to be introduced. The methodology described can
[9]
Fagundez,
J.L.S., Golke, D., Martins, M.E.
be beneficial to evaluate feasibility of alternative
S., Salau, N.P.G., An investigation on
fuels as well as to reveal their environmental and
performance and combustion characteristics
economic aspects compared to current utilized
of pure n-butanol and a blend of nfuels. For a future study authors aim to compare
butanol/ethanol as fuels in a spark ignition
different fuels in the same engine using the
engine, Energy, Vol. 176, 521-530, 2019.
presented methodology.
[10] Lather, R. S., Das, L. M., Performance and
emission assessment of a multi-cylinder SI
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ANAEROBIC CO-DIGESTION OF DEFATTED SPENT COFFEE GROUNDS
WITH DIFFERENT WASTE SUBSTRATE FOR BIOGAS PRODUCTION
M.R. Atelge1, 2*, A.E. Atabani1, Serdar Abut3, M. Kaya4, Cigdem Eskicioglu5, Gopalakrishnan
8
Kumar6, Changsoo Lee7
, S. Unalan1, R. Mohanasundaram9, F. Duman10
1. Alternative Fuels Research Laboratory (AFRL), Energy Division, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes University, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey
2. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Siirt University, 56100 Siirt, Turkey
3. Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, Siirt University, 56100 Siirt,
Turkey
4. Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Siirt University, 56100 Siirt, Turkey
5. UBC Bioreactor Technology Group, School of Engineering, The University of British Columbia,
Okanagan Campus, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada
6. Institute of Chemistry, Bioscience and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and
Technology, University of Stavanger, Box 8600 Forus, 4036 Stavanger, Norway
7. School of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and
Technology (UNIST), 50 UNIST-gil, Eonyang-eup, Ulju-gun, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
8. Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes University, 38039
Kayseri, Turkey
9. School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT University, India
10. Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Erciyes University, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey
*Corresponding Authors: M.R. Atelge (rasitatelge@gmail.com)
Abstract
The recovery of energy from waste has become important topic due to waste manage and secure energy
production demand. As a waste, the spent coffee grounds have been a potential candidate for this concept
because of the availability of over the world and rich organic combination. This study examined the effect of
the oil extraction method on anaerobic digestion of spent coffee grounds as a novel pre-treatment method
and feasibility of this residual with different wastes such as spent tea waste, glycerin, and macroalgae. The
biochemical methane potential test was revealed mono substrates such as defatted spent coffee ground, spent
tea waste, glycerin, and macroalgae, and several mixing ratios of these wastes under mesophilic conditions
with a batch reactor. Those wastes were abundant around the country and easy to reach; therefore, they were
chosen possible co-digestion substrates. The best methane yield was obtained from defatted spent coffee
grounds as 335.57 mL CH4/g VS and the methane yield rose an increase of defatted spent coffee grounds
percentage in mixing for co-digestion. Moreover, kinetic studies of methane production were analyzed. With
the novel pre-treatment method, the conversion process of waste to biofuels more economically feasible,
adds more options to the biorefinery operators to produce different types of biofuels and remarkably
contributes towards circular bioeconomy.
Keywords: Defatted spent coffee grounds, Anaerobic co-digestion, Pre-treatment, Biofuels.
1
IINTRODUCTION
Broadly, the global energy consumption is
derived from four main resources namely fossil
fuels, nuclear energy, traditional biomass, and
modern renewable energy technologies. In 2017,
their shares were 79.7%, 2.2%, 7.5%, and 10.6%,
respectively [1]. Global warming (GW) is a
disastrous climate phenomenon that emerged in
the last century. It is believed that GW caused the
remarkable increase in the
temperature
due to the greenhouse gases (GHGs) effect [2].
GHGs are composed of 81% Carbon dioxide
(CO2), 10% methane (CH4), 7% nitrous oxides
(NOx)
and
3%
fluorinated
gases
(Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur
hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride) [3]. CO2 is
the key contributor to the GHGs emission. It is
emitted as a result of the excessive burning of
fossil fuels. Nevertheless, CH4 has a more
negative influence as it has 21 times more
adverse effect than CO2 to trap heat [2]. CH4 is
emitted during the production and transportation
of coal, natural gas, and oil. It can be also emitted
through the decay of organic waste in the
municipal organic waste landfills [3]. Therefore,
capturing and lowering CH4 emissions and
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
producing energy from this gas may have a huge therefore helps to combat global warming on the
impact to prevent GW.
environment. Secondly, it can also reduce the
Globally, many initiatives have been set towards dependency on energy-intensive production of
decarbonisation of the existing energy systems mineral-based fertilizers as the by-product of the
relying on burning fossil fuels toward carbon- biogas production process known as digestate can
neutral systems that utilize renewable fuels. be used as organic fertilizer.
Biogas is among those strong candidates as it is a It was reported that the AD process is more
versatile fuel that can be utilized to produce heat efficient than the thermo-chemical conversion
and generate electricity. Biogas is produced (waste-to-fuel) methods when input and output
through the anaerobic digestion (AD) process of ratio are taken into account [12]. Nevertheless,
three main groups of feedstocks namely; energy AD systems also have their own disadvantages
crops (i.e. barley, and maize), organic waste (i.e. such as the existence of the un-biodegradable
municipal solid waste, agricultural waste, and feedstocks, low CH4 yield, and long hydraulic
animal manure), and aquatic biomass (i.e. micro retention time (HRT). To increase AD
and macro algae) [4]. According to the performance and CH4 yield, complex structure
International Energy Agency (IEA) [5], it is and slow biodegradability feedstocks have to be
projected that biogas potential will increase by eliminated before starting the AD process. For
by 2040. In Europe, instance, lignocellulosic biomass are hard to
biogas consumption has increased almost 26 digest due to their elemental and chemical
times since 1990 reaching a total of 16.670 ktoe compositions. To overcome these problems, prein 2018 from a total of 18.802 biogas plants. This treatment of feedstock can play a significant role
represents about 1% of the total gross inland in changing the combination of substrates to
energy consumption of the EU-28. It has been become easily biodegradable [13]. Several prereported that 72% of the feedstocks used for treatment methods such as physical, chemical,
biogas production come from the agricultural and biological have been reported in the literature
waste [6]. In Turkey, renewable energy usage is [4, 14]. It has been stated earlier that the
gradually increasing. According to the 2023 theoretical biogas yield is generally higher than
energy vision report, the country has set a plan to the experimental results. This is due to the fact
supply 30% of total energy consumption from that the theoretical model does not consider
renewable energy resources by 2023 [7, 8]. In various issues that affect the overall AD
specific, 2000 MW of energy demand will be performance such as biodegradability, ammonia
supplied from biomass. Currently, the country has accumulation, and resistance of cell walls [4].
20 installed biogas plants that can produce Additionally, pH plays a key role to indicate the
3
annually
[8]. Moreover, the stability of the AD process as the optimal pH is 4annual energy potential of the country is 8 for hydrolysis phase and 6.5-7.5 for
projected at 61.53 TWh from biogas production methanogenic communities [15]. Theoretically,
[8]. This potential can cover 6up to .3% of the lipids have the highest methane potential;
total energy consumption and thus replace 37.7% however, volatile fatty acids (VFA) accumulation
of natural gas consumption [9, 10]. An additional have an adverse effect on the reactor performance
advantage associated with the biogas is that it can due to inhibition [15].
be also upgraded into a higher quality biofuel Due to their high oil and nutritional contents,
known as bio-methane. Bio-methane is a aquatic biomass has been recently under the
renewable fuel that can be injected into the spotlight. Firstly, oil was extracted and converted
existing gas grid, used in industrial processes or into biodiesel while biogas was produced from
as a transport fuel.
the residual biomass [16]. Many researchers have
Biorefinery establishes an effective approach to recently focused on biogas production from the
simultaneously save the environment from the microalgae residual after oil extraction process
direct disposal of organic waste to landfills and under mesophilic conditions with a batch reactor
production of various renewable fuels and added- [16-18]. As it can be seen from Table 1, most of
value products in a sustainable way [11]. To put the results indicated that the oil extraction process
this discussion into practice, the sustainable can be considered as a pre-treatment method and
biogas production from organic waste contributes therefore improved the CH4 yield even though the
to reducing CH4 emissions from landfills, and
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
de-oiled substrates have theoretically less CH4 potential [2].
Table 1 Available data of the methane yield for microalgae before and after oil extraction as a
pre-treatment method
Substrate Type
Oil
Content
Chlorella
Chlorella
Nannochloropsis
Nannochloropsis
Nannochloropsis
1.96%
28.3%
6.5%
16.3%
7.61%
Nannochloropsis
Scenedesmus
Scenedesmus
Tetraselmis
37.61%
16.9%
-
Tetraselmis
11%
Oil extraction
condition as pretreatment
n-butanol
Without
Ethanol
Without
Hexane/isopropanol
(3:2, v/v)
Without
Hexane
Without
Supercritical CO2
extraction
Without
Between 2016-2019, world coffee consumption
increased by 4.5% and reached 9.92 million tons
[21]. According to this trend, coffee
consumption is projected to reach 12.24 million
tons by 2030 (R2=0.9232 considering a linear
regression). As a result of the coffee making
process, spent coffee ground (SCG) is generated
as an organic waste representing 65% of coffee
beans' weight [22]. Annually, ~6.5 million tons
of SCG is produced all over the world. SCG as
an organic waste, has high oxygen demand
during the decay process and releases residual
caffeine, tannin, and polyphenol to the
environment [23]. SCG has been considered
globally as a potential candidate for biofuels
production owing to its availability all over the
world and rich components [22]. To eliminate
the harmful effects of direct dumping of this
waste to the environment, researchers have
studied various valorisation opportunities of
SCG with a biorefinery approach to convert it to
biosorbents [24], bioplastic [25], and biofuels
[26, 27] and etc. Valorization of SCG into
biogas is not a new topic. Early studies
conducted by Lane [28] and Raetz et al. [29]
reported the AD of SCG under mesophilic
conditions while Kida et al. [30] and Kostenberg
et al. [31] reported the AD of SCG under
thermophilic conditions. Both studies indicated
that biogas production deceased after a while
either due to pH problems or inhibition. Recent
studies showed that the CH4 yield of SCG,
similar to other substrates, during the AD
process could be improved by controlling some
parameters such as C/N ratio, macro and micro
AD parameters
Methane Yield
(mL CH4/g VS)
*(mL CH4/gTS)
268*
425*
327 (2)
303 (5)
399 (13)
Ref.
Batch, 38 ±
357 (5)
212.3 (5.6)
140.3 (29.4)
236
[16]
[20]
[20]
[18]
Batch, 38 ±
160
[18]
Batch, 35 ±
[17]
[17]
[19]
[19]
[16]
nutrients, and food/inoculum ratio [32].
Different mixing ratios of SCG and
food/inoculum ratio had a positive impact on
CH4 yield of SCG which ranged between 271360 mL CH4/g VS [33, 34]. To keep the balance
of the nutrition in the reactor, different
feedstocks were co-digested with SCG and the
obtained CH4 yield ranged between 280-355 mL
CH4/g VS [35, 36]. Additionally, some pretreatment methods such as alkaline and
combined pre-treatment (alkaline and thermal)
were recently applied on SCG and the results
showed an improvement between 254 [27] and
392 mL CH4/g VS [37]. Both co-digestion and
pre-treatment methods have positive impacts on
enhancing the CH4 yield from SCG as
mentioned above. All reports mentioned above
were studied co-digestion of SCG or pretreatment of SCG. However, after the
pretreatment of SCG, the co-digestion of
pretreated SCG has not yet been adequately
covered in the literature.
Similar to microalgae, SCG can be processed
into biodiesel as it has an average lipid content
of ~13% of dry weight [26]. This indicates that
biogas can be also produced from the left-over
of SCG after oil extraction known as defatted
spent coffee grounds (DSCG). However, no
studies have reported the valorisation potential
of DSCG to biogas. Therefore, a novel pretreatment method of SCG, similar to microalgae,
was applied in this study in which the lipids
were firstly extracted from SCG, followed by
processing the DSCG for biogas production. The
extracted oil can be utilized for biodiesel
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
production [38, 39]. DSCG was used as a new
volatile solid (VS) values of the inoculum were
substrate for the co-digestion process along with
4.25 (%) and 2.35 (%), respectively. The
four substrates namely; (a) SCG, (b) spent tea
inoculum has been stored at 4oC in the
waste (STW), (c) glycerin (G), and (d)
refrigerator. All batch reactors were set to
macroalgae (MC) (Spirogyra sp.) in a batch
substrate/inoculum ratio (S/I) of 1.0 on VS basis.
small-scale reactor under mesophilic conditions.
2.2 Analytical methods
DSCG was mixed with the other four substrates
TS values were analyzed according to EN12280
in the ratio of 25, 50, 75% (w/w) respectively.
standards. To determine TS, all substrates were
The primary aim of this approach is to
placed in the oven at 103-105 °C until reaching a
understand the effect of the novel pre-treatment
constant weight as per EN12280 standards [40].
method along with the different feedstock
For determination of the VS, the sample was
characteristics and combinations of these
burnt in a muffle furnace (MagmaTherm, MTSfeedstocks on the co-digestion and the
1100, Turkey), firstly for 30 min at 220°C, and
biochemical methane potential (BMP). This
then for 2 h at 550°C. [40]. The elemental
study not only reported useful information on
analysis was performed to obtain the C, H, N, O
the effective pre-treatment method but also the
contents of each substrate using an elemental
co-digestion performance with the different
analyzer (Leco/TruSpec Micro model, USA).
mixing ratio. This work demonstrated for the
Theoretical methane yields were calculated
first time the utilization of DSCG for biogas
according to the stoichiometric equation (Eq.
production. Such an approach renders the
(1)) (BMPthAtC) from the elemental analysis
conversion process of waste to biofuels more
results (CnHaObNc) of feedstocks [41] as follow:
economically feasible, adds more options to the
biorefinery operators to produce different types
(1)
of biofuels and added-value products and
remarkably contributes towards circular
bioeconomy.
Total chemical oxygen demand (TCOD) and
2
MATERIALS AND METHODS
soluble chemical oxygen demand (SCOD) were
2.1 Feedstocks and inoculum
determined according to the standard method
Fresh SCG samples were collected from local
5220-D. For solid based waste, pH was
coffee shops around Erciyes University campus
measured according to the method described by
in Kayseri, Turkey. After the samples were
Adinaryana et al. [42] via a Hanna Instruments
collected, they were immediately dried using an
(Model: HI2002-01 edge Dedicated pH/ORP
oven at 105°C. (Mikrotest, MKD series, Turkey)
Meter, USA). Protein, lipid and carbohydrate
for several hours and the dried samples were
contents were analyzed according to Kjeldahl
then stored in a tank. Afterwards, weighed SCG
method [33].
samples were placed in a soxhlet extraction
To determinate cellulose, hemicellulose, and
apparatus consisting of soxhlet extractor,
lignin
contents
of
each
substrate,
condenser, flask, heater with magnetic stirrer
thermogravimetry analysis (TGA) was used
and refrigerated circulating bath. Extraction of
according to Rego et al. [43] method using a
spent coffee grounds oil (SCGO) was performed
TGA device (Model: PerkinElmer, USA). Due
by hexane (C6H14) as a solvent. The residue
to unique breaking bonds at temperature ranges
solid after the extraction process (DSCG)
of 498 598, 598 648 and 523 773 ºK,
besides SCG samples were then kept at 4 in a
respectively, hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin
refrigerator for the AD process. STW was
contents in all substrates can be determined
collected from the tea making machine available
following this technique. For each substrate, the
at our Engines Laboratory, Department of
TGA test was performed in triplicate. Trace
Mechanical Engineering, Erciyes University. G
element analyses were measured via an Agilent
from Merck (CAS 56-81-5) (99%) was used.
(Model: 7500A, USA). CO2 and CH4 contents in
MC (Spirogyra sp) was collected from Seker
biogas analyzed via a Shimadzu (GC-2010 Plus,
Lake
(Kayseri,
Turkey)
(38°45'24.3"N
Japan). All tests were conducted in triplicate and
35°25'07.6"E) during June to August 2019.
the standard deviation were calculated
Inoculum was taken from a local wastewater
accordingly.
treatment plant in Kayseri. Total solid (TS) and
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
2.3 BMP tests
remove oxygen from the bottle, nitrogen was
For BMP tests, 120-mL autoclave bottles with a
flushed into each bottle for 5 min before they
90-mL working volume were used and each
were tightly sealed with a threaded cap. Each
bottle contained 90 mL of inoculum and solidbottle was connected to a measuring cylinder
based substrate mixture. In this study, trials
with 3 mm inside diameter silicone hose to
covered mono and co-substrates digestions. For
monitor the daily biogas production. The
mono-digestion, all samples (100% DSCG,
samples were incubated at 37 ± 1°C with
SCG, STW, G, and MC) were examined with
horizontal shakers at 150 rpm continually for 49
and without inoculum. The blank samples were
days. The volume of daily produced biogas was
also run to obtain biogas production from the
converted to standard temperature (0°C) and
inoculum and the biogas from the inoculum was
pressure (1 atm) conditions according to [44].
corrected from other trials of biogas production.
For the kinetic study, the obtained methane was
For co-digestion, DSCG was mixed with other
calculated using Eq. (2) (the modified Gompertz
substrates in the ratio of 25%, 50%, and 75% in
model) [45].
VS basis. All BMP tests, which are under 23
(2)
different conditions, were run triplicate, as a
where:
result, a total of 69 BMP tests were concluded.
CMPt
The cumulative methane production
Samples were marked 1 (DSCG), 2 (SCG) , 3
(L CH4/g VS)
(STW), 4 (G), and 5 (MC) for mono digestion, 6
t
The incubation time (day)
(50% of DSCG and 50% SCG), 7 (50% of
P
The estimated methane production
m
DSCG and 50% STW), 8 (50% of DSCG and
potential (L CH4/g VS)
50% G), and 9 (50% of DSCG and 50% MC) for
MPR
The maximum methane production
m
50% mixing ratio, 10 (75% of DSCG and 25%
rate (L CH4/d)
SCG), 11 (75% of DSCG and 25% STW), 12
Lag phase (day)
(75% of DSCG and 25% G), and 13 (75% of
3
RESULTS
AND DISCUSSION
DSCG and 25% MC) for 75% of DSCG and
3.1 Characterizations of the substrates
25% other feed stocks, and 14 (25% of DSCG
The main physicochemical properties including
and 75% SCG), 15 (25% of DSCG and 75%
ultimate
(elemental)
analysis,
chemical
STW), 16 (25% of DSCG and 75% G), 17 (25%
composition,
trace
elements
and
BMP
thAtC of
of DSCG and 75% MC) for 25% of DSCG and
each substrate were given in Table 2..
75% of other wastes and 18 for blank. To
Table 2 Physicochemical properties of substrates tested for BMP
C (% w/w)*
H (%w/w)*
O (%w/w)*
N (%w/w)*
S (%w/w)*
CHNOS (%w/w)*
C/N
TS (%)
VS (%)
VS/TS
pH
Protein (%)
Lipid (%)
Ash (%)
Carbohydrate (%)
Cellulose (%)
Hemicellulose (%)
DSCG
49.33 ± 0.07
6.46 ± 0.07
40.85 ± 0.0
2.05 ± 0.05
0.03 ± 0.01
98.71
24.06 ± 0.32
93.78 ± 0.38
89.89 ± 0.84
0.96
5.55 ± 0.13
15.50
2.44
1
81.06
47.60
48.21
SCG
52.23 ± 2.68
7.33 ± 0.39
37.14 ± 0.0
2.19 ± 0.10
0.02 ± 0.02
98.82
23.82 ± 0.13
94.56 ± 2.12
92.11 ± 1.95
0.97
5.70 ± 0.05
12.70
17.39
1
68.91
68.88
29.43
The results from Table 2 indicated that SCG had
the highest C content (52.23%). The C contents
STW
48.01 ± 2.26
5.68 ± 0.17
39.95 ± 0.0
2.04 ± 0.49
0.02 ± 0.0
95.69
23.56 ± 6.71
96.78 ± 0.84
89.11 ± 0.38
0.92
4.57 ± 0.08
22.76
2.48
4
70.76
40.29
48.48
G
38.06 ± 0.63
9.22 ± 0.19
52.70 ± 0.0
0.00 ± 0.0
0.00 ± 0.0
99.98
99.10 ± 0.28
99.10 ± 0.28
1.00
5.00 ± 0.11
0
-
MC
24.35 ± 0.01
2.25 ± 0.01
22.58 ± 0.0
0.85 ± 0.01
1.01 ± 0.01
51.04
28.65 ± 0.09
73.92 ± 4.91
45.23 ± 2.42
0.61
8.48 ± 0.07
10.70
2.66
47
39.64
43.00
12.43
of other substrates were DSCG (49.33%), STW
(48.01%), G (38.06%), and MC (24.35 %),
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
respectively. To optimize the AD process,
observed that all trace elements were in ppm
macronutrients ratio, known as C/N, is
scale that did not exceed the critical levels.
commonly accepted between 20-30 for the
3.2 Experimental analyses
methanogenic bacteria [2]. It has been found that
3.2.1. BMP test results
all substrates except G were in the optimum
In this study, pre-treatment, and co-digestion
range in terms of C/N ratio while the C/N of MC
effects of DSCG were examined when SCG,
was slightly higher. It was also noticed that the
STW, G, MC were utilized as co-substrates. The
C and N content in DSCG
3% and
methanation performance based on the BMP
compared to SCG as a
tests was firstly evaluated based on monoresult of the oil extraction process. C/N ratio of
digestion of DSCG followed by co-digestion
DSCG, SCG, STW, and MC was 24.06, 23.82,
with other substrates. Additionally, the
23.56, and 28.65,respectively while the ratio of
experimental data was a good agreement with
G could not be calculated as it has high purity
the modified Gompertz model. As it has been
(99%) and thus no N content was detected.
mentioned in the previous sections, this study
Overall C, H, O, N, and S contents of all
primarily aims to examine the effect of the desubstrates exceeded 95% except for MC which
oiling process on the BMP results in order to
exhibited a high ash percentage (trace elements).
assess the feasibility of DSCG for methane
These results indicated that DSCG, SCG, STW,
production.
and G can be considered as organic materials
The results of BMP tests were represented in mL
while MC had high inorganic fractions
CH4 per unit mass of VS-based at standard
(~48.96%). S content was the highest in MC as
temperature (0°C) and pressure (1 atm) as shown
1% (ash-free weight-based) which is in the upper
in Figure 1. All substrates were firstly run monolevel of the critical point for the AD process
digestion and labeled one hundred percent with
while other substrates had a very low S contents
the symbols of substrates, i.e. 100% DSCG. Co(Table 2). Sulfate(SO 4) is reduced into
digestion samples were labeled the first
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) during the AD process
percentage represents DSCG and the second
and H2S has an inhibition capability in the range
percentage represent the co-substrate, i.e. 75%
of 100-800 ppm in the reactor [46].
DSCG + 25% SCG with mixing ratio in VSAdditionally, the results showed a good
basis, and BMP trails were run in triplicate.
agreement with VS/TS ratio for all used
BMP tests were completed in 49 days and the
substrates. Moreover, the theoretical methane
results of sole feedstock were 335.57, 309.82,
yields were calculated according to Eq. (1) from
261.10, 181.09, and 231.16 mL CH4/g VS for
the elemental analysis showed that SCG had the
DSCG, SCG, STW, G, and MC, respectively. It
highest methane yield of 552 mL CH4/g VS
was observed that DSCG had the best
followed by DSCG (483 mL CH4/g VS) and
performance and CH4 yield among other
STW (475 mL CH4/g VS), respectively as
substrates including SCG. This phenomenon is
shown in Table 2.
reported for the first time in this study. This
The results of trace elements analysis are shown
supports that fact that SCGO has to be extracted
in Table 2. Trace elements are considered as
from SCG prior to the AD process. As indicated
micronutrients
for
the
AD
process.
earlier, SCGO can be valorized in many ways
Microorganisms utilize micronutrients to
such as for biodiesel production. This pathway
produce coenzymes [2]. The trace elements in
will add to the economics of SCG recycling.
the reactor was reported to be in the order of
Apart from that, the results of mono-digestion
under the same conditions were comparable with
Co Mo<Ni<Fe, furthermore; Fe, Ni, Co, Zn,
the results available in literature. For instance,
and Cu should be lower than 1.32, 4.8, 30, 1.13,
SCG was investigated with a batch reactor at 38
and 0.12 g/L respectively to prevent inhibition
±
was 0.271
[47]. DSCG and SCG were found to have the
0.325 m3/kg dry organic matter [33]. Another
optimum range in the case of micronutrients;
study examined the S/I ratio between 0.5 and 2
however, Co and Mo were not found equivalent
under mesophilic conditions with a batch reactor
to each other for both STW and MC.
for SCG. The obtained result was 0.310 mL
Additionally, G, which has a higher Ni content
CH4/g VS, when S/I ratio was 1.0 [34]. For STW
than Fe, did not meet the requirement of the
and G, the methane yields were reported as
optimal trace elements content. However, it was
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
227.7 [48] and 267.5 [17] mL CH4/g TS,
NaOH (w/w) were applied
respectively. Results from the literature
24h. The methane yield increased with the
indicated that crude glycerin had higher methane
increasing NaOH percentage. For instance, 8%
yield
/
g
VS
[49])
than
pure
G.
of NaOH increased the methane yield from 316
4
This phenomenon can be attributed to the
(6.6) to 392 (3) mL CH4/g VS representing an
presence of some impurities in crude glycerin
increase of 24% [27]. Kim et al. [37] examined
that could be used as feedstocks (nutrition) by
the thermo-alkaline pre-treatment to SCG as a
microorganisms.
combined method. NaOH was applied 0 to 0.2
M between at
BMP test, the methane yield increased from
155.1 to 254.0 mL CH4/g COD under the
optimum condition of
[37].
It was obvious that the pre-treatment method had
a positive influence on increasing the methane
yield from SCG. Nevertheless, oil extraction
method has not yet been considered as a pretreatment method for SCG in the literature. SCG
a
has a lipid content that is almost similar to
microalgae (Table 2). Using hexane for oil
did not only remove oil from
SCG but also improved the feedstock qualities
for the AD process. In SGC, there are some
unfavorable organic compounds such as
caffeine, tannin, and polyphenol which can be
isolated during the lipid extraction from the SCG
[23]. Caffeine content had a negative effect on
b
reactor performance. It was demonstrated that
when the content of caffeine in food waste
reduced from 150 ppm to 100 ppm, biogas
production increased by 21.6% from 336 to
408.5 mL biogas/g TS [50]. Another positive
impact associated with the oil extraction (pretreatment) is that hemicellulose percentage
increased while the lignin component reduced in
DSCG compared to SCG. In Table 2,
c
hemicellulose increased by 44.73% from
47.60% (SCG) to 68.89 % (DSCG) while lignin
content decreased by 59.62% from 4.21% (SCG)
to 1.70% (DSCG). All changes improved the
methane yield of DSCG, and thus DSCG, as a
mono-substrate, gave the highest methane yield
(335.57 mL CH4/g VS) among other substrates.
For the co-digestion aspect, mixing different
d
substrates could improve the AD performances
as the macronutrition and micronutrition balance
Figure 1 The methane production and the
can be supported using this technique [32]. To
modified Gompertz kinetic model (MGM) for
increase methane yield, DSCG was mixed with
DSCG and co-substrates: (a) SCG, (b)
SCG, STW, G, and MC in the ratio of 25, 50,
STW, (c) G, and (d) MC
and 75% w/w for each one. The highest methane
To improve the methane yield of SCG, some
yield for co-digestion was obtained 317.99 mL
pre-treatment methods were recently applied.
CH4/g VS when DSCG was mixed with 50% of
Girotto et al. [27] reported the alkaline preSTW whereas somehow the methane production
treatment of SCG in which 0, 2, 4 ,6 ,8% of
dropped by increasing or decreasing the
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
percentages of STW, but still higher than mono
and 11.23, respectively. Therefore, SCG gave a
STW digestion. For MC, the same trend was
better BMP and VS removal than STW. The VS
observed. This phenomenon can be attributed to
removal had the same trend for G and MC when
the micronutrition balance. Additionally, S
increasing the percentage of DSGC. As a mono
content caused this fluctuation for MC due to
substrate, G and MC had only 17.31 and 19.55%
H2S production which is an inhibitor for
of VS removal compared to 21.75 and 23.71%
methanogens [46]. In the case of G,
of VS removal when the percentage of DCGS
macronutrition had the main effect on the AD
was 75%. It is clearly noticeable that the
process because of the absence of N in G
addition of DSCG increased the methane and
substrate. The cumulative methane yield
removal from both G and MC. The result of VS
increased when the percentage of G decreased as
removal of the best co-substrate; DSCG (50%)
the C/N ratio became closer to optimum range of
and STW (50%) was in agreement with the
20 30 [32]. Co-digestion of DSCG with SCG
result obtained during the BMP test. Moreover,
showed a trend that the methane yield increased
TS removals showed the same trend as VS
when DSCG percentage rose. The highest
removals in Fig. 2. Additionally, pH plays a key
methane yield was 306.17 mL CH4/g VS for
role to indicate the stability of the AD as the
75% of DSCG and 25% of SCG. This result
optimal pH is 4 - 8 for hydrolysis phase and 6.5 supported the co-digestion findings by Kim et al.
7.5 for methanogenic communities [15]. The
[36]. According to their results, food waste had
final pH is represented in Figure 2 and it is in
the highest methane (360 mL CH4/g VS) and it
the range of 6 7. However, 50% DSCG + 50%
dropped when adding 75% of SCG (308 mL
G sample showed a low pH as 5.48. The lower
CH4/g VS) [36]. Another finding showed a
pH could be attributed to the VFA accumulation
methane yield of 355 mL CH4/g VS from 25%
[52]. The result indicated that the reaction may
of SCG with 75% of food waste [36]. Neves et
be inhibited due to VFA accumulation and the
al. [35] examined the AD of mixing SCG with
finding was convenience with TS and VS
different substrates such as barley, rye, and
removals. Similar conclusion was drawn with
malted barley. The methane yields were obtained
different substrates in the literature [15, 52].
between 20 and 280 mL CH4/g VS and the
highest yield was achieved from the mixing ratio
of 45% of SCG, 32% of barley, and 23% of
chicory [35].
3.2.2. VS and TS removals
The VS and TS removals were calculated from
the initial and final VS and TS values for each
run as shown in Figure 2. The removal
Figure 2 Removal of TS, and VS and final pH value
represented the biodegradability performance of
3.3 Kinetic study results
the AD for mono and co-substrates [51]. In the
The modified Gompertz model (Ep. (2)) was
case of VS removal, the highest removal
used for the kinetic study for each trail and the
(35.48%) was obtained from 100% DSCG. The
kinetic model was found in a close agreement
result was assumed due to the content of protein,
with the obtained CMP data (experimentally)
lipid, and carbohydrate. The oil extraction
with high regression coefficients. The lowest R2
process did not only remove lipid from the
value was 0.9723. In terms of MPRm, in all
substrate but also improved cellulose and
mono substrates, SCG digestion showed the best
hemicellulose combination with eliminating
methanation performance as 22.70 mL CH4/d
lignin components (Table 2). Therefore, the prewhile the lowest value was estimated in cotreatment method enhanced the methane yield
digestion (25% of DSCG and 75% of SCG) as
and higher VS removals. For the rest of mono
6.42 mL CH4/d. Interestingly; Pm results were
substrates, the lowest removal was found in G
higher than the obtained CMP yield.
which was expected due to the lack of N. The
Additionally, all G mixing showed a lower
removal of SCG and STW were 27.36 and
MPRm that indicated G had a lower methanation
21.08%, respectively. Their contents were
performance due to the absence of N component.
almost the same; however, the significant
Moreover, the data also revealed that MC had
difference was lignin percentage that was 4.21
the highest lignin content. MPRm showed
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
potentials till 2026. Biomass and Bioenergy, 2020.
relatively lower value for MC digestion between
132(November 2019): p. 105440-105440.
7.78 and 10.10, and that explained MC had a
8.
Erdin, C. and G. Ozkaya,
3 Energy
lower biodegradability compared to other
Strategies and Investment Opportunities for Renewable
substrates.
Energy Sources: Site Selection Based on ELECTRE.
4
CONCLUSIONS
Sustainability, 2019. 11(7): p. 2136-2136.
9.
Daniel-gromke, J., et al. Analyses of Regional
This study demonstrated that the oil extraction
Biogas
Potentials
in Turkey.
process from SCG was an effective pre10.
treatment method in terms of incremental
methane yields. The current study is the first
dealing with the utilization of DSCG for biogas
üretiminin incelenmesi. Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik35(2): p. 979-990.
production. DSCG was co-digested with SCG,
11.
Determination of the
STW, G, and MC in different percentages to
biogas potential in cities with hazelnut production and
examine the feasibility of the AD process
examination of potential energy savings in Turkey. Fuel,
through co-digestion. It was observed that the
2020. 270(November 2019): p. 117577-117577.
AD process was obviously influenced by the
12.
Chandra, R., et al., Improving biodegradability
and
biogas
production of wheat straw substrates using
combination and physicochemical properties of
sodium
hydroxide
and hydrothermal pretreatments.
the substrates. It was clearly shown that oil
Energy, 2012. 43(1): p. 273-282.
extraction from the substrate increased the
13.
Anaerobic digestion of hazelnut
methane yield due to preventing VFA
(Corylus colurna) husks after alkaline pretreatment and
accumulation and obtaining an optimal C/N
determination of new important points in Logistic model
curves. Bioresource Technology, 2020. 300(December
ratio. The highest methane yield obtained was
2019): p. 122660-122660.
recorded for DSCG with 335.57 CH4 mL/g VS
14.
Optimization
while the lowest methane yield was obtained
of temperature and pretreatments for methane yield of
from G due to the lack of N content causing an
hazelnut shells using the response surface methodology.
imbalance in the C/N ratio. The best coFuel, 2020. 271(November 2019): p. 117585-117585.
15.
Simultaneous
digestion performance was achieved at 50% of
synergistic
effects
of
graphite
addition
and
co-digestion
of
DSCG and 50% of STW with an obtained
food waste and cow manure: Biogas production and
methane yield of 317.99 CH4 mL/g VS. For the
microbial community. Bioresource Technology, 2020.
kinetic modeling study, the modified Gompertz
309(April).
model was adopted, and their results gave a
16.
Zhao, B., et al., Efficient anaerobic digestion of
whole
microalgae
and lipid-extracted microalgae residues
good agreement with the experimental results
2
for
methane
energy
production. Bioresource Technology,
with the lowest R value of 0.9723.
2014. 161: p. 423-430.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
17.
Ehimen, E.A., et al., Energy recovery from lipid
The authors would like to acknowledge for the
extracted, transesterified and glycerol codigested
financial support under the University Project:
microalgae biomass. GCB Bioenergy, 2009. 1(6): p. 371381.
FOA-2018-8183
18.
Hernández, D., et al., Biofuels from microalgae:
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
IMPACT OF DIESEL-ETHANOL FUEL BLENDS ON THE PERFORMANCE
AND EMISSIONS OF A COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
1
, S. Orhan AKANSU1
1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engine Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes
University, 38039 Kayseri, Turkey ; E-mail: h.enesfil@ erciyes.edu.tr
Abstract
Depletion of fossil fuels and environmental pollution has led researchers to foresee the need to develop biofuels. Alcohols are a major part of bio-fuels. This study debates combustion performance and exhaust
emissions from CI engine fuelled with diesel-ethanol blends. The fuel blends contained % 100 diesel (E0),
% 90 diesel - % 10 ethanol (E10) and % 80 diesel - % 20 (E20) ethanol by volume. Tests were conducted at
%0, %25, %50, %75 and %100 load conditions at various ethanol mass. The effects of blended fuels on
engine performance were investigated and results showed that E10 presents the highest volumetric
efficiency; on the other hand E20 showed the lowest volumetric efficiency. Maximum in-cylinder pressure
was occured conventional diesel combustion. Results indicated that the concentrations of CO2 and
at all engine loads. In addition to this NO emission was peaked on E20 at %75 load.
Keywords: Diesel, Ethanol, Combustion, Emissions
1 INTRODUCTION
Around the world, energy is one of the main
sources for the improvement and development of
human beings life standards and its sustainable
development. Now a days, worldwide 80% of
fossil fuels consumed as primary energy, of
which 58% of depletable fuels are consumed by
the transportation sector only [1]. In this way,
the search for potential alternatives to fossil
fuels becomes crucial. In this regard, an ideal
replacement would be characterized by
renewable, sustainable, efficient and cost
effective energy sources with fewer emissions
[2, 3]. Most of the heavy vehicles operate on
diesel engine and, which is advantageous
compared to spark ignition (SI) engine, in terms
of fuel consumption, maintenance, durability,
fuel cost, etc [4]. But, diesel engine emits more
nitrogen oxide (NOx) and soot emission.
Therefore, alcohol fuels are the best alternative
to fossil fuels; alcohol fuels have been
represented as a future leading supplier of
energy sources that have the ability to increase
the security of supply, reduce the amount of
vehicle emissions, and offered a stable income
for farmers.
Recently, our young researchers improved the
awareness on environmental protection and
usage of alcohol fuels or non-fossil fuels for
internal combustion engines. Generally, lower
molecular weight alcohols, particularly ethanol
or methanol, comprise one group of alternative
fuels which is considered attractive for this
purpose.
Among alcohols, the most interesting seems to
be ethanol. It can be produced from many plants
that contain sugar or other components that can
be converted into sugar, such as starch or
cellulose in the fermentation, distillation and
dehydration process. Indeed, when Henry Ford
designed the Model T, it was his expectation that
ethanol, made from renewable biological
materials, and would be a major automobile fuel.
However, it is not widely used because of its
high price.
Ethanol is less toxic than gasoline and methanol,
and is not carcinogenic. Pure ethanol cannot be
used in diesel engines, but it can be used by in
blends with diesel fuel. For use as a fuel in an
internal combustion or diesel engine, ethanol has
many favorable properties [5], such as low
viscosity, high oxygen content, high H/C ratio,
low sulfur content and high evaporative cooling,
which results in the superior atomization of fuel
injected into cylinders, and improves the mixing
with air when it is blended with diesel. Ethanol
also has a high latent heat of evaporation, so
using ethanol in a diesel engine by blending it
with diesel or biodiesel fuel can increase the
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
volume efficiency by the evaporative cooling of
improved [13]. Properties of ethanol are seen in
ethanol in the intake and compression strokes.
Table 1.
There are three ways to apply ethanol to diesel
Table 1. The Properties of Fuels [14]
engines [6,7]. The first method is to supply
ethanol fumigation to the intake air using a
carburetor or an injector on the manifold. The
second method is to build a dual injection
system on the cylinder head by modifying the
configuration of the system and mechanically
changing the engine cylinder head. Lastly,
ethanol can effectively be used in diesel engines
by blending alcohol and diesel, while preventing
phase separation, without modifying the engine
system. Many studies have been conducted on
the third approach of the above methods.
The most recent studies conducted have focused
on the ethanol diesel fuel blend. Silvieira et al.
[8], the solubility of ethanol-biodiesel-diesel
blend was investigated at two different
temperatures, which showed that the solubility
of ethanol increased when increasing the
temperature. Kass et al. [9] reported that for 10
15% ethanol containing, the torque output was
approximately reduced by 8% for both mixtures.
Consider on the exhaust emissions, the
hydrocarbon (HC) tended to decrease while
carbon monoxide (CO) and oxide of nitrogen
(NOX) depended on the test conditions.
Particulate matter (PM) and smoke significantly
decreased but aldehyde emission increased.
Rakoupolos et al. [10] aimed at simulating the
combustion process and estimating noise, NOxSoot emissions and performance of a light duty
Diesel engine fuelled by Diesel-Ethanol blends.
The work has been focused on modelling the
chemical properties of the emission has been
developed. Diesel engine fuelled by a Dieselethanol blend with %20 of ethanol. Cole et al.
[11] reported that with ethanol addition, the PM
and NOX emissions can be reduced in wide load
range, especially for 15% ethanol content.
Similar impacts of PM reduction were confirmed
tudy [12] with an advance common-rail
diesel engine. Moreover, Shi discovered that
aldehydes (acetaldehyde and propionaldehyde)
and some unregulated emissions tended to
increase with ethanol addition.
Ethanol has a very limited miscibility in a diesel
fuel. Using proper surfactants, like methyl esters
or long-chain alcohols, their miscibility can be
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experiments were conducted in the Engine
Laboratory of Erciyes University Mechanical
Engineering department. The experiments were
performed on a three-cylinder, four-stroke,
liquid-cooled, direct-injected diesel engine. The
technical spesifications of the test engine are
presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Engine Spesifications
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
The engine was coupled with a hydraulic
diesel and %10 ethanol and %80 diesel and %20
dynamometer, a NF 15 model, Net Fren brand
ethanol by volume. All experiments were
which can detect engine speed and torque values
conducted at 1500 rpm and %0, 25, 50, 75 and
of 0-6500 rpm and 0-450 Nm, respectively. The
%100 load under different values of .
engine load was measured by a CAS-SBA 200L
load cell, which can reach between 0 and 200 kg
3 UNCERTAINTIES OF INSTRUMENTS
in 1 g sensibility.
USED
Table 3. Properties of the Pressure Sensor
Table 3. Ranges and Accuracies of
Instruments Used in the Experiment
Cylinder pressure values were measured with
PCB 113B22 piezoelectric pressure transducer
and Bosch BEA 060 and BEA 070 gas analyzers
was used to measure exhaust gas components
(CO, CO2, HC, NO and Soot). The Bosch BEA
060 device used in the measurement of exhaust
emissions, calculates EAR based on diesel fuel.
For this reason, the EARs were calculated by
experiments with ethanol. Experimental set up is
given Fig. 1 and Table 3 shows technical
spesifications of the cylinder gas pressure
sensor.
Measurement errors and uncertainties are arisen
from devices used to measure the data of the
experiment. Specifications and error range of the
test equipment and sensors are given in Table 4.
Total percentage uncertainty of the experiment
has been calculated as 2.02%.
4 RESULTS and DISCUSSION
4.1 BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Figure 1. Experimental Set-up
The purpose of this study is to investigate the
effects of ethanol-diesel blends on the
performance of a CI engine. Three various of
diesel-ethanol blends have been chosen for use
in this study. They include %100 diesel, %90
Figure 1. Variation of BTE with Engine Load
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
The variation of brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
of the ethanol-diesel blends can be compared
with different loads is shown in Fig 2. The
with conventional diesel combustion in this
highest brake thermal efficiency obtained 35,08
figure. The peak pressure was 57.94 bar and the
in E10 operation at %75 load. The lowest brake
occurence of peak pressure angle was 5 CA
thermal efficiency gained 20,60 in E20 at %25
ATDC in E0 operation at loadless condition. Inengine load. The heat of vaporization of ethanol
cylinder pressure values seem to be very close to
is higher than diesel. This means that more heat
each other. The points where the maximum
is absorption from the cylinder. If the
pressure occurs are 370,372 and 366 CAD for
temperature in the cylinder decrease below the
E0, E10 and E20, respectively. The optimal
nominal value, the efficiency will decrease too.
CAD angle is 10-15 after the ATDC. In this
However, the oxygen to which ethanol is bound
case,
E10
has
been
achieved
improves combustion. Since the heat of
best.
vaporization value in the cylinder is higher in
E20, it reduces the efficiency, although there is
some heat absorption in E10, the oxygen in fuel
blend improves the combustion.
4.2 EXHAUST TEMPERATURE
Fig. 4. Variation of Cylinder Pressure with
CAD at Different Fuel Blends
4.4 EMISSION PARAMETERS
4.4.1 Carbon monoxide(CO), Carbon
dioxide (CO2), Nitrogen Oxide (NO) and
Hydrocarbon (HC) emissions
Figure 3. Variation of Exhaust Temperature
with Engine Load
The variation of exhaust temperature with
different loads is shown in Fig 3. Due to the
increase in the load, the temperature values in
the cylinder increase and this increases the
exhaust temperature values. Although the
exhaust temperature values are almost the same
at idle, 25% and 50% partial loads, it absorbs
heat from the cylinder due to the increase in
ethanol taken into the cylinder and the
evaporation temperature is high at 75% and full
load.
4.3 In-Cylinder Pressure
The variation of cylinder pressure with crank
angle for various fuel blends have been
illustrated Fig. 4. The combustion characteristics
a) CO
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
This depends on the burning rate, the heat of
vaporization and the injection advance. As seen
this figure CO2 emission for all blends showed
nearly same trend. However, the best CO2 values
are obtained in E10. Although HC values
differency in the load condition of the engine,
they have been observed closely for each fuel
type. The lowest CO, CO2, HC and NO
emissions (0.001, 2.29, 13, 208 respectively)
were gained at different load conditions.
4.4.2 Soot
b) CO2
Fig. 6 Variation of Soot with Engine Load
c) NO
The variation of Soot with different loads is
shown in Fig 6. Soot values increase with
increasing load. Soot values and NOx values are
nearly similar. The minimum soot value was
obtained at 75% load in E20 fuel blend as 1,01.
The highest NO was obtained at 100% in E0.
5 CONCLUSION
d) HC
Fig. 5 Variation of Emissions with Load
Fig. 5 depicts CO, CO2, NO and HC emissions
versus engine loads for all blends. It is good to
have less carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon
emissions in the engine. However, as CO
decreases, NO values increase. The best CO
values were obtained in E10. The CO value
decreases as the engine load increases at E10. It
first decreases and then increases at E0 and E20.
In this study, the performance and emission
characteristics of an CI engine fuelled by dieselethanol mixtures have been investigated at 1500
rpm, %0, 25, 50, 75 and %100 loads.
Experimental results of this study can be
summarized as follows:
The maximum in-cylinder pressure was
57,94 bar and the occurence of peak
pressure angle was 5 CA ATDC in
conventional diesel operation.
The highest BTE obtained 35,08 in E10
operation at %75 load. The lowest BTE
gained 20,60 in E20 at %25 engine load.
The highest exhaust temperature
obtained 414 ºC in conventional diesel
combustion at full load.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
The lowest CO, CO2, HC and NO
e0yobiAhUL8hQKHaL8CeoQjRx6BAgBEAU&
emissions (0.001, 2.29, 13, 208
url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.conserve-energyrespectively) were gained at different
future.com%2Fethanolload conditions.
fuel.php&psig=AOvVaw2BUkfO32IDee0BAdH
The lowest soot obtanied at 75% load in
hjqO5&ust=1557220972636491
E20 fuel blend as 1,01.
[4] J.B. Heywood.Internal combustion engines
fundamentals.
McGraw-Hill, New
York
(USA)
(1988)
6 NOMENCLATURE
[5] Sayin, C.J.F. Engine performance and
exhaust gas emissions of methanol and ethanol
diesel blends. Fuel 2010, 89, 3410 3415.
[6] Rakopoulos, D.; Rakopoulos, C.; Kakaras,
E.; Giakoumis, E. E_ects of ethanol diesel fuel
blends on the performance and exhaust
emissions of heavy duty DI diesel engine.
Energy Convers. Manag. 2008, 49, 3155 3162.
[7] Alptekin, E.J.F. Evaluation of ethanol and
isopropanol as additives with diesel fuel in a
CRDI diesel engine. Fuel 2017, 205, 161 172.
[8] Silveira, M.B.; do Carmo, F.R.; Santiagodiesel:
Liquid liquid equilibrium and volumetric
transport properties. Fuel 2014, 119, 292 300.
[9] Kass M, Thomas J, Storey J, Domingo N, et
al. Emissions From a 5.9 Liter Diesel Engine
Fueled with Ethanol Diesel Blends, SAE paper
No. 2001-01-2018.
[10]
zone modeling of combustion and emissions
formation in DI diesel engine operating on
ethanol
and Management 49 (2008): 625 643.
[11] Cole R, Poola R, Sekar R, Schaus J, et al.
Effects of Ethanol Additives on Diesel
Particulate and NOx Emissions, SAE paper No.
2001-01-1937, 2001.
[12] Shi X, Pang X, Mu Y, Hea H, Shuai S,
Wang J, Chen H, Li R. Emission reduction
potential of using ethanol biodiesel diesel fuel
blend on a heavy-duty diesel engine. Atmos
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
ASSESSMENT OF DETAILED AND SKELETAL KINETIC MECHANISMS
FOR COMBUSTION AND EMISSIONS OF METHANE
M.S. Cellek
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Bingol University,
Bingol; email: mscellek@bingol.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, the combustion of methane has been investigated with two Chemkin kinetic mechanisms under
the mild flameless mode in a lab-scaled furnace. One of the first mechanisms is Gri-mech 2.11, which is
known as a detailed kinetic mechanism with 49 species and 279 reactions. The other one is a skeletal
mechanism that includes 29 species and 150 elementary reaction steps. Eddy Dissipation Concept (EDC)
combustion model is used to incorporate detailed chemical mechanisms into turbulent reacting flows in
ANSYS Fluent 18.2. After the numerical calculations performed with High Power Computing (HPC) for
both chemical kinetic mechanisms, flame temperatures, and species distributions inside the furnace have
been compared with the post-processing tool. The numerical simulation results of both mechanisms show
that some of the species distribution results, such as OH, O2, CO, and CO2 are consistent with each other. On
the other hand, the results of CH4, NOx, and flame temperature are slightly different. However, it appears
that the differences in results are not significant.
Keywords: Reduced mechanism, Skeletal mechanism, Gri-mech2.11, Pollutant Emissions
1 INTRODUCTION
In the most combustion application, such as a
furnace, boiler, and gas turbine, the flow is
generally turbulent. Turbulence, chemical
kinetics, and their interaction are the very
important issues to be overcome for accurate
predictions. Additionally, combustion modeling
is a challenging process due to the requirement
of high computational resources. Powerful
computers are needed, especially for threedimensional analysis.
Skeletal and reduced mechanisms are often
utilized to diminish the computational cost.
A drawback with the use of reduced mechanisms
is the lack of accuracy [1]. Skeletal reduction
and time scale analysis are two main methods to
reduce detailed mechanisms [2]. Skeletal
mechanisms, which are obtained with sensitivity
analysis, principal component analysis, lumping,
genetic algorithms, optimization, and adaptive
reduction, are similar to detailed mechanisms in
terms of Arrhenius elementary reactions [2].
Whereas, time scale reduction is connected with
the quasi steady-state approximation (QSSA)
and the partial equilibrium (PR) method [2].
There is numerous study involved in the reaction
mechanism to decrease the computational cost
for various working conditions. In the study
performed by Mendiara et al. [3], the detailed
mechanism with 447 reactions and 65 chemical
species transformed via the algebraic procedure
to 18 lumped reaction step and 22 chemical step.
Nanduri et al. [4] investigate the turbulencecombustion interaction with the use of ARM9
and ARM19 reduced mechanisms to calculate
CO and NOx emissions. In this study, it was
declared that reduced mechanisms performed
well in the prediction of temperature and major
species as well as NO emission. However, the
numerical calculation results pointed out large
qualitative and quantitative errors when
compared with the test results. It was also stated
that the RSM turbulence model shows better
estimation than the RNG model. A ten-step
reduced mechanism for methane-air combustion
including NO formation was developed by
Belcadi et al.[5] using the S-STEP algorithm.
Moreover, the reduced mechanism responded in
flame speeds, flame temperature, and species
distributions.
In this study, to find out the capability of the
skeletal mechanism as compared with a detailed
mechanism, combustion of the methane-air
under the flameless mode has been investigated
at a thermal load of 18.5 kW with an
equivalence ratio of 0.85.
2 NUMERICAL METHOD
The flameless combustion is performed in a
laboratory-scale pilot furnace. The furnace has a
square cross-section with a side of 0.5 m and a
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
height of 1 m. The details of the furnace can be
kinetic mechanisms for turbulent flows [14]. It
found in the reference study [6]. The numerical
stands out compared to other models in
model and grid generation of the furnace can be
applications where combustion and turbulence
shown in Fig. 1a-b.
interaction is important. Even though the EDC
model is talented in the calculation of the
reaction rate, fuel species, intermediates, and
emissions, calculations are computationally
expensive
and
need highperformance computing due to hundreds of
b
species and reactions. Nevertheless, this
technique has been used by many researchers
[15-19].
The detailed mechanisms, namely Gri-Mech
2.11, a compilation of 277 elementary chemical
reactions and 49 species concerned [20], were
used for chemical reactions of methane. On the
other hand, the skeletal mechanism includes 29
species, and 150 reactions derived from Grimech 3.0 were used for the comparison of the
combustion temperature, species, and emissions.
This skeletal mechanism was published in the
21]. Both skeletal
and detailed mechanisms include NO and N2O
Figure 1. CAD model and mesh generation
species. The species of the Gri-mech 2.11 and
of the studied furnace
skeletal mechanisms were shown below:
To calculate the transfer of radiative energy, the
Discrete ordinates (DO) radiation model was
SPECIES OF THE GRI-MECH 2.11
selected due to the lower value of optical
H2 H O O2 OH H2O HO2 H2O2 C CH CH2
thickness. Couple was used for the scheme of
CH2(S) CH3 CH4 CO CO2 HCO CH2O
pressure-velocity coupling. PRESTO! was
CH2OH CH3O CH3OH C2H C2H2 C2H3
chosen for pressure discretization [7-9]. The
C2H4 C2H5 C2H6 HCCO CH2CO HCCOH N
Second Order-Upwind was utilized for the
NH NH2 NH3 NNH NO NO2 N2O HNO CN
discretization of the equations [10,11]. The
HCN H2CN HCNN HCNO HOCN HNCO
internal emissivity was recognized as 0.8. The
NCO N2 AR
gaseous absorption coefficient was computed by
the Weighted Sum of Gray Gas Model
SPECIES OF THE SKELETAL MECHANISM
(WSGGM) [12]. The temperatures of the furnace
H2 H O O2 OH H2O HO2 H2O2 CH CH2
walls were 1320 K as stated in the reference
CH2(S) CH3 CH4 CO CO2 HCO CH2O CH3O
study [6]. Due to the sensitive grid generation in
CH3OH C2H2 C2H4 C2H5 C2H6 N NO N2O
the boundary layer, Enhanced Wall Treatment
HCN H2CN N2
was utilized for near-wall modeling. This
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
method calculated the parameters in the viscous
The distributions of reactants, namely CH4 and
sublayer. The dimensionless wall distance, y+
O2 species on the axial line are presented in Fig.
was 0.3 [13].
2. Considering the spraying positions in the
2.1 Combustion Model and Reaction
furnace, the axial line distributions are
Mechanisms
reasonable. It appears that each reactant is
Combustion models under the ANSYS Fluent
approximately consumed in the first half of the
software apply to a wide range of homogenous
furnace. When the results of the two
and heterogeneous reacting flows with fast
mechanisms are compared, there is no
chemistry (Finite Rate/Eddy Dissipation, Eddy
significant difference in oxygen distributions,
Dissipation) or finite rate chemistry (The Eddy
while there is a difference in quantity between
Dissipation Concept (EDC)). The EDC model is
methane distributions.
a developed model involving detailed chemical
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Flame temperatures and OH intermediate species
levels in the reaction zone, decreasing to
distributions are shown in Fig.3. The flame
minimum levels towards the exit of the furnace.
temperature rose sharply as the reactants entered
On the other hand, the CO2 level increases with
the furnace and combustion began.
the start of the combustion and decreases
towards the end of the combustion.
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Reactants distribution inside the
furnace
Maximum temperature values at 0.4m in the
axial direction were 1680 K and 1625 K for Grimech 2.11 and skeletal mechanism, respectively.
After this point, there was a gradual decrease in
temperature levels. It appears that there are
different behaviours between the two
mechanisms. In other words, the skeletal
mechanism predicts higher temperature levels on
the axial line. The OH level reaches its
maximum in the reaction zone. Then, it
transforms other species such as H, NO, CN, and
H2O with the presence of N and HCN species in
the reaction chain. The predictions of hydroxyl
(OH) intermediates by both mechanisms are
similar.
The distribution of CO and CO2 emissions can
be seen in Fig. 4a-b. CO reaches its maximum
(b)
Figure 3. Flame temperature and OH
Due to the CO2 formation by the reaction of CO
with O2, the increase in the amount of CO2 is
continuous at a very low rate. The impact of the
two mechanisms on CO and CO2 emissions is
not quite different. The estimation results of NO
emission, one of the harmful gases of
combustion, by two different mechanisms are
shown in the Fig 4-c. The levels of NO increase
with the development of the combustion,
especially as a result of thermal and prompt NO.
Then, NO levels are fixed approximately.
Although the distribution of NO emissions tends
to be similar in both mechanisms, the results of
the skeletal mechanism are lower. The main
reason is that some intermediate species, such as
CN radicals, which are effective on prompt
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
NOx, cannot be detected, and their effect cannot
The O2, OH, and CO species distributions on the
be included in the skeletal mechanism.
axial planes are shown in Figs. 5-7. Considering
The temperature distribution of the flameless
the mechanisms used, there are no significant
combustion obtained by using detailed and
differences between the distribution results of
skeletal mechanisms on the axial plane is shown
the specified species. It is seen that the
in Fig 5. The prediction temperature levels of
mentioned species are more effective in the
the skeletal mechanism are slightly higher than
reaction zone.
ones predicted with Gri- mech 2.11.
Gri-Mech 2.11
Skeletal mechanism
(a)
Figure 5. Flame temperatures distributions
for both chemical mechanisms
Gri-Mech 2.11
Skeletal mechanism
(b)
(c)
Figure 4. CO2 and NO mass fraction
distributions on the axial line
Figure 6. O2 mass fractions distributions for
both chemical mechanisms
In general, NOx consists of NO, NO2 and N2O
species. However, the skeletal mechanism
involves NO, and N2O species. The NO2 species
is only available in Gri-mech 211. Therefore,
NOx refers to the sum of the NO and N2O
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
species for two mechanisms. The NOx
emissions are affected by the local flame
temperatures, oxidizer concentration, and
Gri-Mech 2.11 Skeletal mechanism
intermediate species. The NO distributions are
presented in Fig. 8. The NO level predicted by
Gri-mech 2.11 is higher than that predicted by
the skeletal mechanism. The reason for this
situation was stated above.
Gri-Mech 2.11 Skeletal mechanism
Figure 9. NO species distribution for both
mechanisms
Figure 7. OH radicals distribution for both
mechanisms
Gri-Mech 2.11 Skeletal mechanism
4 CONCLUSION
Combustion of methane-air has numerically
investigated considering the Gri-mech 2.11, and
skeletal mechanisms in a laboratory scaledfurnace under mild flame mode using the Eddy
Dissipation Concept. The results obtained in this
study show that OH, O2, CO, and CO2
distributions do not differ significantly, but
flame temperature, methane, and NOx
distributions contain significant differences. This
is mainly because some intermediate species,
such as CN, and NH3, etc., cannot be detected,
and their effect cannot be included in the skeletal
mechanism.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful for the use of the
computing resources provided by the National
Center for High Performance Computing of
Turkey (UHEM, UYBHM) under grant number
1008202020.
Figure 8. CO species distributions for both
mechanisms
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[21] J. Maktal, Implementation Of Reduced
Effect of turbulence and radiation models on
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combustion characteristics in propane hydrogen
Flows,
, 2009.
diffusion flames. Energy Convers Manage Vol.
72, pp. 179 86. 2013.
[11] S.Karyayen, Combustion Characteristics Of
A Non-Premixed Methane Flame In A
Generated
Burner
Under
Distributed
Combustion Conditions: A Numerical Study,
Fuel, Vol. 230, pp.163-171. 2018.
[12] Zhang Z, Li X, Zhang L, Luo C, Mao Z, Xu
Y, Liu J, Liu G, Zheng C.
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investigation of the effects of different injection
parameters on Damköhler number in the natural
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2019.
[13] M.S. Cellek, Flameless combustion
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furnace, International Journal of Hydrogen
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
INVESTIGATION OF NATURAL GAS-DIESEL FUEL MIXTURE IN TERMS OF
ENGINE PERFORMANCE IN COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
Esenay Arslan1, Talip Akbıyık2, Nafiz Kahraman3
1. Kayseri University, Department of Electricity and Energy, Kayseri, esenayarslan@kayseri.edu.tr
2. Aksaray University, Department of Motor Vehicles and Transport Technologies, Aksaray,
talipakbiyik@aksaray.edu.tr
3. Erciyes University, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Kayseri, nafiz@erciyes.edu.tr
Abstract: In diesel engines, adding natural gas to the combustion air can be a solution to increase engine
performance and reduce emissions from combustion. In the experimental study, the effect of natural gas
addition to the combustion air on the engine performance has been investigated. The experiments were carried
out on a four-stroke, 3-cylinder direct injection Lombardini LDW 1003 engine, at constant engine speed,
different mixing ratios and different engine loads.
In the diesel engine, natural gas (NG) was added to the combustion air in the amount of 250 g / h and 500 g /
h. Engine loads are considered as unloaded, 9,81 Nm, 19,62 Nm, 29,43 Nm and 39,24 Nm (maximum load),
respectively. It has been observed that as the natural gas addition increases with increasing load, the pressure
inside the cylinder increases, there is a gradual decrease in the exhaust gas temperature, there is a decrease in
diesel fuel consumption due to the natural gas addition. Carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO),
unburned hydrocarbon (HC) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions were investigated for all test cases.
Especially the amount of NOx emission increases with increasing natural gas addition up to a certain load
value.
Keywords: natural gas, combustion air, diesel engine, fuel consumption
1
INTRODUCTION
It is possible to run an engine operating with a
diesel cycle with alternative fuels by making
some changes in the engine theoretically. These
fuels, which are alternative to fossil fuels,
primarily natural gas, are known to produce less
emissions than fuels derived from petroleum.
Therefore, instead of pulling the vehicle out of
traffic, emission values can be reduced by
changing the fuel used. It is possible for natural
gas to reduce environmental pollution due to its
low emission values. including Turkey, the
presence of natural gas reserves extensively all
over the world will also contribute to the country's
economy as an alternative fuel because natural
gas is cheaper than oil [1].
For all these reasons many researches have been
done on the sustainable fuel resources especially
natural gas. A few of them are summarized
below.
Raiha et al. focused on the effect of diesel
injection timing, intake boost pressure, and diesel
injection pressure on diesel-methane dual-fuel
combustion performed in a single-cylinder
research engine. The engine was operated at a
constant speed of 1,500 revolutions per minute
while percentage of methane energy substitution
and load were maintained at 80% and 5.1 bar net
indicated mean effective pressure, respectively.
The start of injection of diesel was varied from
250 crank angle degrees (CAD) to 350 CAD
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
while keeping the injection pressure at 500 bar
model the diesel. The key kinetic parameters of
and intake boost pressure at 1.5 bar. Combustion
the model were optimized and adjusted according
efficiency trends are consistent with unburned
to the results of sensitivity analysis. The final
hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emission
optimized dual-fuel mechanism was verified
trends. Moreover, smoke emissions were lower
against ignition delay, laminar flame speed, and
than 0.1 filter smoke number for all SOIs. [2]
homogenous charge compression ignition engine
You et al. has studied to better understand the
combustion, and a good prediction was obtained.
effect of EGR on engine performance of
Finally, the present mechanism was coupled into
stoichiometric dual fuel engine, a detailed study
the CFD software to simulate the combustion
on inert gases (Ar, N-2, CO2) in EGR were
characteristics and emission of a dual-fuel engine
conducted on a 6-cylinder turbocharged
under four different NG substitution rates. [5]
intercooler diesel/natural gas dual fuel heavyduty engine at stoichiometric condition. The
Song et al. investigated performance of a diesel
results show that different inert gas has different
engine fueled with natural gas piloted by diesel
effect on engine power and combustion
under full load in order to optimize the the pilot
characteristics. The engine power increased for
diesel injection timing (theta). The results
Ar and N-2 dilution, while it decreased for CO2
indicate that, with the advance in theta, the
dilution with increasing the dilution ratio. The
cylinder pressure, rate of pressure rise, and heat
engine power with Ar dilution is highest,
release rate increase first and then decrease. The
followed by N-2 and CO2 dilution at same
mean value of peak cylinder pressure rises and the
dilution ratio. [3]
standard deviation increases first and then
decreases. The brake power increases first and
Bayat et al. conducted experimental study
then decreases while the brake specific fuel
replacing different mass fractions of diesel fuel
consumption reduces first and then rises. The CO2
with natural gas in an indirect injection diesel
and NOx emissions rise first and then reduce
engine and evaluating its effect on the emissions
while smoke emission decreases first and then
of soot and nitrogen oxides, and brake specific
increases, but the CO and HC rise. [6]
fuel consumption in the presence of cold exhaust
gas recirculation. Experiments were done at
2 MATERIAL AND METHOD
different equivalence ratios and loads in each
speed. Replacing 40% mass fraction of input
2.1. The Experimental Setup
diesel fuel by adding natural gas resulted in a
maximum 74% reduction of soot. Also adding
In the test setup, there are the hydraulic
40% natural gas made a maximum 54% reduction
dynamometer that allows the change of engine
in nitrogen oxides. Maximum decrease in brake
load and speed, pressure sensor for measuring
specific fuel consumption was 15%, due to
cylinder
pressure,
encoder,
amplifier,
increase in power output.[4]
temperature sensor, two exhaust analysis devices
for the measurement of soot and exhaust
A reduced n-heptane–n-butylbenzene–NG–
emissions, gas flow meters for measuring and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon mechanism
controlling the amount of gaseous fuels to be
with 746 reactions and 143 species was
added to the combustion air.
developed for predicting the combustion
Lombardini LDW 1003 diesel engine connected
characteristics and emission in dual-fuel engines
to the experimental setup was used in this study
by Huang et al. A mixture of methane, ethane, and
in which the effects of natural gas-diesel mixture
propane was used to model the NG, and a mixture
on engine performance in a compression ignition
of n-heptane and n-butylbenzene was used to
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
engine
were
examined.
The
specific
for each mixture and all cases were tested at
characteristics of this engine are given in Table 1.
torques of 9,81 Nm, 19,62 Nm, 29,43 Nm and
39,24 Nm (max. load) respectively. Gas fuel
Table 1. Technical specifications of the test
quantities were adjusted using a gas flow meter.
engine
The natural gas used in the experiments was
Model
LDW 1003
supplied from the Incigaz Company located in
Four
stroke,
direct
Aksaray. The natural gas used contains 90%
Engine type
injection (DI)
methane (CH4). The properties of natural gas fuel
Number of cylinders 3
[7] are given in Table 2. The data given in the
Cylinder volume
1028 cm3
table are the values measured at the time of filling
Bore–stroke
75–77.6 mm–mm
the natural gas into the tubes.
Compression ratio
22.8:1
Maximum
engine
19.5 (26.5) kW (Hp)
power
Table 2. Specifications of natural gas
Component
2.2. Test Method
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide
In this study, natural gas was added to the
combustion air to form a mixture with diesel fuel.
Before the experiments, the test engine was idle
until it reached regime temperature. After
reaching the engine regime temperature, the load
was gradually increased with a hydraulic
dynamometer up to the maximum load value and
tested at the specified loads.
The amount of diesel fuel consumed in the
experiments was measured with precision scales.
The natural gas fed to the intake manifold to mix
with the combustion air was adjusted by passing
it through the gas flow meter and setting it to the
desired values.
Experiments were carried out by changing the
torque and natural gas fuel mass flow rate at a
fixed engine speed. In-cylinder pressure
variation, emissions and fuel consumption were
measured to determine engine performance. Incylinder pressure variations are taken as the
average of 100 cycles.
Two different fuel mixtures were used in the
experiments. Natural gas was added to the
combustion air in the amount of 250 g / h and 500
g / h and these rates were tested for four different
load conditions. The motor was run under no load
Chemical
Formula
CH4
C2H6
C2H8
C4H10
C5H12
N2
CO2
Ratios (%)
90,8
3,6
1,1
0,4
0,1
3,5
0,4
In the tests, firstly, only diesel fuel was used
without adding natural gas to the combustion air
and the results were compared with other mixing
conditions.
3
RESULTS
3.1 Cylinder Pressure
Cylinder gas pressure is the parameter that shows
the mixing of fuel with air and the combustion
properties of the fuel. In the study, the engine was
tested with diesel fuel at 1500 rpm unloaded, 9,81
Nm, 19,62 Nm, 29,43 Nm and 39,24 Nm loads.
In addition to diesel fuel, 250 g / h and 500 g / h
natural gas was added to the combustion air. The
highest pressure was measured as 60,059475 bar
in the diesel + 500 g / h natural gas mixture at
39,24 Nm and the lowest pressure value was
measured as 47,7840625 bar in the diesel + 500 g
/ h natural gas mixture at no load as seen in the
Figure 1.
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Table 3. Values of excess air coefficient
When the in-cylinder pressure values in the
unloaded state are examined, the values in the
tests performed with only diesel fuel are higher
than the pressure values obtained with natural gas
additions of 250 g / h and 500 g / h. The addition
of natural gas when the engine is unloaded has
reduced the in-cylinder pressure. Excess air
coefficient values for all cases has been given in
Table 3. Since the excess air coefficient values
are above 5, the mixture is very lean. As natural
gas is supplied to the cylinders from the intake
manifold, the ignition in the cylinder is
insufficient compared to pure diesel fuel [8]. For
this reason, the pressure inside the cylinder has
decreased with the increase in natural gas
addition.
c) at 19,62 Nm load
d) at 29,43 Nm load
e) at 39,24 Nm load
Figure 1. Cylinder pressure values for
different engine load depending on CA
a) no load
With the increase in engine load, the air excess
coefficient values decreased to 1.4701 values. It
has been determined that there is an increase in
the in-cylinder pressure with the increasing
amount of natural gas for each load. The pressure
increase is caused by the increase in the
equivalence ratio. In diesel, diesel + 250 g / h NG
and diesel + 500g / h NG fuel and fuel mixtures,
the calorific value of the fuel decreased compared
to the pure diesel fuel with the increase in the
load. The highest fuel calorific value was
b) at 9,81 Nm load
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
obtained at 39,24 Nm load and diesel +500 g / h
combustion air reduced the exhaust gas
NG fuel mixture.
temperature.
The pressure values obtained for all test cases and
the crank angles where this pressure occurs are
given in the Table 4.
Table 4. Max. cylinder pressures for all
cases
Torque
0
4
8
12
16
0 g/h
Max. Pressure
57,08398
55,16515
55,30803
55,12565
55,18443
CA
365
368
367
367
366
250 g/h
Max. Pressure
55,8825
55,474513
56,540175
57,0102375
56,833775
CA
365
368
368
367
367
500 g/h
Max. Pressure
47,784063
57,217588
59,776175
59,7180375
60,059475
CA
366
365
368
367
366
Figure 2. Exhaust temperature depending
on engine torque
3.2 Temperature
The average temperature in the exhaust system of
a typical CI engine will be 2000-5000C. This is
lower than SI engine exhaust (400-600 C)
because of the larger expansion cooling that
occurs due to the higher compression ratios of CI
engines. If the maximum temperature in a CI
engine is about the same as in an SI engine, the
temperature when the exhaust valve opens can be
several hundred degrees less. The overall lean
equivalence ratio of a CI engine also lowers all
cycle temperatures from combustion on. Exhaust
temperature of an engine will go up with higher
engine speed or load, with spark retardation,
and/or with an increase in equivalence ratio.
Things that are affected by exhaust temperature
include turbochargers, catalytic converters, and
particulate traps [9-10].
The variation of exhaust gas temperatures
obtained in the experiments performed for the
constant engine speed, four different load values
and two different natural gas addition conditions
is shown in Figure 2. For all fuel situations, with
increasing load, exhaust gas temperatures also
increase. However, considering three different
fuel conditions, it is seen that the highest
temperature is obtained when only diesel fuel is
used. As can be understood from the figure, the
increase in the amount of natural gas added to the
3.3 Fuel Consumption
Figure 3 shows the change of brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC) measured in the
experiments according to the amount of natural
gas added to the combustion air. As seen in the
figure, the highest fuel consumption was obtained
at 9,81 Nm load and the least at maximum load.
Increasing the addition of natural gas did not
cause a significant change in BSFC for each load.
Figure 3. Change of brake specific fuel
consumption according to natural gas
amount
The diesel fuel consumption measured with
precision scales during the experiments is given
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
in Figure 4. While diesel fuel consumption
decreased with the addition of natural gas, the
amount of diesel fuel consumed in all three cases
(natural gas amount of 0, 250 and 500 g/h)
increased with the increase in engine load.
Figure 4. Fuel consumption depending on
engine torque
3.4 Exhaust Emissions
CO, HC, CO2 and NOx emission values were
measured for three different fuel and fuel
mixtures. Figure 5 shows the emission values
measured as a result of the tests carried out in noload condition and at four different loads.
Figure 5. Exhaust emission variations
depending on CA
CO emission peaked at maximum load with the
increase in natural gas use. Therefore, as
combustion deteriorates with the increase in load
and natural gas, the amount of CO emission,
which is incomplete combustion product, has also
increased.
Unburned HC emission reached the highest level
with the addition of 500 g / h NG. It is seen that
hydrocarbon emissions are high because the fuel
does not burn properly at low loads.
Since the best combustion was obtained only
when diesel was used, CO2 emission also
increased with increasing load. Although there
was not a significant change for different fuel
conditions, the lowest emission data were
obtained with the addition of 500 g / h NG.
NOx emission increased up to a certain point (up
to 50% load) as the combustion improved with
the increase in load, then started to decrease. The
maximum values were obtained by adding 500 g
/ h NG.
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
[4] Bayat, Y., & Ghazikhani, M. (2020).
4 CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Experimental investigation of compressed natural
gas using in an indirect injection diesel engine at
If the data obtained from the study are
different
conditions. Journal
of
Cleaner
summarized; In the diesel engine, the addition of
Production, 122450.
natural gas to the combustion air increased the in[5] Huang, H., Lv, D., Zhu, J., Zhu, Z., Chen, Y.,
cylinder pressure. However, as the natural gas
Pan, Y., & Pan, M. (2019). Development of a new
added approached the amount of 500 g / h, fuel
reduced diesel/natural gas mechanism for dualconsumption increased due to the knock observed
fuel engine combustion and emission
during the experiments. Considering these
prediction. Fuel, 236, 30-42.
experimental data, it can be said that the optimum
[6] Song, J., Feng, Z., Lv, J., & Zhang, H. (2020).
natural gas addition value is 250 g / h. Acceptable
Experimental Study on Combustion and
results have been achieved with regard to exhaust
Performance of a Natural Gas-Diesel Dual-Fuel
emissions, especially for NOx.
Engine at Different Pilot Diesel Injection
Timing. Journal of Thermal Science and
In order to reach more detailed conclusions about
Engineering Applications, 12(5).
this study, it is recommended to test the natural
[7] https://www.incigaz.com/
gas additions in the range from no-load to
[8] Mansor, W. N. W., Abdullah, S., Olsen, D.
maximum engine load at intermediate values,
B., & Vaughn, J. S. (2018, November). Dieseldifferent from the current values. In other words,
natural gas engine emissions and performance.
by adding 100, 200, 300, 400 g / h natural gas to
In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 2035, No.
the combustion air, pressure, temperature, BSFC,
1, p. 060010). AIP Publishing LLC.
thermal efficiency and emissions can be analyzed
[9] Stone, R., 1999. Introduction to Internal
in more detail.
Combustion Engines, Third Edition. Macmillan
Press Ltd., London, 641 pp
REFERENCES
[10]
Pulkrabek, W.W., 1997. Engineering
Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion
[1] Sezgin, B., Bilen, K., & Çelik, V. (2013). Bir
Engines, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 411 pp
Dizel Motorun Doğal Gazla Çalışır Hâle
Getirilmesi Ve Dönüştürülmüş Motorun
Performans Ve Egzoz Emisyonunun Deneysel
Analizi . Engineer & the Machinery Magazine,
(642).
[2] Raihan, M. S., Guerry, E. S., Dwivedi, U.,
Srinivasan, K. K., & Krishnan, S. R. (2015).
Experimental analysis of diesel-ignited methane
dual-fuel low-temperature combustion in a
single-cylinder diesel engine. Journal of Energy
Engineering, 141(2), C4014007.
[3] You, J., Liu, Z., Wang, Z., Wang, D., & Xu,
Y. (2020). Experimental analysis of inert gases in
EGR on engine power and combustion
characteristics in a stoichiometric dual fuel
heavy-duty natural gas engine ignited with
diesel. Applied
Thermal
Engineering, 180,
115860.
355
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
CATALYTIC FAST PYROLYSIS OF SAFFLOWER BIOMASS FOR SYNTHETIC
BIO-OIL PRODUCTION
E. ARIÖZ1, B. KURTUL2, Ö.M. KOÇKAR3
1. Faculty
of
Engineering,
Eskisehir
Technical
University,
Eskisehir;
email:
evrenbayram@eskisehir.edu.tr
2. Faculty of Engineering, Eskisehir Technic University, Eskisehir; email: busrakurtul@eskisehir.edu.tr
3. Faculty of Engineering, Eskisehir Technic University, Eskisehir; email: mkockar@eskisehir.edu.tr
Abstract
Population growth and industrialization in the world increased demand for energy rapidly. Fossil fuels cause
climate change and increase in carbon dioxide emissions while renewable energy sources offer sustainable
solutions due to being environmentally friendly. Biomass is considered as an important renewable energy
source. Biomass can be converted to energy via thermo-chemical and bio-chemical/biological methods.
Pyrolysis can be used to convert biomass to bio-oil.
In this experimental study, safflower seed was used as an biomass source. Fast pyrolysis experiments were
carried out at different pyrolysis temperatures (400 °C, 500 °C, 550 °C, 600 °C, 700 °C) at heating rate of
300 °C/min and at a 100 cm3/min N2 flow rate to obtain the highest bio-oil yield. The catalytic pyrolysis
experiments were performed by montmorillonite catalyst with 10% aluminium at pyrolysis temperature of
300°C, 400°C, 500°C, 550°C and 600 °C to investigate the effect of pyrolysis temperature on the bio-oil
yield. The highest oil yield was obtained as 40.75% at 550°C. The catalytic fast pyrolysis experiments
revealed that safflower can be used as an renewable raw material for production of synthetic bio-oil
production.
Keywords: Renewable Energy, Safflower Seed, Fast Pyrolysis, Catalyst
1 INTRODUCTION
The world's energy demand is increasing
significantly due to population growth and
industrial evolution. It is estimated that the
increase in fossil fuel consumption will cause
the depletion of world reserves. Fossil fuels
which are not sustainable energy sources, cause
an increase in the rate of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. The accumulation of greenhouse
gases cause the rise in the temperature of the
atmosphere and hence climate change.
Biomass energy is one of the oldest energy
sources that people use. Biomass is used to
supply various energy needs, such as electric
generation, heating, fuel [1]. Biomass stores
solar energy for use during photosynthesis,
where carbon dioxide is converted into plant
materials such as cellulose, hemi-cellulose and
lignin. Biomass term includes plant wastes,
forest, wood and food processing residues,
human sewage, animal wastes, municipal solid
wastes [2]. Being renewable, cheap and
abundant, biomass is an important energy and
chemical source [3].
The production of valuable hydrocarbons (fuels
and chemicals) from biomass can be done in two
different ways. The first is the biochemical
process, which is the conversion of biomass into
fuel products by microbial fermentation. The
second is a thermochemical process in which
biomass is processed by gasification or pyrolysis
to produce synthesis gas or bio-oil [4].
Thermochemical processes enable biomass to be
converted into energy and fuels in minutes.
Therefore, it is more advantageous than
biochemical processes [5].
Pyrolysis is a thermally degradation process that
transforms biomass into char, liquid and gas
products. The major components of the biomass
which are cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin
degrade to bio-oil, biochar and synthesis gas at
certain temperatures [6]. There are basically two
types of pyrolysis, slow pyrolysis and fast
pyrolysis. In fast pyrolysis, it is possible to
obtain a more efficient liquid product in shorter
periods of time, at higher heating rates and
temperatures than in slow pyrolysis [7]. Bio-oil
has highly oxygenated and acidic components,
this may cause thermally and chemically
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
unstable product [8]. Some improvements are
required for the effective use of bio-oil. Catalytic
pyrolysis is one of the methods to improve the
bio-oil content. Mineral clays such as
montmorillonite in the catalyst field are of great
interest. Montmorillonite clays have been used
for various purposes due to their high porosity,
and swelling properties [9].
In this experimental study, montmorillonite clay,
which is abundant, cheap and environmentally
friendly was used as catalyst in order to
determine the effect on the pyrolysis product
yields.
2
METHOD
2.1 Biomass
The safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) seeds
used in this study were obtained
region. The seeds dried in the laboratory, ground
in the laboratory scale mill and sieved due to
ASTM Standarts. The seeds between 0.850 mm
<dp <1.25 mm particle size were used in the
pyrolysis experiments. The moisture content,
volatile matter, ash, fixed carbon and oil amount
of the safflower seeds were determined
according to TSE Standarts [10,11,12]. The
results of the proximate analysis of the safflower
seeds are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Proximate analysis of safflower
seed
Analysis
Weight %
Moisture
5.7
Volatile matter
80.80
Fixed Carbon
11.32
Ash
2.18
2.2 Pyrolysis
Tubular fixed-bed reactor made of 310 stainless
steel with a diameter of 8 mm and a length of 90
cm and heated from the top and bottom part was
used in the fast pyrolysis experiments.
The temperature was measured directly above
the raw material by a thermocouple located in
the middle of the tubular reactor. The
temperature
measurements
from
the
thermocouple were monitored by the numerical
display on the control panel. After the
connections of the reactor have been made, the
heating rate and pyrolysis temperature were
adjusted from the control panel. The sweeping
gas flow rate adjusted by rotameter.
In the experiments, 3 g of raw material was
weighed and placed on 0.3 g of steel wool in the
reactor. Pyrolysis experiments were carried out
in two parts; with and without catalyst. In the
first part to determine the oil yield without
catalyst, experiments were performed at 100
cm3/min N2 flow rate and 300 cm3/min heating
rate at pyrolysis temperature of 400°C, 500°C,
550°C, 600°C and 700°C. At the second part,
pyrolysis reactions were carried out with %10 Al
doped montmorillonite catalyst at pyrolysis
temperature of 300°C, 400°C, 500°C, 550°C and
600°C. The N2 flow rate and heating rate values
were constant. The catalyst amount was used at a
rate of 5% by weight.
At the end of the experiments, char removed
from the reactor and weighed to calculate the
char yield. The trapped liquid kept at 0°C
dissolved with dichloromethane and separated
into oil and water fractions. The solvent in the
oil fraction was removed with rotary evaporator.
After weighing the oil amount, the gas yield was
calculated by difference.
3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Product yields
The pyrolysis experiments were carried out
without catalyst at pyrolysis temperature of
400°C, 500°C, 550°C, 600°C and 700°C in the
first part. The product yields obtained from the
first part of the experiments are given in Figure
1.
Figure 1. Product yield of fast pyrolysis at
different temperatures
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 1 shows that char yield was decreased
from 28% to 19% when temperature was
increased from 400°C to 700°C as expected.
The oil yield increased while the temperature
increased from 400°C to 550°C, but further
increase in temperature caused slightly decrease
in the oil yield. The maximum and minimum oil
yield was obtained as 39.80% and 28.2%,
respectively.
Depending on the oil yield, the gas yield
decreased up to 550°C. The calculated gas
amount increased with increasing temperature.
In the second part of the experiments, %10 Al
doped montmorillonite catalyst was used at
300°C, 400°C, 500°C, 550°C, 600°C. The
product yields determined from the second part
of the experiments are given in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Product yield of catalytic fast
pyrolysis at different temperatures
Figure 2 showed that the solid product yield was
high as 87.89%
is not complete. The solid product yield
decreased to 22.9% as the temperature increased
to 6
.
The oil product yield increased as temperature
increased to 550°C and decreased when the
temperature increased to 600°C as in the first
part. The highest oil yield was found as 40.75 %
with 10% Al dopped montmorillonite
catalyst.
The gas product yield showed very small change
with increasing temperature.
4 CONCLUSION
The fast pyrolysis experiments of safflower
seeds without catalyst were carried out at
different temperatures in the first part. The
highest oil yield was obtained as 39.80% at
550°C.
In catalytic fast pyrolysis studies, the highest
liquid product yield was found to be 40.75% at
550°C. According to these results, the use of
10% Al doped montmorillonite catalyst at a rate
of 5% by mass increased the oil product yield.
The temperatures which the highest oil product
yields found were the same both in the
experiments with and without catalyst. It was
observed that the montmorillonite catalyst doped
with 10% Al did not change the optimum
temperature value in fast pyrolysis experiments.
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tohum su ve uçucu miktar tayini, TS 1632, 1.
[11] T.S., Türk Standartlar
tohum küspelerinde toplam kül tayini, TS 921,
AN EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL CASE STUDY ON COALESCING
PLATES USED IN OIL-WATER SEPARATION
Mehmet ORUÇ1, Sedat YAYLA1
1.
Van Yuzuncu Yil University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Van;
e-mail: mehmetoruc@yyu.edu.tr , syayla@yyu.edu.tr
Abstract
Petroleum-water separation systems are important for obtaining separated water and oil. Also, because
the need for water increases in nature, it is also important to obtain separated water. This study
consists of a series of experimental and numerical analyzes performed with perforated coalescing
plates, which are widely used in the separation of the oil-water mixture. Experimental and numerical
separation efficiency was investigated for 3 different temperatures (25,30 and 35°C) and distances
between coalescing plates (12,24 and 36 mm) by using crude oil production area and using 10 %
petroleum-water mixture. In all studies, the flow rate of the oil-water mixture to the separation system
is constant. It is seen that the parameters discussed affect both the separation efficiency and each other,
and the highest separation efficiency is obtained as 99.6% at 30 °C temperature and the distance
between 24 mm coalescing plates. Numerical studies were carried out using CFD (Computational
Fluid Dynamics) simulation program. Separation processes were examined both experimentally and
numerically, and the separation efficiency values obtained by experimental and numerical studies were
found to be compatible with each other.
Keywords: Oily water separation, Coalescing plates, CFD, Experimental and numerical study
1.
INTRODUCTION
In parallel with the advancement of technology,
the need for energy is increasing day by day. It
is observed that fossil fuels and renewable
energy sources have been used in recent years to
meet the increasing energy needs [1-3].
Petroleum and derivative products are mostly
used in the fossil fuels used. Oil and derivative
products that have entered our lives since the
18th century have become an indispensable part
of our lives day by day. Given the fact that
petroleum and its derivative products have
entered our lives to such an extent, all
intermediate processes from the production of
oil to the consumption should be done with great
care [4]. Underground and well fluids are
generally a mixture of oil, gas, and water
components. Each of these fluids must be
separated to use in a particular application [3].
The process of separating water from oil in the
oil industry involves several problems. In order
to increase oil production, gas and oil companies
are constantly looking for more effective
methods to reduce the amount of water in the
mixture. In recent years, different separation
methods have been developed, such as
associated plate separator, coalescing tube
separator, and packaging-type separators [6].
Two processes are generally used in the oil
separation process. After the oil is passed
through the process (the process in which mud,
gas, and some of the water are separated from
the oil extracted from the well), II. the process
(the process where oil is separated from water)
should be started. II. Even if some gas and mud
are separated from the oil in the process, the
main purpose is to separate the water in the oil.
After the crude oil is removed from the well, it is
kept in tanks with different types of separator
systems within the scope of the first process and
separated by these separation systems. In the
first process phase; wastes such as mud, etc.,
extracted to the earth together with oil, gas, and
some water are separated. The oil, which was
purified from some of the waste in it, was later
converted into II. It is subjected to the process
stage [7]. As mentioned in previous chapters, II.
Since the process is more expensive and takes
more time, most oil-rich countries are available
in limited numbers. The oil transported to the
process facilities by pipeline, tank, train, ship
transportation, II. is subjected to the process. II.
Different separation methods are available
within the scope of the process and among these
methods, the separation process performed by
using a bonded plate in this system will be based
on. In the separation process using the
coalescing plate; At the basis of the separation,
there are 2 or more fluid mixtures whose density
is different from each other and as a result of the
process, the fluids are stratified from the surface
to the bottom in the separation tank according to
their density values (Stokes Law).
Fleischer [8] explained that the generally used
methods to separate water and oil consist of
centrifugal separation, gravitational separation,
and filtering. The coalescing plate method to be
used in the project also falls into the
gravitational separation class. While centrifugal
separation and gravitational placement are based
on density variances, filtering is based on power
variances, molecular volume, and gravitational
forces. Viscosity, which also has an important
effect on the separation of water from oil, is an
important physical property of oil. The
effectiveness of gravitational separation is
enhanced by increasing the diameter of the
bubble using centrifugal force as well as by
changing the gravity power. Morrison, [9] in
addition to the API system, the benefits of the
separation system using a bonded plate; He
stated that increasing oil separation, providing
laminar flow in plates, efficient flow
distribution, self-cleaning, removing oil sludge
to the surface easily, being compressible and low
cost. The weakness of this system is its clogging
and the potential for oil or water to flow over the
plates.
Kok and Marson [10] explained that this volume
should be reduced to reduce the need for
perforated plate separator volume to more
gravity systems and prevent oil droplet
movements. They stated that volume reduction
would be possible by placing more perforated
plates in the system. Mohr [11] explained that
different angle systems have been developed to
make improvements on issues such as system
clogging with solid particles and perforated plate
inhibitors. Today, the number of researchers
using the computational fluid dynamics program
(CFD) to investigate the separation of oil and
water is increasing [12]. It is also used as a basis
in oil-water separation experiments, as the
process of conducting experiments is useful in
determining the effect of various geometric
shapes and process on separation, although
complex and costly [13-16] Computational fluid
dynamics data have been proven to be more
applicable and consistent with experiments [
17,18]. For these reasons, the CFD program was
used in this study to examine the effect of
various factors on separation efficiency. This
program; It is typically applied to the physical
and chemical properties of fluids and also helps
to find fluid parameters and interrelated physical
events, equation management, and solution
parameters. Therefore; The CFD program can be
described as a complicated program based on
calculations [19]. CFD program is also in the
computer system; it can mimic gas and liquid
flow, moving particles, chemical reactions,
multiphase physical phenomena, heat and mass
transfer, fluid acoustic, and interface stresses
[20]. The implementation of this program helps
to organize the systems that need analysis. The
software of the CFD program; supplies pictures
and elements used to estimate the characteristics
of the system [21].
Within the scope of this study, the first
processed crude oil sample (crude oil separated
from some of the solid particulate water) was
transferred to the separation system at 3 different
temperature values, and the separation efficiency
for the distance value between 3 different
coalescing
plates
was
investigated
experimentally and numerically. In experimental
and numerical studies, the flow rate of the fluid
to the separation system is constant 15,18 lt /
min. was considered as. Both the separation
efficiency values obtained from experimental
and numerical studies were compared and the
degree of influence of the parameters discussed
on each other and the separation efficiency was
examined.
2.
MATERIAL and METOD
2.1 Experimental Studies
The relationship between the separation
efficiency and the distance between the plates
coalescing and the temperature of the oil-water
mixture was investigated experimentally and
numerically, and the rheological properties of all
fluids entering and leaving the system were also
used in the relevant calculations. The viscosity,
density, and petroleum ratio of the processed oilwater mixture sample used in the separation
system are measured and specified in table 1.
Table 1. Properties of Oil-Water mixture
Oil Ratio in
Mixture (%)
10
Density (kg/m3)
Viscosity (Pa. s)
795
7.3 x 103
The viscosity of the oil-water mixture
was measured with a temperature-controlled
viscometer and its density was measured with a
hand-held density meter. Related measuring
devices are shown in figure 1. The inner
diameter of the pipes that transfer the mixture to
the system is 1 finger (inch) and is 25.4 mm. The
density values of the fluid mixture before and
after entering the separation system were
measured and the change of the mixture density
was also examined. The oil/water ratio of the
mixture was calculated with a temperaturecontrolled magnetic stirrer. Samples heated up to
55Cº were rotated at 1000 rpm for 5 minutes.
During this period, oil droplets reaching a
certain temperature value stick to each other
thanks to the rotating force applied, and the oil
droplets that increase in volume also come to the
surface of the mixture due to the difference in
density. As a result of this process in 100 ml
measure, all oil droplets in the oil have
accumulated on the surface and separated from
the water. Since the ratio of oil and water in the
measure reaches a visible level, the relevant
value is read and written.
Figure 1. Viscometer and Handheld Density
Meter used in measurements; 1a:
Temperature Controlled Viscometer 1b:
Handheld density meter
The viscosity of the oil-water mixture supplied
from the oil production site was measured using
the LAMY RM 100 viscometer. With the
temperature-controlled viscometer, whichever
temperature value experiments were carried out,
the samples were kept at the same temperature
value and viscosity measurement was made.
After the petroleum samples to be used within
the scope of the study were obtained and their
rheological properties were determined, the
relevant experiments were started. The
separation system used in the experimental study
is shown in figure 2.
Figure 2. General Experiment Setup
As seen in Figure 1, the oil-water mixture is
transferred to the separation system with the
help of a pump. The speed of the mixture that
will enter the system is also adjusted by the step
pump and fluid is pumped into the system at the
desired speeds. HP10 Metallic Body Diaphragm
Pump was used in the system and flow control
was done from the automation unit. There is a
flow meter at the outlet of the system so that the
exit speed values of the mixture can also be
measured. Oil, which is passed through
assembled plates and separates during this
period, will accumulate as a layer (in the form of
a film) on top of the oil-water mixture since its
density is lower than water, and this oil layer
will be discharged with a separated oil drain
valve. Water with partial oil inside will be
discharged with a water drain valve.
The separation system feed tank used in the
experiments has a capacity of 2000 liters and is
made of polyethylene. It is also resistant to high
temperatures and impacts. First, the oil-water
mixture was mixed with the mixer for 30
minutes in the feed tank. Thanks to this mixing
process, the homogeneity of the mixture is
ensured and it is ready to be pumped into the
separation system. With the operation of the
diaphragm pump-compressor (4000 lt capacity)
set and the automation unit installed, the speed
of the mixture is adjusted and the mixture is
pumped into the system at the desired speed
values. In all relevant experiments, the
temperature of the mixture was adjusted in the
same way with the automation system
established and related studies were carried out
for 3 different temperature values (25,30 and 35
° C).
The separation tank used in the experimental
setup is metal and coated and painted to prevent
rust. At the bottom of the separation tank with a
capacity of 2500 liters; While there are valves
for the evacuation of settled solid particles, there
is a separate water discharge valve at the bottom.
Thanks to the valve mounted on the upper points
of the relevant tank, crude oil discharge that has
been separated and accumulated on the surface
have been provided. Separated water and crude
oil are discharged to separated water and
separate oil tanks through these discharge
valves. The separated water storage tank has a
capacity of 2000 liters, while a separated oil
storage tank has a capacity of 500 liters. The
properties of the bonded plates used in the
separation system are given in table 2 and the
separation was achieved by the sets that were
installed using the perforated bonded plates, and
all relevant experiments were carried out. As can
be seen from Table 2, related studies have been
carried out for the distance between 12 different
coalescing plates (12,24,36 mm).
Table 2. Properties of coalescing plates
used in experiments
Length of Coalescing Plates (L) 800 mm
(mm)
Coalescing Plate Hole Diameter 15 mm
(D) (mm)
Distance Between Coalescing 12-24-36
Plates (H )(mm)
mm
Coalescing Plate
Width (mm) 600 mm
(W)
As seen in Figure 3, the oil-water mixture
pumped to the separation system; Separation is
provided by passing through sets consisting of
perforated assembled plates. The oil droplets in
the mixture passed through the perforated plates
are adhered to each other and collected on the
surface like a film strip. Since the density of
crude oil is lower than that of water, the
separated water is also collected at the bottom of
the separation tank. According to Stokes Law,
separation of insoluble fluids by using the
difference in density and accumulation of lowdensity oil droplets on the surface.
Figure 3. Top and side view of the set of
coalescing plates used in the separation
system
The oil beads will continue to move upwards
depending on the laminar flow conditions of
Stokes law. Increasing the size of the particles
causes the laminar flow rate to increase. In order
to calculate the required dimensions of the
separators, it is important to know the speed
increase of the oil bubbles. When calculating the
dimensions of the oil separation system, it is
considered that the output of one of the two
interconnected systems is suitable for the
entrance of the other system in order to release
the oil bubbles. Sufficient time must be allowed
for the oil beads to move from the bottom to the
surface before the water pushes the oil beads to
the other side of the system.
The equation below describes the Stokes law.[22].
Vp =
In this experiment
Vp = speed, cm / sec.
G = gravitational acceleration, 980 cm / sec2.
dc = bulk phase density, gm / cm3.
dp = density of the bead phase, gm / cm3.
D = bead diameter, cm.
It was found that the API value of the crude oil in the
oil-water mixture supplied from the oil production
area was between 20-25 and the boiling point of the
relevant crude oil samples was determined to be 200
° C and above based on the previous scientific
studies. Based on this information, the oil-water ratio
was measured by distillation. The oil-water mixture
ratio of the oil-water mixture to be pumped to the
separation system and the separated water obtained
was determined by the distillation process shown in
figure 4. In the distillation process, the samples
placed in a glass balloon with a sensitivity of 0.01
mm were heated up to 150 °C and all the water in the
mixture was evaporated because of the boiling points
of the phases in the mixture differ from each other.
Oil/water separation efficiency value was reached by
reading the volume value of crude oil remaining in
the glass balloon.
Figure 5. a) Boundary conditions applied in
CFD Program b) Mesh applied
Figure 4. Distillation Unit
2.2. Numerical Studies
CFD is a branch of fluid mechanics that
examines fluid behavior, simulates the flow
region and basic differential equations of the
flow, which can be simulated by briefly offering
numerical solution possibilities in accordance
with the physical and chemical properties of the
fluid and used in very wide application areas of
many engineering branches.
Mesh properties applied for the studies to be
carried out within the scope of the numerical
method are shown in Figure 5a, and healthier
results are obtained by considering the boundary
layer conditions. The high number of mesh does
not mean that better results can be obtained, and
it is necessary to determine the optimum mesh
model and number according to the type of
problem, geometry, fluid type and properties to
be applied. Since the geometry to which the
problem will be applied is rectangular, mesh
geometry has been selected in accordance with
this geometry and mesh with 71702 element
number has been laid. Figure 5b shows the
change of applied mesh properties and
boundary-layer conditions based on the Wall.
Figure 6. Iteration applied in CFD Program
In Figure 6, it is shown that the iterations applied
for the analysis solutions to be made within the
scope of the CFD program and the variable
values that are handled do not change as the
iteration is applied after a certain point. The
point to be considered while applying iteration;
The problem is that the variables (x, y, z,
velocity value. etc.) that are handled for the
solution should not change by increasing the
number of iterations. When we look at the
number and changes of iterations applied in this
study, there is no change in the parameters after
1000 iterations.
Table 3. Mesh independent
Mesh
Structure
Coarser
Coarse
Normal
Fine
Finer
Number of
elements
41207
58990
64612
71702
74089
Separation
Efficiency (%)
98,2
98,7
99,1
99,4
99,37
Table 3 shows the mesh-free version of the
study. As can be seen from the table, while the
number of elements is 71702, the maximum
Turbulent kinetic energy value of 16.5 J kg ^ -1
was obtained. In all numerical studies, the
number of elements is taken as 71702.
Thanks to the CFD programs used today, more
efficient results can be obtained in a shorter time
at a lower cost. While modeling, very complex
geometries can be divided into pieces or as a
whole by emphasizing the desired features. Also,
in the fluid modeling in the CFD program, many
analyzes can be made according to the desired
situation according to single-phase and multiphase flows, time-dependent, or timeindependent fluid properties. Within the scope of
the study, simulation studies of plates and
experimental setups were made within the scope
of the experimental study to verify the vortex
producing plates designed for the best efficiency
and the results obtained in numerical studies.
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow;
geometry depends on surface roughness, flow
rate, surface temperature, fluid type, and many
more parameters. The flow regime mainly
depends on the ratio of inertia forces in the fluid
to viscous forces [23].
The continuity equation is about the change of
the volume available in a fluid by time and
location. The general continuity equation is as
follows.
Continuity equation:
(1)
In the experiments carried out within the scope
of the study, it has been accepted that the flow of
water flowing in the channel is a continuous and
incompressible flow where the fluid density
remains constant.
Continuity equation of incompressible flow:
(2)
Consumption of mass and momentum
conservation is made using the Navier Stokes
equation.
Conservation
(3)
of
mass:
Conservation of momentum:
(4)
The k known and has a simpler structure than other
models. The standard k the analysis since the flow used in the study was
turbulent flow.
K equation:
(5)
equation:
(6)
3.
RESULTS and DISCUSSIONS
The relevant experiments were carried out with a
set of assembled plates with a length of 800 mm,
a hole diameter of 15 mm, and a distance
between plates of 12,24,36 mm. All numerical
and experimental studies were carried out for 3
different temperature values (25, 30, 35 ° C).
Throughout the experiment, the temperature
value was controlled by the automation control
unit and kept constant.
In the experiments carried out within the scope
of the study, the separation efficiency value was
found according to the result of the whole
sample collected every 15 minutes after the
water flow to the separated water storage tank
and collected until the end of the relevant
experiment. The experiments carried out within
the scope of the study are shown in table 4. As
can be seen from the table, a total of 9
experiments were carried out and the same
experimental setup was designed numerically
and related studies were also handled through
the CFD program.
Table 4. Experiments carried out
Temperature (T) (°C)
25
30
35
Distance between plates (H) (mm)
12
24
36
12
24
36
12
24
36
the distance between the coalescing plates in the
separation system is 24 mm and the temperature
are 30 ° C is shown in figure 8. As can be seen
in the figure, the oil droplets in the oil-water
mixture adhere to each other and move towards
the surface, resulting in an upward velocity
change. As it is understood from the
intensification of upward speed movement as the
exit zone of the separation system approaches,
oil droplets stick to each other more easily and
appear to be suitable and the selected pumping
flow rate is appropriate.
Separation efficiency values obtained from
experiments and numerical studies are shown in
table 5. As can be seen from the related table,
the separation efficiency difference between
experimental and numerical studies is in the
range of 1-2% and is a negligible value.
Table 5. Comparison of obtained
experimental and numerical separation
efficiency values
Temperature
(T) (°C)
25
Figure 7. H = 24 mm and T= 25 °C water
volume fraction
The water-oil volume ratio, where the distance
between the coalescing plates is 24 mm and the
temperature is 25 ° C, can be seen in Figure 7. It
is seen that oil, which has a lower density than
water, accumulates on the surface and separates.
The results obtained are also compatible with the
experimental results.
Figure 8. Velocity H = 24 mm and T = 30 ° C
The change of the speed graph in the case where
30
35
Distance
between
plates (H)
(mm)
12
24
36
12
24
36
12
24
36
Experimental
Separation
Efficiency (%)
93
95,8
91
96,9
99,6
94,3
98,8
99,2
96,5
Numerical
Separation
Efficiency
(%)
92,07
97,7
89,18
97,8
99,5
95,1
99
99,5
96,7
When the experimental and numerical results
carried out within the scope of separation
processes are analyzed, it is seen that the results
are compatible with each other and the
separation efficiency of the parameters handled.
As the distance between the coalescing plates
increases, the number of plates placed in the
separation system decreases, and the oil-water
mixture contacts less with the plates, and the
separation efficiency decreases. However, since
the distance between the plates is a low value
even if the distance between the plates is 12 mm,
the oil-water mixture cannot easily enter and
contact the separation system. For this reason, a
decrease in separation efficiency is observed.
When the effect of the temperature value of the
oil-water mixture pumped on the separation
system on separation efficiency is observed, it is
seen that the highest separation efficiency is
obtained at 30 ° C. While the increase of the
temperature value up to a certain point positively
affects the separation efficiency, it is observed
that there is a decrease in the separation
efficiency at the temperature value above 30 ° C.
4.
CONCLUSIONS
Within the scope of the related study, the
separation efficiency of the oil-water mixture
sample supplied from the crude oil field for 3
different temperatures, and the distances
between the coalescing plates was examined.
Different separation efficiency values were
obtained in all experimental and numerical
studies. As the temperature of the mixture
pumped into the separation system is increased,
the viscosity of the mixture decreases and it can
flow more easily from the surface of the plates.
However, at high temperatures, it is difficult for
oil droplets that are undissolved in the mixture to
stick to each other and come to the surface. Oil
droplets, which cannot stick to each other and
come to the surface, cannot come out of the
separation system in a separated way and the
separation efficiency decreases.
Considering the effect of the distance between
the plates on the separation efficiency, the
number of plates placed in the separation system
and the contact surface of the oil-water mixture
decreases as the distance between the plates
increases. In the separation system, the contact
surface decreases, the separation efficiency
decreases. However, it is important to consider
the viscosity of the fluid mixture while reducing
the distance between the coalescing plates. The
fluid mixture with high viscosity cannot flow
easily from the surface of the plates if the
distance between the plates is low, and the area
required for the contact of the oil droplets to
contact with each other does not occur.
As a result, it was observed that the separation
efficiency value varies depending on the fluid's
pumping temperature to the system and the
distance between the coalescing plates. The
separation efficiency varies due to the flow
characteristics and the mixture can interact with
the coalescing plates. The optimum connection
between the separation efficiency and the
temperature of the mixture pumping into the
system-the distance between the coalescing
plates was determined, and accordingly, the
maximum separation efficiency value was
determined experimentally and numerically.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by Van Yuzuncu Yil
University
Scientific
Research
Projects
Coordinator with the project number FOA-20197591.
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2001.
CHARACTERIZATION AND STABILITY OF PYROLYTIC OIL PRODUCED
FROM OLIVE RESIDUE
Ahmed Ayyash1
1
1,
Gamzenur Özsin2
1.
Turkey; email: eapaydin@eskisehir.edu.tr
2.
Turkey.
Abstract
In this study, pyrolytic oil was obtained from olive residue via slow pyrolysis using a fixed bed reactor
with a heating rate of 10 °C.min-1, nitrogen flow rate of 100 cm3.min-1 and at a final temperature of 500
°C. In order to investigate the storage stability of pyrolytic oil, samples have been aged at different
durations under different conditions. The changes in the characterization of bio-oil samples during
storage were carried out in terms of viscosity, elemental analysis, TGA, FTIR, and GC-MS before and
after storage. It was observed that long-term and high-temperature storage, known as accelerated aging,
affected the rheological behavior of bio-oil while increasing the instability, which can be due to the
polymerization reactions that occurred during storage. The viscosity of aged bio-oil (168 hours of
accelerated aging at 80 °C) was measured at 40 °C as 40.8 cP that is 36.7 % higher than the viscosity of
fresh bio-oil at the same temperature. TGA results showed that the maximum decomposition temperature
was shifted to around 300 oC for the 168 hours accelerated aged bio-oil.
As a result, it was concluded that pyrolytic oil is thermally unstable synthetic fuel and it is necessary to
keep the storage conditions at lower temperatures to have a relatively stable product and to minimize
storage effects.
Keywords: Olive residue, pyrolysis, bio-oil, storage, stability, rheology.
1. INTRODUCTION
The increasing demand for energy forces
researchers to find clean and renewable energy
sources to compact with fuel produced from
petroleum. Clean and renewable energy sources
will decrease the amount of carbon dioxide
emission, which will accelerate the environment
to recover and prevent or at least delay the
greenhouse effect. One of the renewable energy
sources that have been used for thousands of
years is biomass.
In Mediterranean basin countries, olive (Olea
Europea L.) cultivation is a typical activity.
However, for many centuries utilization of olive
residue is carried out mostly by direct
combustion for domestic heating purposes.
Nowadays,
thermochemical
conversion
technologies take attention as alternative
utilization methods. Torrefaction, gasification,
and pyrolysis are an example of the thermal
conversion of biomass. Pyrolysis is preferred
due to the ability to have three different products
that are solid (charcoal), liquid (bio-oil or
pyrolytic oil), and gas (biogas). Pyrolysis offers
the advantages of having a liquid product that
can be easily stored and transported. However,
bio-oil is chemically and thermally less stable
compared to petroleum fuels due to the high
content
of
reactive
oxygen-containing
compounds. The stability of bio-oil may vary
concerning the storage duration and conditions.
The instability of bio-oil can be observed as
increased viscosity with storage duration
especially when exposed to relatively high
temperatures [1-3].
This study aims to investigate the effect of
different storage conditions on bio-oil stability.
Having this information provides the knowledge
of the best way to store bio-oil to minimize aging
effects.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Materials
The olive oil residue used in this study as
feedstock was collected from Manisa city
located in the Aegean Region, west of Turkey,
during the 2019 season. Olive oil residue
consisted of the solid remains of the olive
including skins, pulp, seeds, and stems. The
feedstock was dried at room temperature for a
few days before pyrolysis.
2.2. Bio-Oil Production
Pyrolytic oil was obtained from olive residue via
slow pyrolysis using a fixed bed reactor. The
reactor was fixed in an electrically heated oven
to obtain the desired pyrolysis temperature. The
reactor temperature was maintained at 500 °C
using a PID controller with a thermocouple
placed in the top of the reactor. To obtain
sustainable results the reactor was cleaned and
dried before and after each day and every
pyrolysis experiment was done in the same
order. After the reactor was filled with feedstock
its upper chamber was sealed carefully to ensure
that there are no bio-gas leakages. The final
temperature of the reactor was set to 500 °C at a
heating rate of 10 °C/min. After reaching the
final temperature a holding period of 15 minutes
was sustained. Biogas produced during pyrolysis
was carried out using nitrogen that flows in the
reactor at 100 cm3/min and passed through 4
cylinder vessels placed in ice. The condensed
gases were collected as bio-oil and directly
transferred to a closed glass vessel and kept in
the refrigerator for further analysis.
Bio-oil was aged at 2 different conditions: (i) at
room temperature for 7 days and (ii) 24 hours
and 168 hours at 80 oC. Before the aging process,
the
and samples aged at 80
o
2.3. Bio-Oil Characterization
During the bio-oil characterization process, all
tests were done before and after the aging
process.
Ultimate Analysis
The elemental composition, C, H, and N, of the
samples was determined using a LECO CHN628 elemental analyzer. Oxygen content was
calculated by difference (100% (C+H+N)).
Calorific Value
The determination of the calorific value of biooil samples was accomplished by using Dulong
equation [1], Equation (1):
Where, C, H, and O are the mass fractions of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, respectively.
Viscosity and Aging Index
The dynamic viscosity of bio-oil samples was
determined by using Kinexus ultra+ (Malvern
UK). Shear rate ramp between 5 to 50 s-1 was
applied to each sample at 40 °C. Cone plate
geometry has been used with 40mm diameter
and 4o angle.
The change in the dynamic viscosity ( ) known
as the aging index was calculated using Equation
(2):
FTIR Analysis
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
was used to analyze the organic functional
groups in the bio-oil samples before and after the
aging process. A Thermo Fisher Scientific
Nicolet iS10 FTIR spectrometer with a
resolution of 4 cm 1 and 32 scans were used for
analyzing samples between 4000 and 500 cm-1.
TGA Analysis
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) experiments
were carried out using Labsys Eyo (SETARAM
Instrumentation). Approximately 10±1.0 mg of
sample was loaded into a TGA crucible. 20
ml/min nitrogen was used as the sweeping gas.
Each test was carried in 3 steps, 1st step for 35
minutes at room temperature to reach stability,
2nd step increasing the temperature of the sample
from room temperature to 1000 °C by 20 °C /min
heating rate, followed by cooling step.
GC-MS Analysis
The analysis was carried on each sample using
Agilent
Technologies
7820A
Gas
Chromatography (GC)
5977B Mass
Spectroscopy (MS) equipped with 30m x
-5MS column. The
temperature of GC oven was programed to hold
at 40 oC for 3 minutes, then, the temperature was
increased at a rate of 2 oC/min to hold for 30
minutes after reaching the final temperature of
the oven set as 270 o
was adopted. Helium flow rate was adjusted as 1
mL/min. W9N11 mass spectral library was used
to identify the obtained peaks.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Stability and Viscosity of Bio-Oil
The thermal stability of bio-oil is an important
property as bio-oil might be exposed to different
temperatures during storage life. The detailed
information on the effect of temperature on biooil can lead to better storage conditions. In this
manner, the characterization of fresh and aged
bio-oil was recorded, and the aging index for
viscosity was calculated by equation (2). The
dynamic viscosity of fresh bio-oil samples
Fresh) was determined within 24 h of
production, whereas the viscosity of aged bio-oil
was measured after storing it in a sealed dark
brown 50 ml containers at both 80 °C for 24 h
and 168 h and in a dark laboratory cabinet at
room temperature for 7 days.
Figure 1 shows dynamic viscosity (cP) versus
shear rate (1/s) in log scale. It shows that the
viscosity of bio-oil has increased with the
increase in the storage duration. Dynamic
viscosity was measured as 29.84, 34.96, 33.92,
and 40.81 cP for Fresh, 7 Days, 24 Hours, and
168 Hours respectively. These results show that
bio-oil is thermally unstable. Storing at high
temperatures will increase the viscosity of biooil more than storing it at room temperature.
Aging index was calculated to be 17.16 %, 13.7
%, and 36.77 % for 7 Days, 24 Hours, and 168
Hours bio-oil samples respectively.
Thermal Decomposition of Bio-oil
Samples
Figure 2 shows the weight loss of bio-oil samples
during thermal decomposition at 20 oC/min
samples were decomposed at the final
temperature and all bio-oil samples exhibit
almost the same mass loss. The curves of aged
samples slide to the right side which indicates
that decomposition starts at higher temperatures.
This can be due to the formation of a higher
molecular weight tar sample during the aging
process as a result of the polymerization
reactions. Figure 3 shows dTG curves for each
sample, the maximum decomposition rate
increased by 13 oC from 287 oC for fresh bio-oil
to 300 oC for 168 Hours aged bio-oil.
3.3. Chemical Changes During Aging
Elemental analysis
The ultimate analysis results of bio-oil samples
are given in Table 1. The analyses showed that
all of the bio-oil samples shared almost the same
values of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and
oxygen. Aged bio-oil samples were carefully
sealed to prevent any contact with air/oxygen to
prevent oxidation reactions. As a result, oxygen
content of aged bio-oil samples showed minor
changes with respect to oxygen content of fresh
bio-oil samples.
Having a high ratio of carbon and hydrogen is
critical to have a high calorific value. The higher
the calorific value is the closer the bio-oil to
synthetic fuel. The calorific value is given in
Table 1 and is represented by QGCV. The gross
calorific value is calculated using equation 1, as
approximately 35.74 MJ/kg.
3.2.
Figure 1. Effect of aging on viscosity versus
the shear rate at 40 0C
100
TG (%)
80
60
40
20
0
25
225
425
625
825
Temperature (C)
Fresh
7 Days
24 Hours
168 Hours
Figure 2. Thermal decomposition of bio-Oil
samples: TG curves
0
-2
dTG (%/min)
-4
-6
-8
-10
in organic acids, ethers, and alcohol groups.
Table 2 represents detailed functional groups of
bio-oil [2, 3, 5].
GC-MS analysis
GC-MS analysis provides information about the
components of each sample. According to
GCMS spectra, bio-oil contains more than 100
compounds. Therefore, only the components
with relatively high quality (higher than 50) were
selected in this study and classified as phenols,
carboxylic acids, alkanes, ketones, and
aromatics. Figure 5 shows the variations in the
total area percentage of each component group
before and after the aging process.
From Figure 5, it can be seen that carboxylic
acids (53 %) and phenolics (11.3%) are the main
groups of fresh bio-oil. After aging it is noticed
that the percentage of carboxylic acids and
phenols decreased slightly. On the other hand,
alkanes, ketones, and aromatics percentage area
slightly increased after the aging process.
-12
-14
-18
25
225
Fresh
425
625
825
Temperature (C)
24 Hours
7 Days
168 Hours
Figure 3. Thermal decomposition of bio-Oil
samples: dTG curves
FTIR analysis
The objective of FT-IR analysis is to observe the
functional groups in different bio-oil samples.
As shown in Figure 4, all bio-oil samples have
similar functional groups. The O-H stretching
vibrations between 3200 and 357
the presence of hydrogen-bonded alcohols and
phenols. The symmetric and asymmetric
stretching vibration associated with the peaks at
2925 2854 cm-1 of C-H are alkyl and aliphatic
chains. Moreover, the C=O group is arising
mainly from the aldehydes, ketones, and
carboxylic acids. The 1340 1470 cm-1 C H
bending bands correspond to alkyl and aliphatic
bending modes. The stretching vibrations
associated with the peaks at 1242 and1264 cm-1
are likely indicative of C O stretching vibration
Transmittance (%)
-16
3500
2500
1500
500
Wavenumber (cm-1)
Fresh
7 Days
24 Hours
168 Hours
Figure 4 FTIR spectra of bio-oil samples
Table 1. Elemental analysis results of biooil samples (as received, wt%)
C
H
N
O and others*
QGCV (MJ/kg)
* By difference
Bio-Oil
73.63 ± 0.41
9.36 ± 0.1
2.19 ± 0.04
14.82 ± 0.33
35.74 ± 0.2
Wavenumber
(cm 1)
Functional
groups
Compounds
3200-3570
(broad)
O-H
stretch
Hydrogenbonded alcohols,
phenols
3000-3100
C-H stretch
Aromatic rings
2850-2970
C-H stretch
Alkanes
1690-1760
C=O
stretch
Aldehydes,
ketones,
carboxylic acids
1500-1600
C=C
stretch
Aromatic rings
1340-1470
C-H bend
Alkyl, aliphatic
1050-1300
C-O stretch
Alcohols, ethers,
carboxylic acids
1000-1200
C-H bend
Aromatic rings
1000-1060
C-O stretch
Ethers, alcohols,
phenols
690-900
C-H stretch
Aromatic rings
4. CONCLUSION
In order to consider bio-oil as an alternative fuel,
it has to have good storage stability. Bio-oil
samples were aged at room temperature for 7
days and at 80 oC for 24 and 168 hours. To
evaluate storage stability, the characterization of
bio-oil samples was done. The influence of aging
on bio-oil could be seen on the increase in the
viscosity as it is 29.84 cP for fresh bio-oil, and
increased to 34.96, 33.92 and 40.81 cP for 7
days, 24 hours and 168 hours aged samples
respectively. Based on FTIR and elemental
analysis no significant changes observed.
According to GC-MS results, it can be concluded
that the chemical composition of bio-oil has
changed significantly during storage.
As a result, knowing the effect of storage on biooil may lead to new investigations on the
methods to increase the stability and quality of
bio-oil which will accelerate the commercial use
of this renewable and environmentally friendly
energy source.
Fresh
60
Chromatogram area %
Table 2. The main functional groups of biooil
50
7 Days
40
24
Hours
168
Hours
30
20
10
0
Carboxylic Phenols
Acids
Alkanes
Ketones Aromatics
Others
Compunds
Figure 5. Variations in the chemical
composition of bio-oil samples before and
after the aging process
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Anadolu
University Scientific Research Council for the
financial support of this study.
5. REFERENCES
[1]
B. B. Uzun, A. E. Pütün, and E. Pütün,
pyrolysis of olive residue. 1. Effect of heat
and mass transfer limitations on product yields and
bioEnergy and Fuels, vol. 21, no.
3, pp. 1768 1776, 2007.
[2]
L. Zhang, R. Liu, R. Yin, Y. Mei, and J. Cai,
Physicochemical Properties of BioChem. Eng.
Technol., vol. 37, no. 7, pp. 1181 1190, 2014.
[3]
E. A. Varol
Anadolu University, 2007.
[4]
D. A. Skoog, F. J. Holler, and S. R. Crouch,
Principles of Instrumental Analysis. Thomson
Brooks/Cole, 2007.
[5]
tobacco factory waste biomass: TG-FTIR analysis,
kinetic study and bioJ. Therm.
Anal. Calorim., vol. 136, no. 2, pp. 783 794, 2019.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
CHARACTERIZATION OF BIOMASS ALTERNATIVES
D.N. Inceoglu1, E. Unal2 and T. Pamuksuz3
1. R&D Department, Eregli Iron and Steel Works Co., Zonguldak; email: dinceoglu@erdemir.com.tr
2. R&D Department, Eregli Iron and Steel Works Co., Zonguldak; email: eunal@erdemir.com.tr
3. Laboratory Department, Eregli Iron and Steel Works Co., Zonguldak; email:
tpamuksuz@erdemir.com.tr
Abstract
In Iron and Steel Works, coal is used both as a reducing agent and as a fuel in Blast Furnace. The ash content
of coal is important for the production of iron. The amount of volatile mater, ash, fixed carbon are important
for the production efficiency in Blast Furnace. In order to optimize the operational needs and costs there are
several methods. One of them is using additives in coal blend during coke production. Biomass is a good
additive for coal blend while it helps reducing CO 2 emissions of the process. Biomass has a broad meaning
including wood, biological wastes, farming and forest wastes etc. It is important to find the proper biomass
for the iron and steel processes. This study presents the proximate, ultimate and ash content analysis of olive
branch pellet, corncob, chicken manure and biological treatment sludge to comment if they are suitable as a
coal blend additive.
Keywords: Biomass in Steel Works, Reduction of CO2 Emissions
1 INTRODUCTION
Studies to use biomass as an alternative to fossil
fuels have gained importance in terms of cleaner
production processes in recent years. In
integrated iron and steel processes, however the
most studies on using biomass is in blast furnace
operations, only few of them is about using the
biomass in coal blend in coke making process.
The success of coke ovens depends on
production of suitable coke for blast furnace
operations. The critical parameter in coke
production are CSR (coke stability after
reaction), CRI (Coke reactivity index), sulphur
and ash content of the coke [1].
The aim of this study is to characterize the
proper biomass for the steel processes according
to sulphur and ash content. Another important
parameter is to minimize the blend costs, if
possible.
2 SELECTION OF BIOMASS
Several biomass sources are available on earth.
Some are natural, some are so-called as waste.
Forestry crops and residues, agricultural crops
and residues, sewage, municipal solid waste,
animal residues and industrial residues are the
main groups [2].
It is a fact that the waste material is cheaper than
natural ones. There is no need to pay for
biological treatment sludge (BMS). In Black Sea
region chicken manure (CM) as animal residue
and corncob (CC) as agricultural residue can be
found easily. For industrial scale studies, it will
be needed huge amounts of biomass so olive
branch pellet (OBP) is also selected for the
analysis.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In order to characterize the biomass samples
proximate, ultimate and total sulphur content
analysis were performed. LECO TGA 701,
LECO CHN 628 and LECO Truespec S module
systems were used respectively. The results are
given in Table 1 in terms of moisture, volatile
mater (VM), ash, fixed carbon (Fixed C) as
proximate analysis results, and total carbon
(total C) as ultimate analysis result.
Table 1. Results of Analysis
CC
Moisture
(%)
5,2
CM
VM (%)
75,03
Ash
(%)
4,43
Fixed
C (%)
20,54
Total
C (%)
46,8
S
(%)
0,122
23,9
38,5
52,6
8,9
23,2
0,117
OBP
6,3
75,5
3,0
21,5
48,8
0,096
BMS
11,5
65,9
16,8
17,4
39
0,9
The high volatile amount of biomass is a factor
that limits its use in coke production [3].
Addition of biomass increases VM of the coke
blend.
The ash content of coke product should be as
low as possible. The CC and OBP are suitable
for the purpose of lowering the ash amount. On
the other hand, CM and BMS are increasing the
ash amount in the blend.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
high, the fixed C of all
biomass samples were low, compared to coal.
According to sulphur content, the first three
samples matched best but BMS was not.
Using Biomass decreases the GHG emissions up
to 35% according to the used ratio [4]. This is
another reason for using biomass in coal blend.
However, biomass selection is very important in
steel production.
Consequently, CC and OBP are the best suitable
samples, although procurement costs are higher
than other two. Furthermore, there should be
performed extra applications in order not to
affect coke quality parameters.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Authors would like to thank Erdemir
executives for their support in carrying out this
study.
REFERENCES
[1]
VOC
and PAH Characterization of Petroleum Coke at
Maximum
Thermal
Decomposition
Temperature, Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery,
Utilization, and Environmental Effects, Vol. 41,
pp. 1305-1314, 2019
[2]
https://ekstrembilgi.com/genel/biyokutleenerjisi-nedir/ (visit date: 25.06.2020)
[3] H. Suopajärvi, A. Kemppainen, J.
Haapakangas, T. Fabritius, Extensive review of
the opportunities to use biomass-based fuels in
iron and steelmaking processes, Journal of
Cleaner Production, Vol. 148, pp. 709-734,
2017.
[4]
Analysis
of
the
environmental impacts of petrocoke in coal
blend during coke production process, Doctoral
Thesis, Kocaeli University, 2019.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
EFFECT OF N2 DILUTION ON EMISSION AND COMBUSTION
INSTABILITIES FOR A BIOGAS MIXTURE USED IN INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS
2
3
Yakup Çam1
1. Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics Erciyes University, Kayseri; yakupcam@erciyes.edu.tr
2. Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics Erciyes University, Kayseri;
bugrahanalabas@erciyes.edu.tr
3. 2. Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics Erciyes University, Kayseri; iyilmaz@erciyes.edu.tr
Abstract
Biogas compositions are known as carbon free fuels for energy productions at nowadays. In this study,
biogas mixture which contains %40 CO2 dilutant are tested with different N2 dilution ratios. Equivalences
ratios and swirls number keep constant as 0.7 and 1, respectively. The results showed that the combustion
stability of biogas mixtures diluted with nitrogen increased depending on the diluent ratio. In addition, as a
result of dilution of the biogas composition with nitrogen, CO emissions decreased while NOx emissions
increased.
Keywords: biogas combustion, dilution, combustion instability, emissions
1 INTRODUCTION
Today, fossil fuels used in energy production,
buildings, transportation and other fields have
some problems. First, fossil fuels resources are
limited and researchers expect these resources
will end soon. The another problem these fuels
cause air pollution and global warming. This is
because of the carbon dioxide they release into
the air when they burn. Therefore, scientists
have been working on new and alternative
energy sources such as solar energy, wind
energy and biomass in recent years.
Recently, interest in biogas has been increasing.
Biogas, which is obtained by gasification of
wastewater and solid waste, can be used in many
areas, especially in power generation and heating
systems. Although it contains small amounts of
sulfur, nitrogen and hydrogen, the two basic
components of biogas are methane and carbon
dioxide [1]. Methane, which is the main
component of natural gas, provdes high energy
to biogas. Studies done to better understand the
combustion characteristics of biogas are given
here. Although biogas contains low amounts of
inert gases, it consists of a high proportion of
CO2. Like other low calorific gases, biogas has
problems such as poor flame stability [2].
Zouagri et al. [3] in an experimental study,
concluded that there is less NO production in
lower CH4 compositions. In addition, the
adiabatic flame temperature increased as the
methane ratio increased. Liu at al. [4] performed
that diluents slow down the chemical reaction
rate in biogas combustion and this leads to a
decrease in NOx emission. Hu and Zhang [5]
analyzed the effect of fuel composition and
pressure on flame shape in a study where biogas
was burned with hydrogen. flame instability
decreased with increasing equivalence ratio.
hydrodynamic
instability
increases with
increasing hydrogen ratio. Rowhani and
Tabejamaat [6] conducted an experimental
investigation of the stability limits of biogas in a
vortex unmixed burner. They used 60% methane
and 40% carbon dioxide composition. The flame
behavior and stability limits of biogas under
different vortex conditions were tested. Adding
nitrogen to the air had a negative effect on the
stability limits. Leung and Wierzba [7]
conducted an experiment showing that
instability increases as the amount of CO2 in
biogas increases. It has been determined that the
stability limits can be significantly increased by
adding a small amount of hydrogen to the fuel.
Öztürk [8] conducted a study using CO2, N2
and H2O diluents and found that the maximum
NOx emission was seen at a rate of 1.39
equivalents. When N2, CO2 and H2O diluents
were added to the biogas at a rate of 1.39
equivalents by 15% respectively, the NO
emission decreased by 13.4%, 14.8% and
the combustion properties of biogas with 3D
numeric modeling. With the preheating of the
combustion air, the flame temperature increased,
SO2 emission increased with the increase in the
the effect of H2O and H2S content on the
combustion properties of biogas. The
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
composition of water vapor was varied between
different frequencies, and thus the effect of
0% and 10%. Yilmaz et al. [10] conducted a
external acoustic forcing on the burning
study examining the effect of oxygen enrichment
characteristics of the flame can be examined.
on biogas combustion characteristics and
emission behavior. While the oxygen rate
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
increased to 28% it has been observed that a
decrease in stability compared to the 24%
3.1. Combustion Instabilities
oxygen rate. Experimental results show CO
Firstly the biogas mixture was tested without
emission decreased as the oxygen ratio was
nitrogen dilutions for the purpose of examine the
increased..
effect of nitrogen addition to the biogas mixture
on combustion characteristics. The dynamic
pressure fluctuations, light intensity and
2. TEST RIG
temperature changes of the tested fuel mixes are
recorded and flame instabilities are interpreted.
Dynamic pressure swings that occur as a result
of the combustion of a biogas mixture
containing 60% CH4 / 40% CO2 are shown in
Figure 2. When the dynamic pressure
fluctuations are examined, it is seen that the
flame is extinguished at oscillation amplitude of
944 Pa at 95 Hz, which is the first acoustic
resonance value of the system.
The experiments are carried out in the thermoacoustic combustion chamber shown in Figure 1.
There are measuring devices around the
combustion chamber where a burner with a
burner capacity of 10 kW is located to take
dynamic and static pressure values. In addition,
thermocouples were placed around the
combustion chamber to measure the flame
temperature arising during the combustion of
different fuel mixtures. Combustion air fed by a
compressor with 1500 L storage capacity first
passes through the mass flow controller that can
control the flow up to 300 slm value, and the air
meets the pre-mixer. Meanwhile, the gas coming
from the tanks firstly passes through the mass
flow controllers and after it combines in the fuel
collector, the pre-mixer mixes homogeneously
with the air. The resulting air-fuel mixture is
ignited by entering the burner and the
combustion process takes place.
In the acoustic forcing part, which constitutes
the original value of the study, two loudspeakers
placed in the burner arms work by being fed by a
power source and a generator. These speakers
force the flame by producing sound waves at
After the test without nitrogen dilution, the
effect of dilution on flame stability and
temperature was investigated by adding 10% and
20% nitrogen, respectively, into the fuel
mixture. As a result of the calculation made in
such a way that 10% of the total methane,
carbon dioxide and nitrogen ratios sent into the
combustion chamber are nitrogen, dilution was
carried out with nitrogen. When the dynamic
pressure fluctuations shown in Figure 3 are
examined, an oscillation of 888 Pa amplitude
occurred in the combustion chamber during the
acoustic forcing at 95 Hz frequency and the
flame continued to burn steadily against this
oscillation. However, when 175 Hz forcing
frequency is reached, dynamic pressure
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
amplitude of 814 Pa occurred in the combustion
frequency. This situation shows that there is a
chamber and the flame was extinguished. The
small increase in stability when the nitrogen
dynamic pressure graph is shown in Figure 4 for
amount is increased to 20%. The reason why the
another dilution ratio of 20% nitrogen addition.
stability increasing rate decreases with the
According to this graph, while the flame was
increase in nitrogen amount can be interpreted as
forced at 95 Hz, which is the acoustic resonance
follows; Carbon dioxide gas contained in biogas
value of the system, a dynamic pressure
mixtures is a diluent gas with no calorific value.
oscillation of 648 Pa amplitude occurred and
The molar mass of carbon dioxide gas is 44
resisted this oscillation. At the second resonance
g/mol and is heavier than any other gas entering
value of 175 Hz acoustic frequency, 631 Pa
the system. Methane, which was diluted with a
amplitude extinction occurred.
heavy gas and turned into a biogas mixture
under air combustion conditions, was diluted
with nitrogen, which a gas that is lighter than
carbon dioxide. In this case, although there was
a positive effect in terms of stability at small
dilution rates, the improving in stability
decreased as a result of the decrease in fuel / air
ratio with the heighten of dilution.
The change of luminous intensity, which is
another criterion in the examination of
When the dynamic pressure fluctuations of the
combustion instabilities, is shown in Figure 5. In
experiments performed at different nitrogen
the graph without acoustic enforcement
dilution rates are compared, the following results
situations are taken into account, the luminous
are obtained. In case of dilution with 10%
intensity of the flame in biogas combustion was
nitrogen according to the process in which the
measured at 3.2 mV, while the values of 3.61
mixture of CH4 / CO2 burned without dilution,
mV and 3.64 mV were observed at dilution rates
the flame resisted against acoustic enforcement
with 10% and 20% nitrogen, respectively. This
at 95 Hz frequency and continued to burn
situation shows that the flame brightness
steadily. Even if the flame was extinguished
increases as a result of dilution with nitrogen
under 175 Hz acoustic enforcement, it was
similar to dynamic pressure fluctuations. In
released with lower dynamic pressure amplitude
addition, in the temperature change given in
than the case without dilution. The fact that the
Figure 6, the flame temperatures in the region
flame has been burned while maintaining its
closest to the burner were compared. In the
stability under force indicates that 10% nitrogen
Biogas combustion, 10% and 20% nitrogen
dilution by volume to be applied to the
dilution rates, respectively, 907 K °, 1037 K °
determined biogas mixture increases the
and 1040 K ° temperatures were measured.
stability. The main reason for the increase in
According to the examination of the temperature
stability can be seen as; The only component
change, it has been observed that if the burner
with calorific value in the selected mixture is
output is supported by a vortex in a premixed
methane, and dilution of methane gas with
combustion, the flame temperatures increase as a
nitrogen is known to reduce the laminar
result of dilution of a biogas containing a high
combustion rate. Kozubkova et al. [11] In their
proportion of carbon dioxide with nitrogen, a
study, they increased the rate of nitrogen from
lighter diluent.
79% in air to 84% by diluting pure methane gas
with nitrogen. As a result of the study, while the
laminar burning rate calculated according to the
GRI30 model was found to be 0.347 m / s in
combustion without methane dilution, it
decreased to 0.160 m / s as a result of nitrogen
dilution. On the other hand, when the dilution
rate with nitrogen increased to 20%, the flame
resisting 95 Hz, which is the first acoustic
resonance value, was extinguished at a lower
dynamic pressure amplitude and 175 Hz forcing
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3.2. Emission Measurements
Another important result of the combustion tests
is the flue emissions. There are three pollutant
emissions arising from the combustion of
hydrocarbon-containing fuels. These; They are
called CO2, CO and NOx emissions. Since
carbon dioxide emission is an end-ofcombustion product that carbon atom combines
with oxygen, it is expected that carbon dioxide
emission will occur naturally as a result of all
combustion processes [12]. The reduction of
other pollutant emissions is very important in
preventing environmental pollution, which is
one of the most important problems of today.
Figure 7 shows the emission rates after
combustion of the biogas mixture at 0%, 10%
and 20% nitrogen ratios, respectively. When the
graph is examined, it is observed that NOx
formation increases as the rate of nitrogen
entering the burner increases. Fuel-NOx, one of
the NOx formation mechanisms, can be shown
as the reason for the increase [13]. Another
pollutant emission, CO, decreases as the dilution
rate with nitrogen increases. The CO emission,
which was 4681 ppm at 0% nitrogen, decreased
slightly during the 10% nitrogen addition and
reached 4615 ppm. When the nitrogen ratio was
increased to 20%, 4111 ppm was measured. In
order to better understand the change in CO
emissions, it is necessary to examine the CO2
and O2 emissions. As nitrogen is added
according to the CO2 emissions shown in Figure
7, the CO2 emission rates in the flue gas are
respectively 4.9%, 4.7% and 4.5%. On the other
hand, there is an increase in O2 emissions as
follows. O2, which has a ratio of 12.4% in the
flue gas in biogas combustion, is 12.7% in 10%
nitrogen dilution, while it is 13% when it is
increased to 20% nitrogen.
This shows that nitrogen dilution increases the
combustion stability as it decreases the laminar
combustion rate and CO emissions are reduced
due to the slower progress of the combustion
process. In addition, although the CO resulting
from the incomplete combustion of the carbon
atom as a result of the nitrogen addition has
decreased, the total combustion product CO2 has
decreased. Accordingly, O2 emission has
increased. As a result, although nitrogen dilution
reduced CO emissions, it delayed the
combustion of the fuel by meeting with oxygen
and increased the rate of unreacted oxygen and
decreased the CO2 rate that must occur in an
efficient combustion.
4. CONCLUSION
In this study, the instability and emission
behavior of a biogas containing 60% CH4 / 40%
CO2 at different N2 dilution rates were
investigated. The results of the study are as
follows;
Considering the dynamic pressure
fluctuations used in the investigation of
combustion
instabilities
and
the
resistance of the flame to these
fluctuations, nitrogen dilution applied to
the biogas mixture had a positive effect
in reducing the combustion instabilities.
When nitrogen dilution is made at the
level of 10%, it significantly increases
the flame stability due to the decrease in
the laminar burning rate, and when the
dilution rate is increased to 20%, no great
increase in stability has been observed.
When flue gas emissions are analyzed,
nitrogen dilution caused a decrease in
CO level and an increase in NOx
emissions. In addition, the increase in the
dilution rate caused an increase in O2
emissions, which was interpreted as the
decrease in combustion efficiency.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
[10]
enrichment on the flame stability and emissions
during biogas combustion: An experimental
REFERENCES
[11] E. Kozubková, M., Kozubek, E., Nevrlý,
V., Bit
[1]
as
combustion in a newly generated 10 KW
99, 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.joei.2016.10.004.
[2]
M. Saediamiri, M. Birouk, and J. A.
premixed biogas flame: Effect of low swirl
1326 1336,
2014,
doi:
10.1016/j.combustflame.2013.11.002.
[3]
R. Zouagri, A. Mameri, F. Tabet, and A.
the mixtures biogasFuel, vol. 271, no. February, p. 117580, 2020,
doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2020.117580.
[4]
A. Liu, Y. Yang, L. Chen, W. Zeng, and
combustion and emissions for a micro gas
117312, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.fuel.2020.117312.
[5]
study on flame stability of biogas / hydrogen
no. 11, pp. 5607 5614, 2019, doi:
10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.08.011.
[6]
A. Rowhani and S. Tabejamaat,
air dilution on biogas non-premixed flame
2169, 2015, doi: 10.2298/TSCI130112157R.
[7]
hydrogen addition on biogas non-premixed jet
flame stability in a coHydrogen Energy, vol. 33, no. 14, pp. 3856
3862,
2008,
doi:
10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.04.030.
[8]
fects of CO2, N2,
and H2O Dilutions on NO Formation of
Cumhur. Sci. J., vol. 40, no. 4, pp. 813 818,
Dec. 2019, doi: 10.17776/csj.543130.
[9]
effect of H2O content on combustion behaviours
45, no. 5, pp. 3651 3659,
10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.02.042.
2020,
doi:
Dilution on Methane Oxidation in Laminar
1839,
2012.
[12] Arthur H. Lefebvre Dilip R. Ballal, Gas
Turbine Combustion: Alternative Fuels and
Emissions. 2010.
[13] C. A. T. C. (MD-12), I. T. and P. I.
Division, O. of A. Q. P. and Standards, U. S. E.
P. Agency, and N. C. 27711 Research Triangle
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
WANKEL MOTORUNUN PER
OLARAK
1
, M. Kucuk 2*, A. Surmen3
1.
2.
merve.altay@btu.edu.tr
3.
surmen@btu.edu.tr
rsitesi,
Bursa,
16059,
rkiye.
email:
Türkiye,
email:
Özet
yüksek vol
gövde kodlu Wankel motorunda ilk olarak tersine mühendislik ölçüm yöntemleri ile motorun ana
r.
Anahtar Kelimeler:
-
Abstract
Wankel type rotary engines which allow high power output from small engine volume are used in many
applications, particularly in unmanned air vehicles, hybrid vehicle applications and automotive, owing to
their such advantages as low vibration, lightweight, less components requirement and high power/weight
In this study, firstly CAD model of the Wankel engine has been developed using basic geometrical
calculations. Then 1 dimensional performance analyzes have been carried out in GT-SUITE software.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analyzes, in which 1D performance data used as initial conditions,
are still ongoing. When the study is concluded, the parameters affecting the cycle process will be
investigated by comparing in terms of moment and volumetric efficiency for different speeds under full load
condition.
Keywords: Rotary engine, Two stroke cycle, Unmanned air vehicles, Wankel engine.
1
G
ip edilen yeni döner
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Pars türbo jet motor klasik türbo jet motora göre
%35 daha az hava ile tüm kompresör basma
beygirlik
türbo jet motoruna göre %5 daha fazla itki
özgül itkiye
, 50
gövde haznesi ile özgün bir yap
turbo döngüsel (PARS) motorun,
buji
sonra Rolls-Royce, Mercedes ve Alfa Romeo da
-8
modelinde
i yeni bir döner pistonlu motor
Ankara o
boyutlu HAD analizleri yürüterek elde ettikleri
tezinde
arkad
e analizleri
,
otomatik üretilen mesh (automatic generating
bir
yandan bu
motor konseptinin bilinen
tezinde [5], 16 cm3 türbin hacmine sahip turbo
dinamometre
ile yüklenerek veriler elde
e edilen veriler neticesine 30 l/min
türbo
bir konsept olan Pars türbo döngüsel motorun
Wankel
motor
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
literatürdeki
benzetim
yöntemlerinden
Resor HCCI döner pistonlu Wankel motoru
pistonl
likle
savunma sanayiinde
2.1
uygulanan askeri ve ekonomik ambargolar,
Tablo 1. Mevcut Wankel motorun teknik
özellikleri
1 adet
Ancak savunma sanayimiz için üretimi mümkün
Trokoid gövdede
Trokoid gövdede
Net
Emme 319,84
Hacmi(cm3)
üretilecek
özgün
bir
Wankel
motorunun
31,85
Hacmi (cm3)
9.6
2 METARYAL VE YÖNTEM
Wanke
Güç(kW)
24,8 (4000 RPM)
2 adet paralel
dinamik benzerlik kurularak Wankel motor
uygulanan
benzetim
metoduyla
modelleme
2.1). Bu
sistemi
Ana gövde haricindeki
(ön kapak, arka kapak,
vs.) elemanlar; hava
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
tronik
kumpas, elektronik mikrometre ve 3 boyutlu
2.1.1 CAD Mode
Wankel motoru, geometrisi sebebiyle belirli
ölçüleri verir. Hedefimiz bu
ber içerisinde kaymadan
gösterimi.
Krank milinin eksantriklik ölçüsü her zaman
motorunun demonte görüntüsü
geometrisi sürtünme emniyeti göz önünde
bulundurularak her zaman ofsetli üretilir.
Teoride çember olarak hesaplanan
zel
edilebilir.
Bu oranlara uygun imal edilen Wankel W802
modellendikten sonra elde edilen montaj resmi
gövdesi CAD modelleri
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
rda rotor
-Krank
2.2 Parametrik Analizlerin (1 Boyutlu)
Yürütülmesi
Mevcut motor için GTboyutlu ol
un
montaj resmi
2.1.2
Wankel motoru, geometrisi sebebiyle belirli
performans
özelliklerini
etmek
yorumlamak
-SUITE modelinin
°-1080° veya
0°bölgeye ait rotor pozisyonu ve hacim geometrisi
hassasiyetinde
SOLIDWORKS
lama
CAD
GT-SUITE
esas
olarak
piston-silindir
Wankel motorunun GT-SUITE modeli, her bir
2.7).
.7. Wankel motoru GT-SUITE modeli
3
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3.2 Moto
GT-
düzenlenip volumetrik verim, ortalama efektif
yöntem ile elde edil
-SUITE
-SUITE motor indike efektif
-
k 5000-6000 rpm
du
3.3 Motorun
göstermektedir
3.1 Motor
grafi
GT-SUITE motor tork-devir
3.4 Motorun gü
-SUITE motor ortalama efektif
-
tmesi beklenen bir
durumdur. Çizelgede en yüksek devir olan 6000
-SUITE motor güçWankel motoru için güç verileri en önemli
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3.6 Motorun
iç yüzeyinde yüksek oranda sürtünmeye sebep
kaynaklanan
sürtünmeler
sebebiyle
büyük
Mo
bu güç
3.5 Motorun
basmakta ve volumetrik verim
4
SONUÇ VE GELECEK DÖNEM
- SUITE model ile
performa
-
benzerdir. Wankel motorun performans analizini
motoru için beklenen bir sonuçtur.
Bu verilerin 3 boyutlu HAD modeli
REFERENCES
[1] M.I. Özmen, Tek Rotorlu Wankel Motorunun
eme ve Püskürtme Ünitelerinin (Kontrol
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Arayüzüyle Kontrolü, (Yüksek Lisans Tezi)
[10] S. Pischinger, Internal Combustion Engines
Lecture Notes,
, 2015.
Te
, 2005.
[2] M. I. Resor, Computational Investigation of
Rotary
Engine
Homogeneous
Charge
Compression Ignition Feasibility , (Yüksek
lisans tezi), Wright State Üniversitesi, Ohio,
2014.
[3] V. Gkoutzamanis, D. Mertzis, S. Nikolaidis,
S. Savvakis,
Rotary
Engine
With
a
Conventional
Reciprocating Otto Cycle Engine, 6th BETA
CAE International Conference, Yunanistan,
2015.
[4] T. Ercan, Thermodynamic and structural
Design and Analysis of a Novel Turbo Rotary
Engine,
Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü,
Ankara, 2005.
Turbo Döngüsel Bir Motorun
, (Yüksek Lisans
Tezi), Gazi Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü,
, 2009.
[6] M. Okur, S. Akmandor, Türbo-Döngüsel
,
Sürdü
, Vol 2(1), pp. 19-25,
2017.
[7]
Performansa
, S. Akmandor, Turbo
Etkisi,
Karabük,
13- 15 Ma
, 2009.
[8] J. Spreitzer, F. Zahradnik, B. Geringer,
Implementation of a Rotary Engine (Wankel
Engine) in a CFD Simulation Tool with Special
Emphasis
on
Combustion
and
Flow
Phenomena," SAE Technical Paper, 2015.
[9] L. Tartakovsky, V. Baibikov, M. Gutman, M.
Veinblat, Simulation of Wankel Engine
Performance Using Commercial Software for
Piston Engine, SAE Technical Paper, 2012.
doi:10.4271/2012-32-0098.
[11] T. Costa, M. Nickerson, D. Littera, J.
Martins, Measurement and Prediction of Heat
Transfer Losses on the XMv3 Rotary Engine,
SAE Int. J. Engines, Vol 9(4), 2016.
doi:10.4271/2016-32-0033.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
A NOVEL METAL-FREE CATALYST FROM ORANGE PEEL WASTE
PROTONATED WITH PHOSPHORIC ACID FOR HYDROGEN GENERATION
FROM METHANOLYSIS OF NABH 4
*
*
email:duyguelma@siirt.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study, orange peel (OP), one of the organic wastes, was first used as a metal-free catalyst for the
production of hydrogen from sodium boron hydride. Various acids (30% HCl, 30% H 2SO4, 30% CH3COOH,
30% H3PO4) have been used to protonate the orange peel that will be used as a catalyst for hydrogen
production. Orange peel-catalyst (OP-H3PO4-Cat) treated with phosphoric acid (H3PO4) in terms of
performance showed higher activity compared to other acids. In the experiments conducted, different H3PO4
ratios (10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%), different burning temperatures (200, 300, 400 and 500 °C) and
different burning times (30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 minutes) were tested for OP-H3PO4-Cat optimization studies.
As a result of these studies, it was determined that OP-H3PO4-Cat, which was treated with 30% H3PO4 and
burned at 400 °C for 45 minutes, had the best catalytic activity. With the obtained OP-H3PO4-Cat,
methanolysis reactions were tried at four different temperatures and reusability experiments were tested.
FTIR, XRD and SEM analyses were performed for the characterization of the prepared OP-H3PO4-Cat. As a
result, the reaction rates for 30 °C and 60 °C in the 2.5% NaBH 4 methanolysis reaction catalysed by OPH3PO4-Cat were found as 45244 and 61892 mLmin. -1g.cat-1, respectively. The activation energy of OPH3PO4-Cat catalyst was calculated as 12.47 kJmol-1.
Keywords: Methanolysis, NaBH4, Orange Peel Catalyst, Phosphoric Acid.
1 INTRODUCTION
Today, the search for alternative energy sources
is gaining importance due to the toxic gases
released to the environment as a result of the
burning of the declining fossil fuel sources.
Because NOx, SOx and CO2 gases released to
the environment as a result of the burning of
fossil fuels cause various problems. One of the
most important of these environmental problems
is climate change caused by the thinning of the
atmosphere layer. Climate change causes acid
rain, soil pollution as well as disruption of
ecological balance[1-4]. For this reason, clean
energy sources come to the fore as an alternative
to fossil fuels. The most well-known of the clean
energy sources is hydrogen and water is released
as a result of the burning of hydrogen. In this
respect, research on hydrogen has gained more
importance recently[5, 6]. However, hydrogen
has some disadvantages and it is possible to
divide them into three as storage, transportation
and security problems[7-9]. Therefore, sodium
boron hydride (NaBH4), one of the metal
hydride compounds where hydrogen can be
transported safely, comes to the fore. NaBH4 is
considered as an ideal source of hydrogen due to
its non-toxic structure, safe storage and
transport, high theoretical hydrogen content
(10.8% by weight). Therefore, hydrogen can be
transported safely with NaBH4 in aqueous or
alcoholic solutions[10-12]. The reaction
mechanism of hydrogen obtained from NaBH4's
methanol solution is as shown in Equation 1-6.
(1)
However, according to these reaction steps, it is
not possible to obtain hydrogen alone from
NaBH4 and catalysts are needed to accelerate
this reaction. The catalysts accelerate the
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
hydrolysis or methanolysis reaction of NaBH4,
analyses were performed for the characterization
allowing to take hydrogen production under
of the prepared OP-H3PO4-Cat.
control. The catalysts are mainly divided into
two as supported and unsupported catalysts.
2. MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY
Unsupported catalysts are generally obtained by
2.1. Preparation of the Metal-Free OPdirect reduction of metal salts. Examples of
H3PO4-Cat
these are FeCl2, NiCl2, CoCl2, RuCl2, PdCl2 [13]
studies. And the supported catalyst is obtained
In the first stage, 3 g orange peel 20 mL 30%
by reducing as a result of metals being attached
HC1
(36.5-38%
Sigma-Aldrich),
30%
to the adsorbents. The main purpose of the
CH3COOH (99.8-100.5%, Sigma-Aldrich), 30%
support materials used in supported catalysts is
H2SO4 (96%, Carlo Erba), 30% H3PO4 (85-88%
to accelerate the activity of the catalyst by
Sigma-Aldrich) solutions were added to a 100
increasing the surface area. Activated
mL porcelain crucible in each experiment to
carbon[14], graphene[15, 16], Al2O3 [17, 18],
determine the best protonating agent and mixed
TiO2 [19, 20], carbon nanotube[21, 22],
at 150 rpm for 10 minutes. Then, the prepared
clays[23, 24] and polymers[25, 26] are among
samples were kept in the drying-oven for 24
the most commonly used support materials.
hours at 75 °C and then burned in the oven at
However, the methods of obtaining these
400 °C for 45 minutes. And in the second stage,
support materials have a certain cost and this
experiments were carried out with OP-H3PO4step increases the cost of catalysts. Therefore,
Cat, different H3PO4 ratios (10%, 20%, 30%,
unlike existing catalysts, the use of organic
40% and 50%), different burning temperatures
wastes as direct catalysts has become
(200, 300, 400 and 500 °C) and different burning
widespread recently with an innovative
times (30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 minutes) and
approach.
DSCG[27],
SCG[28],
optimum conditions have been determined. And
SPM 3PO4 [29], GAKScat[30], MGCellin the last stage, some experiments at different
PEI+[31] are the main ones of these studies. It is
reaction temperatures (30, 40, 50 and 60 °C) and
an important step in terms of preventing organic
reusability experiments were carried out to
wastes from causing environmental pollution
determine the performance of OP-H3PO4-Cat.
and obtaining value-added products from these
To remove excess acid residues from the
wastes. In this context, it is an inevitable fact
prepared catalyst, these were washed with pure
that the orange peels, which are the leading
water and dried at 100 °C. FTIR, SEM and XRD
organic wastes, should also be evaluated.
analyses were performed for the characterization
Considering that the orange peels emit 3.8
of OP-H3PO4-Cat, which shows the best activity.
million tons of waste annually worldwide,
turning it into a value-added product will also
2.2. Hydrogen Production
provide an added value economically[32].
In this study, OP, one of the organic wastes, was
first used as a metal-free catalyst for the
production of hydrogen from sodium boron
hydride. Various acids (30% HCl, 30% H2SO4,
30% CH3COOH, 30% H3PO4) have been used to
protonate the orange peel to be used as a catalyst
for hydrogen production. In the experiments
conducted, different H3PO4 ratios (10%, 20%,
30%, 40% and 50%), different burning
temperatures (200, 300, 400 and 500 °C) and
different burning times (30, 45, 60, 75, and 90
minutes) have been tried for optimization studies
of OP-H3PO4-Cat. With the obtained OP-H3PO4Cat, methanolysis reactions were tried at four
different
temperatures
and
reusability
experiments were tested. FTIR, XRD and SEM
The gas measurement method used in
experimental studies is shown in Figure 1. The
System is comprised of a reaction tank/vessel, a
gas collection unit and a temperature control
thermostat. In general, experiments (except
temperature experiments) were determined by
measuring the amount of hydrogen released by
degradation in a 10 mL methanol solution
containing 0.25 g NaBH4 at 30 °C in the
presence of a 100 mg catalyst. Depending on
water displacement, the hydrogen gas produced
as a result of the methanolysis reaction was
calculated.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
900-750 cm-1 in the spectra of OP and OPH3PO4-Cat belong to -P-O, -S-O and aromatic CH vibrations[33].
3.2. XRD Analysis
XRD
- 80° for pure OP (a)
and OP-H3PO4-Cat (b) catalyst are given in
Figure 3. For the pure OP, 2 peaks of typical
,
Figure 1. Hydrogen gas measurement
system
3.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
21° - 38°, respectively[34, 35]. However, these
characteristic peaks belonging to the cellulose
structure after the treatment of pure OP with
30% H3PO4 and burning process, is lost for OPH3PO4-Cat catalyst as shown in Figure 3b. As a
result, it has been observed that the crystal
structure of pure OP turns into the amorphous
structure after acid addition and burning[30]
3.1. FTIR Analysis
Figure 2. FT-IR spectrum of pure OP and
OP-H3PO4-Cat
FTIR spectrum of OP and OP-H3PO4-Cat is
given in Figure 2. When comparing the spectra
of OP and OP-H3PO4-Cat, it was observed that
many peaks disappeared due to the protonation
of the OP-H3PO4-Cat catalyst with acid and
burning[27, 29]. It was observed that the FT-IR
spectrum gave -OH stretching at 3329 cm-1 for
OP and C-H stretching at 2896 cm-1 wavelength
peak, however OP-H3PO4-Cat catalyst lost these
peaks. Also in the spectrum of OP, there are also
aromatic rings of C = C vibrations belonging to
carboxylic groups at approximately 1742 cm-1 (C
= O) and obtained at 1604 cm-1. The peaks
obtained in the region of 1200-1000 cm-1
indicate the presence of -C-O, -C-O and C-OH
stretching vibrations. In addition, it is believed
that the peak values obtained in the region of
Figure 3. XRD spectrum of pure OP(a) and
OP-H3PO4-Cat(b)
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3.3 SEM Analysis
SEM images of pure OP (a), OP-H3PO4-Cat (b),
pure OP SEM-EDX (c, d), OP-H3PO4-Cat SEMEDX (e, f) catalysts are shown in Figure 4.
While the SEM images of pure OP (a) have a
smooth structure when examined, the SEM
image of OP-H3PO4-Cat catalyst prepared by
burning with the addition of 30% H3PO4 has
become rougher and more porous. When SEMEDX images are analysed, while there is C
(64.6%), O (34%), Ca (0.7%), K (0.5%) in OP,
the ratios of the chemical composition of the
OP-H3PO4-Cat catalyst were found to decrease
to C (49.3%), Ca (0.5%) and K (0.2%) and P
was determined to be (16.1%). As a result, when
Figure 4e-f is examined, it is seen that H3PO4treated OP-H3PO4-Cat catalyst is coated with
phosphorus.
Figure 4. Pure OP SEM (a), OP-H3PO4-Cat
SEM (b), pure OP SEM-EDX (c), OPH3PO4-Cat SEM-EDX (d)
3.3.
Effect of Different Acid Types
In Figure 5, hydrogen volume production results
of the catalysts obtained by burning the orange
peel pre-treated with different acids (30%
H3PO4, 30% HCl, 30% H2SO4, 30% CH3COOH)
at 400 °C for 45 minutes are given. While the
reaction completion time for OP-H3PO4-Cat
treated with 30% H3PO4 takes about 0.6
minutes, catalysts treated with other acids (30%
HCl, 30% H2SO4, 30% CH3COOH) were
completed in 5.8, 5.75 and 5.25 minutes,
respectively. It is known that hydrogen and
phosphorus groups that are present in the
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
structure of phosphoric acid used to protonate
metal-free catalysts prepared from cellulosicbased waste materials play an active role in the
acceleration of NaBH4 methanolysis[30]. As an
example of some studies conducted with H3PO4,
Ceyhan et al. determined the reaction completion
time as approximately 70 minutes in the study
with GAKScat (30% H3PO4)[30], Kaya, on the
other hand, found the reaction time as 7 minutes
in a study with SCG-cat (30% H3PO4)[28].
Figure 6. Time dependent change of
hydrogen volumes and hydrogen production
rates depending on different acid ratios
(Reaction Conditions: 2.5% NaBH4, catalyst
= 100 mg, T = 30 oC, Vmethanol = 10 mL)
Figure 5. Time dependent change of
hydrogen volumes and hydrogen production
rates depending on different acid types
(Reaction Conditions: 2.5% NaBH4, catalyst
= 100 mg, T = 30 oC, Vmethanol = 10 mL)
3.5. Effect of Different H3PO4 Ratios
The effect of OP-H3PO4-Cat catalysts prepared
by treatment with increasing H3PO4 ratios on the
hydrogen production rate in the methanolysis
reaction was investigated and is shown in Figure
6. The reaction completion time of 30% H3PO4
treated OP-H3PO4-Cat catalyst is 0.6 minutes,
while the reaction completion time of 10%,
20%, 40% and 50% H3PO4 treated catalysts is
1.3, 1.3, 1.0 and 1.0 minutes, respectively. When
the H3PO4 ratio was increased from 10% (10218
mL.min-1g.cat-1) to 30% (24763 mLmin-1gcat.-1),
the hydrogen production rate increased by
approximately 2.4 times and when the acid ratio
was increased to 30%, the rate of hydrogen
production decreased. This is because high
H3PO4 concentrations negatively affect the rate
and duration of hydrogen production due to
deformations in the structure of OP-H3PO4Cat[36]. The catalyst treated with 30% H3PO4
was determined as the most effective acid ratio
in terms of hydrogen production rate.
3.6.
Effect
of
Different
Burning
Temperatures
The effect of the rate of hydrogen production
from the NaBH4 methanolysis reaction was
examined depending on different burning
temperatures (200, 300, 400 and 500 °C) and the
results are given in Figure 7. For these
experiments, 100 mg OP-H3PO4-Cat, 2.5%
NaBH4 and 10 mL methanol at 30 °C were used.
The catalyst treated with 30% H3PO4 and burned
at 400 °C for 45 minutes achieved the lowest
reaction completion time (0.6 minutes) with the
highest hydrogen production rate (24763
mLmin-1gcat.-1). In the other experiments of
burning temperatures, the reaction was
completed at 200 °C, 300 °C and 500 °C in 0.9,
0.9 and 0.8 minutes, respectively. When the
burning temperature was increased above 400
°C, a decrease in the catalytic performance of
the catalyst obtained was observed. The possible
cause is that the pore structure of OP is
deformed at temperatures above 400 °C[29, 37].
In other stages of the study, the burning
temperature was continued as 400 °C.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 8. Time dependent change of
hydrogen volumes and hydrogen production
rates depending on different burning times.
(Reaction Conditions: 2.5% NaBH4, catalyst
= 100 mg, T = 30 oC, Vmethanol = 10 mL)
3.8. Effect of temperature
Figure 7. Time dependent change of
hydrogen volumes and hydrogen production
rates depending on different burning
temperatures (Reaction Conditions: 2.5%
NaBH4, catalyst = 100 mg, T = 30 oC,
Vmethanol = 10 mL)
3.7. Effect of Different Burning Times
The catalytic activity of the catalyst, that is
treated with 30% H3PO4 and obtained by
burning at 400 °C with different burning times,
in the methanolysis reaction is given in figure 8.
Reaction completion time of OP-H3PO4-Cat
catalyst burned for 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 minutes
at 400 °C in 2.5% NaBH4 methanolysis reaction
was 0.8, 0.6, 1.7, 1.2 and 0.9 minutes,
respectively. OP-H3PO4-Cat catalyst burned at
400 °C for 45 minutes, was shown to be
performing superiorly and the maximum
hydrogen production rate was determined as
24763 mLmin-1gcat.-1. As seen in the graphic,
the increase in the burning time played a
negative role in hydrogen production. Probably,
longer oven burning times caused some pores to
grow and even collapse[37, 38].
Experiments were carried out at four different
temperatures to calculate the activation energy
of the sodium boron hydride methanolysis
reaction catalysed by the OP-H3PO4-Cat
catalyst. Temperature experiments were carried
out with 25 mg OP-H3PO4-Cat, 2.5% NaBH4
and 15 mL methanol. While the completion
times of methanolysis of sodium boron hydride
at 30 °C, 40 °C, 50 °C and 60 °C are 1.3, 1.3, 1.1
and 1.1 minutes respectively, the maximum
hydrogen production rates are determined as
45244, 50160, 59360, 61892 mLmin-1gcat.-1
respectively. By increasing this reaction
temperature from 30 °C to 60 °C, it was
determined that the maximum hydrogen
production rate value increased approximately
1.4 times.
Figure 9. Time dependent change of
hydrogen volumes and hydrogen production
rates depending on different temperatures.
(Reaction Conditions: 2.5% NaBH4, catalyst
= 25 mg, T = 30 oC, Vmethanol = 15 mL)
The Arrhenius equation was applied to
determine the activation energy of NaBH4
methanolysis catalysed by OP-H3PO4-Cat.
(7)
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
In Equation 7, is the reaction rate constant,
is reaction constant, Ea is activation energy (kJ /
mol), is the temperature (K) and is the ideal
gas constant (8.314 JK -1 mol -1). As can be seen
in Figure 10, lnk is 1 / T linear for the
HGR (mLmin Ea
Catalyst
Ref.
methanolysis reaction and the activation energy
1
-1
-1
gcat
)
(
kJmol
)
calculated from the slope of this graph was
determined as 12.47 kJ mol-1. Also, the
3975
17.78
[29]
3PO4
comparison of the activities of the metal-free
catalyst
catalysts used for hydrolysis or methanolysis of
sodium borohydride in previous studies for
Cell-EPC3125
30.8
[39]
hydrogen production rates is given in Table 1.
DETA-HCl
Hydrogen production rate and activation energy
SiO2-HCl
34000
29.9
[40]
of the current study showed that it is compatible
with other results in the literature.
SCG catalyst
8335.5
52.96
[28]
DSCG catalyst
3171.4
25.23
[27]
CSs-TETA-HCl
2586
23.82
[41]
P(TAEA-co-
18343
30.37
[42]
GAKScat
20199
30.23
[30]
MGCell-PEI+
9552
21.7
[31]
OP-H3PO4-Cat
45244
12.47
Thi
GDE)-HCl
s
stu
dy
Figure 10. Kinetics curve of OP-H3PO4Cat catalyst
Table 1. Comparison of hydrogen production
rates and activation energies of various metalfree catalysts for hydrolysis or methanolysis of
NaBH4.
3.9. Reusability
The OP-H3PO4-Cat catalyst has been tested
for
methanolysis
reaction
experiments
containing 2.5% NaBH4 five times at 30 °C, and
its usability has been checked and the result is
given in Figure 11. The catalysts were washed
with plenty of distilled water after each use to
eliminate impurities that can develop on the
surface and dried for reuse in the drying-oven.
Approximately 660 mL of hydrogen volume
(100% percent recycle) was collected at each
use, as can be seen in Figure 10, while the
activity slowly decreased after each usage. The
explanation for this is believed to be linked to
the creation of inadequate catalytic active areas
for NaBH4 methanolysis due to catalyst losses
that may occur during washing and recycling.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
compared to metal catalyst systems. The most
important of these advantages can be listed as
the affordable cost
of the catalyst,
environmentalist recovery and no toxicity. In
addition, it can be said that organic-based metalfree catalysts are more effective compared to
some metal catalysts in the literature. In the light
of these data more organic-based waste can be
tried and this can contribute to the development
of a more environmentalist perspective.
REFERENCES
Figure 11. Reusability of the metal-free OPH3PO4-Cat (Reaction Conditions: 2.5%
NaBH4, catalyst = 100 mg, T = 30 oC,
Vmethanol = 10 mL)
4. CONCLUSION - DISCUSSION
In this study, the metal-free OP-H3PO4-Cat
catalyst from orange peel was prepared for
hydrogen
recovery
from
the
NaBH4
methanolysis
reaction.
The
production
conditions of the most active OP-H3PO4-Cat
catalyst as a result of optimization experiments
were obtained as a result of burning for 45
minutes at 400 °C after orange peel's treatment
with 30% H3PO4. The reaction rate of 2.5%
NaBH4 methanolysis experiment at 30 °C
catalysed by 25 mg OP-H3PO4-Cat catalyst was
found as 45244 mLmin-1g.cat-1. On the other
hand, the activation energy of OP-H3PO4-Cat
catalyst was calculated as 12.47 kJmol-1 in
NaBH4's methanolysis reaction. Significant
changes have occurred in the structure of OP
after both its treatment with H3PO4 and burning
at 400 °C. XRD, FTIR and SEM analyses were
performed for characterization of OP-H3PO4-Cat
catalyst sample. While SEM images for pure OP
are very homogeneous and smooth, SEM images
of OP-H3PO4-Cat prepared after acid and
burning process turn into a heterogeneous and
porous state. And in the XRD spectra, while
pure OP has a crystalline structure, it is seen that
OP-H3PO4-Cat is transformed into an
amorphous structure. In this study, it can be said
that using the metal-free OP-H3PO4-Cat catalyst,
NaBH4 has a high hydrogen production rate and
low activation energy obtained from the
methanolysis reaction and is more advantageous
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APPROACH CLOTHES
Muhammed Fatih ASLAN[1], Hakan Serhad SOYHAN[2], Burak GÖKALP[3]
[4]
,
e-mail: fatih.aslan@ozal.edu.tr
arya
e-mail: hsoyhan@sakarya.edu.tr
-mail: kivanckoza@kivancgroup.com
ABSTRACT
Although the efforts to increase the fire safety measures with the developing technology
bring great inventions, a material that can withstand the power of fire is still not
synthesized. This creates many difficulties in the operation of fire response teams.
However, technical textile management has synthesized various materials for fire
protection of emergency teams. Three different types of materials will be examined. These
are glass fibers, high-performance aramid based polymer chains and polybenzimidazole
based fibers. In this study, thermal strength and tear strength analysis of dresses produced
with fabrics made of glass fiber, high-performance aramid polymers and
polybenzimidazole based fibers will be examined. In addition, the heat and tear behavior of
the fabrics obtained by 3 different polymerization was compared. In this way, the
performance characteristics of the firefighter suits to be prepared for optimum use have
been revealed and the standards have been reviewed in the light of scientific data.
Key Words: Fire Resistant Fabrics, Firefighters' Clothing, Polymerization, Thermal
Stability
1- INTRODUCTION
The clothes worn in order to prevent the
exposure of the person to harmful
substances and
bad environmental
conditions, to protect from this risk and to
reduce this risk are called protective
clothing [1]. Protective clothing is
modified according to the type of work
done. Protective clothing to be used in fire
fighting should be designed as high
thermal resistance and tear resistant,
considering the situation of the fire scene.
Such clothing for many years despite the
world being used by firefighters after the
fire that occurred on 13 February 1997 at
the salt yard in Turkey has been used by
Offices can be found by firefighters
firefighters working in Turkey.
Although there are many different types of
fires today, the most challenging fires for
responders are fires in industrial facilities.
Developing technology and increasing
needs have caused industrial facilities to
develop over time. Even though fire
response techniques are very advanced in
developing and growing
industrial
facilities, manpower is still the most
important part of the response. In these
types of fires, response personnel are faced
with various chemicals in addition to the
high temperature and intense smoke in the
environment. Although fresh air respirators
are used effectively and continuously,
some chemicals can penetrate the body
through the skin. While developing the
clothes of the response personnel, it should
be foreseen that the working environments
are analyzed correctly and the hazards in
the environment should be eliminated to
the maximum extent.
Personal protective equipment should be
sufficient for the response personnel to be
able to respond effectively to fires.
In this study, in the light of scientific data,
thermal strength and tear resistance of
firefighter suits produced from different
fibers will be examined and compared. As
a result of these data, the reasons for the
differences were examined and some
suggestions for future researches on similar
issues were given.
2- CONTENT AND STRUCTURE OF
FABRICS USED IN FIREFIGHTER'S
CLOTHES.
Many different fabrics from firefighter's
clothes are used to produce with other
fabrics. Table 1 includes the ingredients of
the materials used in the fabrics.
Aramid Fibers
Polybenzimidazole
fibers (PBI)
Polyamide-imide fibers
Polyimide fibers
Novoloid fibers
Polyphenylene sulfur
Re-igniting
viscose fibers
Flame retardant
polyester fibers
Flame retardant
acrylic /
modacrylic fibers
Power ignites
As can be understood from the content of
Table 1, while some fiber contents used in
firefighter suits have thermal stability by
themselves, some fibers are used by
increasing their thermal stability as a result
of chemical modifications.
In our study, the performance
characteristics of some firefighter suits
made of fibers with high thermal stability
will be compared
3-MATERIAL-METHOD
Fabric samples used in firefighter's clothes
Fire-Resist and PBI X55. The content of
the fabrics is given in Table 2 below.
Tablo 2. Fabric Trade names and weights
Fabric Trade Name
Fabric Content
Weight
Fire-Resist
75% Metaaramid23% Paraaramid2%Antistatik
198 g/m²
PBI X55 Gold
40% PBI*59% Paraaramid1% Antistatik
204 g/m²
*Polibenzimidazol
Table 1. Heat and Flame Resistant
Fibers Used in Thermal Protective
Clothing [2]
1. Inherently High Temperature
Resistant Fibers
2. Flame Retardant
Fibers Obtained by
Chemical
Modification
Tests on firefighter's clothes are made
taking into account TSE and EN norms.
Evaluation of some of the experiments we
have done in the laboratory environment;
Table-3 Standards meeting the tests
performed.
process
Standart
TEAR RESISTANCE
TS EN ISO 13937-2
RADIANT HEAT
TS EN ISO 6942
(20KW)
CONVECTIVE HEAT
TS EN 9151
(80KW)
TS EN ISO 15025
Fire-Resist and PBI X55 fabric samples
were tested within the scope of the
standards given in Table 3 above.
Fabric sample named Fire-Resist in the
tests:
The samples cut into trousers were taken to
the tear strength test and showed strength
up to 45N in the weft and warp.
Picture-1 Fabric tear test performance
named
Fire-resist
TEAR STRENGTH TS EN ISO 6942
(20KW):
The fabric sample cut in trouser form was
tested by applying mutual force by the
device.
RADIAN HEAT TS EN ISO 6942
(20KW) Test:
The fabric sample taken with this test is
attached to a calorimeter and the sample is
fixed at a distance that will be affected by
the heat source for 20 KW. The data
coming from the calorimeter are monitored
and the temperature shifts of 12 C and 24C
are monitored.
CONVECTIVE HEAT TS EN 9151
(80KW) Test:
The fabric sample taken with this test is
attached to a calorimeter and the sample is
fixed to be affected by the heat source by
80 KW. The data from the calorimeter are
monitored and 12 C and 24 C temperature
shifts are monitored.
In the Radiant Heat Test, 20KW energy
was given, 7.7s in the T12 process and
13.4s in the T24 process were measured.
FLAMMABILITY TS EN ISO 15025
TEST:
Picture-2 The condition of the fabric
named Fire - Resist at the end of the test
The fabric sample fixed in the fume
cupboard is transferred to the flame that
has the features stipulated in the standard
for 10 seconds. is exposed throughout.
With the removal of the flame from the
sample, the flame on the fabric will be at
most 2 seconds. it must be extinguished
inside.
In the Convective Heat test, the duration of
80 KW was measured for the T12 process,
3.6 and 5.4s during the T24 process.
In the non-flammability test, it was
observed that the flame was contacted with
the flame for 10s and that the flame did not
go away and the flame did not move.
Picture-3 During the test, the reaction of
the
fabric
is
observed.
In the non-flammability test, it was
observed that the flame was contacted with
the flame for 10s and that the flame did not
go away and the flame did not move.
4Firefighters trying to work in a very
dangerous environment have to struggle
with many parameters during the
intervention. In order to minimize these
parameters, 2 samples selected from the
personal protective equipment they use to
approach fire, which are of vital
importance, were examined in our study.
Fabric sample named PBI X55 in tests:
The samples cut in the form of trousers
were taken to the Tear strength test and
showed strength up to 194N in the weft
and 183N in the warp.
In the Radiant Heat Test, 20KW energy
was given, 8.4s in the T12 process and
16.1s in the T24 process were measured.
In the Convective Heat test, 80 kW energy
was given during the T12 process, 3.8s and
5.7s in the T24 process were measured.
Picture-4 Condition of the fabric named
PBI X55 at the end of the test
With an innovative approach, it has been
observed that the fibers inside the fireapproaching suits protect firefighters from
the heat generated in the fire, while the
thermal stability of the fabrics woven from
PBI fibers is higher as well as tear strength
is very high.
In the results of the burning tests, while the
fabric named fire-resist carbonized after
being exposed to flame, only darkening
was observed in the fabric named PBI
X55.
Based on the data we have obtained in our
study, it has been concluded that the
protective effect of the clothes made from
fibers with high thermal stability, which is
close to fire, is more, the ratio of the fibers
that provide this effect in the fabrics should
be increased as much as possible. While
emphasizing the need to increase the use of
PBI fibers instead of metaaramid fibers in
fabrics, it was concluded that more
effective modifier fibers were tested
instead of paraaramid as a complementary
fiber and fabric performance properties
were increased.
Acknowledgments
for their support in the development of
approaching fire suits.
References:
Teknik, 181-187
Lisans Tezi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi,
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
A
G. Görmez1 and B. Albayrak Çeper2
1. Mühendislik Fakültesi, Ömer Halisdemir Üniversitesi,
; email: gncgrmz@gmail.com
2.
,
Erciyes
Üniversitesi,
Kayseri;
balbayrak@erciyes.edu.tr
email:
Özet
reaktif kontr
RCCI
-2A tank motorunun
say
RCCI yanma için
AnsysReaktif
GT-Power
(SOI=
Geleneks
ve 340
lambda 2.5, EGR 30
NO
Anahtar Kelimeler:
, Enjek
1
yüksek
verimler
elde
edilebilen
HCCI
[2]. RCCI modu,
stan
reaktif
ül madde) emisyonu
.
2
ma
.
YÖNTEM VE MATERYAL
motor hacmine sahip Continental AVDS 1790
özellikleri gösterilmektedir.
-
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
problemlerin
çözümlenmesinde
oldukça
sa
Tablo 1. AVDS 1790 Motorunun Özellikleri
Motor Tipi
Continental
AVDS 1790 2CA
29.332
750
Devri 2400
Motor Hacmi (cm3)
Motor Gücü (HP)
Maximum Motor
(d/d)
Minimum Motor Devri 700
(d/d)
Silindir Adedi
12
Silindirlerin
Motor 90 Derece V
Çap (mm)
Strok (mm)
Hava Besleme Sistemi
1. CFD Çözümleme Prosesi[5]
2.2 Materyal
-
146
146
16:1
2 Adet
Turbocharger
(5HDR model)
Nato F54 - Nato
F34 - DF-2
-2A
modellenmesinde
bölgeler
çizimler
isimlendirilerek
Solidworks
2) ve Ansys)
enjektörden
ya
-deform ile hareketli
2.1 CFD Çözümleme
CFD analizinde nümerik modellerin çözümünde,
sonlu farklar, sonlu hacim ve sonlu elamanlar
Tablo 2'de
ait elde edilen element ve
a
1 ve
le
1'de
(1)
Bu denklem de
çözülecek her bir denklemi
(süreklilik, enerji, momentum vs.) ifade eder.
difüzyonu ikinci
etmektedir[4].
terim
ise
üretimi
ifade
Tablo 2. Test Edilen Grid A
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
Test 4
Nodes: 30352
Elements:140408
Nodes: 56540
Elements:253580
Nodes: 93060
Elements: 468400
Nodes: 320080
Elements:1775252
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
4
Motora ait subap avans diy
görülmektedir.
Tablo 2
IVO
EVC
EVO
IVC
2. Solidworks Çizimleri
25o BTDC
55o ATDC
45 o BBDC
20 o ABDC
260 o
245 o
11.684 mm
2.2.1
Tablo
2
lirlenmesi gerekmektedir.
AVDS-1790 RCCI motoru
parametreleri:
Problem üç boyutludur.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
için
,
,
340, 345 ve
-
s modeli tercih
derece, krank mili periyodu 720 derece, krank
255 mm olarak
2.2.2
Kayseri
5. GT-Power Yanma Modeli
ver
-
verileri GTanalizi
ile
parametrelerine ait program görüntüleri ve elde
6
(komponenet
injprofile corn-1) motorun teknik bilgileri
(komponenet cylinder, komponenet engine,
özellikleri, biyel özellikleri piston özellikleri)
-P
im üzerinden
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
i için yanma daha geç bir zamanda
6. GT-
8
. Dizel
motorunda sadece hava (oksijen ve azot)
emilirken, EGR uygula
yla silindir içine bir
sayede
7. Tork ve Güç D
K
3
Bu
yla
BULGULAR
ç
reaktif
kontrollü
arta
silindir içerisine belli
girer [2].
a 340(SOI)
ler
hava
EGR d
ve 3), f
d
r
kar
edilebilmektedir [1].
larak da silindir içi
SOI
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
(a)
(b)
(c)
(e)
(f)
(d)
(g)
(h)
9. KMA=340-360 ve
10 da
görülmektedir.
s
emisyonlar üzerinde en büyük etkiye sahip
silindirin içindeki ma
azalma meydana gelir [2].
arak NOx
[6].
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
10. KMA=340-360 ve
Tablo 4
EGR
11 d
4
EGR Lambda
(%)
nemli bir
2
3
-
sabit SOI ve sabit EGR
30
30
30
50
50
50
2
2
2
2
2
2
Enjeksiyon Max.
(der)
(bar)
340
345
347
340
345
347
191
191
188
160
160
161
Max
KMA
(der)
362
363
364
364
365
365
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
t
(a)
(a)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(c)
11
göre s
l 12. EGR=30 d
c)347 KMA
için a)340 b)345
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
14. =2.5 ve f
d
için a)EGR=30 b)EGR=50 d
göre
C8H18, C10H22 ve NO d
4 SONUÇLAR VE BULGULAR
Continental AVDS 1790 tank motoru için
(c)
13. EGR=50
mi
=2.5 ve f
RCCI
,
en
=2.5
340 KMA
EGR=30 ve
.
artarak bazen azal
.
Emisyonlar
sabitlenip
Lambda
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
EGR=30 ve EGR=50 için grafikler veril
5.
Incorporated, Centerra Resource Park, 10.
Cavendish Court,Lebanon, NH 03766,USA.
.
6. Jing, L., Yang, W., & Zhou, D., 2017. Review
Enjeksiyon
sabitlenip Lambda
on the management of RCCI engines.
ve EGR=50
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
için Lambda
.
.
0 EGR ve SOI=340 KMA
yüksek silindir içi
F
isyonlar
5
6 KAYNAKLAR
1.
karakteristiklerine etkileri. Afyon Kocatepe
Üniversitesi Fen Ve Mühendislik Bilimleri
Dergisi, 17 (2017): 035903 (1146-1156).
2.
3.
2019. Investigation
on the effects of gasoline reactivity controlled
compression ignition application in a diesel
generator in high loads using safflower biodiesel
blends. Renewable Energy, 1481(18): 31209-6.
4.
Üniversitesi Yüksek lisans tezi, Kayseri, 114 s.
Proceedings of INCOS 2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
TEA FACTORY WASTE CATALYST TREATED WITH ACETIC ACID FOR
HYDROGEN GENERATION THROUGH METHANOLYSIS OF SODIUM
BOROHYDRIDE
1.
2.
3.
4.
S. Özarslan1, M.R. Atelge2, M. Kaya 3, S. Ünalan4
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri; email:
salihaozarslan@windowslive.com
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Siirt University, Siirt; email:
rasitatelge@gmail.com
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Siirt University, Siirt; email:
mustafakaya2011@gmail.com
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes University, Kayseri; email:
sebahattinunalan@gmail.com
Abstract
In this study, Tea factory waste (TFW) was used for the first time as a highly efficient catalyst for the
hydrogen generation through methanolysis of sodium borohydride (NaBH 4). TFW was treated with acetic
acid for 24 h at 80 °C. Subsequently the sample were subjected to burning in oven to fabricate the catalyst.
Afterwards, different acid ratios, burning temperatures and burning times were evaluated to synthesize the
optimal TFW-catalyst. Results showed the optimal conditions as acetic acid ratio, burning temperature and
time as, 3M, 300 °C and 60 mins, respectively. To characterize the catalyst, SEM-EDX analyses were
performed. Hydrogen generation via methanolysis was performed at various NaBH 4 ratio of 1 to 7.5% while
changing concentrations from 0.05-0.2 g catalysts with diverge temperatures of (30, 40, 50 and 60 °C). The
maximum hydrogen generation rate (HGR) by this novel catalyst was found as 3096.4, 8367.5, 11227.9 and
23507 mL min-1gcat-1, respectively. Furthermore, the activation energy was determined to be 38.6 kJ mol-1.
Keywords: Tea factory waste, Catalyst, Sodium borohydride, Acetic acid
1 INTRODUCTION
Sources of energy used worldwide are divided
into main groups. These are renewable (wind
energy, solar energy, biomass energy, wave
energy, geothermal energy, hydrogen energy,
etc.) and non-renewable (coal, natural gas, oil)
energy sources. Non-renewable energy sources,
quickly be running out of energy resources and
damage to the environment has moved to the
forefront of renewable energy sources. In
addition, the rise in crude oil prices caused a
global energy crisis. The crisis marks more
emphasis on reviewing existing technologies and
the use of alternative energy sources [1].
Therefore, it has become essential to meet this
demand and to find an environmentally friendly
and renewable energy source. For this reason,
hydrogen, one of the alternative clean energy
sources that does not cause environmental
pollution and can respond to energy demand, has
become attractive in recent years [2].
Hydrogen is nature-friendly and easy to obtain,
high calorific value, portable, energy and can be
converted into different forms of energy. In
addition to using hydrogen as a fuel, it is
possible to use it in areas such as chemical
industry, pharmaceutical production, food
industry, technology. Hydrogen will have an
important place in the energy technology of the
future, with an increasing trend in stable and
unstable combustion processes. Hydrogen can be
produced from hydrocarbon polymers, biomass
by thermochemical conversion processes, fossil
fuels, from water by electrolysis, and biological
processes by thermolysis or photoliticaly.
Hydrogen gas may be stored as a liquid or as a
gas. Hydrogen has good properties as a fuel for
internal combustion engines in automobiles.
Hydrogen could be advantageously used as a
clean energy carrier for heat supply and
transportation purposes [3]. However, the lack of
storage efficiency is one of the main
disadvantages of using H2 gas as fuel. Safe
production, transportation and storage of H2 are
the most desired properties in hydrogen fuel
vehicles. In order to meet this need, sodium
boron hydrides are very important in terms of
Proceedings of INCOS 2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
hydrogen storage due to their high hydrogen gas
cheapness [7]. These biological materials
storage capacity [4].
(biomass resources) are one of the renewable
NaBH4 is one of the types of borhydride with
energy sources. Biomass resources are abundant,
high hydrogen storage capacity. Generating H2
cheap and environmentally friendly that is
catalytically from NaBH4 solutions has many
among the reasons for being preferred.
advantages: NaBH4 solutions are nonflammable;
Biomass resources attract attention in the world
reaction products are environmentally benign;
due to their advantages and naturalness [8].
rate of H2 generation is easily controlled; the
There are too many biomass resources. One of
reaction product NaBO2 can be recycled; H2 can
the biomass sources, is revealed during the
be generated even at low temperatures [5].
production of dry tea from fresh tea leaves; are
Catalytic hydrolysis of NaBH4 is obtained in
factory tea factory wastes consisting of dust,
pure H2. NH3 (ammonia), H2O (water), CH3OH
fiber and straw. Tea factory waste is formed in a
(methanol) is one of sodium borohydride
significant amount of tea production throughout
solvent. In recent years, the use of methanol
the season. In this study, production of tea
solvent instead of water as a solvent in NaBH4
factory waste catalyst is carried out using
reactions is preferred by researchers for efficient
various actuators. The performance of the
hydrogen production studies. The methanolysis
produced catalyst was measured in the
reaction of NaBH4 is as follows [6]:
experiment H2 (hydrogen) from NaBH4 (sodium
According to the reaction given in Equation (1borohydride) in different parameters and the
6), half of the hydrogen gas produced is obtained
obtained optimum conditions are determined.
from sodium borohydride and the other half is
from methanol. In addition, methanolysis plays a
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
crucial role in the reaction as it reacts faster than
Tea factory waste used in the preparation of
hydrolysis.
acetic acid-treated tea factory waste catalyst, was
Sodium borohydride degradation reactions are
kinetically zero and the catalyst controls the rate
of hydrogen production. A catalyst is needed for
the reaction to take place faster and more
efficiently. Catalysts are substances without any
change that realize a chemical reaction or change
the speed of the reaction. Precious metals such
as Pt (platinum), Ru (ruthenium), Pd (palladium)
can be used as catalysts. However, this is a very
costly process. For this reason, studies on more
economical and effective catalyst production are
increasing day by day. Alternatively, Co
(cobalt), Ni (nickel), etc. based metal catalysts,
acidic, basic catalysts produced. Biological
materials can also be used as support material to
produce low-cost and high-efficiency catalysts,
due to their abundance in nature and their
taken from a tea production factory in the
eastern Black Sea in Turkey. Tea factory waste
produced during tea production consists of
unused fiber, straw and powder parts of the tea
plant. Tea factory waste is washed and dried in
the oven in the preparation stage and it was
treated with acetic acid for 24 hours at 80 oC.
Then the sample was subjected to combustion in
the furnace to synthesize the catalyst. (Figure2a). Different acid ratios, combustion
temperatures and combustion times were
evaluated Hydrogen production via methanolis
is carried out at various temperatures (30, 40, 50
and 60 oC) at catalyst concentrations of 0.05-0.2
g at various NaBH4 ratios from 1 to 7.5%.
3
Proceedings of INCOS 2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 SEM-EDX Analysis
Figure 1. SEM micrograph of pure tea
factory waste (a), the EDX result of pure tea
factory waste (b) and SEM micrograph of
TFW-catalyst (c), the EDX result of TFWcatalyst (d)
SEM analyses were applied on the acetic acid
activated tea factory waste and pure tea factory
waste in order to disclose the surface texture and
morphology (Figure-1). It is seen in Figure-1a
that the surface of the tea factory waste sample is
relatively smooth. There are partial cavities and
particles, however no pores. However, the
surface of the TFW-catalyst treated with
CH3COOH at 300 oC for 60 minutes is quite
rough and the particles are reduced. It is seen
that micro pores are formed on the catalyst
surface (Figure-1c). Micropores and roughness
allow increased catalytic activity.
As a result of EDX analysis, 62.42% carbon,
32.83% oxygen, 0.08% manganese and 4.67%
potassium were detected in the chemical
composition of TFW-catalyst (Figure-1d).
Carbon ratio increased compared to pure tea
factory waste content (54.34%), while oxygen
ratio (43.88%) decreased. The removal of
oxygen from the functional groups and increased
carbon can be explained by burning the catalyst
at 300 oC combustion temperature. As a result of
the treatment of tea factory waste with acid,
magnesium seems to decrease. Potassium
increased about 3 times.
Proceedings of INCOS 2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
3.2 Catalytic effect of Tea factory waste
production for 3 M CH3COOH acid was
treated HCOOH, HCl and CH3COOH
recorded and its value is 2368.2 mL min-1 g-1.
catalysts
Thus, experiments were continued by adding 3
M CH3COOH acid and combustion-temperatureduration parameters are examined.
Balbay and Saka, in their study, they
investigated the effect of hydrochloric acid and
acetic acid aqueous solution concentration for
rapid hydrogen production from NaBH4
methanol solution and they conducted
experiments for both acid types at concentrations
of 0.25, 0.5 and 1 M. According to the results
obtained, the rate of hydrogen production is
increased by increasing the acid concentration
from 0.25 M to 1 M and semimetanoliz reactions
with concentrations of 1 M hydrochloric acid
Figure 2. The change of hydrogen volume of
and acetic acid end at approximately 4 and 5 s,
the media containing different acid as a
respectively [10].
function of time (Reaction Conditions: 2.5%
NaBH4, catalyst = 0.1 g, T = 30 oC, Vmethanol
= 10 mL)
In this study, HCOOH (formic acid), HCl
(hydrochloric acid) and CH3COOH (acetic acid)
were used to produce acid-based TFW-catalyst.
Experiments were carried out in the presence of
0.1 g catalyst, at 30 oC, with 10 mL of methanol
solution containing 0.025 g NaBH4. As seen in
Figure-2, the catalyst synthesized with
CH3COOH showed better efficiency than other
types of acids. While in the experiment with
CH3COOH, the reaction was completed within 6
minutes, the reaction with HCl lasted 7 minutes
and 8.5 minutes with HCOOH. Accordingly, the
H2 yields of HCOOH, HCl and CH3COOH acids
were 1386, 1654.8, 1947.2 mL min-1 g-1,
respectively (Figure-2). CH3COOH acid has
been successful in both reaction completion time
and hydrogen yield. Kaya, in his study on the
synthesis of metal-free catalyst from that coffee
ground; used HNO3, CH3COOH and HCI acids
in experiments as activator and achieved the best
result in 8 minutes in an experiment using
CH3COOH [9].
3.3 Effect of different acid concentration
on hydrogen generation
The effect of CH3COOH acid with the highest
yield in different proportions (1, 3, 5, 7 M) has
been tried. As seen in Figure-3, the best result
for the TFW-catalyst treated with CH3COOH
was from the experiment with 3 M acid. The
reaction completion time for this catalyst is 5
minutes. It is seen that other experiments are
completed in 6 and 6.5 minutes. The highest H2
Figure 3. The change of hydrogen volume of
the media containing different acid
concentrations as a function of time
(Reaction Conditions: 2.5% NaBH4, catalyst
= 0.1 g, T = 30 oC, Vmethanol = 10 mL)
3.4 Burning Temperatures Effect
As seen in Figure-4, the effect of TFW-catalyst
treated with 3 M CH3COOH acid was
investigated at combustion temperatures of 200,
300, 400 and 500 oC. Accordingly, it is seen that
the experiment with 3 M CH3COOH at 300 oC
combustion temperature yielded better results
than other combustion temperatures. The
reaction was completed in 5.5 minutes.
However, the reaction time at other temperatures
(200, 400, 500 oC) was measured as 12, 21 and
27 minutes, respectively. H2 production
efficiency was achieved at a maximum
combustion temperature of 300 oC and its value
was recorded as 2382 mL min-1 g-1. The
Proceedings of INCOS 2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
minimum value was found at 500 oC combustion
minutes and the most efficiency (3096.4 H2 mL
temperature and 523.7 mL min-1 g-1 (Figure-4).
min-1 g-1) was recorded. The lowest hydrogen
Hydrogen
production
efficiency
varied
efficiency (2323.7 mL min-1 g-1) and the longest
considerably at different temperatures. The
reaction time (7 min) were recorded in the
-1 -1
lowest hydrogen yield (523.7 mL min g ) was
longest tested burning time (75 min).
recorded at a combustion temperature of 500 oC.
3.6 Catalyst Amount Effect
Saka and et al. conducted a study on hydrogen
In sodium boronhydride methanolysis, the
production using the Spirulina microalgal type
amount and type of catalyst used affect the
as a metal-free catalyst. In this study, they
efficiency of hydrogen production. The catalyst
recorded the best hydrogen yield at a burning
surface area will also determine its effect on
temperature of 300 oC as 3333 mL min gcat .
reaction kinetics. Therefore, in this case, the
catalyst that affects the reaction kinetics is
reflected in the amount used [2]. Therefore, the
effect of different catalyst amounts (0.05, 0.1,
0.15, 0.2 g) was investigated. The best result was
achieved with 0.2 g TFW-catalyst treated with 3
M CH3COOH. The reaction time was 2.5 min,
hydrogen production efficiency was found to be
5605.4 mL min-1 g-1. Figure-6 shows that as the
amount of catalyst increases, hydrogen
production efficiency increases and reaction rate
decreases. In the experiment using 0.05 g TFWcatalyst, the reaction was quite slow and the
reaction time was 10.5 minutes.
Figure 4. Variation of hydrogen production
rate as a function of time for different
combustion temperatures (Reaction
Conditions: 2.5% NaBH4, catalyst = 0.1 g, T
= 30 oC, Vmethanol = 10 mL)
3.5 Burning Time Effects
Figure 5. Variation of hydrogen production
rate as afunction of time for different
combustion times (Reaction Conditions:
2.5% NaBH4, catalyst = 0.1 g, T = 30 oC,
Vmethanol = 10 mL)
Figure-5 shows that the effect of TFW-catalyst
treated with 3 M CH3COOH acid was
investigated at 300oC combustion temperature in
four different combustion times (30, 45, 60, 75
min). Accordingly, the reaction was completed
in less than 5 minutes with a burning time of 60
Figure 6. Variation of hydrogen production
rate as a function of time for different
amounts of catalyst (Reaction Conditions:
2.5% NaBH4, catalyst = 0.05, 0.1, 0.15 and
0.25 g, T = 30 oC, Vmethanol = 10 mL)
3.7 Effect of NaBH4 Amount
The effect of TFW-catalyst treated with 3 M
CH3COOH on different NaBH4 concentrations
(1, 2.5, 5, 7.5 %) was examined as shown in
Figure-7. Increasing the concentration of NaBH4
positively affected the amount of hydrogen
production while prolonging the reaction time.
The best result was obtained at 7.5% NaBH4
concentration. Hydrogen production is 7060 mL
min-1 g-1, reaction time is about 20 minutes. In
Proceedings of INCOS 2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
parallel with the NaBH4 concentration, the
increases as the temperature decreases. In
amount of hydrogen synthesized decreases,
parallel, hydrogen efficiency decreases.
however the reaction time was also reduced.
Balbay and Saka, have worked on the reaction of
Fangaj et al. studied the effect of concentrations
potassium borhydride with phosphoric acid for
of NaBH4 between 1 and 7.5% in their study of
semi-methanolisation for effective hydrogen
apricot kernel waste treated with phosphoric acid
production. In this study, they investigated the
used as a metal-free catalyst. As a result, they
effect of temperature values between 30-60oC on
concluded that a high NaBH4 concentration
hydrogen production from 0.25 M phosphoric
provides greater hydrogen density. Hydrogen
acid and KBH4 semi-methanolis reaction. As a
yield was found 20,199 mL min-1 gcat-1 for 1%
result, it was determined that with the increase in
NaBH4 concentration [11].
temperature, the production volume of KBH4
tends to increase from semi-methanolisation in
the presence of acid. At the same time, with an
increase in temperature, the time to complete its
reaction decreases [12]. Accordingly, it is
possible to say that temperature has positive
effects on hydrogen production efficiency and
reaction time in hydrogen synthesis experiments
from borhydrides.
Figure 7. Variation of hydrogen production
rate as a function of time for different
amounts of NaBH4 (Reaction Conditions: 1,
2.5, 5 and 7.5% NaBH4, catalyst = 0.1 g, T =
30 oC, Vmethanol = 10 mL)
3.8 Temperature Effect
The arrhenius equation outlined in Equation 7
applied to determine the activation energy of
sodium borohyride methanolysis catalyzed by
the TFW-catalyst.
(7)
where k is the reaction rate constant, A is the
gy
(kJ/mol), T is the temperature (K) and R is the
ideal gas constant. The lnk versus 1/T graph for
the methanolysis reaction is linear. The
activation energy was calculated from the slope
of the straight line and determined as 38.6 kJ
mol-1.
Temperature experiments were carried out at
different temperatures (30, 40, 50, 60 oC) using
0.1 g TFW-catalyst and 0.25% NaBH4 solution
treated with 3 M CH3COOH. The best result was
obtained at a temperature of 60oC. The reaction
time is 1 min, hydrogen yield is 23507 mL min -1
g-1. It is seen in Figure-8 that the reaction time
Figure 8. Change of hydrogen production
volume at different temperature as a
function of time (Reaction Conditions: 2.5%
NaBH4, catalyst = 0.1 g, T = 30, 40, 50, 60
o
C, Vmethanol =10 mL).
Figure 9. Kinetic graph of TFW-catalyst
(wcat=0.1 g, 0.25% NaBH4, Vsolution=10 mL)
Proceedings of INCOS 2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
different NaBH4 amounts, different catalyst
Table 1. The maximum HGR and activation
amounts and different temperatures. As a result
energies of some metal-free catalysts in the
of performance experiments, the maximum
literature
hydrogen production (HGR) rate obtained from
the methanolis reaction of NaBH4 at 30 and 60
Maximum Activation
°C was found as 3096.4 and 23507 mL min-1gcatCatalyst
HGR(mL
energy(kj Ref.
1
, respectively, and the activation energy of the
min-1 gcat-1) mol-1)
catalyst was determined to be 38.6 kJ mol-1.
Quaternized
Furthermore,
the
TFW
catalyst
was
Polymeric
characterized
by
SEM-EDX
analyses.
In
the
5914
30.37
[13]
Microgels
light of all these results, the TFW catalyst,
(298 K)
prepared from organic waste material by using
Spent coffee
acid instead of precious metals such as Pt and
ground catalyst
Ru, was determined to be a highly effective
8335.5
9.81
[2]
with
catalyst in methanolysis of NaBH4 for hydrogen
100% H3PO4
generation. Due to the abundance of waste
resources in nature, it is considered that the
Defatted spent
synthesis of effective catalysts, which can be
coffee ground
3171.4
25.23
[9]
prepared by adding acids to such wastes, is an
treated with
important step in the production of highly
1M CH3COOH
efficient catalysts.
CSs
(Micrometer
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
sized carbon
The authors would like to acknowledge The Unit
spheres)-TETA
of Scientific Research Project Coordination
(triethylene
2586
23.82
[14]
(BAP) at Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey
tetramine)-HCl
for the financial support under the University
metal free
Project:
FDK-2020-10493-(Doctoral thesis
catalyst
project).
(298 K)
REFERENCES
Tea waste
This
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3096.4
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[2] M. Kaya, Evaluating Organic Waste Sources
This
Catalyst
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38.6
(Spent Coffee Ground) as Metal-Free Catalyst
study
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for Hydrogen Generation by the Methanolysis of
Sodium Borohydride, International Journal of
Hydrogen Energy, 2019.
4 CONCLUSION
[3] A. Demirbas, Hydrogen-Rich Gaseous
In this study, the best performing optimum
Products from Tea Waste by Pyrolysis, Energy
conditions were determined by experimenting
Sources. 23(8): p. 739-746, 2001.
with TFW, one of the organic wastes to be used
[4] F. Duman, et al., A Novel Microcystis
for the first time in the methanolysis reaction of
Aeruginosa Supported Manganese Catalyst for
NaBH4, at different acid concentrations,
Hydrogen Generation through Methanolysis of
different combustion temperatures and different
Sodium Borohydride, International Journal of
combustion times. The most active catalyst as a
Hydrogen Energy, 2020.
result of optimum studies; The acid ratio was
o
[5] B. Liu and Z. Li, A Review: Hydrogen
obtained by burning for 60 minutes at 300 C
Generation from Borohydride Hydrolysis
containing 3 M CH3COOH. The performance of
Reaction, Journal of Power Sources. 187(2): p.
the prepared catalyst sodium boron hydride was
527-534, 2009.
tested for use in hydrogen production in the
methanolis reaction. In experiments, the
Spirulina Microalgal Strain as Efficient a
performance of TFW catalyst was tested at
Proceedings of INCOS 2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Methanolysis
of
Sodium
Borohydride,
International Journal of Energy Research. 44(1):
p. 402-410, 2020.
[7] M. Kaya and M. Bekirogullari, Investigation
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Borohydride Methanolysis in the Presence of
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Catalyst,
Avrupa Bilim
ve Teknoloji
Dergisi,(16): p. 69-76, 2019.
[8] F.-L. Pua, et al., Characterization of Biomass
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Proceedings, 2020.
[9] M. Kaya, Production of Metal-Free Catalyst
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Hydrogen Generation by Sodium Borohyride
Methanolysis, International Journal of Hydrogen
Energy. 45(23): p. 12731-12742, 2020.
[10] A. Balbay and C. Saka, The Effect of the
Concentration of Hydrochloric Acid and Acetic
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Production from Methanol Solution of Nabh4,
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Shell Waste Treated with Phosphoric Acid Used
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[13] N. Sahiner and S.B. Sengel, Quaternized
Polymeric Microgels as Metal Free Catalyst for
H2 Production from the Methanolysis of Sodium
Borohydride, Journal of Power Sources. 336: p.
27-34, 2016.
[14] N. Sahiner, Carbon Spheres from Lactose
as Green Catalyst for Fast Hydrogen Production
Via Methanolysis, International Journal of
Hydrogen Energy. 43(20): p. 9687-9695, 2018.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
EFFECT OF TOLUENE ADDITION TO WASTE COOKING OIL ON
COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS OF A CI ENGINE
Ö. Salih1, A. Mehmet1 and V. Erdinç2
1. Mus Alparslan University, Faculty of Engineering and
s.ozer@alparslan.edu.tr, makcay85@gmail.com
2. 2
erdinc009@hotmail.com
Architecture,
Mus/Turkey,
Abstract
This study aims to eliminate the negativity that arises in the direct use of waste frying oils. For this purpose,
waste frying oil has been filtered and mixed into diesel fuel by 25% and 50% by volume. 5%, 10% and 15%
toluene were added to this mixture. With the addition of Toluene, it is aimed to reduce the emission values
of oil/diesel fuel mixtures. In addition, it was thought that the physical and chemical properties of the
mixtures would improve and the physical and chemical results of the fuel mixtures were matched with diesel
fuel. Engine experiments were carried out in a single-cylinder compression-fired engine. Experimental
mixtures were tried in cases where the engine was running under 2 kW and 4 kW load and the data obtained
were discussed by charting. With the addition of toluene, all toluene mixture ratios were reduced in CO,
NOx and smoke emions.
Keywords: Waste oil, Toluene, In cylinder pressure, Diesel engine
1
INTRODUCTION
One of the issues that researchers have focused
on in recent years is the fact that petroleum fuels
used by internal combustion engines will soon
be depleted and the environmental pollution
caused by these fuels. In this context, studies on
non-petroleum, renewable, non-polluting and
low cost fuels have gained intensity. Vegetable
oils have significant potential as alternative fuels
in diesel engines because they are renewable and
emit less greenhouse gases. However, their high
viscosity and low volatility limits the use of
vegetable oils as direct fuel in diesel engines [1].
The idea of using vegetable oils in diesel engines
is based on past years. Dr. Rudolph Diesel who
invented to the diesel engine, run his engine with
peanut oil at the Paris Fair in 1900 [2]. Shortterm use of vegetable oils in diesel engines
results in positive results, while long-term use
leads to problems in the injection system and
combustion chamber due to their high viscosity
and density [3]. In order to prevent these
problems, the viscosity of vegetable oils should
be reduced and thus the fuel injection should be
improved [4]. Three effective methods are used
in reducing viscosity of vegetable oils:
transesterification, mixing with lighter oils and
heating [5]. Within these methods, it is stated
that the transesterification method is a time-
consuming and expensive process [4]. On the
other hand, in terms of being economical and not
causing food shortages in the future, it is
preferred to use non-edible or waste oils in
diesel engines instead of edible vegetable oils
[6-8]. Waste cooking oil (WCO) is formed after
repeated frying of various foods with vegetable
oil [9]. WCO is not safe for human consumption,
but can be considered a cheap source of diesel
engine fuel [10]. In addition, most of the WCO
is thrown into rivers and empty areas causing
environmental pollution. An effective way to
discard the WCO is to replace it and use it as
fuel in internal combustion engines [11].
In the literature survey, it has been observed that
if WCO is used directly or mixed with diesel
fuel at certain rates, it results in a worsening of
engine performance and emissions. It consists of
aromatic (toluene, n-avoid tetra and 1-to
methylnaphthalene) we are investigating the
effect on combustion performance and emissions
of diesel engine [12] with an increase in the
ignition delay and higher peak aromatic blends
that has been achieved, the rate of heat
dissipation at high loads, longer ignition delay
due to the improvement in smoke emissions had
occurred, he said.
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
S
2
2.1 Supply of waste oil
The aim of this study was to evaluate WCO as a
fuel additive in a CI engine, thus reducing fuel
cost and minimizing environmental pollution
from waste oils. The waste oil used in the study
was obtained from the me
Alparslan
University.
It
consists
of
approximately 1500 litres of WCO per month
used for frying purposes by the factory. The
WCO obtained from the food factory was first
laid to rest by 24, allowing sediment and
unwanted particles to sink to the bottom. The
WCO was first passed through a rough filter and
then passed through a 0.45 micron filter
(whatman filter paper) under vacuum to remove
the smallest particles that may be present in it.
At the same time, waste oil was heated to a
temperature of 105 ° C and dried for 1 hour in
order to remove moisture from the waste oil.
2.2 The Formation of Fuel Mixture
Within the scope of the study, DA25 and DA50
fuels were obtained by mixing 25% and 50%
waste oil into diesel fuel. These mixtures
obtained by adding 5%, 10% and 15% toluene
by volume DA25T5, DA25T10, DA25T15,
DA50T5, DA50T10, DA50T15 fuels were
obtained. Some characteristics of diesel fuel,
waste oil, toluene and mixtures used in the scope
of the study are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Chemical and physical properties
of fuels.
Fuels
Diesel
Fuel
Waste Oil
Toluene
DA25
DA50
DA25T5
DA25T10
DA25T15
DA50T5
DA50T10
DA50T15
Density
(kg/m3)
at 25 oC
Kinematic
Calorific
viscosity
value
(cSt)
(Mj/kg)
at 40 oC
837
2.48
44.26
924.5
827
865.8
883.7
856.2
854
850.3
871.0
870.3
862.6
37.41
0.6
10.8
19.6
9.4
7.1
6.3
17.3
15.6
13.2
39.678
40.6
43.02
41.88
42.99
42.78
41.6
41.8
41.3
41.01
2.3 Engine Test Setup
The resulting fuel mixtures were tested in a
single-cylinder, direct-jet air-cooled diesel
engine. No modifications were made to the
experimental
engine.
The
technical
specifications of the test engine are given in
Table 2.
Table 2. Technical features of the
experiment engine.
Make/Models
Engine type
Cylinder Number
Bore*stroke [mm]
Displacement [cm3]
Compressions ratio
Maximum power
[kW]
Maximum torque
[Nm]
Fuel injection timing
[oCA]
Intake valve
diameter [mm]
Exhaust valve
diameter [mm]
Intake valve close
Exhaust valves open
Combustion
chamber geometry
Fuel injection
system
Injection nozzle
Nozzle Opening
pressure (bar)
Lombardini/3LD510
4-Storke,
DI-diesel
engine,
naturally
aspirated
1
85*90
510
17.5:1
9 kW @ 3000 rpm
32.8 @ 1800 rpm
24 BTDC
35
31
52o after BDC
52o before BDC
Hemispherical open type
Mechanical
pump,
Stanadyne
PFR1K70/32500,
Housing with plunger
and barrel assembly with
Roller
Tappet Assy., 3 Plunger
Pump
0.24 [mm] *4 holes
*160o
200
Electric dynamometer
power of 26 kW and
absorption capability
operating at a maximum
with a maximum
80 Nm of torque
and capable of
speed of 5000 rpm
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
(±50) was used to carry out the engine
engine emissions (CO, NOx and smoke
experiments. The schematic view of the
emissions) are researched and presented in
experiment Assembly is given in Figure 1.
graphs.
The exhaust emission values of the engine
were measured with the Bosh Bea 350
3.1. Carbon Monoxide Emissions
brand gas analyzer. Measurement intervals
and measurement uncertainties of the
CO emissions are an emission product
devices used in the experiments are
resulting from incomplete combustion of
presented
in
Table
3.
A
K-type
fuels in the cylinder (Figure 2). In general,
thermocouple was used to measure the
fuel particles in the cylinder can be formed
exhaust gas temperature of the experiment
as a result of not meeting enough oxygen
engine.
[13]. Although combustion is known to
Table 3. Measurement range of the gas
analyzer and calculated uncertainties.
Component
C (% vol.)
CO2(%
vol.)
HC (ppm)
O2 (% vol.)
Lambda
NO (ppm)
Smoke
Opacity(%)
Measurement
Range
0-10.00
0-18.00
0-9999
0-22.00
0.50-9.99
0-5000
0-100
Resolution
Accuracy
0.001
0.01
±0.01
±0.05
1
0.01
0.001
±0.01
±0.04
±0.0001
±0.1
±0.1
0.1
worsen with the addition of waste oil to
diesel fuel, a reduction in CO emissions has
occurred. This can also be expressed by the
reduction in the total number of C in the fuel
mixture. Some studies report that the
decreasing number of C atoms causes a
decrease in CO emissions [14]. With the
addition of toluene, the amount of this
reduction increased further. Similar studies
indicate that such additives have positive
effects on CO emissions [15].
Precise scales and stopwatch were used to
determine mass fuel consumption. The
schematic picture of the experiment is given in
Figure 1.
Figure 2. CO change of emission.
1. Dynamometer 2. Diesel engine 3. Control panel 4.
Dynamometer control computer 5. Torque meter 6.
Emissions gas analyzer 7. Electronic scale 8. Cylinder
pressure sensor 9. Fuel Line Pressure 10. Encoder 11.
Applicator 12. Oscilloscope 13. Computer
Figure 1. Schematic picture of the
experimental assembly.
3 RESULT
In this section, the effects of diesel-waste
vegetable oil dual mixtures and diesel-waste
vegetable oil-toluene triple mixtures on CI
3.2. Nitrogen Oxides Emissions
Figure 3 shows the variation of NOx
emissions. NOx emissions are an important
emission value in diesel engines and their
reduction is important in terms of diesel
engine emissions. Studies report that NOx
emission values are effective in fuels, endof-combustion temperature, air/fuel ratio in
cylinder and chain structure of fuels [16]. It
is generally stated that fuels with long
chains, which do not have the ideal air fuel
ratio and which are low in thermal value
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
reduce NOx emissions [17]. With the
B25TA15 fuel decreased below the
addition of WCO to diesel fuel, NOx
emission values of the D100 fuel. Studies
emissions decreased along with reduced
indicate that improvements in the prethermal value and long chain bond oil. But
combustion phase of fuel mixtures are
with the addition of toluene to the fuel mix,
effective in smoke emissions [19]. It is
NOx emissions increased again. With the
thought to reduce smoke emissions by
addition of toluene, the thermal value of the
prolonging the combustion phase and
fuel mixture increases and the mixture
partially healing the combustion.
becomes richer. It also has a toluene
solvent structure. Therefore, it is thought
that the long chain bond structure formed by
the combination of diesel waste oil is broken
with the addition of toluene, reduced
viscosity, and therefore a better combustion
occurs, resulting in increased NOx
emissions [18]. NOx emissions, although
increased with the addition of toluene
compared to diesel fuel is very low.
175
D100
DA25
DA50
DA25T5
DA25T10
DA25T15
DA50T5
DA50T10
DA50T15
150
125
100
Figure 4. Effect of Smoke Opacity emission.
4. CONCLUSIONS
75
50
2 kW
4 kW
Engine Load
Figure 3. Variation of NOx emissions.
3.3. Smoke emissions
In internal combustion engines, partially
unburnt fuels cause smoke emissions to
occur in the cylinder. The viscosity, thermal
value, number of cetane and the air/fuel
ratio created by the fuels in the cylinder can
also affect combustion and cause smoke
formation. Studies have shown that
combustion with the addition of oil to diesel
fuel is partially adversely affected and
increases smoke emissions [19]. As shown
in Figure 4, smoke emissions increased with
the addition of WCO to diesel fuel. The
addition of toluene to the B25 and B50 fuel
mixtures resulted in a reduction in smoke
emissions, with the maximum reduction
being achieved by adding 15% toluene for
both fuel mixtures and engine loads. In
particular, this values obtained from the
The effect of 25% and 50% waste oil added
to diesel fuel and 5%, 10% and 15% toleun
addition on exhaust emissions (CO, NOx
and smoke) on 2 kW and 4 kW engine loads
at 1800 rpm was investigated.
With the addition of waste oil to diesel fuel,
a reduction in CO emissions is observed.
With toluene added to the oil mixture, the
rate of decline in CO emissions increases
even more. The highest amount of reduction
was achieved by the DA50TA15 fuel
mixture.
There is a tendency to decrease NOx
emissions relative to diesel fuel. The highest
downward trend was achieved in Da25TA5
fuel mixtures.
With the use of waste oil there is an
increase in soot emissions compared to
diesel fuel. However, the increase in soot
emissions tends to decrease with the
addition of toluene. The lowest value in
terms of Is emissions was eld with a mixture
of DA25TA15.
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Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
COMPARISON OF THE EMISSIONS OF DIESEL AND WASTE DERIVED
BIOFUEL UNDER 100 NM ENGINE LOAD
Ibrahim Yildiz1, Hakan Caliskan2 and Kazutoshi Mori3
1. Graduate Education Institute, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Usak University, Usak,
Turkey; ibrahimyildiz@outlook.com.tr
2. Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Usak University, Usak, Turkey;
hakan.caliskan@usak.edu.tr
3. Department of Mechanical and Precision System Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering,
Teikyo University, Utsunomiya, Tochigi, Japan; kazumori@mps.teikyo-u.ac.jp
Abstract
In this study, the biofuel (derived from waste cooking oils) and diesel fuel are experimentally analyzed in
terms of exhaust emissions and particulate concentration at 100 Nm engine load for a diesel engine. The
effect of biofuel on the diesel engine emissions is studied and compared with the corresponding diesel fuel.
The NOx emission of the diesel fuel is obtained as 2.7889 g/kWh, while the NOx emission of the biofuel is
found as 3.1833 g/kWh. However, the CO emission of diesel fuel is 0.7489 g/kWh, while the CO emission
of biofuel is 0.6862 g/kWh. On the other hand, the CO2 emission of diesel fuel is found as 794.7880 g/kWh,
while the CO2 emission of biofuel is obtained as 865.7768 g/kWh. The soot concentration of diesel fuel is
obtained as 2.158 mg/m3, while the soot concentration of biofuel is determined as 0.880 mg/m3. The total
particle concentration of biofuel is found as 3674650.84 1/cm3, while the total particle concentration of
diesel fuel is obtained as 6134041.20 1/cm3. The biofuel may be more preferable than diesel fuel because it
contributes to a reduction of approximately 60% in total particle concentration for better and sustainable
environment.
Keywords: Biofuel, Diesel, Engine, Exhaust emissions, Particle concentration
1 INTRODUCTION
Air pollution is one of the most important risks
for human health. The effects of air pollution are
often unnoticed and it is generally called as
Organization
(WHO). Air pollution is one of the causes of
many diseases such as cancer, allergic sinusitis,
eye and skin problems. When it causes some
damage to body organs, it cannot be detected in
the initial process that these damages are caused
by air pollution. According to the researches,
despite all the damages of air pollution, which is
harmful to many organs, especially the lung, the
damages can be reduced by improving air
quality [1].
One of the biggest factors of air pollution is
vehicle traffic. Vehicle emissions cause air
pollution by releasing air-polluting gas such as
nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO),
particulate matter (PM), carbon dioxide (CO2)
and hydrocarbons (HC) into the environment. As
the duration and intensity of traffic congestion
increases, the emissions of air pollutants
released into the environment also increase [2].
Some of the pollutant emissions in vehicle
traffic occur by diesel engines. Diesel engines
have some advantages in terms of biodiesel fuel
emissions, but the emissions released from
diesel engines to the environment are still a
danger to the environment [3]. The use of
biodiesel is encouraged by EU countries to
reduce the greenhouse effect and partially
replace the consumption of petroleum diesel
fuel. Although the use of biodiesel is
encouraged, it has been argued that agricultural
moves will lead to a significant increase in water
and food prices, as long as biodiesel is not made
from waste oils [4].
In addition to its negative effects on the human
body, the trend towards the use of cleaner
alternative fuels such as biodiesel has increased
due to the depletion of fossil resources, climate
change and the effects of global warming. The
main advantages of biodiesel can be considered
as follows: it is renewable and the oxygen in its
molecule helps the better combustion process
[5] [7].
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Caliskan and Mori [8] experimentally tested a
diesel engine operated by biodiesel and diesel
fuels at different engine torques considering the
environmental aspects. When the analysis results
are examined in general, the use of biodiesel
contributed to obtaining lower values in
nanoparticle concentration. The study of Man et
al. [9] studied on the emissions of a diesel
engine operated by diesel fuels blended with
biodiesel fuels (from waste frying oil) under
various engine loads and speeds. In another
study, Caliskan and Mori [10] examined the
effect of various biodiesel fuels and diesel fuel
Figure 1. The Diesel Engine Used in This
on the exhaust emissions and nanoparticles of a
Study [12]
diesel engine. It was found that the particle
concentration of the diesel fuel was higher than
The exhaust emissions and particulate
biodiesel fuels. The aim of the present study is to
concentrations & numbers of the engine are
examine the effect of biofuel on the emission
measured with exhaust emission analyzer and
values by comparing diesel and waste-derived
Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS). The
biofuel emissions under a 100 Nm engine load
exhaust emission analyzer used in the present
for a diesel engine.
study and the SMPS are illustrated in Figure 2
and Figure 3, respectively.
2 METHODOLOGY
In this study, No. 2 diesel fuel used in Japan and
%100 biodiesel fuel (biofuel) produced from
waste cooking oils are used to operate a diesel
engine. The chemical properties of the diesel
fuel and biofuel are given in Table 1.
Table 1. The Chemical Properties of the
Fuels [11]
Fuel
Pour point (°C)
Flash point (°C)
Cloud point (°C)
Kinematic viscosity
(mm2/s)
Density (kg/m3)
Acid number
(mgKOH/g)
Diesel
fuel
-19
70
-1
3.743
Biofuel
831
0.0645
882
0.1495
-7
180
6
6.270
The diesel engine is a 4-cylinder, direct injection
and intercooled truck engine which is operated at
100 Nm engine load. During the operation of the
engine, the cooling water temperature is fixed at
80°C. The diesel engine used in this study is
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 2. The Exhaust Emission Analyzer
Used in the Present Study [11]
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
Figure 3. Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer
(SMPS) [13]
3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Biofuels and diesel fuel are experimentally
analyzed in terms of exhaust emission values
and particulate concentration at 100 Nm engine
torque for a diesel engine. In this regard, the
measured emission data of the engine is given in
Table 2.
Table 2. Emission data of the engine [11]
Lower Heating Value
(kJ/kg)
NOX emission
(g/kWh)
CO emission
(g/kWh)
CO2 emission
(g/kWh)
HC emission
(g/kWh)
Soot
(mg/m3)
Total Particle Concentration
(1/cm³)
Diesel
45236.42
Biofuel
37655.88
2.7889
3.1833
0.7489
0.6862
794.7880
865.7768
0.0965
0.0635
2.158
0.880
6134041.20
3674650.84
The NOx emission of diesel fuel is obtained as
2.7889 g/kWh, while the NOx emission of
biofuel is found as 3.1833 g/kWh. According to
this result, the NOx emission of biofuel is higher
than NOx emission of diesel fuel for this diesel
engine.
However, the CO2 emission of diesel fuel is
found as 794.7880 g/kWh, while the CO2
emission of biofuel is obtained as 865.7768
g/kWh. Therefore, biofuel emits more CO2
emission to the environment than diesel fuel.
The comparison of NOX and CO2 emissions of
biofuel and diesel fuel is given in Figure 4.
Figure 4. Comparison of NOx and CO2
Emissions
One of the harmful gases in exhaust emissions is
HC. The use of biofuels in the diesel engine is
resulted in lower HC emissions than diesel fuel.
The HC emissions of biofuel is 0.0635 g/kWh,
while the HC emission of diesel fuel is 0.0965
g/kWh.
Besides the NOx emissions, biofuel has a lower
emission value than diesel fuel when CO
emissions are examined. The CO emission of
diesel fuel is 0.7489 g/kWh, while the CO
emission of biofuel is 0.6862 g/kWh. The
comparison of CO and HC emissions of the
biofuel and diesel fuel is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Comparison of CO and HC
Emissions
When the amount of soot in exhaust emissions is
examined, it is found that diesel fuel releases
soot to the environment at a high rate compared
to biofuel. The soot concentration of diesel fuel
is obtained as 2.158 mg/m3, while the soot
concentration of biofuel is found as 0.880
mg/m3. The use of biofuels has also provided a
significant advantage in terms of soot
Proceedings of INCOS2020, 17-19 September 2020, Kayseri-Turkey
concentration. The soot concentrations of biofuel
disadvantages, because it causes in higher NOx
and diesel fuel are illustrated in Figure 6.
and CO2 emissions than diesel fuel. In addition
to emission results, the biofuel has lower value
than diesel fuel in terms of soot concentration.
The use of biofuels can be especially encouraged
for less soot releasing into the environment.
Biofuel also has a significant advantage over
diesel fuel in terms of total particle concentration
for better and sustainable environment. It c