1. The variety of Urban environments i) Characteristics of urban places, including sites, function, land use, hierarchy of settlement (megacities) and growth process (planned or spontaneous) Settlement - place where people live, grouped to characteristics 1. Site - actual ground, absolute location (longitude, latitude) situation of settlement (location relative to surroundings) 2. Land use/function - main activities take place, determine how land in settlement will be used for. Function: agriculture (farming activities), commercial (market), educational (school.universities), religious function (church), transportation functions (main road, airport, seaport. Land use: residential (housing), industrial (industries), recreational (sporting facilities). Changes overtime due to level of economic development & availability of factors 3. - Hierarchy - arrangement of a settlement in importance of significance: Range - max distance people prepare to travel to buy goods/ pay for service Threshold - min # of people to sustain business (provide good) Sphere of influence- area influenced by specific settlement (determined by range and threshold) High order goods/service - goods people travel more distance to buy Low order good/service - goods bought frequently and easily available (sold everywhere: bread, water) High order settlement (fewer in country) - provide high & low order functions and has high sphere of influence Low order settlement (ubiquitous - found everywhere) - only offer low order goods, has limited sphere of influence Megacities - cities with 10+ million population, has rapid urbanization and development, caused by: - Economic growth (industrialization → increase demand for labor, manufacturing) - Natural increase (higher birth rate) - Rural-urban migration 4. Growth process (planned or spontaneous) - various ways these settlements may change in the hierarchy from one stage to the next (grow or decline) (industrial → ghost towns - focus shifted from manufacturing sectors → tertiary sectors of the economy, depending on climate/weather, agriculture, industry, residential etc. ii) Factors affecting the pattern of urban economic activities (retail, commercial, industrial), including physical factors, land values, proximity to a central business district (CBD) and planning Land use - economic activities → manufacturing, retailing non-commercial activities - residential area, parklands. Bid rent theory - price and demand for land change as distance from Central business district (CBD) increases → business max profit Distance Decay model: Physical factors, proximity to the central business district (CBD) - center of all economic activities in an urban area most city have CBD @ city center/close to major sea port - CBD close to sea → New York and Accra - CBD in city’s center: London, Tokyo - Some CBDs are located on mountain tops, they face expansion and coming down to valley → Ghana capital undulating cape coast → flat land Accra (principal commercial streets and main public buildings are located there) Characteristics of the CBD: 1. Multi-story development: due to high land value, build upwards to avoid cost 2. Concentration of retailing: selling merchandise and service to consumers, during day - high # people attracted 3. Concentrated public transport - convergence of bus/rail routes 4. Vertical zoning - different sections of story building with different functions 5. High day time population, low night time population 6. Functional segregation: every part of city has different land use 7. Changes over time 8. economic/tertiary activity (shops, offices, entertainment) are gound here 9. Traffic restrictions Factors causing CBD decline: 1. Poor and aging infrastructure 2. More private car ownership (people live easier outside CBD, transportation convenience) 3. Investors attracted to out of town locations - business owner escape traffic congestion and pollution 4. Cost of development and maintain CBD - hard to maintain/improve condition (high day time traffic = worse road condition and waste production) 5. Congestion - vehicular and human, decrease CBD by reducing convenience of common movement, lower productivity 6. Poor planning by city authorities- sanitation, pollution Industries in CBD: fashion, clothing, printing press, newspaper, medical instrument, attracted to large cities: 1. More market, more customers 2. Innovative and more skilled labor - provide for research and developer 3. Bring economies of scale Urban planning - technical and political process on development and design of land use and built environment (air, water, infrastructure → transportation, communication distribution network) - Tema - industries @east (along coast = major port → facilitate import raw material and export manufactured good) → residential @west (reduce pollution (wind blow) - Beijing - relocate industry - reduce pollution iii) Factors affecting the pattern of residential areas within urban areas, including physical factors, land values, ethnicity and planning Physical factors - - Advanced country - wealthy people live away from CBD/city center (escape city/industrial/vehicular noise, higher land values and benefit from cheaper transportation networks, afford to drive more distance Developing country: wealthy people live in chepa, dilapidated land → urban regeneration - rich young wealthy buy old and diplapualted building to put up high rises) Low income earners live close to CBD, poorer city development planned - shanty settlement Residential areas sometimes along major roads/water bodies/airports Land values: - Expensive areas (high land values) - used mostly for retail/commercial purposes (sometimes residential, but mostly located in low land value areas) - low class residential area, close to CBD (higher land value = low land quality (polluted) Ethnicity: - US cities have Chinatowns (Chinese immigrants unite - maintain culture) benefits (positive segregation: culture, food, social benefits). Negative segregation: indigenouspeople look down (excluded from opportunities) - Ethic lines caused by government policies or relative wealth of migrants Urban sprawl and movement - In HIC and LIC urban sprawl to accommodate population growth (industrializing) - Problems on residents → Take over farmland (grow crop or raise livestock), farmers become dispossessed of their land, need move outwards to new, less productive farming areas, or need to move to city and find non farming work (no experience or qualifications) - Food must be transported over longer distances from the countryside to feed the rapidly growing population in the city, raising the costs of food to urban dwellers - Additional burning of fuel added to greenhouse gasses that could in turn lead to global warming and climatic change. - Movement and transport difficulties - Urban sprawl = home and work separated by longer distances - Poorer residents forced to live in least accessible transport connections (in LIC and HIC) - Periphery (edge) - Traffic congestion - waste of scarce petrol resources as cars engines run without moving, waste of time (could be used in productively or recreationally) - Private car ownership is rare in developing countries - Poor people depend more on public transport (buses, trams, trains) - Often inadequate - low prices to make affordable (more use, leading to overcrowding and discomfort while traveling) iv) the incidence of poverty, deprivation and informal activity (housing and industry) in urban areas in various stages of development Poverty cycle: continuous poverty passed down generations - Low income job → low standard of living (poor housing/environment /neighborhood) → produce strains and stresses on household → poor health → poor academic attainment (children) → affect prospects of child → school and neighborhood lack resources and people to improve condition Indicators of Deprivation: - Economic: access to employment, level of family income - Social: crime, levels of health and access to health care, proportion of lone parent - Physical: quality of housing, level of pollution, incidence of crime,vandalism, graffitti - Environmental: noise pollution, derelict land - Political : opportunity to vote, participate in community organization - Housing: lacking basic amenities, overcrowding, no central heating Squatter Settlement: Slum - contiguous settlement where inhabitants are characterized as having inadequate housing and basic services Squatter - person who settles on new public land without title or take unauthorized possession of unoccupied premises - Lack basic services (access to sanitation facilities + safe water sources, absence of waste collection system, electricity supply, surfaced road, street lighting, drainage Substandard housing or illegal + inadequate building structures - built with non permanent materials unsuitable for housing given local conditions of climate and location Overcrowding and high density - low space, high occupation Unhealthy living conditions and hazardous locations - lack of basic services (visible, open swers, lack of pathways, uncontrolled dumping of waste, polluted environments) Insecure tenure, irregular or informal settlement - illegality Poverty and social exclusion: income or “capability poverty” Minimum settlement size: Informal economic activities: - Paid work on casual basis, jobs are irregular, and workers are often self employed without earning pension/paying taxes - Includes illegal activities: theft, prostituion, selling drug - Irregular working hours - business hours can vary depending on mood, schedule or other factors - Begging (Karachi, Pakistan) → donations, at civic intersection, peak hours begging = peak traffic movement Social stresses - Crime - Prejudice - Distribution of wealth - Housing - Education - Immigration/movement of people - Services (health) - Employment 2. Changing urban environments i) Urbanization, natural increase and centripetal population movements, including rural–urban migration in industrializing cities, and inner city gentrification in post- industrial cities Urbanization → increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities. Natural Increase → number of births and deaths over a period. Urbanization leads to: Urban Decay → urban areas experience dereliction, lack of demand for inner city lands, graffiti in public places, etc. Urbanization results from three main factors: 1. 2. 3. Migration to urban areas i.e. rural-urban migration. High birth rates due to youthful population, resulting in a positive natural increase (when birth rate exceeds death rate). The dominant population movements into urban areas are centripetal movements and centrifugal movements. Centripetal movements – movement into the city Rural- Urban Migration → movement of people from rural to urban areas. It is caused by urban “pull” and rural “push” factors. Urban “pull” factors that attract people from villages to cities: better housing, improved sanitation, perceived job prospects, ‘bright light syndrome’ etc. in urban areas. Rural “push” → difficulties people face in rural areas compels them to move to the city: poor housing, poor sanitation, and decline in farming, lack of educational opportunities, and lack of jobs, lack of social amenities, poverty, and the generally poor level of infrastructural development Gentrification (Urban redevelopment) → middle class move into inner cities to buy derelict buildings and redevelop them into high class residential areas. It also has an economic dimension, houses under dereliction are renovated to generate economic activities in the area. Young, married professionals may begin to move to such gentrified areas, thereby changing its population structure. Disadvantage: gentrified areas lead to social displacement of poor people, as the gentrified areas become too expensive for the poor to be able to afford. For example, there were houses built in Cantonments in Ghana during the period of colonialism. These houses have become old and worn down, so the Ghanaian government sold them to affluent citizens who transformed those houses into great apartments. Reurbanization (Urban renewal)- process of revitalizing urban areas + movement of people from the outskirts of cities into these places. However, it may involve government policies that are meant to improve the living conditions in such places, which may involve the injection of capital to revitalize the dilapidated area. This process includes the process of gentrification. Urban renewal, therefore, involves the rehabilitation of city areas that have fallen into decline. Gentrification is done by private business men, but urbanization is done by the government. Also in gentrification, the entire building is pulled down, but in reurbanization, the building can be renovated. ii) Centrifugal population movements, including suburbanization and counter urbanization Centrifugal movements – movement outside the city Suburbanization- movement of people, industries or shops from inner cities to live in areas outside the city. - Opposite of gentrification (occurred mainly in the USA, UK and Australia around the early 20th century) Cause: improvement in the transport network- electric tramways and public buses, decline in the price of farmlands, coupled with rising wages and high standards of living, necessitating private housing. Counter-urbanization (de-urbanization) - movement of population away from inner urban areas to a new town, a new estate, a commuter town or a village on the edge or just beyond the city limits/rural-urban fringe. Reason for counter urbanization: High prices of land in urban areas, congestion pollution, high crime rate, lack of community spiritedness, declining services. Urban Sprawl → unplanned and uncontrolled physical expansion of an urban area into the surrounding countryside, linked to the process of suburbanization. People living in sprawled neighborhoods drive daily to the CBD to work. Development such as shopping malls, fast food chains, and housing subdivisions are typical of sprawled environments. Characterized by: Low density housing, large lawns, wide streets, landscaping (London, New York, Tokyo) iii) Urban systems growth including infrastructure improvements over time, such as transport, sanitation, water, waste disposal and telecommunications Urban Systems Growth - A city can be referred to as a system; which means the city consists of inputs, processes and outputs. The input in the city refers to the various resources, both human and physical, that the city needs to function effectively (human beings, food resources, oil, fuel, energy, water, solar and knowledge, investment, electricity, food) As these inputs ‘enter’ the city, they undergo various processes, including manufacturing/industrial processes and urban infrastructural processes. The processes would lead to the production of outputs, some of which could be positive or negative Positive outputs: manufactured goods Negative output: pollution and waste production as a result of the use of inputs. Urban Infrastructure improvement → In most urban areas, especially in developing countries, cities continue to grow at a faster rate than the ability of the city authorities to provide the needed infrastructure. Face challenges: traffic congestion, shortage of services (water, schools, electricity) → the need for urban areas to undergo improvement in order to meet the demands for the growing urban population. Aspects of the infrastructure that need improvement include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Transportation improvement: Road networks and mode of transport. Thus improve the urban public transport and discourage people from owning private cars. Sanitation Water Waste disposal Telecommunications CASE STUDY: Shanghai, China-infrastructural growth over time in one city. ● ● ● ● ● The city of Shanghai has grown at a rate of 10% per year since 1992 and currently has a population of 23 million. By 2020 the population of the city center, which is used for political, economic and cultural activities, is expected to reach over 16 million. Shanghai is supposed to be turned into an international economic hub- “a seaport, an airport and an information port.” Central Business District: Pudong Pudong is used for finance, trade, retailing, recreation, tourism, media, information services and business. However, there are small amounts of residential areas. Changes in transport infrastructure in Shanghai ● Due to the increasing population there is an increased pressure on the transportation system. Therefore, Shanghai is developing their transport system. ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● This transport system will deal with increased traffic volumes. It will focus on two ports, two highways and three transport networks. Yangshan Deep-Water Port, the completed transport system, is the busiest port in the world. This port has an annual cargo of 590 million tonnes. Shanghai has two international airports and four airport terminals. Pudong International Airport is the world’s third largest in terms of cargo. The urban rail network(one of the most important transport forms in Shanghai) is over 400km long and has 13 metro lines which carry 5 million passengers daily. 25% of the city center is covered by railway stations The journey from Nanjing has been reduced from 180 to just over 70 minutes. There are over 1000 bus lines and 17000 buses. Shanghai has 12,000km of road including 800km of expressways. Access to water and sanitation in Shanghai ● ● ● ● ● The Huangpu River and the Yangtze River are the main surface water sources for Shanghai’s water supply. The proportion of the population with access to piped water rose from 40% in 1990 to nearly 95% in 2007. Over 70% of households have access to sewerage services. However, there is still severe stress on the water supply. For instance, agricultural practices have led to fertilizers and insecticides and getting into the urban water system. To combat the need for freshwater, Shanghai built the Quingcaosha Reservoir which is designed to provide water for up to 68 days. Waste treatment in Shanghai ● ● ● ● ● ● ● As the population of Shanghai increases, the amount of rubbish found in the landfill sites is also drastically increasing. However, Shanghai is now turning to incineration, which is simply the act of transforming waste into energy. The demand for incinerators is increasing here more than any part of the world. Shanghai produces the most household rubbish in China- 22,000 tonnes per day. The incinerator near the landfill site takes 3,000 tonnes of the rubbish every day. How the incinerator works: waste is heated to 850 degrees Celsius or higher. This heats water and produces steam which is used to turn the turbines and generate electricity. The aim is to increase the waste incinerated from 35% to 75%. Access to telecommunications ● ● ● Shanghai was one of the first centers in China to develop telecommunication services. in 1871 an underwater telegraph cable was laid between Hong Kong and Shanghai and in 1907 a local telephone service was introduced, followed by a long-distance service in 1923. Shanghai has an incredibly strong technology base which would attract foreign investment and multinational companies. iv) The causes of urban industrialization and its economic, social and demographic consequences Urban Deindustrialization - sustained decline in manufacturing activity and capacity. The opposite of deindustrialization is industrialization, which is the growth in secondary/ manufacturing industries. Globalization: led to a widespread migration of the manufacturing sectors of the advanced countries to areas where they find a competitive advantage in terms of raw materials, labor, market for their produce and relaxed environmental laws. - For example, Apple designs its products in California but manufactures its final product in China. This is due to the advantage of cheap labor in China, relaxed environmental laws, low corporate tax and the large market for their products. Decline in demand for manufactured goods: This can come about as a result of changing technology, whereby online music would replace the buying of CDs. Netflix would also replace DVDs and cassettes. Associated industries close Automation and up-skilling of workers: Automation → machines, robots, artificial intelligence replaces human labor in most manufacturing functions, leading to deindustrialisation (reduction in the size of the company/ physical relocation of the company in order to maximize profit) Examples include manufacturing cars. Automation has led to deindustrialisation in areas such as Detroit, USA where car manufacturing companies have replaced human labor with robots. This has led to the out migration of people to other cities Political changes: This leads to deindustrialization when government policies change. For example, the introduction of free trade policies and the removal of trade barriers have led to many manufacturing industries becoming exposed to international competition such that they are not able to survive, or the existing industries may be relocated to areas where cost of production is low. Hence, a decline in industrialization. An example is in the UK where steel manufacturing industries have closed down in major cities such as Sheffield, Manchester, and Birmingham etc. this has come about as a result of the cheap imports of Chinese steel. Tertiarisation → country’s manufacturing industries replaced with the tertiary industry (telecommunications, electronics industry, law firms, accountancy firms, education, nursing, banking, social services and teaching) → movement from the blue collar jobs to the white collar jobs, led to deindustrialization in old industrial cities, as a result of the decline in the manufacturing sectors. Consequences of deindustrialization Positive consequences 1. Urban renewal: City will find new ways of redeveloping itself in order to over the challenges of deindustrialization 2. Innovative architecture – this means that the city authorities find ways utilizing brownfield sites in order to regenerate such areas. For example, the London Dockland Development Corporation was initiated by the government of the UK in order to develop Stratford Park, an old industrial estate, to revitalize the area. This led to the establishment of the London 2012 Olympic Stadium in the area. 3. Low energy usage and environmental sustainability- due to low levels of air, water and land pollution by industries and vehicles 4. Introduction of modern forms of technology, such as the use of renewable energy from the use of fossil fuels in manufacturing industries to the tertiary industries. Negative Consequence 1. Increase in unemployment because it would affect low skilled workers since they are less likely to find jobs. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Income inequality because most of the people who will be unemployed would have less money than the employed – the rich may get richer and the poor may get poorer. Decline in the variety of commodities or manufactured products. Decline in the service provision in urban areas. Lead to the out migration of people Increase in crime levels Widen the gender gap 3. Urban environmental and social stresses 3. Urban microclimate modification and management, including the urban heat island effect, and air pollution patterns and its management Urban microclimate → set of atmospheric conditions different from climate of surrounding area, caused by: 1. Sunshine and radiation - the concrete surfaces and tarred roads in most cities, sun’s energy is reflected back to space as long wave radiation, increases the temperature of surrounding area 2. Precipitation - high rainfall in a given area can generally reduce the temperature of the surrounding, particular during hot summer evenings 3. Temperatures - heating, due to fuel combustion from factories, lorries, can significantly increase the temperature of a given area 4. Pressure and winds - cause land and sea creases, alter emptreu of area 5. Cloud - thick clouds reduce temperature of given area, esp during rainy season Urban heat island (UHIs) - metropolitan area warmer than surrounding rural area - Occur on surface and in atmosphere, present day and night, strongest dyring day (with sunshine) - Weak during late morning - Stronger after sunset → slow release of heat from urban infrastructure. Released into streams, rivers, ponds, lakes (stressful to aquatic ecosystems) - Spoil water quality → hot pavement and rooftop surfaces transfer their excess heat to storm water → raise water temperature as storm sewer release into streams, rivers, pond, lake Air pollution toxins: - Sulfur dioxide (SO2)- produced by industrial process (burnt petroleum), combine with NO2 to produce acid rain Suspended particulate matter (SPM)- microscopic particles (carbon) released when coal, timber, hydrocarbons are burned (most dangerous), lead to cancer. When combined with fog, smog is formed → photochemical smog Lead (Pb)- released when fuels containing lead are burnt, especially dangerous to pregnant women and children (affect brain development: sterility, memory loss, intellectual disabilities, anemia, seizures, death) Carbon monoxide (CO)- colorless, odorless, non irritating but toxic produced when fuels such as petroleum, coal, natural gas, wood are not completely burnt. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) - reddish brown toxic gas produced when fuels are burnt at high temperatures Ozone (O3) - occurs ground level → nitrogen dioxide from car exhausts and manufacturing processes combined with methane/volatile gasses. Works in upper atmosphere (filter harmful ultraviolet radiation from sun that cause skin cancer), case asthma, lung cancer, large component of photochemical smog Causes of high air pollution (anthropogenic): - Truck - higher emission of polluting gasses Burning of biomass, wood, coal - for heating, cooking. Poor people live in shanty settlements, burn plastic to keep warm, and produce poisonous hydrochloric acid. Poor living condition result in environmental pollution Fire - cooking fone using stoves that burn wood → deforestation in rural areas. Release large quantities of fine carbon dust in the form of SPM Burning rubbish (LIC have poor rubbish collection services), causes cancer (carcinogenic), hormone disruptors - Motor vehicle exhaust in HIC - gasses include nitrous oxides, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, in warm weather → photochemical smog Construction of expressways to span metropolises, Shanghai, Bangkok, public transport is poorly developed and even footpaths for pedestrians do not exist in many parts of the city, not building expressways causes wasted fuel. Bangkok Factories - coal fired power stations, emissions from generating electricity cause significant air pollution Natural sources of air pollution: - Dust blown into the city from large areas with little or no vegetation, such as deserts - Smoke and carbon monoxide from natural wildfires - Methane gas emitted from the rear ends of animals as they digest their food - Radon gas from natural decay of radioactive materials in the earth's crust - Ash and sulfur from volcanic eruptions Managing air pollution (natural): - Frequent dust storm → belts of trees can be planted as these hep to settle wind blown dust by dispersing the air currents that carry it Manage smoke from wildfires and methane gas from animals → reduce number of cattle raise for meat and dairy production, or conducting controlled burns to minimize the impact of wildfires (root cause) Managing air pollution (anthropogenic): - Easier than managing naturally produced air pollution, highly challenging task from financial, physical, and political perspectives - Deindustrialization (rare) - Make public transport more appealing - impossible to give up motor, but can decrease usage amount - Apply technology to manufacturing processes in factories and to the engines of motor vehicles - mechanical dust collectors on factory chimneys, catalytic converter for car engines, electrostatic precipitators Effects of air pollution: 1. Respiratory and heart problems + cancer. children (suffer from pneumonia, asthma) pregnant women (has fetal brain growth) 2. global warming: higher temperature = rising sea level = melting ice and iceberg = loss of habitats 3. Acid rain - harmful gasses (NO, SO) → released into atmosphere during burning of fossil fuels, when rain → water droplet combined with air pollutants, becomes acidic and damage human, animal, crop 4. eutrophication : high nitrogen in pollutant on sea surface and turn into algae (affect fish) 5. Effect on wildlife: toxic chemical in air force wildlife species to move new places and change their habitat 6. Depletion of ozone layer Solutions for Air Pollution 1. Use public mode of transportation: Encourage people to use more public transportation + carpooling (save energy and money) 2. Conserve energy: Switch off fans and lights ( reduce fossil fuels burn) 3. Circular economy, understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: don't throw away useless items, reuse them for some other purpose (old jars to store cereals or pulses) 4. Emphasis on clean energy resources: (solar, wind, tidal) renewable, less pollution 5. Use energy-efficient devices: CFL lights consume less electricity as against their counterparts (live longer, consume less electricity, less energy consumed) ii) Traffic congestion patterns, trends and impacts Generally, the traffic congestion varies according to: 1. Time of the day – in most urban areas traffic congestion is usually between 7am – 9am and 5pm to 7pm. These are the time commuters travel to and from work/school etc. 2. Day of the week – Mondays + Fridays busiest days 3. Week of the month – The first and last weeks of the month are periods when people have received their monthly salaries and are more likely to travel or do business during such periods. 4. Month of the year – December and January are also characterized by heavy vehicular traffic because of Christmas and end-of-year preparations, which may spillover to the following month Negative impacts of Traffic Congestion - Counter urbanization→ (pollution causes people to migrate out of town for cleaner air) - Discourages investment (entrepreneurs) - People miss commitments, meetings, wages, causes delays - Increase in travel cost → alternative longer routes, fuel is wasted (idling) - Wear and tear on vehicles - Prevents emergency vehicles - Road rage → drivers may get angry at once another, results in verbal exchange/first fight, leading to death and injuries Solutions: - - Road engineering - Road widening (temporary fix) - Efficient use of existing roads (bus loans, HOV, counter flow) Mass transit - Buses, ral (underground, elevated), car sharing (Evo) Discouraging motor vehicle use - Traffic lights - Prohibiting flows in certain areas or during times - Toll charges - Bicycle networks Congestion charge (pay to use road/bridges) Alternating use of cars with odd and even registration numbers iii) Contested land use changes, including slum clearances, urban redevelopment and the depletion of green space Contested lands →lands with potential to attract a wide array of interests from different stakeholders in business, housing, politics or otherwise. Contested lands can often result in a. Conflicts – where different stakeholders make every effort, both legal and illegal, to own high-value lands b. Relocation of the poor – they may end up losing the land to various groups of people with varied interests on such land (sell the land and relocate to other parts of the city or clear the slum to make way for urban redevelopment) c. It may lead to resentment from urban dwellers, especially when those living on contested lands are dissatisfied with an ongoing project or facility located on the land ( urban green space could be depleted to make way for the construction of a stadium) Though for the purpose of leisure, the people in the are might resent this decision, as it may lead to noise pollution and traffic congestion iv) Managing the impacts of urban social deprivation, including the cycle of deprivation and geographic patterns of crime Urban Social deprivation – people in urban areas lack or have limited access to social services such as housing, education, health services, roads, sewerage or drainage facilities. This may change over time and from one place to another, depending on the effort made by the individual, government or non-governmental organization. Social exclusion (a product of social deprivation) → a member in a particular society is ostracized by other members of the society. The excluded member is denied access to jobs, social support or peer networks, exclusion from services, and negative attitude of the local neighborhood, leading to poverty. The cycle of social deprivation - “what happens when people or areas suffer from a combination of linked problems such as unemployment, poor skills, low incomes, poor housing, crime, bad health and family breakdown” These problems are linked and can combine to perpetuate the cycle of social deprivation. Urban crime in socially deprived society, cause: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Unemployment → jobless young adults tend to engage in crime Inequality → poor income distribution in city (rich - richer, poor - poorer) Poor urban infrastructure → street lighting, development of squatter settlements Inadequate policing Drug and alcohol Inadequate security protection 4. Building sustainable urban systems for the future i) Urban growth projections for 2050, including regional/continental patterns and trends of rural - urban migration and changing urban population sizes and structures Urban population is increasing rapidly Most urbanized regions: North America (82% in urban) ii) Resilient city design, including strategies to manage escalating climatic and geopolitical risks to urban areas Chronic stresses - weaken cities on daily basis (overtaxed / inefficient public transport, unemployment, inadequate rubbish disposal, high rates of violence, shortage of food or water) Acute shocks - sudden, sharp events that threaten a city (earthquake, floods, outbreaks of disease or terrorist attacks) Urban resilience - capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses and systems within a city to survive, adapt, and grow no matter what kinds of chronic stresses and acute shocks they experience 100 resilient cities: 4 dimension, 12 goals, 52 indicators Economy + Society Health + wellbeing Leadership + Strategy Infrastructure + environment Promotes cohesive and engaged communities - Local community support - Cohesive communities - Strong city wide identity and culture - Active engaged citizens Ensures social stability, security and justice Meets basic needs Fosters long term and integrated planning Provides reliable communication and mobility Supports livelihoods and employment Ensures public health services Epowers a broad range of stakeholders Promotes leadership and effective management Fosters economic prosperity iii) Eco city design, including strategies to manage the urban ecological footprint Ensures continuity of critical services Provides and enhances natural and human assets Eco cities - designed to implement principles of environmental sustainability - Continuing in perpetuity Ideal form: - Produce no carbon waste - Recycle all waste products - Produce all renewable energy - Locally produce resources to develop a self constrained economy - Preserve natural environment - Achieve full employment, stimulate economic geowht, reduce poverty, elimtate discrimination, iprove peoples health, operate efficiently with a high population density and efficient public transport Measure city’s sustainability, examine Ecological footprint - the theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water a population requires to produce the resources it consumes and to absorb its waste under prevailing technology. Carbon footprint - total quantity of greenhouse gasses proceed per capita in the city (kg or ton) Sustainable cities index: - People (social) - rate health, education, income inequality, work life balance, dependency ratio, crime, housing, living costs - Planet (environmental sustainability) - energy consumption and renewable energy share, waste management, green space, sanitation, water, greenhouse gas emissions, natural catastrophe risk, air pollution - Profit (Economic) - transport infrastructure, ease of doing business, tourism, CDP per capita, city's importance in global economic networks, internet connectivity, employment rates iv) Smart city design and the use of new technology to run city services and systems, including purpose-built settlements and retrofitting technology to older settlements Smart city - urban area that uses information and communication technology (ICT) to enhance resident;s ability to access and use the city;s resources and infrastructure Designed to use the internet of things (IoT) - digital networking of physical devices (buses, trains, buildings, machines, sensors, computers) Personal level Advantages: - Help overcome older settlements isolating people living in them → ICT allows communication that inks people of different socioeconomic groups together using digital bridges of communication - Minotaur their overall business processes - Data help administrators and planners deicer which service can be obtained cheaply - Improve the customer experience - Save time and money - Enhance employee productivity - Integrate and adapt business models - Make better business decisions and generate more revenue Disadvantages: - Very expensive - City managers may not able to to give priority to data privacy and security - The presence of security camera may be seen as an invasion of privacy or government surveillance
