Running Head: SOCIAL & CULTURAL DIVERSITY MODULE
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Social & Cultural Diversity Module
Katharine Jamison
Idaho State University
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Cultural Groups
The five major cultural groups in the United States as defined by ACA’s multicultural
competencies are European-American, African-American, Asian-American, Native-American
and Latino/Hispanic. Key issues for each group are as diverse as the groups themselves, but
culturally skilled counselors understand how racism and stereotyping affects individuals.
For Hispanic-Americans, enculturation issues are many and diverse for each group that
encompasses the larger cultural distinction. Together, people from Latin-speaking countries
make up the largest minority group in the U.S. and share some common cultural issues including
overrepresentation among the poor, high unemployment, and they often live in substandard
housing (Sue & Sue, 376). Continual immigration and high birthrates suggest Hispanics will
grow as a cultural group within the United States (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 376). As with many
American minorities, there exists a large discrepancy between Hispanics and
European-Americans in annual incomes, which compounds financial issues and makes
assimilation difficult (Sue & Sue, 2008).
Hispanic-Americans tend to have relatively stricter parenting styles, large extended
families, and often seek help within their family group before seeking professional mental health
services (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 377). Family structures are usually oriented toward
male-leadership, and patriarchal values are common among Latinos, as well as high sex-role
expectations (Sue & Sue, 378). Hispanic students tend not to fare as well in public school as
white students, and allegiance to family can sometimes take precedence over academic
obligations, which illustrates the kind of cultural conflict that many Hispanic people face when
residing in the U.S.
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Expected trends within the Hispanic-American community primarily involve
acculturation issues like discrimination, culture and value conflicts, and poverty-related stressors.
All factors contribute to the unique challenges that Hispanic people face, and will be brought into
counseling. Sensitivity needs to be paid to the struggles that make seeking mental health
services difficult for Hispanic clients and initial contact with counselors tentative.
Hispanic students tend not to fare as well in school as Caucasian children, so attunement
to feelings of marginalization need to be addressed with younger clients. Discrimination in
schools is not uncommon and establishing an egalitarian connection is necessary to ensure trust
and promote a working relationship with Hispanic youth. Latino students may experience poor
treatment by white teachers and administrators, which can contribute to children remaining
culturally insular with friends and family. This could limit educational opportunities and
professional avenues for Hispanic people, since they may feel uncomfortable operating in a
heterogeneous society.
In order to best serve Hispanic clients, counselors should understand their acculturation
level and ask clients the pertinent questions regarding how they view connection to their primary
culture and the dominant culture. Hispanics experience increased stress from factors related to
discrimination and may have increased likelihood of mental illness (Sue & Sue, p. 385).
Apprehension about cultural taboo of mental health issues make first sessions tenuous, so
increased sensitivity needs to be paid by counselors to cultural cues. Special care should be paid
to ensuring clients feel their cultural values aren’t threatened. Counselors can actively engage
with Hispanic clients in a collaborative process in which their goals are addressed in a culturally
sensitive manner.
Key issues for African-American clients include high rates of single-parent homes,
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tendency toward matriarchy, and strong extended support groups (Sue & Sue, p. 331).
Counseling has historically been primarily Euro-centric, which makes traditional methods not
suitable for all African-American families (Sue & Sue, 2008). Increased social anxiety
characterizes parenting styles and upbringing for many African-Americans, so perceived racial
discrimination should be explored since it can lead to increased psychological stress (Sue & Sue,
2008, p. 340). Counselors must respect non-traditional family arrangements and allow for
different parenting styles (as with all clients of different backgrounds.) Counselors should strive
to understand sequential identity development as well as how internalized racial identity
connects to higher rates of self-esteem (Sue & Sue, p. 337)
Demographics of African-Americans vary widely so strategies best suited for clients
from low-income urban backgrounds should not be used with clients who may be from
middle-class affluence. It is important not to accept generally held notions about “blackness”
and allow for clients to express themselves in a way that is unique to them (Sue & Sue, 2008).
Too often, counselors have pre-conceived notions about what constitutes black identity, and
those stereotypes are applied blindly to clients without regard for the individual experience.
Asian-Americans account for a large U.S. cultural group, is the most rapidly growing
group, is composed of many ethnic identities, and comprised primarily of people born outside the
United States (Sue & Sue, p. 359). There are vast cultural differences within various groups
from Asia, and each has different issues related to counseling. Generally held perceptions about
high-achievement and Asian-Americans disregard the array of cultural differences among groups
within the Asian community. Many issues remain hidden from common view including poverty
and mental illness, so it is important for counselors and academic advisors to see beyond myths
about Asians performing exceptionally at school and work (Sue & Sue, 2008).
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Asian-American cultures are typically collectivist in nature, and hierarchal and
patriarchal in family and professional organization (Sue & Sue, 2008). Young Asian people tend
to have less independence than their Caucasian classmates, so counselors should be prepared for
family orientations to differ in some instances from the expected norm when working with
students. Often times Asian-American clients are concerned with the mind-body connection, and
view mental illness as having a physical or spiritual component; counselors have the opportunity
to explore emotional concerns on many levels, and incorporate the clients view on the source or
cause of the issue (Sue & Sue, 2008). For some Asian-Americans, psychotherapy may be an
unfamiliar concept, and counselors need to be transparent about therapeutic goals, and take
opportunities to explain the therapeutic process. Counselors should attempt to understand the
family and community context of their clients, and understand the collectivist nature of some
Asian communities. Tight-knit familial groups should not necessarily be seen as enmeshed
systems, but rather respected and explored as sources of strength and support (Sue & Sue, 2008).
Alternate parenting styles should be respected, since they may be more patriarchal and
authoritative in nature, but not necessarily dysfunctional or abusive. Counselors can prepare to
work with Asian-American clients by inquiring as to what methods they may expect or prefer,
and validate any physical concerns connected to emotional distress being experienced, and
emphasize the emotional component of symptoms in an empathetic way.
Native-American clients have unique issues related to sovereignty and poverty, which
often white counselors don’t understand. They face incomparable acculturation issues since they
are the only ethnic minority who have sovereign rights and live primarily in sovereign nations
(Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 352.) Like many other American minorities, Natives have experienced
tremendous historical governmental discrimination that informs how they may relate to the larger
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society (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 345). In order to provide effective counseling, counselors must
understand the political relationship Native-America has with the larger U.S. community, and
how many social and political issues are handled within the tribe (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 347).
Native-Americans may live on reservations or in urban communities and family structures and
tribal orientations vary widely. Alcoholism, obesity, substance abuse, and domestic abuse are
common issues for many Native-Americans because of historical political and social oppression
(Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 348). There may be great variance in value orientations along with tribal
affiliation, but several common issues connect Native culture, namely difficulties in public
school, and low college enrollment (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 352). Counselors need to be sensitive
to the sociocultural history that contributes to social problems in Native America.
In order to provide the best services to Native-Americans, counselors should be diligent
in awareness of their own cultural biases as well as their values that may not fit for Natives (Sue
& Sue, 2008, p. 356). Counselors should be familiar with the tribe that their client is a member
of, and understand the sociopolitical history of that particular tribal group. As always,
counseling should be oriented toward that perspective and goals of the client, and address the
needs of their Native-American clients without Euro-centricity. Counselors should openly
address environmental issues including poverty and discrimination, and explore with the client if
and how they have been affected by negative elements of acculturation. To best serve
Native-Americans, counselors need to orient themselves to alternative parenting styles and
family arrangements, and be sensitive about how the individual relates to their own culture and
the broader culture (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 357).
In working with European-Americans, it is important to allow for widely-varying world
views, which may include a lack of understanding about the inherent advantages of being white.
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Racial realities of white people are radically different from one another though exploring bias
may be part of the counseling process. Ethnocentric mono-culturalism dominates American race
relations, and most white people have misinformation imposed upon them through intensive
cultural conditioning (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 264). White racial identity development is
characterized by naïveté and denial of racism and discrimination (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 267). As
a white counselor, there are many ways to explore racial identity development with white clients
and use counseling as an opportunity to expose prejudicial attitudes and how they detract from
overall wellness.
To prepare to work with Euro-American clients, counselors can work hard to understand
assumptions of racial identity and overcome sociocultural conditioning which makes their
privilege invisible (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 282). Society currently nurtures white-European
development; though the range of issues that white clients may bring into session are markedly
varied (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 263). Since all people are victims of social and racial prejudice, it is
important to keep in mind that many white people don’t consider their own racial development,
and may be unaware of the ways that race relations have impacted views of themselves and
society. White counselors can use counseling as an opportunity to raise consciousness about
racial issues when appropriate, and explore with white clients their responsibilities in
perpetuating white patriarchal dominance.
Role Play
The client’s stage of cultural identity development is 3rd Stage- Resistance and
Immersion. She is experiencing both guilt and shame about racial inequity, and is clearly angry
toward the dominant group. She is reacting against white society and rejects their values. She
seems to be expressing the primary affective feelings of this stage which are guilt, shame, and
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anger (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 248).
Understanding racial identity development is imperative for counselors because if not
prepared to engage with clients from different backgrounds they may respond in session in a
stereotypical manner (Sue & Sue, p. 238). When culture-bound techniques are used with clients
blindly, counselors disregard potential ways in which the individual diverges from their
demographical group. Clients from cultural minorities present unique issues and challenges that
if not understood in the proper context could lead to misunderstanding and misdiagnosis. The
ability of mental health professionals to accurately assess client’s cultural identity depends upon
the counselors’ commitment to learning about cultures other than their own, and incorporation of
conceptualization of effects that racism and prejudice have on the individual. Helping clients
move through stages of development will ultimately help them have greater appreciation of
themselves and others.
Development models help us to understand that although individual human growth is
complex and dynamic, theory provides language for discussing the process of identity
development and explains the interaction of an individual within an oppressive society. Though
identity development models are somewhat deficient in other socio-demographic phenomena
such as gender and sexual orientation, they are useful in understanding individual identity
development processes and help enhance effective counseling (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 257).
Barriers to Effective Multicultural Counseling
Primary barriers to effective multicultural counseling usually include lack of insight into
one’s own perceptual processes and how they affect client-counselor relationships. Whether or
not the counselor belongs to the majority culture, if a lack of awareness exists there are
significant barriers to connecting with clients from diverse backgrounds. A primary barrier to
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effective multicultural counseling is unexamined privilege and being unaware of
overgeneralizations we may foster (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 205). Lack of awareness into one’s own
processes creates conceptual blind spots regarding client struggles and societal ills. Unexamined
privilege lends itself to vantages that discount and oversimplify social inequalities and can create
a judgmentally-oriented lens, which clients can usually sense.
Culturally effective counseling requires dedication to self-examination which is an
ongoing process- one in which assumptions are examined and redefined over the lifetime.
Effective counselors examine how prejudices contribute to social problems exemplified by
clients in session. It is important to have a fundamental understanding of the continually shifting
sociopolitical climate of American inter-cultural relations and how they are inexorably tied to
economics, political discourse, and the media. Culturally competent counselors have a profound
understanding of the complexity of human relations, and effects of social conditioning on the
individual, which essentially requires knowledge of the self. Effectively examining social
structures and individual needs within systems demands personal exploration of connection to
sexuality and gender. Examination of commonly-defined gender expectations and feelings
surrounding divergence from sexual norms is necessary to avoid hetero-normative attitudes.
Assumptions about gender relations need to be continually challenged as society examines and
redefines them. Effective multicultural counseling makes room for non-traditional concepts of
family and makes room for many kinds of helping relationships (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 205).
Culturally sensitive counselors modify their goals and techniques to fit individual orientations
(Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 206). Counseling provides opportunities for clients to explore and
appreciate their ethnic and racial backgrounds and those of others.
Verbal & Non-verbal Language Differences
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Verbal and non-verbal language for individuals is culture-bound and oriented toward
communicating to those from the same group. Although making generalizations and
comparisons about the relational modes of entire ethnic populations is difficult, there are some
distinguishable differences in communication styles for the major cultural groups of the United
States. European-Americans tend to have greater meaning attached to prosody of verbal
communication than on what is said (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 169). Compared with
African-Americans, Euro-Americans tend to rely more heavily on verbal cues and may seem less
assertive (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 333). For Asian and Hispanic cultures, which are more
patriarchal and gender-affirming, language is gender-oriented and there may be greater
differences in communication styles between men and women compared with
European-Americans. Asian-American and Hispanic-American females may be more passive in
their speech and non-verbal communication, and less inclined to be assertive (Sue & Sue, 2008,
p. 380). For Native-Americans, eye-contact between young people and elders is discouraged,
and they tend to use language that is oriented in the here-and-now (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 351).
Verbal and non-verbal communication styles vary broadly along with other cultural
qualities, and various cultures employ language differently. Counselors can evaluate
communication styles of clients on an individual basis to best serve their needs, and carefully
assess their client’s relational styles which may be culturally-bound.
Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck Value Orientations
Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck value orientations framework proposes different
culturally-bound value based solutions to universal questions (Sue & Sue, 2008). Culture
dictates how universal inter-relational issues are understood and examined, such as shifts in
attitudes over time and relations between different ethnic groups. Their theory suggests there are
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universally applied human values that can be defined and understood, and provides an avenue for
rating value orientations from modern (low-context,) to traditional (high-context) (Sue & Sue,
2008, p. 167). Area of relationships outlined by Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck include: people-nature
relationship, time-orientation, people-relations, preferred mode of activity, and nature of man.
All cultures regard and explain these phenomena in different and contrasting ways.
These value orientations are connected to the worldviews of client and counselor because
they explain conceptualization as culturally bound, and that culture is an essential element of the
individual connection to nature, other people, and understanding space and time. These
worldviews can be integrated into the counselor’s interpretation of behavior in terms of how
clients perceive their connection to the world within a cultural context. Values orientations help
explain and interpret cultural variation in worldview which helps counselors understand how
individuals from various cultures create and internalize meaning. The framework provides an
intellectual interpretation of how best to understand and appreciate divergent worldviews and
how to incorporate them into working with the culturally diverse (Sue & Sue, 2008).
Case Study
In keeping with a white middle-class American orientation, the husband in this case is
future-oriented, active, individualistic, and seeks mastery over nature. In contrast, his female
partner seeks harmony with nature, seems collectivist, and is perhaps more present-oriented. The
couple’s value-orientations differ in their connections to people-relations; the male partner has an
individualistic orientation and is primarily concerned with his own professional gain. His wife is
more collaterally-oriented in her people-relations. His concerns with professional achievement
seem disconnected to his family and more about his individual identity. He is concerned with
doing (mastery over nature,) while his wife has a rural background and conceivably has a more
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being-in-becoming preferred mode of activity (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 197).
Their value orientations impact their relationship because they are at critical divergence.
As with the rest of their relationship, they seem to have different goals for counseling, but are
both striving to understand their kinship. Knowledge and awareness of value orientations would
help shape interventions in assessing client’s fundamental values and how they inform behavior.
Understanding that this couple has significant differences in their value orientations provides a
basis for conceptualizing their conflict. If these conflicting values aren’t addressed in session,
counseling could be focused on issues not pertinent to recognizing differences in each person’s
fundamental approach to connecting themselves to time, space, and nature. Knowledge of one’s
own value orientations is helpful in finding possible points of connection with clients and
recognizing important differences. Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck’s framework sheds light on basic
operating styles and how they guide thoughts and behavior; understanding value orientations
allows counselor to effectively work with varied cultural groups.
Terms
A) Cultural Pluralism: Describes society in which relatively small cultural groups are able
to maintain unique cultural practices and values while existing within a larger dominant
culture. This allows for cultural divergence provided the ruling class values aren’t
challenged- the U.S. being a prime example of a heterogeneous society in which multiple
cultures contribute to collective social structures. Requires that smaller, less powerful
groups abandon those aspects of culture that are incongruent with majority culture. This
is relevant to school counseling in understanding how smaller cultures are marginalized
within public institutions of learning, as the primary means by which American minority
cultures are sublimated. Students may be concerned with those aspects of personal
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culture they don’t wish to forfeit in order to function more successfully in the classroom.
Counseling provides an opportunity to correct the social ill common in public schools in
which students from racial minorities are pressured into assimilation.
B) Etic & Emic Perspectives: Represents two kinds of viewpoints from which information
is obtained. An etic perspective is the internal view of culture, and the perceptions of
values and customs from those within that culture, while emic perspectives are obtained
from those observing from an external viewpoint. This applies to counseling individuals
from another culture, and engaging with them from within their frame of reference. An
etic perspective may add contextual meaning, while respecting the client’s emic
viewpoint shows deference to their cultural practices. Etic perspectives help explain and
interpret behavior cross-culturally, granted that an emic perspective holds the most
meaning for the individual. Etic and emic viewpoints explain the inherent separation
between people of different cultures in terms of their perspectives of customs and
viewpoints. This is helpful for working in a school system because public schools are
rich with cultural diversity and multiple perspectives.
C) Institutional Racism: A system of inequality reinforced by individuals acting on behalf
of a larger majority, and intended to subsume alternate cultures (Sue & Sue, 2008).
Important for school counselors to understand because students often face racism in
schools and counseling gives a space to explore personal values even if contradictory to
majority culture. Since teachers and administrators are often the primary enforcers of
ruling-class values, counselors can be perceived by students as neutral allies in
maintaining integrity.
Cultural Racism: Phenomena of one group targeting another due to ethnic prejudices or
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cultural differences. Applies to a school setting because American psychology has
traditionally ethnocentric and monocultural, and in order to provide effective services,
counselors need to be aware of how racism impacts individuals or they could potentially
do harm to minority students (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 85).
D) Oppression: The systematic subjugation of a smaller minority group by a larger more
powerful one. Includes cultural prevention of a certain group attaining power or access
to upward mobility through persistent means. Typically exercised through both authority
and exploitation, and uses various tools of suppression to limit the freedom of a weaker
group. This has implications for counseling because the pervasive forces of oppression
cause anxiety in the cultural system and persons, and limits opportunities to individuals.
Oppression manifests in children’s behavior in terms of development of limited
self-concepts, which are inhibited by both peer and faculty expectations.
E) Privilege: An unearned advantage and authority created by unequal distribution of power
within a given society; is extended to the entire privileged group, to the detriment of
minority groups. Rights are extended to dominant class but denied to subordinate
classes, creating the belief that privilege has been earned, and lower classes have simply
failed to adhere to the norm. Relevant because counselors must be acutely aware of their
own social privileges and social, racial, and economic advantages or disadvantages and
how this contributes to self-perception and relation to others. Unexamined privilege
leaves a divide in the counseling relationship and compromises the counselor’s ability to
empathize fully with clients from other backgrounds. Fundamental understanding of
inequities of power and how they affect the individual is necessary since counselors tend
to be from middle-class backgrounds and clients may come from less-privileged
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circumstances.
F) Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own. Applies to
counseling because judging clients interferes with positive regard and creates biased
assumptions about dysfunctional behavior, motivations, self-image, life goals, etc.
Ethnocentrism degrades other cultures as improper or as having failed to meet a
predetermined standard. Applies not only to aspects of individual culture and issues of
race, but heteronormativity as well. Dominance of one accepted form of sexuality and
gender expression divided firmly by biological distinctions provides the basis for an
especially pervasive form of prejudice. Understanding ethnocentrism is important when
working in a school system because it applies to how some students from varied
backgrounds are treated by friends and teachers at school. School counselors can be
sensitive, culturally-neutral allies for children regardless of their background.
G) Prejudice: Biases which predetermine personal perceptions of others. Prejudice
disallows clients to be free and transcend personal and behavioral limitations in session.
Prejudice dishonors individual differences, and leads to misinterpretation of behavior.
When clients have diverse cultural backgrounds, counselors have an obligation to try to
understand and appreciate client’s experiential reality (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 130).
H) Discrimination: Prejudicial treatment based on membership to a particular group and
excludes privileges to certain groups while granting them to another. Makes available
rights only to dominate group in the continued effort of maintaining dominance of the
privileged group. This is relevant to counseling because clients aren’t always fully aware
of how discrimination affects their experience, whether they are the object of or purveyor
of discrimination. Counselors have an obligation to be aware, examine, and explore
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discrimination in society and how it impacts clients.
I) Proxemics: The use of space in interpersonal communication. Defines personal space
through gesture and posture; personal space is designated in order to establish what is
appropriate distance for public and private exchanges. Proxemics is different for various
cultures and for each client, and should be considered when considering personal space in
counseling. This is relevant because effective counseling requires comprehension of the
interactive qualities of personal space and what clients attempt to communicate with
non-verbal exchanges. Successful interpretation of proxemics requires knowledge of
cultural norm and practices (while maintaining respect for individual differences.) (Sue &
Sue, 2008, p. 163).
J) High-Low Context Communication: Denotes the degree to which cultures depend on
non-verbals to convey meaning and sensory cues. Each culture filters cues differently,
and each society has different coded messages within communication. Applies to literal
meanings and inherent meaning in expression. Each individual uses both high and low
context communication, and incorporates elements of both depending upon the nature of
the relationship. Context communication is pertinent to counseling because variations in
cultures create inherent contextual divides in communication, therefore idiosyncrasies
matter and should be addressed in counseling (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 168).
K) Stereotypes: Applying generally held notions about characteristics of a particular group
to individuals belonging to that group without regard for individual differences. Applies
to working in a school setting because stereotypes may principally inform how students
perceive themselves and one another. Overgeneralizing clients disallows for cultural
variables, and contradictory experiences. Stereotypes create absolute pictures of human
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behavior that dishonor the individual, and when working with students, could be
potentially harmful to the client-counselor relationship. Becoming familiar with common
cultural themes is helpful for counselors, but not if it leads to inflexible
over-generalizations (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 154).
References
Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2008). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (5th ed.).
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.