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The Right Word
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The Right Word
a writer’s toolkit of grammar,
vocabulary and literary terms
BLOOMSBURY YEARBOOKS
Bloomsbury Publishing Plc
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First published in Great Britain 2021
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CONTENTS
introduction vii
part i
Grammar Guide
chapter 1: Grammar and the parts of speech 3
chapter 2: Words working together 29
chapter 3: Punctuation 55
chapter 4: Spelling 73
chapter 5: Breaking the rules 87
chapter 6: Glossary of grammatical terms 93
part ii
Vocabulary Builder
chapter 7: Choosing the right word 115
chapter 8: Commonly confused words and word pairs 209
chapter 9: Commonly misused words 265
chapter 10: Word families 295
chapter 11: Just the opposite 317
chapter 12: Clichés and redundancy 345
part iii
Dictionary of Literary Terms
Literary terms 361
list of contributors
main text (chapters 1–12) edited and rewritten
by Sarah Waldram, based on text by the Bloomsbury
Encarta Dictionary team.
Sarah Waldram is an editor who has worked on languagereference books for Bloomsbury, Oxford University Press and
Collins among other publishers.
dictionary of literary terms written by Alysoun Owen
with research and additional content from
Lauren MacGowan and Elaine Owen.
Lauren MacGowan joined the Writers’ & Artists’ team as
an editorial assistant in 2019 shortly after graduating from
Oxford Brookes University with a Masters in Publishing.
Alysoun Owen is the Editor of the Writers’ & Artists’ Yearbook
(published every July) and author of the Writers’ & Artists’
Guide to Getting Published (2019).
Introduction
Words matter. An appreciation of their subtle power is
vital for anyone who seeks to use them.
David Hewson, Writing: A User Manual (2012)
This book is for writers: anyone who gathers words together
in order to educate, or to entertain or to inform. Words – and
the ways in which they combine and mingle in a phrase, a
statement, a sentence or a paragraph – are the essential tools
of any writer’s workbox: the ways in which they are grouped
become the author’s ‘style’. They can be used to be concise and
precise or deliberately to obfuscate or shock, to confuse or
amuse.
Between these pages are definitions, wordlists and the
‘rules’ of English grammar – how language is structured,
how words are used and spelt and the typical ways in which
sentences can be arranged and punctuated. Rules can be
straitjackets. Creative writers – novelists, dramatists and
poets – know that rules exist to be broken and circumvented.
For example, the standard approach when punctuating speech
in a novel might be to include single or double quotation
marks, usually so it is clear who is speaking to allow the reader
to follow the narrative. An experienced and talented writer can
overturn such a convention for stylistic effect, to create greater
immediacy and naturalistic speech patterns. An inexperienced
writer might find it sensible to adhere to the conventions
until they are more used to marshalling their text. Knowing
the standard styles, formats and usage can be helpful. Once
mastered they might be successfully sidestepped. Being au fait
with grammatical norms makes life easier for you as a writer in
your efforts to convey mood and meaning in prose.
vii
Introduction
This book is not a checklist of what you should follow
every time you put pen to paper or tap on a keyboard. It is
a celebration of words in all their magnificence. The English
language makes claim to more than a million words, including
terms that have fallen out of use and variant forms, of which
it is estimated that around 170,000 are in current use. This
lexicon can be fashioned and bent to each writer’s will to evoke
atmosphere, tone, tension, emotion and meaning to suit their
narrative.
Words change and usage develops. New words get created,
others die back to become archaisms or anachronisms or less
legitimate forms to do with shifts in spelling or meaning
because of fashion or changes in culture and society. But there
remain some underlying and unifying patterns and facts about
grammar, structure, forms and the terms we use to describe
these elements. You don’t need to know the definition of an
oxymoron or chiasmus to make use of such literary devices
effectively. You won’t be judged wanting if you are unaware that
a sentence can include a subject, a predicate, and subordinate
clauses or that there are five basic types of adverb. You can be
a skilled writer who has great command of their work, and not
know or care what transitivity means or how to identify an
auxiliary verb. (Though you can find out what these are in this
book’s Glossary.)
But knowledge of parts of speech and punctuation, literary
devices, clichés to avoid for example, combined with an interest
in how words are formed might make you understand your
craft better. This knowledge is likely to improve your writing
and might mean you enjoy being a writer even more.
Why does grammar matter to the writer? Apart from the
joy that words can bring, it matters because text should be
meaningful and achieve what it sets out to do for the audience
for which it is intended. The right word is le mot juste for the
context in which it is used. It’s the word that feels right and
reads right to its writer-creator and to its readers.
viii
part i
Grammar Guide
2
chapter 1
Grammar and the parts
of speech
He who writes badly thinks badly.
William Cobbett
A Grammar of the English Language (1819)
The controversial English pamphleteer William Cobbett, in a
letter to his son James, observes the link between clarity of
thought and clarity of writing. He emphasises paying attention
to grammar as a means of dispelling confusion, and pours
scorn on those in public life who omit to do so.
Whatever one makes of Cobbett’s political views, his ideas
on grammar still resonate today. This is especially true for
writers looking to connect with their readership. Put simply,
grammar enables users of language to combine words in ways
that convey meaning clearly.
There is no mystery to grammar. Those who learn English
as their first language from native speakers absorb its essentials
while they are picking up the vocabulary required for basic
communication. For writers, however, there are good reasons
to explore English grammar more deeply. Getting to grips
with grammar improves one’s understanding of the English
language and consequently enriches one’s writing.
As a starting point, this chapter looks at the basic elements
of the English sentence and explains terms used to describe
these elements. We’ll present these in the traditional way, as
parts of speech, even though, as touched on in chapter 2, some
experts favour other approaches to analysing the language.
3
Grammar Guide
The parts of speech
The parts of speech, sometimes referred to as word classes,
comprise (in the order they appear in this chapter):
●●
●●
●●
●●
●●
●●
●●
●●
nouns
verbs
adjectives
adverbs
pronouns
prepositions
conjunctions
interjections.
It’s worth remembering that a word’s part of speech gets defined
only in use. Of course, it’s safe to say that a word like plumber is
a noun, because it’s difficult to think of a case where it could be
anything else. But a word like up can be a preposition, a verb,
an adjective or an adverb, depending on the context:
The cat climbed up the tree and can’t get down. [preposition]
Introducing that proposal will really up the stakes. [verb]
The up escalator is on the other side. [adjective]
Send John right up as soon as he gets here. [adverb]
Therefore, in this book, when we identify a word as a verb,
conjunction, adjective or other part of speech, our focus is on
the role it fulfils in the context under consideration.
Nouns
A noun is a word that names something: a person, place
or thing.
Nouns are the largest word class in English.
●●
A noun can be a single word (car, truth) or a compound
word made up of two or more single words (pruning shears,
playwright, double-decker).
4
Grammar and the parts of speech
●●
●●
●●
A group of words that acts as a noun in a sentence is called
a noun phrase.
A proper noun is one that begins with a capital letter and
usually names a person or some other unique thing: Mary
Seacole, Windsor Castle.
A common noun names a class of things: book, music.
Most nouns have two possible forms: singular or plural. The
plural is usually created by adding -s, sometimes along with
other changes to the word’s ending. There are only a small
number of irregular plurals (ones that aren’t formed by adding
-s), for example, child Æ children.
The system by which nouns agree with verbs – that is, a
singular noun takes a singular verb form, and a plural noun
takes a plural verb form, we cover in more detail in chapter 2
(see page 39).
Count and non-count nouns
Singular nouns in English can be classified as one of two types:
those that have a plural form and those that do not:
⚪⚪
Nouns that can be pluralised are called count nouns
(because they can be preceded by a number):
one shirt, two shirts
one mouse, two mice
one alumnus, two alumni
For some words, such as sheep, the plural form is the same
as the singular, but they are count nouns nonetheless:
one sheep in the north pasture; a hundred sheep in the south
pasture
⚪⚪
Singular nouns that cannot be pluralised are known as
non-count nouns: music, happiness, fuss. A non-count noun
denoting something such as a feeling or substance that
cannot be quantified is called a mass noun: envy, air. One
feature of mass nouns is that they can be preceded by words
such as some, any and no.
5
Grammar Guide
Many mass nouns can be used as count nouns, however,
when they refer to a particular type or quantity of what
they denote:
French cheeses
Two coffees and five teas, please.
Collective nouns
A distinctive group of nouns are known as collective nouns.
Examples of collective nouns are:
audience, committee, crowd, flock, government, jury and
orchestra
These nouns are singular in form but refer to a group made up
of a number of individuals or things.
When the group is spoken of as a unit, the collective noun
takes a singular verb:
The jury has handed down a unanimous verdict.
‘The best government is no government at all.’
Henry David Thoreau, Civil Disobedience (1849)
However, when the emphasis is on the individuals or things
that make up the group, the noun takes a plural verb:
The jury have been arguing among themselves for twelve
hours, and no verdict is expected.
A collective noun that denotes a class of objects, for example,
furniture or luggage, is always singular:
My luggage is missing.
When using collective nouns, it is important to ensure
agreement between verbs and pronouns. The following
example, for instance, is inconsistent:
6
Grammar and the parts of speech
The committee has [singular] decided to reject the proposal
and will give their [plural: should be its] reasons in writing
tomorrow.
‘The jury eagerly wrote down all three dates on their slates,
and then added them up, and reduced the answer to shillings
and pence.’
Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (1865)
(It’s more common for a collective noun to take a plural verb in
British English than in American English.)
Verbs
A verb is a word that indicates an action or a condition.
In English, verbs also express whether the action or
condition is associated with the past, present or future.
English verb forms are relatively simple. As outlined
immediately below, verbs have only three principal parts,
which are predictable, apart from those for a significant number
of irregular verbs. Despite this, English tenses, when taken to
include such features as aspect, are capable of rich, varied and
complex expression. (For more detail, see pages 12–14).
Principal parts
The three principal parts of the verb are the forms from which
all other forms are derived.
⚪⚪
The main or root part of a verb is the infinitive. This is the
form of the verb to be found in a dictionary. Because the
derivative inflected forms (marked by changed endings
or other variation), of English verbs are on the whole not
complicated, many forms of the verb are actually identical
to the infinitive.
7
Grammar Guide
Examples of infinitives are be, see, dig, automate, thrill. Since
many uses of the infinitive in English require the preposition
to before the verb, to is sometimes – erroneously – thought
to be part of the infinitive.
⚪⚪ The second principal part of the verb is the simple past.
Except for irregular verbs, English adds -ed or -d (for verbs
already ending in e) to the end of an infinitive to form
the simple past tense: thus, using our examples above,
automated, thrilled. The others noted above are irregular
and have different past tenses: be Æ was and were; see Æ
saw; and dig Æ dug.
⚪⚪ The third principal part of the verb is the past participle.
It’s used only in combination with auxiliary verbs (see
page 16). In regular verbs, the form of the past participle is
identical to that of the simple past tense: automated, thrilled.
In irregular verbs, it may be identical to the simple past of
those verbs, or it may be a different word: thus, be (was and
were) Æ been; see (saw) Æ seen; and dig (dug) Æ dug.
Verbs have another part – the present participle, but it’s usually
not included among the principal parts because it’s always
regular. The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the
infinitive. Like the past participle, it’s used only in combination
with auxiliary verbs. Examples of present participles for our
group of sample verbs are being, seeing, digging, automating,
thrilling. Note that verbs ending in a single consonant usually
double the consonant before the -ing (as in digging), and verbs
ending in silent e drop the e before the -ing (as in automating).
Transitivity
A common way to classify verbs is by whether or not they are
followed by an object (a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun) to
complete their meaning.
⚪⚪
Those verbs that do not take an object – and relatedly do
not form passives (see page 15) – are called intransitive
verbs:
8
Grammar and the parts of speech
You’d better leave.
He snores.
⚪⚪
In dictionaries, these verbs are often indicated by the
letters vi.
Verbs that are followed by an object – the person or thing
that receives or experiences the action of the verb – are
transitive verbs:
Do you love me?
Put your books away.
In dictionaries, these verbs are often indicated by the
letters vt.
A few transitive verbs can have two objects: a direct
object and an indirect object. The direct object is the one
acted on directly by the verb, and the indirect object is the
one affected by the action of the verb:
I gave him £100. [the direct object is £100; the
indirect object is him]
Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending
on how they’re used and what they mean. In The dealer sells used
cars, the verb sell is transitive, but in This used car won’t sell, the
same verb is intransitive. In dictionaries, these verbs may be
indicated by the letters vti.
‘Do I dare to eat a peach?’
T. S. Eliot, ‘The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ (1915)
‘While someone else is eating or opening a window or just
walking dully along.’
W. H. Auden, ‘Musée des Beaux Arts’ (1940)
Copulas and complements
A small number of intransitive verbs can be followed by a
complement, a noun or adjective that relates back to the
9
Grammar Guide
subject. These intransitive verbs describe the relationship
between the subject and complement and are called linking
verbs or copulas:
I am Fred.
I feel sick.
Other copulas are grow, act, look, smell, taste and sound.
The kind of complement that follows an intransitive verb
is called a subjective complement, because it describes the
subject. In She has fallen ill, she is the subject, has fallen is the
intransitive verb, and ill is the subjective complement.
A few transitive verbs can also be followed by a complement.
This kind of complement is called an objective complement,
because it describes the direct object of the verb:
I find her books fascinating. [the object is her books; the
complement is fascinating]
The team elected Sarah captain. [the object is Sarah; the
complement is captain]
Person, number and tense
Features such as whether a verb is transitive or requires a
complement can be described as lexical features. In other
words, they relate to the verb’s meaning and cannot be changed
at will. Such features of verbs as person, number and tense, on
the other hand, are variable, and these variations are effected
by conjugating the verb, that is expressing it in its different
forms.
Another way of stating this is that the features of person,
number and tense, when present, mark a verb form as a
finite verb. Finite in this case means ‘limited’, since these
three features limit the reference of the verb to a particular
person, number or time. (This contrasts with the infinitive
(see page 7), which is not limited. Rather, the infinitive form
indicates only meaning – it’s not constrained by person, time
or number.)
10
Grammar and the parts of speech
Person: There are three grammatical persons: the speaker (who
is the first person), the addressee or one spoken to (the second
person) and someone spoken about (the third person).
On the whole, English verbs aren’t very concerned with
person. English uses other features of language to express this
concept. The only marker of person in standard English verbs
is the -s at the end of the third-person singular form of verbs
in the present tense: I sing, you sing, he sings. The irregular verb
be is non-standard and so exceptional: I am, you are, he is, etc.
Number: Grammatical number as it relates to verbs is
concerned only with whether a verb has as its subject one
person or thing (singular) or more than one (plural).
As with person, English verbs aren’t too concerned with
number. Instead, English depends on nouns to signify this.
The only regular marker of number in English verbs is the
same as for person: an -s at the end of the third-person singular
form of verbs in the present tense: They sing, she sings. Again,
the irregular verb be is exceptional: I am, we are, etc.
Tense: Tense is the feature of a verb that indicates, in a general
way, when. The simplest division of English verb tenses is into
past, present and future.
●●
●●
●●
The past tense uses the simple past (see page 8). The only
English verb that has variable parts for the past tense is be,
which uses was for the first and third persons singular, and
were for all other persons and numbers.
The present tense uses the root form (infinitive) of the
verb except, as noted above, for two cases: the third person
singular in standard verbs and all forms of be.
The future tense is also based on the root form together
with the auxiliary or modal (see page 17) verbs will
or shall:
She will sing.
Shall I sing?
11
Grammar Guide
We have already noted that, owing to limited inflection in
English, many forms of verbs are identical to the infinitive.
Because of this, it only becomes apparent whether a verb is
finite or an infinitive when one sees it in context. Take, for
example, these three sentences:
I always return library books on time.
You need to return this book to the library by next week.
The letter demanded that he return the book immediately.
The form of the verb is identical in each sentence. But in
the first sentence, return is a finite verb: first person singular
present tense. In the second sentence, return is an infinitive.
In the third sentence, return is another finite verb, this time a
subjunctive form (for more detail, see pages 14–15).
Aspect, mood and voice
Further features that English verbs have in common with
those in other languages include aspect, mood and voice. In
some languages these are expressed using the root of the verb
altered by suffixes, changed vowels and the like. In English
verbs, these features are mainly expressed through the use of
auxiliary verbs (see page 16).
Aspect: Experts differ as to whether to consider aspect a
separate feature of verbs, or to regard it as part of tense.
Certainly, the two aspects that English verbs show – the
perfect and the continuous – cannot be separated from tense.
They are always bound up with the finite features of a verb.
⚪⚪
The perfect aspect of verbs is evident in the perfect tenses –
those formed using a finite form of the auxiliary verb have
plus the past participle (-ed form) of the main verb. The
perfect tenses indicate an action or condition existing in
more than one point in time. For example,
I have lived here for twenty years
12
Grammar and the parts of speech
indicates the time when I started living here, and also the
present time (because I still live here). In the sentence
When I arrived at the restaurant she had already left
the past perfect is used (she had left) to show that the action
of leave happened before the action of arrive.
‘You have stolen my dreams and my childhood with your
empty words.’
Greta Thunberg, UN Climate Action Summit (2019)
⚪⚪
The continuous (also called progressive) aspect of verbs
expresses a continuing, unfinished action or condition. It’s
formed with a finite form of be and the present participle
(-ing form) of another verb. The continuous aspect can refer
to either things that are going on in the present:
I’m cleaning my shoes.
Or things that were going on in the past:
We were living in Japan then.
Or things that will be going on in the future:
She’ll be waiting there till the train comes in.
‘Sittin’ in the mornin’ sun,
I’ll be sittin’ when the evenin’ come.’
Otis Reading/Steve Cropper, ‘The Dock of the Bay’ (1967)
Not all verbs can be used in a continuous aspect. Notably,
verbs that describe a permanent condition and verbs
connected with perception cannot. Examples include
have, as in Do you have any brothers or sisters? (not Are you
having…?), and hate, as in I hate him (not I am hating...).
13
Grammar Guide
Both the perfect and the continuous aspects of verbs
can be expressed at the same time. For example, in the
sentence
She has been working at home for several months now
there is a notion of continuous action starting in the
past and still going on in the present.
Mood: Mood is a complex feature of verbs in some languages,
but in English it’s relatively simple. There are only three moods
associated with English verbs: the indicative, the imperative
and the subjunctive.
⚪⚪
The indicative mood is used for ordinary statements
and questions, in which verbs simply describe actions or
conditions:
Birds sing.
Does he live here?
⚪⚪
The imperative mood is used to give orders or make
requests. English has no separate form for imperative verbs;
the imperative form is identical to the infinitive:
Go away!
Give me that!
⚪⚪
The subjunctive mood is used for special statements
that may express a command, a wish, or something that
is unreal. For all verbs except be the subjunctive form is
the same as the infinitive, so it’s only evident the mood is
subjunctive from the context:
I suggested to her that she drop by for a drink before the
concert.
They demanded that he answer their questions.
Notice that the third person singular present omits
the final -s (drop rather than drops, answer rather than
answers).
14
Grammar and the parts of speech
The subjunctive form of be is either be or were:
The governor demanded that the letter be published.
If you were to go, you might regret it.
Be is used where the action is hypothetical or in the
future. Were is used in clauses introduced by if, as if, as
though or suppose:
Suppose I were to meet you outside the theatre.
(For more on conditional clauses, introduced by if, and
the subjunctive, see chapter 2, page 51.)
A typical use of the subjunctive is in clauses introduced
by that expressing a wish or suggestion:
We recommend that she be promoted to a supervisory position.
The subjunctive also occurs in fixed expressions such
as: as it were, be that as it may, come what may and far be it
from me.
Voice: There are two ‘voices’: the active and the passive.
⚪⚪
In the active voice, the subject of the verb is the one who
does the action described by the verb, and the object is the
one acted upon:
The waiters will collect the plates.
⚪⚪
In the passive voice, this situation is reversed. The subject
of the verb is the one acted upon by the verb, and the one
who does the action – if mentioned at all – is relegated to a
separate phrase, typically beginning with by:
The plates will be collected by the waiters.
The passive can be used for a variety of purposes, for
example, if the identity of the doer of the action is unknown,
if the writer wants to conceal the identity of the doer of the
action, as in
The vase was broken,
15
Grammar Guide
or if the writer wants to put special emphasis on the object
or the action rather than on the doer of the action, as in
The bomb was defused by experts.
Formal writing tends to use the passive more frequently
than informal writing.
Auxiliary verbs
We’ve already encountered several verb forms that use auxiliary
or ‘helping’ verbs. Auxiliary verbs in English perform the work
that complex inflections do in some other languages. So, while
English has only three principal parts of the verb (the infinitive,
the simple past and the past participle), auxiliary verbs enable a
broader range of expression.
Do, be and have: The core auxiliary verbs in English are do, be
and have. They are used:
●●
●●
●●
●●
to form questions and negations (a finite form of do plus the
infinitive)
to form the passive voice (a finite form of be plus the past
participle)
to form the continuous tenses (a finite form of be plus the
present participle)
to form the perfect tenses (a finite form of have plus the past
participle).
Of course, do, be and have can alternatively function as ordinary
verbs. Because they can be either auxiliary verbs or ordinary
verbs, confusion over identifying the main verb in a sentence
may arise. Consider these examples:
Does he know all the people at the party?
I don’t work Fridays.
In both sentences, a form of do is the auxiliary verb: in the first
sentence used to create a question, and in the second to negate
the main verb. The main verb in the first sentence is know; the
16
Grammar and the parts of speech
main verb in the second sentence is work. Note that, in both
sentences, the auxiliary verb is a finite form and the main verb
an infinitive.
We have already seen how a finite form of be is used to form the
continuous tenses (see page 13), and the passive voice (see
page 15). Consider this sentence:
Joe is staying with us for a few months.
Here, a form of be (in its finite form, is) is the auxiliary verb.
The main verb is stay, expressed by its present participle.
For examples of have functioning as an auxiliary verb to
form the perfect tenses, see pages 12–14.
Modal verbs: The other important group of auxiliary verbs in
English are the modal verbs (also called modal auxiliaries):
can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will
and would.
(In some cases, the verbs dare, need and used are also considered
part of this group.)
We have already noted the use of modal verbs:
●●
to form future tenses (will and shall plus the infinitive).
More broadly, modal verbs are used to convey certain
modalities (possibility, obligation, etc.) that affect the meaning
of the main verb.
‘“But suppose we need that men should be better than we are,”
said Gwendolen.’
George Eliot, Daniel Deronda (1876)
Modal auxiliaries are different from ordinary verbs in two
important respects. First, they generally don’t have infinitives
or other inflections. Second, they’re never used alone, but
17
Grammar Guide
always in combination with a main verb. Since they tend not
to have all the inflections of ordinary verbs, modal verbs are
sometimes called defective, implying they work differently to
other verbs.
In speech and some other contexts, modal verbs may be
found used alone but, in these cases, the main verb is always
implied and can often be found in the immediate context,
typically the previous sentence or clause. For example:
They wanted me to stay on until the end of the project, but
I really couldn’t.
‘Are you going to do anything for Michael’s birthday?’
‘I know I should, but I probably won’t.’
In the first example, I really couldn’t means ‘I really couldn’t
stay.’ In the second example, both should and won’t (contraction
of will not) refer back to do anything in the first sentence.
Phrasal verbs
A special group of verbs in English are called phrasal verbs.
A phrasal verb is a verb that consists of a main verb – which
inflects (changes its form) like any other verb – and another
word, usually an adverb or preposition.
The meaning of a phrasal verb is often something other
than simply the sum of the main verb and the second word.
It may extend the main verb’s meaning or it may have a
very different sense. Take, for example, the phrasal verb look
up, as in
You can look up those words in the dictionary.
It means more than look, and it doesn’t have anything in
particular do to with up, but when used in combination the
meaning is clear. Other examples of phrasal verbs are come
round (= regain consciousness, be converted to someone’s
opinion, etc.), pay back (= repay, take revenge on, etc.), and set
aside (= preserve for future use, decide not to consider, etc.).
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Grammar and the parts of speech
Phrasal verbs can be transitive or intransitive, just like
standard verbs. A feature of many transitive phrasal verbs is
that the direct object of the verb is movable. Consider these
two examples:
I’ve plugged in the fridge.
Have you plugged it in?
So, when the object of a phrasal verb is a personal pronoun (in
the example above, it), this appears between the main verb and
the other component word of the phrasal verb. When the object
is a noun (in the example above, fridge), this usually comes after
the entire phrasal verb, but may occasionally appear between
its two component words if it’s a short word. (For more on
personal pronouns, see page 23.)
Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes a particular quality
associated with a noun.
In the phrases a tall man and a green hat, tall and green are
adjectives.
Attributive and predicate adjectives
Typically, adjectives appear in one of two places in the sentence.
They can come before the noun they describe:
We ate a delicious meal.
The people next door have a very friendly dog.
Or they can come after the noun and a linking verb (copula)
such as be, seem, feel, look, turn or remain:
The meal we had there was delicious.
Next door’s dog seems very friendly.
An adjective that precedes a noun is called an attributive
adjective. One that follows a noun and linking verb is called a
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Grammar Guide
predicate adjective (it forms part of the predicate, the part of
the sentence that contains the verb and says something about
the subject). Some adjectives can be used only attributively
(before the noun), for example elder or main. Others can be used
only predicatively (after the verb), for example afraid or ajar.
Furthermore, some adjectives that can be used either way change
their meaning when they’re used attributively or predicatively:
There are certain things we need to discuss. [attributive
meaning]
I think it’s him, but I’m not absolutely certain. [predicative
meaning]
Comparatives and superlatives
Many adjectives inflect (change their form) to show that
something has relatively more of a particular quality or the
most of that quality. The comparative form, which indicates
‘more’, is made by adding -er or using the word more (lighter,
more difficult). The superlative form, which indicates ‘most’,
is made by adding -est or using the word most (lightest, most
difficult). Adjectives that change their form and describe
qualities that exist in degrees are called gradable adjectives.
There are a great many adjectives, however, that are
considered non-gradable – the quality they describe doesn’t
exist in degrees. This sort of adjective is called a non-gradable
or classifying adjective. Examples include mortal, nuclear,
living and flightless, all qualities that something either possesses
or doesn’t. For example,
The penguin is a flightless bird. [not more flightless or most
flightless]
The word unique is generally agreed to be a non-gradable
adjective. Consequently, sentences such as
It was the most unique experience I ever had
are usually regarded as incorrect, even though they’re commonly
used.
20
Grammar and the parts of speech
Adverbs
An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, adjective,
another adverb, or a word group.
Like adjectives, adverbs are words that add flesh to the bare
bones of sentences. They perform many different roles.
Typically, adverbs follow verbs, and indicate how, when or
where the action described by the verb takes place:
Prices have increased dramatically. [how]
They are arriving today. [when]
Planes flew overhead. [where]
Adverbs also commonly precede and modify adjectives or other
adverbs:
The cherries look tantalisingly ripe. [modifying adjective]
He learnt to sail surprisingly quickly. [modifying adverb]
-ly endings
Often, adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding -ly (or
-ally). For example, the adjectives quick, sharp and drastic form
the adverbs quickly, sharply and drastically. Note, however, that
some adjectives too end in -ly: lovely, friendly, lively. Moreover,
many adverbs are either completely independent forms or are
identical to their corresponding adjectives:
adjective
an overhead cable
a fast car
a daily vitamin
adverb
planes flew overhead
he drove fast
I take vitamins daily
In a small number of cases, the adjective form of a word can
correctly be used as an adverb, even though an -ly form exists
as well:
Hold on tight [or tightly].
He spelt my name wrong [or wrongly].
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Grammar Guide
Adverb types
Because adverbs perform different roles in sentences, it’s helpful
to identify types of adverb. In addition to what we might call
‘standard’ adverbs – those that tell how, when or where – there
are three kinds.
Sentence adverbs: These occur at the beginning (or, more
unusually, at the end) of a sentence and comment on the
sentence as a whole, or on conditions affecting it. For example:
Frankly, I didn’t believe a word he said.
Unfortunately she won’t be able to join us.
He remembered visiting the park once when he was a child,
strangely enough.
The use of hopefully as a sentence adverb, as in Hopefully, someone
can resolve this, has sometimes been regarded as controversial.
This is because in such sentences no one is indicated as doing
the hoping. (The issue can be avoided by writing Let’s hope or
It is to be hoped.) Despite the controversy, however, hopefully
has become well established as a sentence adverb, perhaps since
there is little ambiguity as to what it actually means.
Conjunctive adverbs: These introduce a new clause in a
sentence, while at the same time characterising its relationship
with the preceding clause. For example:
Mark doesn’t have the grades to get into Manchester; besides,
he doesn’t even want to go there.
You’ve made progress in your work, but nevertheless you
need to keep applying yourself.
I’ve agreed to every suggestion he’s made and still he hesitates
to join us.
Intensifying adverbs: These are adverbs that make an adjective
or another adverb more – or sometimes less – intense. They are
sometimes termed sub-modifiers, because they modify a word
that is itself a modifier.
22
Grammar and the parts of speech
The idea is totally ridiculous.
Carl is much better at making speeches than I am.
She’s driving too fast.
Don’t you think he was slightly embarrassed by what happened?
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun or
noun phrase, so its meaning is always dependent on
context.
Pronouns stand in for nouns, so that we don’t have to repeat
them. Consider the sentence:
Mr McMillan lent Mary Mr McMillan’s car for a day, and
she didn’t give it back to Mr McMillan for a week.
Once Mr McMillan has been mentioned, we can safely refer
to him with personal pronouns (here, his and him), without
being misunderstood:
Mr McMillan lent Mary his car for a day, and she didn’t give
it back to him for a week.
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns in English inflect for two of the same
grammatical features that we have already encountered for
verbs, that is, person and number (see page 11). A third
feature affecting pronouns, which in English has no bearing on
verbs, is gender. English pronouns distinguish between gender
in one set of pronouns only: the third person singular. Three
genders, masculine, feminine and neuter, are represented by he,
she and it respectively. A fourth grammatical feature affecting
the inflection of pronouns is case, leading to such variation as
I, me, my, etc. (Case, including a full table of personal pronouns
inflected for person, number and case, is covered in detail in
chapter 2, see page 35.)
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Grammar Guide
Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns introduce a kind of subordinate clause
(dependent or secondary clause) known as a relative clause
(see chapter 2, pages 49–50) and usually identify the noun
from the main clause that they refer to. The main relative
pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, that and what. These
are called definite relative pronouns, because the person or
thing they refer to – known as their antecedent – is explicit.
For example, in
I have a friend who lives in Scotland
the relative clause is who lives in Scotland and the antecedent
is friend.
An indefinite relative pronoun introduces a relative clause but
has no antecedent. The compounds formed with -ever from
the pronouns above often serve as indefinite relative pronouns:
whoever, whichever, whatever, etc.; but the real test of an indefinite
relative pronoun is whether it has an antecedent. In the sentence
We saw what had happened
what is an indefinite relative pronoun because it has no antecedent.
(For more on antecedents, see chapter 2, page 50.)
Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns refer to a person or thing whose name
or identity is not known: someone, something, anybody, any, etc.
Any and its compounds are used for questions and negative
statements. Otherwise some and its compounds are used.
Someone is at the door.
Is there any soup left?
Note that sentences using words like hardly or scarcely have
negative force and should be treated as negative sentences with
regard to pronouns:
After only three days on holiday they had hardly any money left.
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Grammar and the parts of speech
Reflexive pronouns
Pronouns ending in -self or -selves are called reflexive pronouns
because they reflect on someone or something already referred
to. The reflexive pronouns are:
myself, yourself, himself, herself, oneself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves and themselves.
Typically, reflexive pronouns function as objects (either direct
or indirect):
He shot himself in the foot.
We’ve created a huge problem for ourselves.
‘In the strangest torment of anger, merriment, and pity she
flung off all disguise and admitted herself a woman.’
Virginia Woolf, Orlando (1928)
Note that in the above examples, himself and ourselves refer to
the subjects of the sentences.
Use of myself and other -self pronouns to refer to something
other than the subject of the sentence is usually not correct:
The coach chose Sarah and me. [not myself]
There may also be a temptation to use reflexive pronouns
incorrectly in contexts such as:
My wife and I want to thank you for your support. [not
On behalf of my wife and myself, I want…]
That’s up to you. [not up to yourself]
A secondary use of -self compounds is to intensify or emphasise
a noun (usually the subject):
I repaired my bike myself.
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Grammar Guide
Prepositions
A preposition is a word that introduces a prepositional
phrase, or completes a phrasal verb. Prepositions express
relationships between different language elements.
Prepositions usually come before the noun or pronoun with
which they form a prepositional phrase: under the bed; during
the performance; by myself.
However, in certain circumstances, despite the objections
of some grammarians, it is quite acceptable for a preposition to
appear at the end of a sentence, for example, in phrasal verbs
such as attend to. Where else could one put the preposition in
Are you being attended to?
Some questions and clauses opening with wh-, for example
what, which, who, typically have the preposition at the end, as
in What were they hoping for? Some infinitive clauses also have
prepositions at the end, as in I would love to go to the dance, but
I need someone to go with.
Conjunctions
A conjunction connects different elements of language:
words, phrases, clauses or sentences.
●●
●●
The commonest conjunctions are: and, because, but and or.
Sometimes a conjunction is itself a fixed phrase, for example
as soon as.
In English, when two items, whether words, phrases or clauses,
are joined together, a conjunction is required between them.
When more than two items are joined – that is, when a list is
presented – a conjunction typically separates only the last two
items, though it’s not impossible to use conjunctions between
all items in a list:
The farmyard was full of ducks and pigs and chickens.
26
Grammar and the parts of speech
Some conjunctions not only join two language elements but
also express a relationship between them. Or, for example,
indicates that the second of two items is an alternative to the
first. Subordinating conjunctions, such as when, where, why
and how, join a subordinate clause (secondary clause, see
chapter 2, page 48) with a main clause:
They were happy when I won.
He wasn’t able to tell me why he was leaving.
Here, when I won and why he was leaving are the subordinate
clauses.
Interjections
An interjection is a word or phrase that can stand alone
to express an emotion or an idea.
●●
Common interjections include Ouch! oh dear and Wow!
Interjections are the most straightforward of the traditional
parts of speech. While there are hundreds of them in English,
since they occur in relative isolation, either independently
from other sentences (often followed by an exclamation mark),
or separated by a comma, they can readily be identified. For
example,
Bless you, how kind you are.
‘“Ow!”
“Sorry!”
“Tell me, Doctor, what exactly are you looking for?”’
David Nicholls, Sweet Sorrow (2019)
Some linguists regard interjections as sentence substitutes,
utterances that express a complete idea, as a sentence does, but
without the use of a subject and a predicate.
27
28
chapter 2
Words working together
liza: I don’t want to talk grammar.
I want to talk like a lady.
George Bernard Shaw
Pygmalion (1912)
In chapter 1 we took a traditional approach to grammar by
identifying English words as parts of speech or word classes, and
exploring the ways these various parts of speech behave. There
are other ways to understand language, however. Some of the
roles performed by words depend less on their part of speech
and more on the way they are put together with other words. The
study of this area of language, that is, the way words combine to
form meaningful statements and express ideas, is called syntax.
At its simplest, syntax is about word order, for example, the
subject, verb, object convention usual in English. As outlined in
this chapter, however, it can become quite subtle and complex.
Initially, we’ll touch on a few further grammar concepts and
examples with a particular bearing on syntax. This will lead
into an analysis of the main building blocks of the language:
the phrase, the clause and the sentence.
Grammar concepts relating to syntax
Functional shift
Functional shift is the process by which a word shifts
from one grammatical function to another.
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Grammar Guide
As already noted (see chapter 1, page 4), a number of words in
English can fulfil more than one role in a sentence, that is, they
can behave as more than one part of speech. Another way of
understanding this phenomenon is to think of it as functional
shift.
Historical context
In English, the process of functional shift, whereby, for
example, words that traditionally function as nouns begin to
be used as verbs, or words that mainly function as adverbs
take on meanings as nouns, has been under way for centuries.
Dictionaries with etymologies – records of the origins of
a word and the way its meaning has changed – record this
phenomenon.
Here are some examples of functional shift that are firmly
established in English:
1. Noun changing to verb: The noun access has existed in
English since about the 14th century. The verb access (for
example, to access a computer file) came into use in the 1960s.
2. Verb changing to noun: The word laugh is originally a verb
in English and was in use as early as the 12th century. The
use of laugh as a noun (for example, to give a laugh) only
came into use in the 17th century.
3. Noun taking on adjectival use: The current sense of
prestige as a noun dates from the 17th century. In the mid20th century, the word became common as a modifier (for
example, a prestige apartment complex).
4. Interjection changing to verb: The word wow as an
interjection expressing surprise or admiration dates from
the 16th century. As a verb (for example, Audiences were
wowed by his new musical), it first appeared in the 1920s.
5. Adverb becoming a verb: The adverb up occurs in the
earliest examples of English, before the 12th century. As a
verb, (for example, upping the limit), it appeared in the 18th
century.
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Words working together
Participles to noun forms
Present participle to gerund: A type of functional shift
particularly useful to note for understanding syntax is that
from present participle to gerund.
English verbs that have an infinitive form also have an -ing
form. When we see this form out of context, we think of it as
the present participle (see chapter 1, page 8): running, being,
frustrating. It has an important job in forming the continuous
tenses (see page 13):
The engine has been running continuously for three weeks.
Joshua was being a nuisance again.
The weather today is frustrating all attempts to rescue the
survivors.
And nearly all present participles can be used as adjectives:
a fascinating subject, a going concern, a vibrating mechanism.
‘O, it came o’er my ear like the sweet sound,
That breathes upon a bank of violets’
William Shakespeare, Twelfth Night (1602)
The -ing form of the verb can also be used as a noun, when it’s
called a gerund. Consider these sentences:
Swimming and bicycling are two of the best all-around
exercises.
Do you mind my taking this seat?
She was picked up for violating the conditions of her parole.
All the -ing forms in these sentences are nouns. Swimming
and bicycling is the subject of the first sentence; the noun
phrase my taking this seat is the direct object of the verb mind;
and violating the conditions of her parole is the object of the
preposition for.
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Grammar Guide
Past participle to noun form: Another long-established shift
is that from past participle to noun form.
The past participle of regular English verbs is formed by
adding -d or -ed to the root (see chapter 1, page 8). In regular
verbs it’s identical to the simple past form. Irregular verbs,
however, show a variety of patterns in the past participle. As
a reminder, past participles are important components in two
kinds of verbs: the perfect tenses, which consist of a finite
form of have plus the past participle (see page 12), and the
passive voice, which consists of a finite form of be plus the past
participle (see pages 15–16):
I have seen all his films. [perfect tense]
The suspect was seen leaving the area after 11 pm. [passive
voice]
A verb can be expressed as both passive and perfect by using
its past participle with a finite form of have along with the past
participle of be, that is, been:
All the applications have been acknowledged.
In addition to their roles in compound verb tenses, most past
participles can also act as adjectives:
a done deal; a recorded message; a wrecked car
In a few cases, past participles have also acquired uses as nouns:
It’s a given that he will demand a higher rate than any other
consultant.
A past participle preceded by the typically becomes a noun that
designates a group:
They believe that the damned live in hell for eternity.
(In some ways, this is analogous to other noun use of adjectives,
for example, young or poor: The young, by which I mean digital
natives… or The poor take recourse to food banks.)
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Words working together
‘The beautiful and the damned.’
F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Beautiful and the Damned (1922)
Determiners
A determiner is a type of function word that precedes
a noun or noun phrase, modifying it to specify
definiteness, quantity or possession.
The concept of the determiner is similarly worth getting to
grips with for understanding syntax. Determiners include:
●●
●●
●●
●●
●●
definite and indefinite articles: the, a and an (see
immediately below)
adjectives that indicate relative quantity, such as more, less,
few, many and enough. Some grammarians classify these
determiners as quantifiers
adjectives that indicate which of all possible things is
designated, such as all, such, some, any, several and various.
Also classified as quantifiers
the personal possessive pronouns, such as my, your, his,
her and our (see chapter 1, page 23, and page 36)
the demonstrative pronouns (those indicating which),
such as this, that, these and those.
Numbers and possessive nouns (such as Boris’s, the Prime
Minister’s) are also sometimes classed as determiners.
One characteristic of determiners is that they precede
other attributive modifiers of a noun or noun phrase. For
example:
the black cat; more solitary walkers; some ambitious
construction projects; my little sister; these unaccountable
local agencies
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Grammar Guide
Determiners as function words
The term determiner started to be used by linguists only in
the 20th century. Central to its definition is the concept of the
function word.
The first four parts of speech discussed in chapter 1 – nouns,
verbs, adjectives and adverbs – generally have what linguists
call lexical meaning, that is, a meaning based on common
understanding. Words such as pomegranate, abdicate, green and
slowly, for example, to varying degrees, bring an image to mind.
Words in other word classes – pronouns, prepositions,
conjunctions and interjections – as well as some words in the
first four classes, depend on their context for meaning. They
have what is called grammatical meaning, that is, a meaning
based on the rules of syntax. Linguists argue that we know
what the words mean because we already have an in-built
knowledge of these syntactical rules. Function words, then,
are words that have grammatical (rather than lexical) meaning.
Determiners represent one type of function word.
Before the name determiner came into use, the words
in this category were divided among a number of different
categories, as outlined above. Determine comes from a Latin
word meaning ‘to set the limits of ’, and the role of determiners
in English is to limit a noun or noun phrase. But unlike
ordinary modifiers, which describe the qualities of a noun or
noun phrase, determiners specify definiteness, quantity or
possession. A determiner occurs before a noun or noun phrase;
if there are modifying adjectives it precedes them.
Articles
The articles, by way of example, are the most frequently
used determiners in English. There are three: the definite
article, which is the, and the indefinite articles, a and an. The
grammatical functions of the articles mostly concern number
(how many of the associated noun), definiteness (already
mentioned or not) and countability (existence or not of a plural
form of the noun).
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Words working together
The way articles are used in English is partly determined by
logical rules, but partly it is idiomatic – that is without obvious
reason. Consider, for instance, the following:
indefinite
Joe is singing a
song.
Joe is singing (some)
songs.
Joe is listening to
music.
definite
Joe is singing the
song.
Joe is singing the
songs.
Joe is listening to
the music.
[countable and
singular]
[countable and
plural]
[uncountable]
Note that a and an are really variations on the same word.
A is the form of the indefinite article used before words that
are pronounced with an initial consonant sound (even if the
spelling does not begin with a consonant):
a banana; a hunk; a ewe.
An is the form used before words that begin with a vowel sound
(even if an unpronounced consonant comes first):
an elephant; an heir.
The same rule regarding sound rather than spelling applies to
abbreviations: a CD, a USB but an SSD.
Case
Case is a feature of a noun, pronoun or adjective that
reflects its relationship with other words in a sentence.
Some languages have more than a dozen cases, and some
require inflection (changes in form) for nouns, pronouns and
adjectives according to case. English is by comparison simple
and straightforward. First, there are only three cases in English:
nominative (also called subjective), objective and possessive.
Secondly, only personal pronouns have inflections for case in
English. Nouns are identical, whether in the nominative or the
35
Grammar Guide
objective case, and they require only ’s to show the possessive
case. English adjectives are identical in all cases.
A word in the nominative case is the subject of a sentence
or clause. A word in the objective case is either the object
of a transitive verb, or the object of a preposition. A noun or
pronoun in the possessive case indicates possession.
Personal pronouns
(see chapter 1, page 23) are the only
words in English that inflect (that is, change their form) for
case differences:
3rd person
singular
3rd person
plural
relative and
interro­gative
Depen­dent
posses­sive
2nd person
Nomina­t ive
1st person
plural
Case:
1st person
singular
personal pronouns
I
we
you
he, she, it
they
who
ours
yours his, hers
us
you
my
Indepen­dent mine
possessive
Objective
me
our
your
his, her, its
their
whose
theirs
him, her, it them
whom
The few usage issues involving case in English arise when
there is a conflict – real or imagined – about which case should
govern a pronoun in context.
Possessive pronouns with participles and gerunds: Which
sentence is correct? Consider the following:
I was surprised to hear of him refusing.
I was surprised to hear of his refusing.
In fact both sentences can be considered correct. In the first
option, the -ing word refusing is a participle functioning as
an adjective that modifies him. The case of the adjective is
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Words working together
governed by its role in the sentence – as part of the object of
the preposition of, it’s in the objective case.
In the second option, the -ing word refusing is a gerund
and a synonym for the noun refusal. When an -ing form is a
noun, it must be preceded by a possessive form. This second
option is generally considered the better choice, and should
be used in formal writing. Nevertheless, the first option is
overwhelmingly common in spoken English.
The intent of the speaker or writer with respect to the
choice of gerunds or participles is apparent in the following
examples. Take, for example,
We were amused to watch the press secretary weaving and
dodging during a tense news conference.
This means the speaker was amused to watch the press secretary
being evasive (adjective).
Alternatively, take:
We were amused to watch the press secretary’s weaving and
dodging during a tense news conference.
Here the speaker was amused by the press secretary’s evasions
(the noun equivalent of the gerunds weaving/dodging).
There are some exceptions to this pattern. Take:
●●
●●
●●
a plural noun such as visitors, or
an abstract noun such as panic, or
a noun modified by other words, for example, Member of
Parliament.
When these are used with a present participle -ing form, this is
usually an adjective, not a gerund, and the possessive does not
normally appear. Thus:
The guards will not put up with visitors roaming the corridors
of the House of Commons.
It was a case of panic overwhelming the speculators.
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Grammar Guide
There was something sleazy about a Member of Parliament
having friendly relations with a convicted criminal.
Pronouns in comparatives after than and as…as: Which
sentence is correct? Consider the following:
You’re stronger than me, or
You’re stronger than I.
Because than is a preposition as well as a conjunction, either
construction is possible, as is the fuller version of the second
option than I am.
The form than me (or than him, than her, than us and
than them), with the pronoun in the objective case after the
preposition than, is common in conversation and other speech:
We’re older than him. But it may still be frowned on in formal
writing where, despite its awkwardness to some ears, the
pronoun in the nominative case after the conjunction than
may be preferred: We’re older than he. An undoubtedly correct
alternative is to follow than and pronoun in the nominative
with a full subordinate clause (see page 48): We’re older than
he is.
A similar situation arises in the case of as…as when it’s used in
comparisons. Though common, such sentences as the following
are not strictly correct:
I was sitting close, but not as close as them. [as…as]
She makes a lot more money than me. [than]
The phrase as…as, where an adjective or adverb fills in the blank,
acts as a conjunction between clauses. The second clause, in
cases where it contains only a pronoun in the nominative case,
has an implied predicate that is the same as the predicate of the
first clause, and can therefore, in theory at least, be omitted:
I was sitting close, but not as close as they. [as…as]
She makes a lot more money than I. [than]
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Words working together
Fuller forms of the preceding sentences are:
I was sitting close, but not as close as they were. [as…as]
She makes a lot more money than I do. [than]
These have the advantages of both correctness and naturalness.
‘He’s more myself than I am.’
Emily Brontë, Wuthering Heights (1847)
Agreement
Agreement is the matching of the form of a word
belonging to one part of speech with the form of a word
belonging to another part of speech. For example, subject
noun or pronoun must agree with the verb.
In English, agreement mainly relates to person, number and
gender, and occurs mainly between subject noun or pronoun
and verb, but also between subject and subsequent pronouns
(see, for example, chapter 1, page 10).
Many centuries ago, English had a fully-fledged system
of person agreement (see chapter 1, page 11) for its verbs. In
other words, it was possible to tell simply by looking at the
ending of a verb whether the subject was I, you, he, she, it, we or
they. Modern European languages such as French and German
still have similar specialised verb forms, but in modern English
they’ve almost completely died out.
This makes matching the correct form of the verb to
the subject, that is, making the verb agree with the subject,
comparatively easy when the timeframe is the present or the past:
I sing/you sing/we sing [simple present tense]
I sang/Nicole sang/the birds sang [simple past tense]
Leaving aside special cases like the verb to be (because it
changes to I am, you are, he is, etc.), as we have seen in chapter 1,
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Grammar Guide
(page 11), modern verbs change their basic form only in the
present tense, where the third person singular (the form used
with he, she, or it) adds an -s or sometimes -ies:
he sings/she carries/it hurts
Complexities relating to agreement arise, however, when
number (see chapter 1, page 11) is not immediately apparent.
Agreement for number
Here are some of the trickier cases of agreement for number.
Two subjects joined by and: Two or more subjects of a sentence
joined by and form a plural subject and take a plural verb, even
if they’re individually singular:
The politician and the journalist have a lot in common.
She and I are alike in many ways.
In respect of the verb, the politician and the journalist become
a collective they, and she and I become a collective we.
Two subjects joined by or, either...or, or neither...nor: Two or
more subjects linked by or, either … or, or neither … nor, can
take either a singular or a plural verb.
When both subjects are singular, use a singular verb:
One or the other of them has to be right.
When both subjects are plural, a plural verb should be used:
Neither politicians nor journalists are agreed on this.
What happens when there are two subjects both in the third
person, one singular and one plural? There’s no definitive
answer to this, but as a general rule the verb usually agrees
with the subject nearest to it:
Neither they nor their friend is involved in the dispute.
Either he or his opponents are wrong.
40
Words working together
When the subjects are a mixture of nouns or pronouns in
different persons, the rule is the same: the verb agrees with the
pronoun nearest to it:
Neither my friends nor I am involved in the dispute.
Either he or we have to give way.
Pronouns either, none, there, what, any and nothing:
⚪⚪
Either is normally used with a singular verb:
Has either of you been to Paris?
Informally, however, when the question is regarded
collectively rather than individually, the plural can be used,
so it would be quite natural to say,
Have either of you been to Paris?
⚪⚪
This permits the possibility that both the people addressed
have been there.
None: When none refers to a singular noun, and it can be
replaced with no + noun, a singular verb should be used:
We were desperate for information, but none [= no
information] was available.
When none refers to a singular noun, and it can be replaced
with not one, a singular verb similarly appears:
None of my friends [= not one of my friends] was able to
come.
I’d have liked a sandwich, but none [= not a single one]
was left.
When none refers to a plural noun, and it can be replaced
with not any, a plural verb should be used:
None of you [= not any of you] have handed in your work
yet.
⚪⚪
There: When the pronoun there opens a sentence followed
by a linking verb like be, appear or seem, the verb must agree
with the grammatical subject coming after the verb:
41
Grammar Guide
There is [not are] a beach nearby.
There are [not is] beaches nearby.
There appear [not appears] to be mistakes in your essay.
There appears [not appear] to be a mistake in your essay.
There’s stands for there is. It should be used only with a
singular grammatical subject, as in:
There’s a lot still to be done.
There’s a car in the garage.
With compound grammatical subjects there used with a
singular linking verb is acceptable only when the compound
subject is regarded not as two separate entities but as a
single compound noun. Thus it is acceptable to say:
There is/There’s food and drink for everybody.
⚪⚪
(Stylistically, There is/are sentences tend to be flat and
lacking emphasis, so it may be wise to avoid overusing
them.)
What: If you use what as the subject of a clause, it takes a
plural verb if its complement (the word or phrase relating
back to it to complete the sentence, see chapter 1, page 9)
is plural:
She makes what seem [not seems] to be exaggerated claims.
If you use what as the subject of a clause, it takes a singular
verb if its complement is singular:
I see what looks like a deer in the front garden.
The same rule applies to what clauses that occur at the
beginning of sentences:
What we wanted was fairness.
What we wanted were fairness and truth.
If the what clause has both singular and plural complements,
the verb usually agrees with the complement closest to:
What we expected was truthfulness and honest claims.
What we got were fraudulent claims and mendacity.
42
Words working together
⚪⚪
Any used as a pronoun is followed by a singular or plural
verb depending on the writer’s intended meaning:
Any of these suggestions is acceptable. [= Any one of these
suggestions is acceptable.]
Are any of the children coming? [Are any of several of
them coming?]
Is any of the children coming? [One is expected, but which
one?]
⚪⚪
Nothing is a singular indefinite pronoun. It is usually treated
as singular even if it’s followed by a phrase introduced by a
phrase like except for and a plural noun:
Nothing except for your boxes and bags has [not have] been
removed from the apartment.
Moving the subject closer to its verb reduces the chance
of grammatical error and more closely follows the natural
flow of speech:
Except for your boxes and bags, nothing has been removed
from the apartment.
Sentences starting nothing but become a little more subtle,
however. The following are both acceptable, depending on
emphasis:
Nothing but truthful answers is acceptable on this
questionnaire. [emphasising an instance]
Nothing but truthful answers are acceptable on this
questionnaire. [emphasising the whole]
‘We had to tolerate flaws in our loved ones: nothing was ever
perfect, he said.’
Rachel Cusk, Outline (2014)
43
Grammar Guide
Negation
Negation is the denial of the truth of a clause or a
sentence, that is, changing its status from true to false.
Negation is accomplished with a very small group of words
in English: no, not, none, neither, nor, nothing, nobody, no one
and never. Of these, the true workhorse is not, and it’s used
regularly with auxiliary and modal verbs (see chapter 1,
pages 16–18) that reduce it to the contraction n’t: isn’t, doesn’t,
can’t, won’t, shouldn’t, mustn’t.
The hard and fast rule of negation in English is that its
required only once in a sentence. Using two of the above
negating words in the same clause is called a double
negative, and, when intended to reinforce, is grammatically
incorrect: for example, I don’t know nothing, They haven’t got
no more flour.
The non-standard negating word ain’t can stand for am
not, are not, is not, have not, has not, do not, does not and did not.
With this kind of versatility, it’s a pity that no matter which
of these it substitutes for – and despite its occasional poetry –
it’s incorrect. While acceptable in some fixed expressions that
occur in informal contexts, such as You ain’t seen nothing yet,
it’s never a part of correct, formal writing. (Ain’t is typically
used with another negative word, perhaps guided by the
notion that if one is going to break one rule, one might as
well break two.)
While double negatives in which two negatives are
intended to reinforce each other are considered illiterate in
current standard English, these are to be distinguished from
the acceptable, if somewhat uncommon, constructions in
sentences such as:
It is not impossible. [= It is certainly possible.]
This isn’t a non-trivial question. [= It is a trivial question.]
44
Words working together
Here, the negatives are intended to cancel each other out. This
is a figure of speech called litotes (see Literary terms on
page 390).
It’s worth bearing in mind that the adverbs hardly, barely
and scarcely have negative force, so that no further negative is
needed with them in a clause or sentence:
I can hardly see you. [not I can’t hardly see you.]
Note that when and not than is used in any continuation of a
sentence using one of these adverbs:
Hardly had I begun to speak when she interrupted me.
Interestingly, a similar construction, using the conventional
negating word no, uses than rather than when:
No sooner had I begun to speak than she interrupted me.
This is because sooner here is a comparative (see chapter 1,
page 20).
The phrase, the clause and the sentence
In isolation, the various parts of speech, which we examined
in chapter 1 (see page 4), are not very meaningful. They only
start to make sense when combined with other elements.
While conversations may include many one- and two-word
utterances, if we analyse these, we’ll usually find that words are
left out because they’re mutually understood by the speakers.
Most often, words combine into groups that we designate as
phrases, clauses or sentences. While we have been unable to
avoid using these three terms up to now, below we explore what
they mean in more detail.
Phrases
A phrase is a group of words that function as a single
part of speech. It is neither a clause nor a sentence.
45
Grammar Guide
Five distinct types of phrase can be identified: noun phrases,
verb phrases, adjective phrases, adverbial phrases and
prepositional phrases.
1. Noun phrases: The main word in a noun phrase is a noun.
It may be accompanied simply by an article (an apple), or by
an adjective or series of adjectives (a big, red, well-polished
apple). It can comprise more than one noun (apples and
oranges).
2. Verb phrases: The main word in a verb phrase is a verb.
It may be accompanied by one or more auxiliary verbs
(had finished; ought to have been resting). All tenses, moods,
aspects and voices of English verbs except the simple
present and the simple past are expressed by verb phrases.
3. Adjective phrases: The main word in an adjective phrase is
an adjective. It may be accompanied by one or more adverbs
(completely incredible; not altogether believable). Adjective
phrases modify nouns or pronouns
4. Adverbial phrases: The main word in an adverbial phrase
is an adverb. It may be accompanied by other adverbs
(somewhat surprisingly).
5. Prepositional phrases: A prepositional phrase consists of
a preposition followed by a noun, a pronoun, or another
phrase (under the bed; during intermission; for me; in the best
of times and the worst of times).
Overlaying this, some grammarians classify phrases according
to the verb form that introduces them: participial phrases,
gerund phrases or infinitive phrases.
Participial phrases usually function as adjectives or adverbs:
A teacher burdened with unruly students can burn out very
quickly. [adjective phrase]
She ran out of the room crying her eyes out. [adverbial
phrase]
46
Words working together
Gerund phrases usually function as nouns:
Reading the dictionary sounds like a punishment to me.
(For more on the gerund, see page 31.)
Infinitive phrases can function as nouns or adjectives:
To see the Northern Lights was his abiding wish. [noun
phrase]
There are many issues still to be dealt with. [adjective
phrase]
A compound phrase comprises two or more phrases, often of
different classifications, that act as a single unit. In
The great dream of my childhood was to live in Paris
the infinitive phrase to live is completed by the prepositional
phrase in Paris. In combination, the whole compound phrase is
the complement of the verb was.
Clauses
A clause is a unit of language that contains a verb, either
explicit or implied. It also usually contains the subject of
the verb, and very often other words such as the object
of the verb.
A clause contains a subject, expressed or implied, typically by
a noun, noun phrase or pronoun, and a predicate, expressed by
the verb and any other elements that modify the verb. In the
clause, we encounter the grammar rules involving subject–verb
agreement (see pages 39–43). The general principle is simple:
a singular subject requires a singular verb; a plural subject
requires a plural verb.
There are two types of clause: main clauses and subordinate
clauses.
47
Grammar Guide
Main (or independent) clauses can stand alone as sentences.
Help! is a main clause. So are:
She left.
He finished his drink.
The squirrel buried its nuts under the old chestnut tree at the
bottom of the garden.
When two or more main clauses occur in a compound sentence,
they are joined with a coordinating conjunction. The main ones
are and and or:
Stop or I’ll shoot.
I made all the beds and Erika did the vacuuming.
In formal writing, joining main clauses with only a comma is
considered incorrect. They should either be separate sentences,
or joined with an appropriate conjunction.
Subordinate (or dependent) clauses cannot stand alone in
formal writing; they need to be attached to a main clause. They
are sometimes called dependent clauses because they depend
on a main clause for their meaning. For example, what the time
was is a subordinate clause. It makes no sense on its own and
has to go with a main clause:
I’d forgotten what the time was.
Similarly, the subordinate clause although I like chocolate requires
a main clause:
Although I like chocolate, I can’t stand chocolate milk.
Subordinate clauses are generally introduced by one of two
different kinds of words, which we met in chapter 1:
1. The relative pronouns, including who, whom, whose,
which, that and what (see chapter 1, page 24).
2. The subordinating conjunctions, which include
although, because, when, where, why, whether, which, who,
how and that (see chapter 1, page 27).
48
Words working together
One way to analyse subordinate clauses is by function. Clauses
can perform the same roles in sentences that phrases do. For
example, an adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun; an
adverb clause acts as an adverb in a main clause – that is, it
modifies a verb or an adjective; and a noun clause acts as a
noun in a main clause.
Relative clauses
A relative clause, introduced by a relative pronoun, is a type of
subordinate clause. Relative clauses tend to be adjective clauses,
modifying nouns or pronouns. They can be differentiated
according to their relationship to the main clause.
Restrictive and non-restrictive clauses:
⚪⚪
Restrictive clauses limit, specify and define the particular
person or thing being referred to. For instance, in
The team that I support has won all its games this season
the restrictive clause that I support specifies which team is
referred to.
Broadly, restrictive clauses can begin with any of the
relative pronouns given above. However, when the clause
refers to a thing, it is considered better to begin it with that
than with which:
All the fabrics that I ordered have arrived.
In practice, many such relative clauses may eliminate the
relative pronoun all together:
All the fabrics I ordered have arrived.
⚪⚪
Non-restrictive clauses add information about a person
or thing previously mentioned. They don’t limit, specify or
define. For example, in
The team, which I support, has won all its games this season,
the non-restrictive relative clause is providing the extra,
nonessential, information that the speaker happens to
support the particular team already under discussion. Note
49
Grammar Guide
that in writing, a non-restrictive clause is marked off with
a pair of commas. Any of the relative pronouns other than
that can begin restrictive clauses.
‘The bear, which could reach either of them in two easy
scooches, loses interest.’
Richard Powers, The Overstory (2018)
Antecedents: As we have seen in chapter 1 (page 24), an
antecedent is a word or phrase that a following word (especially
a relative pronoun) refers back to:
I have a friend who lives in Scotland.
As noted, relative clauses generally refer back to a noun form
as their antecedent. Moreover, the relationship between the
clause and its antecedent needs to be clear. In formal writing
constructions in which the antecedent is missing or vague
should be avoided:
I’d sign up for advanced calculus if I were clever, which I’m
not.
The clause which I’m not has no clear antecedent. (Moreover,
there is redundancy, since if I were clever already indicates that
I am not, and can be safely deleted.)
Stylistically, it is also advisable to avoid making an entire
clause the antecedent for a relative clause. Instead of
He crashed the ultralight aircraft into the motorway, which
was his own fault.
it is better to rephrase
Crashing the ultralight aircraft into the motorway was his
own fault.
50
Words working together
Conditional clauses
Often a subordinate clause contains a condition, that is
something that must be true if the main clause is true, will
happen, or did happen. Conditions can be expressed in various
ways in English, but the standard is a dependent clause
beginning with if. For this reason, conditional clauses are often
called if clauses:
If you clean your plate you can have some ice cream.
A major distinction between types of if clauses is whether they
express possible or impossible conditions. This distinction
is sometimes expressed as a factual condition or a condition
contrary to fact. Perhaps the simplest way to understand the
distinction, is to divide if clauses into real and unreal conditions.
Here is an example of a sentence containing a possible or real
condition:
If he doesn’t put on a mask I’ll simply walk away.
And here is an example of a sentence containing an impossible
or unreal condition:
If you hadn’t seen the lorry coming we’d both be dead. [but
you did see it]
A degree of complexity arises as to which form of the verb is
correct for different types of if clause.
Real conditions: When an if clause expresses a real condition,
the indicative mood (see chapter 1, page 14) for the appropriate tense of the verb is used in that clause:
If I finish in time I’ll stop by the post office. [finish is present
indicative]
If Jon was still on the mountain during the storm, he probably
tried to shelter somewhere. [was is past indicative]
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Grammar Guide
Unreal conditions: When an if clause expresses an unreal
condition, it gets trickier.
⚪⚪
For an unreal condition in the present, a past tense (see
chapter 1, page 8) is used in the if clause, and a modal
auxiliary verb (see chapter 1, page 17), usually would
(or, less commonly, should or another modal) is used in the
main clause:
If I liked raves, I would attend more of them. [liked is past
tense]
Furthermore, if the verb is be, then the subjunctive form
(see chapter 1, page 14) of the verb is apparent in the if
clause (If I were [not ‘was’] you):
If I were you, I would not try that at home.
⚪⚪
For an unreal condition in the past, a past perfect tense
(see chapter 1, page 13) is used:
If you had texted me, I would have come.
If they had done it right to begin with, these problems would
not exist.
(Sometimes, would have may be encountered in such if
clauses – If you would have texted…, but it is incorrect.)
‘If my books had been any worse, I should not have been
invited to Hollywood, and if they had been any better,
I should not have come.’
Raymond Chandler, letter to Charles Morton (1945)
Sentences
A sentence is a set of words that stands independently,
consisting of one or more main clauses and sometimes
one or more subordinate clauses.
52
Words working together
We have now explored all the component elements of
sentences, starting from the parts of speech (see chapter 1),
through some considerations as to how these function in
relation to syntax (see page 29), to putting them together
to create phrases (see page 45) and clauses (see page 47).
This makes the remainder of our subject easy, for sentences
are only phrases and clauses joined and punctuated in the
correct way.
English sentences are of three types:
1. Simple sentences comprise just one main clause. The
following are all simple sentences:
Scram!
Birds sing.
This film is awful.
All the squirrels in my garden are burying acorns today.
2. Compound sentences contain two or more main clauses.
The following are examples of compound sentences:
A beam cracked and men started shouting.
I’m not her boss, but I am familiar with her work.
Stand up and fight or get out of here.
3. Complex sentences include at least one subordinate or
dependent clause (see page 48) in addition to the main
clause. The following are examples of complex sentences:
I think you’re wrong.
She found the letters that her grandfather had sent her.
If he believes that, he’ll believe anything.
The person whose name appears at the top of the list should
send the letter to five further people who have not received
it before.
She kept the party secret, because she wanted to surprise him.
The remaining important features of sentences concern
punctuation, capitalisation and style, and are covered in the
following chapters in the first part of this book.
53
54
chapter 3
Punctuation
What would it be like
to live in a library
of melted books.
With sentences streaming over the floor
and all the punctuation
settled to the bottom as a residue.
Anne Carson
Wildly Constant (2009)
Punctuation is used in writing to clarify meaning. Spoken
language may be supplemented by such features as pauses, tone
of voice, changes in pitch, facial expressions and even gestures,
all of which give additional clues as to meaning, as well as
to the intentions or feelings of the speaker. Without these,
written language relies on punctuation marks to convey much
of the same sense and emotion.
Creative writers, of course, may play games with
punctuation. Chapters of James Joyce’s Ulysses, for example,
contain very little punctuation at all – obliterating convention in
one stream-of-consciousness fell swoop. Other literary fiction
writers have adopted different ways of treating punctuation
creatively or poetically – see, for example, the instances in
chapter 6 of this book.
55
Grammar Guide
‘first I put my arms around him yes and drew him down to me
so he could feel my breasts all perfume yes and his heart was
going like mad and yes I said yes I will Yes.’
James Joyce, Ulysses (1922)
As a starting point, and certainly in formal writing, however,
it is advisable to stay within the standard rules of punctuation.
A good basic principle is to use only as much punctuation as is
necessary to make one’s meaning clear; too much punctuation
can be a distraction for the reader. This chapter sets out some
standard guidance.
Full stops
The full stop (.) – known in American English as the period –
ends a sentence (see chapter 2, page 52) that is neither a
question nor an exclamation (for which, see page 63). It can
also be used to end what is called a sentence substitute, that is,
a word or phrase that contains a complete thought, even though
it does not include all the elements required in a sentence, for
example, Yes.
More broadly, this type of point is the main mark of
punctuation for showing the end of one item and the beginning
of another. It can be used to indicate the end of an element of
text, even when not a full sentence, for example, at the end of a
note, caption or bibliographic entry.
A full stop also appears at the end of certain abbreviations,
for example, etc., e.g., no., ed. (Note some abbreviations that
take full points in American English, usually in the pattern
of contractions that comprise the first and final letter, do
not in British English, for example, Mr, Dr, St – for Saint
or Street.)
Many abbreviations that consist only of capital letters,
often but not always those with pronunciations that are based
on initials, don’t take full stops, for example, SARS, NATO,
56
Punctuation
EU. Full stops are used, however, in most cases where capital
initials abbreviate any of a person’s names: J. K. Rowling,
George W. Bush.
Ellipses
Three full points in a row make an ellipsis, a punctuation
device for showing that words have been left out or that
something is unfinished. An ellipsis should only be used when
there’s a good reason for leaving out text. For example, if a
writer quotes someone, an ellipsis can appear to show where
material considered less important for the writer’s purposes has
been omitted:
Among the bargains were 20th-century first editions in
excellent condition…with several signed by the authors.
An ellipsis with four points occurs when text before the part
being omitted ends with a full stop:
We expected the shipment to arrive at any moment…. The
dispatcher had been notified that the lorry was on its way.
An ellipsis occurs at the end of a sentence or paragraph when
the writer wants to show that a text is unfinished. It can also
be used as a literary device to indicate speech by someone who
didn’t finish his or her sentence:
‘I know what you’re thinking, but you’ve got to understand
that…’
Commas
The general use of the comma (,) is to introduce a break between
words, phrases or clauses (see chapter 2, pages 45–52) to show
that they are separate from each other in some sense.
Good practice
The following comma conventions are standard in written
English and should generally be observed:
57
Grammar Guide
1. Quoted speech:
⚪⚪
A comma follows a reporting verb and precedes quoted
speech:
She said, ‘The treasure is buried under the sundial.’
⚪⚪
A comma ends quoted speech followed by a reporting
verb when the speech is not an exclamation or a
question:
‘The treasure is buried under the sundial,’ she said.
2. Subordinate clauses:
⚪⚪
Non-restrictive relative clauses (see chapter 2, page
49), often starting with which, are separated out with
commas:
The novel, which was her second, proved very popular.
⚪⚪
Introductory subordinate clauses of all types (see
chapter 2, page 48) are followed by a comma:
Despite having no money, she insisted on coming with us.
3. Main clauses: Long main clauses (or independent clauses,
see chapter 2, page 48) that are joined by and, but, for, or,
nor, so or yet usually benefit from a comma at the end of the
first clause, before the conjunction:
My mother bought fresh fruit, and my brother made
several sponge cakes.
4. List items: Short items in a list or series, provided they
feature no internal punctuation (see immediately below),
can be separated by commas:
Dinner consisted of fried chicken, mashed potatoes, green
beans and salad.
According to some style conventions, there should also be a
comma after the penultimate item (in this example, before
58
Punctuation
and). This is called the serial comma, or alternatively the
Oxford comma. While it is optional, it is important to be
consistent in its use.
5. Parts of geographical names: In running text, a comma
separates the name of a place from the name of its
surrounding area, whether county, state or country, and
another separates the name of the area from what follows:
She grew up in Wasdale, Cumbria, on a farm owned by
her grandfather.
6. Nouns in apposition: Commas separate out a short phrase
that is in apposition to a noun, in other words, that is next
to it and explains it in some way:
Bella Feezer, the club’s secretary, read the report.
7. Serial adjectives: Commas separate two or more serial
adjectives that precede a noun when the adjectives could
logically be linked by and:
Long, narrow, dark corridors crisscrossed the building
in all directions.
However, in both informal and technical writing, long
strings of adjectives may precede a noun without being
separated by commas:
A great big fat green caterpillar was stuck to the bottom
of his shoe.
The replacement part is a 9 volt 2.4 amp 60 watt LPS
power source.
8. Bibliographies: In certain styles of bibliography or reference
list, a comma is used to break up elements in an entry:
Roese, H. (1982), ‘Some Aspects of Topographical
Locations of Neolithic and Bronze Age Monuments
in Wales’, Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies, 29
(1): 763–5.
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Grammar Guide
9. Numbers: A comma separates thousands in numerals. If
no figures larger than 9999 appear, the comma is optional,
but if there are both four- and five-figure numbers, the
comma should be used to set apart thousands, millions,
billions, trillions, etc.:
4,239
54,796
3,525,598
(Note, however, that in scientific, mathematical and similar
writing, spaces rather than commas may be used.)
Poor practice
A comma should not be used in the following cases:
⚪⚪
To break up independent clauses that are not connected by
a conjunction. The technical term for this is comma fault
or comma splice. For example:
Her new car is a Golf, it runs on diesel.
Such clauses should be divided into two sentences, separated
by a semi-colon, joined by a conjunction, or reworded so
that one or other clause is subordinate.
Her new car is a Golf and it runs on diesel.
⚪⚪
To separate list items that are long or contain internal
punctuation:
The topics included the increase in crime, things the police were
doing to stop it, complaints that residents have had, including
ones about police harassment, and a list of things that residents
could do to minimise the crime in their neighbourhood.
Items in such a list are better separated by semicolons:
The topics included the increase in crime; things the police were
doing to stop it; complaints that residents have had, including
ones about police harassment; and a list of things that residents
could do to minimise the crime in their neighbourhood.
60
Punctuation
Semicolons
The semicolon (;) can be thought of as a stronger version of
the comma, introducing a more definite or prolonged pause
between text elements. In many cases, semicolons are used in
places similar to where commas appear, but the items requiring
separation are longer or more complex, or the material in the
second clause already contains commas:
I thought about trying to convince her to join us; but the
timing was bad, there wasn’t any space, and I don’t think she
was really interested.
‘It was not easy to make out Little Dorrit’s face; she was so
retiring, plied her needle in such removed corners, and started
away so scared if encountered on the stairs.’
Charles Dickens, Little Dorrit (1857)
A semicolon is typically used to separate two main clauses.
Often it appears before a clause that begins with a contrastive
conjunction, such as accordingly, also, anyhow, besides,
consequently, furthermore, hence, henceforth, however, indeed,
instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise,
still and then:
Many of the protesters were arrested; however, they were all
released soon after questioning.
Semicolons are also used to separate lengthy list items or those
that feature internal punctuation (see commas, on page 57).
Colons
The colon (:) introduces an even more pronounced pause than
the semicolon. It is used mainly for the following purposes:
⚪⚪
To introduce a list that needs to be set apart from what
precedes it. In this case, care must be taken not to insert the
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Grammar Guide
colon between a verb and its object, between a preposition
and its object (see chapter 1, page 26), or between a verb
and its complement (see chapter 1, page 9). So, this is
acceptable:
The meeting will take up the following subjects: deadlines,
holidays and unpaid leave.
But this is not:
The meeting will take up: deadlines, holidays and unpaid
leave.
⚪⚪
To introduce a second clause that is an explanation,
illustration, justification or restatement of the first. In
this case, the second clause is usually, though not always,
independent and could stand as a sentence. Starting it with
a capital letter is optional, though it is important to be
consistent within any particular text. For example,
No one was willing to answer the most important question:
Who was responsible?
The takeover was not in the economic interests of the
company: it was done mainly to oust the CEO.
‘No one seemed to even glance at him, and he realized what
he had known before, only now it came to him differently:
He was just an old man with a sloppy belly and not anyone
worth noticing.’
Elizabeth Strout, Olive, Again (2019)
⚪⚪
If the second clause is a subordinate clause that requires
a pause, it is often better to introduce it with a semicolon
than with a colon.
To set apart, that is, to follow, a speaker’s name in transcripts
of conversation or dialogue:
62
Punctuation
Reporter: But how did you know that the captors would be
ready to negotiate?
Officer Collins: I am not prepared to comment about that
right now.
⚪⚪
To give quoted speech more emphasis than usual, or to
indicate the anticipation of it:
His response was direct, forceful and unambiguous: ‘Fire
him immediately.’
Exclamation marks
The exclamation mark, also called the exclamation point (!),
is used after interjections, sentence fragments and sentences
to show that they are accompanied by strong feeling or great
surprise. For example:
Drain the swamp!
That’s outrageous!
The exclamation mark is frequent in reported dialogue and has
become more acceptable in journalism. It is advisable to use it
sparingly. If writing is set out in a logical order and explained
in sufficient detail, there are not likely to be surprises sufficient
to call for an exclamation mark.
Question marks
The question mark (?) is used to end a sentence that is in the
form of a question:
Is this the director’s office?
What time did you say you got off work?
In a sentence that is written in conventional word order (that
is, subject, verb, object), a question mark at the end indicates
that, despite this, the speaker was in fact asking a question. The
verbal equivalent is a rising tone of voice.
Surely you don’t really think she stole it?
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Grammar Guide
Similarly, a question mark at the end of a sentence fragment or
a single word indicates that it is a question:
How long will it take to get there? Twenty minutes? An
hour? A day?
Apart from this, the question mark can be used in some contexts
to indicate that material presented is uncertain, of questionable
authenticity, or appears not to make sense. For example:
St Bede (673?–735)
Here, the question mark indicates that Bede’s birth year is not
known for certain.
A question mark in square brackets [?] following a quoted word
or passage is usually intended to indicate that the material
could not be read accurately, or does not appear to make sense.
This is not the same as [sic] (see square brackets on page 69).
Hyphens
A hyphen (-) is used to separate the elements of a compound
word. Dictionaries offer advice on whether a compound is spelt
open (that is, with a space but no hyphen), hyphenated, or
solid (that is, with no space and no hyphen, as in playwright).
Since conventions vary, the principle to bear in mind is that
consistency in hyphenation needs to be maintained within the
same piece of writing.
In some dictionaries, standard prefixes, for example anti-,
bi- extra-, meta-, micro-, mid- multi-, non-, super-, trans-, un-,
and standard suffixes, for example, -like, -fold, have their own
entry with advice on how to hyphenate in various compounds.
Note that whole numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine
are hyphenated.
Sometimes a compound word may be hyphenated or open,
depending on where it appears. The logic is essentially to avoid
ambiguity and enable ease of understanding. For example,
64
Punctuation
adjectives used
need a hyphen:
attributively
(see chapter 1, page 19) may
She gazed at the deep-blue sea.
There aren’t any well-known paintings in this museum.
But when the same adjective appears as a complement, it’s not
hyphenated:
The sea was a gorgeous deep blue.
This painting is particularly well known.
The same rule usually applies to compounds formed by combining
a noun with a participle. These phrases are hyphenated when
used attributively, but open when part of the predicate:
She insists on wearing only designer-made clothes.
The label says it is designer made.
Dashes
A dash ( – ) is an unofficial separator of text similar in function
to parentheses (see page 69) or a colon (see page 61).
Dashes predominantly occur in opening and closing pairs,
but sometimes appear singly. (Note that in British English a
spaced en rule (–) is usually used to represent a dash, whereas
in American English a closed em dash (—) is often preferred.)
Dashes can be used:
⚪⚪
To separate out a gloss (an explanation following an
unfamiliar word or concept):
One of the common diseases caused by protozoa – microscopic
amoeba-like organism – is leishmaniasis.
⚪⚪
To separate out, in a more informal way, a comment that
would otherwise be put in parentheses:
His comment – and I’m quoting directly now – was ‘That
should teach them about withholding information from us
in the future.’
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Grammar Guide
It is advisable not to use dashes too freely in formal writing,
since it can give the impression the writer doesn’t understand
the role of semicolons or colons.
Quotation marks
Quotation marks are used to mark:
●●
●●
●●
●●
quoted speech or text
titles of articles from magazines or chapters from books; in
general, any title that specifies a section of a work that has
a title of its own
titles of short poems and songs: ‘Time is Hardcore’
words being treated in a special way, in order to ensure the
reader understands that they’re special: Hund in German
means ‘ dog’.
For fiction writers, the main use is likely to be the first, that is,
quoted speech, and often this means dialogue.
It’s worth noting, however, that there is a literary tradition
of overturning this convention. Cormac McCarthy, for
example, prefers a less cluttered effect, and uses no punctuation
in dialogue, starting a new line with each speaker.
‘She’s gone to San Antonio, said the boy.
Don’t call her she.
Mama.
I know it.
They drank their coffee.’
Cormac McCarthy, All the Pretty Horses (1992)
In more standard works, British English uses single quota­
tion marks (‘Hooray!’) to mark quoted text or speech. (In
American English, double quotation marks (“Hooray!”) are
preferred.)
66
Punctuation
If the quoted material ends with a full stop, question
mark or exclamation mark, most style guides suggest the
mark of punctuation should appear before the closing
quotation mark. (Some style guides advise, however, that
a closing full stop should come after the closing quote – as
ever, consistency through the piece of writing as a whole
is key.)
If quoted material ends with a full stop but is followed by
he said, she said, or words to that effect, the full stop should be
converted to a comma:
‘Thank you,’ she said.
Any final colon or semicolon should appear outside the quotation
marks. Note that these are not part of the quoted material, but
rather help structure the surrounding sentence:
I loved his ‘ little jokes’; she was less keen.
Double quotation marks (“Exactly.”) are typically used for
quotations within quotations:
‘This charge of “ fraudulent conversion” will never stick,’ he
remarked.
(Note that in American English the convention is reversed,
and a quotation within a quotation appears in single quotation
marks.)
Apostrophes
The apostrophe (’) has two main uses in English, which rarely
conflict with each other, to indicate a contraction and to show
the possessive case.
Contractions
In contractions, that is, words shortened by leaving out some
letters, the apostrophe shows the point at which letters have
been omitted. Many contractions are so convenient, and so
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Grammar Guide
firmly established in English, that they are widely used in
writing, and in both formal and informal speech. These include:
●●
●●
●●
●●
contractions of auxiliary verbs (see chapter 1, page 16)
with not: isn’t, can’t, wouldn’t, haven’t, etc.
contractions of the personal pronouns (see chapter 1,
page 23) with finite forms (that is, forms showing person,
number and tense, see chapter 1, page 10) of be:
he’s, they’re, I’m, etc.
contractions let’s, that’s and there’s, for let us, that is and
there is
contractions of the personal pronouns with modal verbs
(see chapter 1, page 17) shall or will: I’ll, he’ll, etc.
In very formal writing, contractions tend to be avoided
altogether. Their use is a question of judgement. There’s usually
no need to avoid them entirely, especially if the spelt out forms
make one’s writing sound stilted.
There are a number of more informal contractions that are
probably better avoided in formal writing, however, unless used
in quotation. These include contractions of had or would that
consist of only a terminal ’d: it’d, where’d, they’d, etc. Similarly,
in formal contexts it is safest to avoid contractions of is and are
with question words: why’re, how’s, when’s, etc.
Possessive case
When the apostrophe indicates the possessive case (see
chapter 2, page 36) after nouns, it usually occurs with the
letter s:
Jerry’s book,
Berlin’s nightlife,
a dog’s life,
the architects’ drawings.
The difference between the architect’s drawings and the architects’
drawings is that one architect is designated in the first, and
more than one in the second.
68
Punctuation
Because the pronoun its is a possessive pronoun, there may
be a temptation to add an apostrophe, but it would be incorrect.
It’s with an apostrophe is not the possessive form of it; it’s is the
contraction of it is.
Other
There are a few other contexts where use of an apostrophe is
appropriate. One case is plurals of letters of the alphabet. For
these, an apostrophe helps dispel potential ambiguity:
Dot the i’s and cross the t’s.
An apostrophe may also appear to indicate that letters have
been omitted from the end of words in dialectal pronunciations:
What are you doin’ sittin’ on the bed?
The use of the apostrophe to indicate the plural of a word that
is written in capital letters, or of a number, is best avoided. For
example, it is safest to stick with: YMCAs, 3s, 8s, 1950s.
Parentheses and brackets
Both parentheses ( ) and square brackets [ ] are used to
separate out text that’s optional. It is important to be sure
that, first, the text separated out is not required for the
meaning of the whole. Secondly, it should be possible to
read what’s written without the parenthetical material (text
separated out) and for it still to be grammatical. If these
conditions are not met, then the parenthetical material
should be reworded, or set apart by means of other marks of
punctuation, for example, commas or dashes (see pages 57
and 65).
Parentheses
Common uses of parentheses include the following:
⚪⚪
To indicate a person’s birth and death dates:
Benjamin Disraeli (1804–81) was prime minister twice.
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Grammar Guide
⚪⚪
To provide an expansion of an abbreviation or the explanation
of a technical term:
The species is identified by markings on the worm’s parapodium
(unjointed limb-like part).
⚪⚪
To introduce an abbreviation that will be used in the rest of
the document, after the full form has been given:
He was appointed director of the Crown Prosecution Service
(CPS).
⚪⚪
To refer to a figure, table or other point in the same text:
The results were ranked to give a gradation of risk over the
area analysed (Table 4).
⚪⚪
To refer to an entry in a bibliography or list of references:
Tasseled Cap transformation offers a way to optimise data
viewing for vegetation studies (Erdas, 1998).
In formal writing, parentheses are the best choice for presenting
in context short pieces of information outside the flow of the
text, and should be used in preference to dashes. They should
be used sparingly, however. It is irritating for readers to have
to wade through large amounts of parenthetical material,
and it also presents a challenge for anyone wanting to read the
text aloud.
Square brackets
Square brackets appear in a more limited set of standard
circumstances:
⚪⚪
To mark off editorial comments in quoted material.
A question mark in brackets [?] indicates that the material
quoted is either illegible or unclear. The word [sic] in square
brackets indicates that material is being quoted faithfully,
70
Punctuation
even though it appears to be incorrect or misspelt, or is
surprising:
The letter was signed ‘Yours sincerly [sic], Anne Benson.’
⚪⚪
To set apart material added to quoted material for
clarification:
‘Those works [the late string quartets] are in my estimation
the fullest expression of his creative genius.’
71
72
chapter 4
Spelling
My spelling is Wobbly. It’s good spelling but it
Wobbles, and the letters get in the wrong places.
A. A. Milne
Winnie-the-Pooh (1926)
English spelling is famed for its vagaries and eccentricities.
Despite attempts to impose some standardisation from the late
16th century, it was not until Samuel Johnson’s dictionary of
1755 that a more comprehensive effort was made. Johnson was
generally not concerned with reform, but simply in recording
the most common spelling forms. In the early 19th century,
Noah Webster similarly recorded American usage, this time
with a view to reform.
The illogicality of English spelling persists to this day,
however. While it is not required that a writer be a perfect
natural speller, it is useful to be familiar with resources that
enable one to spell correctly, for the purposes of clarity and
professionalism, that is, for creating texts that are free from
error. This chapter arms writers with some tools to improve
spelling. It offers examples of how different letters can
represent the same sound in English, and also of how the same
letters can represent different sounds. This provides a means
of looking up in the dictionary words whose spelling one does
not know. A trusted dictionary, of course, should be regarded
as the indispensable and ultimate source of correct spelling.
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Grammar Guide
Dictionary look-up
The main alternative spellings for consonant and vowel sounds
are given below. If a word cannot be found in the dictionary at
the first attempt, it may be worth referring to these tables to
identify alternative possible spellings. To the same end, variant
word endings and word beginnings, as well as a list of silent
letters, are also included.
Consonants
Consonants are the letters of the alphabet apart from a, e, i, o,
u, and sometimes y.
Alternative spellings for consonants
Sound
Alternative spellings
ch
arch
chin
tch
kitchen
patch
tu
puncture
statue
j
cajole
jam
g (before e, i, or y)
gem
logic
edgy
dg
badge
judge
c
crowd
ck
chicken
gn
gnaw
campaign
kn
kneel
acknowledge
f
defend
fair
k
kitten
n
now
done
qu
liquid
quick
ph
dolphin
phone
cqu
acquire
gh
rough
kw
awkward
74
qu
opaque
ch
chaos
technique
Spelling
Sound
s
send
base
sh
shop
cash
w
forward
x
taxi
z
daze
marzipan
Alternative spellings
c (before e, i or y)
centre
acid
juicy
sc
scent
ascend
ss
passion
procession
ti
patience
cautious
ks
thanks
xc
except
u (before vowel)
persuade
s (before vowel)
please
easy
x
anxiety
xylophone
ss
professor
confess
cs
physics
There’s also a sound somewhere between z and sh for which
there is no letter of the alphabet or standard combination. It’s
usually spelt su, as in pleasure or casual, but can also be spelt si,
as in vision or precision, or zu, as in seizure. Some dictionaries
represent it by /zh/.
Note that consonants in English can generally be doubled;
the exceptions are h, j, k, q and x, which can be doubled only
rarely, for example, dekko, anti-vaxxer. If a word cannot be
found under a doubled consonant spelling, an obvious next
recourse is to try it spelt with a single consonant, or vice versa.
(See also discussion of vowel pronunciation in relation to
doubled consonants at vowels immediately below.)
Vowels
The vowels in the alphabet are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y.
All these vowels have a ‘long’ vowel sound and a ‘short’ vowel
sound. The ‘long’ sound is generally the sound of the letter as
it is pronounced in reciting the alphabet. The ‘short’ sounds are
those in bad, bed, bid, body and bud. Exceptionally, the letter y,
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Grammar Guide
as a vowel, has the same long and short sounds as i, as in cycle
and bicycle.
A vowel on its own (between two consonants or at the
beginning of a word) can have either the long or short sound.
A vowel before a double consonant will have the short sound,
as in latter (compare later) or hopping (compare hoping).
Long vowels
In general, a vowel followed by a single consonant and then
an -e (with the e not pronounced, known as ‘silent e’) is a long
vowel, for example,
spade, these, bite, phone, prune, style.
Alternative spellings for the long vowels a, e, i, o and u
Sound
Alternative spellings
a
make
amiable
ai
complaint
aim
ay
day
ea
great
ie
believe
i
friday
ice
igh
light
ea
peace
eat
ie
pie
y
cry
oe
hoe
ou
although
u
rude
union
ew
grew
few
ow
show
own
oo
goose
ou
group
e
lethal
even
o
ghost
over
ee
sheep
oa
roast
oats
ue
glue
due
76
ei
rein
eight
ei
ceiling
Spelling
Other vowels
Alternative spellings for the short vowels e, i and u
Sound
Alternative spellings
e
bed
elephant
ea
ready
u
hundred
under
o
dozen
i
him
ink
y
gym
oo
blood
ou
touch
Alternative spellings for non-alphabetic vowels
Sound
Alternative spellings
aw
straw
awful
al
alter
fall
or
fork
order
au
fraud
author
ar
harm
artist
al
calm
almond
a
father
oir
boudoir
memoir
ur
cure
eur
euro
air
pair
ier
fierce
oor
poor
ow
cow
shower
ar
care
various
eer
beer
eerie
ou
round
sour
ear
eardrum
ere
severe
77
oo
door
ore
shore
ough
bought
ought
Grammar Guide
Sound
oy
toy
u
push
ur
curve
urgent
Alternative spellings
oi
voice
oil
oo
foot
er
merge
ir
birth
ear
pearl
earn
The schwa: Note that the vowel sound uh is so short it’s almost
not pronounced at all. It can be written as e, a, i, o or u, as
in barrel, miserable, referee, about, turban, definite, responsible,
common, pursue and circus. In dictionaries, this sound is
indicated by a symbol called schwa, and written as an upside
down lowercase e: /ə/. It’s the vowel sound of most unaccented
syllables in English.
Word endings, word beginnings and silent letters
Knowledge of variant word endings and beginnings and
awareness of possible silent letters are also helpful when using
a dictionary.
Word endings
Sounds
like
el
er
i
idj/ij
Possible spellings
le
cattle
al
dental
y
happy
ie
calorie
er
driver
age
manage
or
actor
re
lustre
ege
privilege
idge
cartridge
78
ey
money
ar
eur
burglar chauffeur
Spelling
Sounds
like
ius
jus
shul
shun
shus
sul
ul
us
Possible spellings
ious
delirious
eous
hideous
tial
substantial
cial
commercial
geous
courageous
tion
position
tious
cautious
stle
castle
el
barrel
ous
jealous
gious
prestigious
sion
mansion
cion
coercion
sle
tussle
sel
mussel
cious
precious
le
cattle
scious
conscious
al
dental
Note also that:
●●
●●
endings sounding like -ent may also be spelt -ant
endings sounding like -ence may also be spelt -ance.
Word beginnings
This list gives possible alternative spellings for some common
word beginnings:
acs try acc:
air try aer:
ca try cha:
ce try che:
clor try chlor:
co try cho:
cr try chr:
ecs try ex:
ef try af:
accelerate
aerial
character
chemical
chlorine
cholera
Christmas
exercise
affection, afraid
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Grammar Guide
egs try exh:
fer try fur:
fol try fal:
for try four:
gi try gui:
hi try high:
ho try who:
meca try mecha:
na try kna:
ne try kne:
ni try kni:
no try kno:
nur try neur:
nut try neut:
ocs try ox:
pel try pol:
per try pur:
pre try pro:
quo try qua:
ra try wra:
re try wre:
ri try wri:
ro try wro:
se try sce:
si try sci:
sic try psych:
sosh try soci:
spesh try speci:
squo try squa:
uf try euph:
uph try euph:
ur try eur:
vial try viol:
wa try wha:
we try whe:
exhaust
furry
false
fourteen
guilt
higher
whole
mechanic
knack, knave
knee, knell
knife, knit
knob, know
neurosis
neutral
oxygen
polite
purple, pursue
provide
qualification, quarrel
wrap
wreck
wriggle, write
wrong, wrote
scene, scent
science, scissors
psychology
social
special, species
squabble, squad
euphoria
euphoria
Europe
violin
whack, whale
when, wheel
80
Spelling
wi try whi:
wo try wa:
wor try wa:
wur try wor:
which, while
wander, wash
water
work
Silent letters
Sound
Often silent in:
d
handkerchief, supposed to
g
design, length, recognise
e
h
n
r
u
different, interest, several
diarrhoea, eighth, exhibition, rhythm
condemn, environment, government
advertise, February, governor, surprise
guarantee, guard, Portuguese
These consonants and vowels may not be pronounced, or not
pronounced by some speakers, so can easily be forgotten when
spelling the words shown and similar ones.
Spelling rules
Why does English have so many words that are difficult to
spell? The main reason is that the twenty-six letters of the
alphabet have to represent forty-four different sounds. And
confusingly, as we have seen, the same combinations of letters
can be used to represent quite distinct sounds.
Other parts of this book deal with some aspects of this
phenomenon that have a more obvious bearing on meaning and
the creative aspects of self-expression, for example, commonly
confused and misused words (see chapters 8 and 9), word
families (see chapter 10) and the delights of the spelling
idiosyncrasies of proper nouns.
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Grammar Guide
Meanwhile, this chapter focuses on the more technical
aspects of spelling. Fortunately, in this area, there are at least a
few rules that hold good.
Noun and verb ending -s or -es
The regular plural ending for nouns and the third person
present singular (see person, number and tense, chapter 1,
page 10) ending for verbs is -s.
However, words already ending in -ch, -s, -sh, -x and -z
take -es for plural nouns or third person singular verbs:
beech [noun]
batch [noun, verb]
boss [noun, verb]
bush [noun]
fox [noun, verb]
waltz [noun, verb]
Æ
Æ
Æ
Æ
Æ
Æ
beeches
batches
bosses
bushes
foxes
waltzes
Words already ending in -f, or -fe, sometimes take -s and
sometimes change to -ves:
scarf Æ scarves
Exceptionally, while the plural of the noun gas is gases, the
third person singular of the verb gas is gasses. Another anomaly
is that the plurals of hero, potato and tomato end in -es rather
than -s.
Noun, verb and adjective ending -y to -ie-
Verbs that end in -y keep the -y before the present participle
ending (-ing), but this changes to -ie- for third person present
singular (-ies) and the past tense (-ied) forms (see principal
parts, chapter 1, page 7).
Meanwhile, nouns that end in -y also experience a change
to -ie- in the plural (-ies); and adjectives ending in -y similarly
undergo a change to -ie- in the comparative (-er) and superlative
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Spelling
(-est) forms (see comparatives and superlatives, chapter 1,
page 20):
worry [noun, verb]
try [noun, verb]
happy [adjective]
Æ
Æ
Æ
worries, worried, worrying
tries, tried, trying
happier, happiest
Exceptionally, words that have a vowel before the -y ending,
retain the -y before -s, -ed, -er -est:
play [noun, verb]
key [noun, verb]
grey [adjective]
Æ
Æ
Æ
plays, played, playing, player
keys, keyed, keying, keyer
greyer, greyest
Names of people and places that end in -y similarly keep the -y
and just add -s in the plural, for example,
Mr and Mrs Perry Æ the Perrys.
Verb ending -ie to -y-
Verbs ending -ie, such as lie, tie and die, replace the -ie with
-y- in the present participle:
lie Æ lies, lied, lying
die Æ dies, died, dying
Note the difference between die above and dye Æ dyes, dyed,
dyeing.
Verb and adjective ending dropping -e
Verbs that end in a consonant and final -e (‘silent e’) generally
lose the -e before -ing; adjectives of a similar pattern do the
same before -ise (or -ize):
hike [verb]
private [adjective]
Æ
Æ
hikes, hiked, hiking, hiker
privatise
Exceptions are the present participles of singe (= burn), which
is singeing (to avoid confusion with singing), and age, which can
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Grammar Guide
be spelt ageing or aging. Note also swingeing (= severe, extreme),
spelt with an -e- to avoid confusion with swinging.
Verb ending -c adding -k
Verbs ending in -c add -k before simple past and past participle
-ed and present participle -ing:
panic Æ panics, panicked, panicking
An exception is arc, for which the corresponding forms are
arced and arcing.
Verb and adjective ending doubling the consonant
Single-syllable words that end in a single vowel and a
consonant usually double the consonant before -ed, -ing, -er
and -est:
pot [verb]
fit [adjective]
Æ
Æ
pots, potted, potting, potter
fitter, fittest
Verbs of more than one syllable that end in a single vowel and
a consonant and are stressed on the last syllable usually double
the consonant before -ed and -ing:
regret
omit
Æ
Æ
regrets, regretted, regretting
omits, omitted, omitting
Compare these examples with listen and happen, which are
stressed on the first syllable:
listen
happen
Æ
Æ
listens, listened, listening
happens, happened, happening
In British English, there are some exceptions, however. Note
the doubling pattern for benefit and cancel, both stressed on the
first syllable:
benefit Æ benefits, benefitted, benefitting
cancel Æ cancels, cancelled, cancelling
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Spelling
(For these examples, American English follows the rules more
closely; so, in American English, it is benefited and benefiting,
while canceled and canceling are preferred.)
Internal -ie- and -ei-
The well-known rule ‘i before e except after c’ applies when the
vowel rhymes with sheep:
shriek, niece [i before e]
ceiling, deceit […except after c]
Exceptions include caffeine, protein, seize, weird, and the names
Sheila and Keith.
Verb ending -ise (or -ize)
In British English verbs like characterise are often spelt with
the -ise ending, but some style guides prefer -ize. (In American
English, in contrast, the standard is -ize.)
No matter the general style adopted, there are a few
exceptions that are always spelt -ise:
advertise
advise
apprise
arise
chastise
circumcise
comprise
compromise
despise
devise
enfranchise
excise
exercise
improvise
merchandise
prise (open)
revise
rise
supervise
surmise
surprise
televise
Adjective ending -able and -ible
The ending -able is attached to whole words (often minus any
final ‘silent e’ in the case of verbs); the ending -ible is usually
not.
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Grammar Guide
Some words ending in -able:
affordable
available
comfortable
debatable
doable
enjoyable
laughable
lovable
manageable
washable
Some words ending in -ible:
audible
feasible
incompatible
incredible
indestructible
irresistible
permissible
plausible
responsible
susceptible
Exceptions include liable and pliable.
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chapter 5
Breaking the rules
I suddenly discovered the delight of rebellion.
Jack Kerouac (1941)
We have explored a number of rules of grammar required to
write English correctly. But there are also various so-called
rules that can be safely – or creatively – ignored.
Such ‘rules’ tend to relate to putting words together in
ways that some grammarians in the past used to object to
strongly. Today, they’re regarded as less vital to clear or correct
communication in English, so writers are at liberty use their
discretion.
The degree to which writers break the rules depends, of
course, on artistic intent. Meanwhile, it helps to bear in mind
that some understanding of the rule being broken is key to
stylistic effectiveness.
Rule 1: Do not use and or or to start a sentence.
The conjunctions (see chapter 1, page 26) and and or are
essentially joining words. Therefore, it is relatively unusual
for them to appear at the start of a sentence. On occasion,
however, this can be powerful stylistically, calling attention to
what follows:
‘You can’t get away with this,’ he threatened. And we knew
he meant it.
I’ll give you ten minutes to get out of here. Or else.
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Grammar Guide
We could ask him to stay here while we go out to dinner and
take in a film. Or is that too selfish?
Obviously, excessive use of and and or at the start of sentences
becomes less effective. So, it is important to be judicious in
breaking this rule.
Rule 2: Do not use but to start a sentence.
Some people object to using but at the beginning of a sentence,
for the same reasons that they object to and or or: they regard
it as a conjunction, or joining word, that needs to follow and
precede other words. There are no real grounds for this in
English grammar and usage, however.
So, while it is acceptable to start a sentence with but, it’s
best not to overuse the construction. Using but at the start of a
sentence emphasises that what comes next takes away some of
the force of the content of the preceding sentence:
According to the old saying, there are lies, damned lies and
statistics. But statistics, as we know, are generally more useful
than old sayings.
Rule 3: Never split an infinitive.
The ‘rule’ of not splitting the infinitive has gained some common
currency. It means that another word should not be placed
between to and the verb in the infinitive (the construction in
to do, to make, to sing, etc., see chapter 1, page 7). There is no
basis in grammar for this, however.
More broadly, it’s a feature of English that adverbs and
other words and phrases can separate the elements that make
up a verb. For example, in the sentence I have never been to
Mexico, the word never separates have and been, which together
make up the verb.
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Breaking the rules
This is a question of style, not of grammar. If splitting an
infinitive makes for awkwardness, then it’s better not to split it.
If, on the other hand, the split supports one’s intended meaning,
there can be no justifiable objection to it. Here are some examples:
Prices are likely to more than double.
This is a simple case, because there is nowhere else in the
sentence for the phrase more than to go. Rephrasing as Prices
are more than likely to double, for example, completely changes
the meaning. More than is firmly attached to the verb double in
this context and must precede it, so there is no choice but to
split the infinitive.
This gave them the chance to flatly refuse to have any more
involvement in the project.
‘To boldly go where no man has gone before.’
Gene Roddenberry et al., Star Trek (1966)
Flatly is an adverb that sounds awkward if it’s used after the
verb in any context. For example, They flatly forbade him to go
is more natural than They forbade him flatly to go. This is just as
true for flatly and the infinitive.
They were plotting to illegally copy the files.
‘She wants to honestly and legally marry that man she has
already married virtually.’
Thomas Hardy, Jude the Obscure (1895)
The first example is less straightforward, because it would be
perfectly good English (better English, some might argue) to
say They were plotting to copy the files illegally. Let us consider
what is being done illegally. Is it illegal to plot? No, we can
assume that the potential illegal act involved is the copying of
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Grammar Guide
the files. To make that clear, the adverb illegally is better placed
as close to the verb it supports as possible. And in this sentence
that entails splitting the infinitive to copy.
Nonetheless, it’s worth remembering that the split infinitive
is a controversial topic. Where there is nothing to gain by
splitting an infinitive, it may be better to avoid it, especially in
formal writing.
Rule 4: Do not end a sentence with a preposition.
(see chapter 1, page 26) are used mostly in
prepositional phrases, where they occur as the first word.
Perhaps as a result of this, the idea has arisen that it’s
grammatically incorrect to end a sentence with a preposition.
This is not strictly true, however, and trying to avoid putting
a preposition at the end of a sentence may sometimes result in
awkwardness. Consider the following.
prepositions
1. Some questions and clauses opening with wh-, for example,
what, which, who, typically have the preposition at the end,
as in
What on earth were they thinking of?
Statements based on wh- questions also very often are best
expressed with a preposition at the end:
The students were asked to give their names and say where
they came from.
2. Some infinitive clauses also have prepositions at their ends,
as in
Make sure you have something to talk about.
3. Finally, several informal or slang expressions end in
prepositions:
That dress is to die for!
She took one look at their faces and knew what they’d been
up to.
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Breaking the rules
Rule 5: Never dangle a participle.
In general, it is important to avoid dangling participial
phrases – that is, those not clearly associated with a subject.
For example:
Lying in the sun, it was hard to imagine the winter back
home. [Who was lying in the sun?]
Such mismatches can be corrected by changing the wording:
Lying in the sun, he found it hard to imagine the winter back
home.
However, there are a number of dangling participles (see
chapter 1, page 8) that are well established and idiomatic, for
example, given, granted, and speaking. These cause no problem
for readers or listeners because they understand that no
particular association with a subject is required:
Given that dividends depend on earnings, what determines
earnings?
Other similar words, including considering and regarding, are
so well established in such contexts that they are generally
thought of as independent of the verbs from which they sprang
and are now said to be prepositions.
Rule 6: Always write in complete sentences.
Of all the ‘rules’ of writing, the decision not to write in complete
sentences (see chapter 2, page 52) should be used cautiously
and possibly sparingly, but there are times when it works. In
literary fiction, as we have touched on (see chapter 3, page 55),
it has sometimes been a mark of ground-breaking creativity.
The rule can be broken in an huge variety of ways, ranging
from sentences so long they cease to be sentences, to sentence
fragments. It is acceptable to write sentence fragments too
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Grammar Guide
in journalistic feature writing, and informal contexts such as
letters and e-mails, so long as the meaning is clear. As ever,
however, in formal writing, the traditional approach applies; it
is best to write only in complete sentences.
‘…running his little country store now for his bread and meat,
haggling tediously over nickels and dimes with rapacious and
poverty-stricken whites and negroes, who at one time could
have galloped for ten miles in any direction without crossing
his own boundary, using out of his meagre stock the cheap
ribbons and beads and the stale violently-colored candy with
which even an old man can seduce a fifteen-year-old country
girl, to ruin the granddaughter of his partner, this Jones-this
gangling malaria-ridden white man whom he had given
permission fourteen years ago to squat in the abandoned
fishing camp with the year-old grandchild-Jones…’
William Faulkner, Absalom, Absalom! (1936)
‘I will soon be thirty-one years old. Perhaps. If my crumbling,
over-used body permits. But I have no hope of saving my life,
nor can I count on having even a thousand nights and one
night.’
Salman Rushdie, Midnight’s Children (1981)
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chapter 6
Glossary of grammatical
terms
This glossary defines terms relating to grammar and usage
outlined in the Grammar section (Part I) of this book.
abbreviationShort form of a word or group
of words. Abbreviations include
shortenings, contractions,
initialisms and acronyms.
abstract nounNoun representing something nonmaterial, for example nonsense, truth
or similarity.
acronymAbbreviation formed from parts of
other words, for example, COVID19 (for coronavirus disease 2019),
or an initialism that has become a
word in its own right, for example,
UNESCO (for United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization).
active voiceFeature of a verb when the subject
of the sentence performs the action
of the verb, as in the sentence The
storm destroyed the house. (The other
category of voice in English is the
passive voice.)
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Grammar Guide
adjectiveWord that describes a noun or
pronoun, for example, happy.
adverbWord that modifies a verb, an
adjective, another adverb or a
clause, for example, happily.
Adverbs usually characterise
relationships between words and
give such information as when,
where, why and how.
affixElement that is bound to a
word and changes its meaning,
or produces an inflection or
derivative of the word. It may be
a prefix, such as non- , or a suffix,
such as -ism.
agreementCorrespondence of form between
words, in English predominantly
between subject noun or pronoun
and verb, but also between subject
and subsequent pronouns, to show
that the words are connected with
each other. Agreement may be
required to show person, number,
gender or occasionally case.
antecedentWord, phrase or clause that a
subsequent word refers back to.
In the sentence I’ll give this to
Mary when I see her, Mary is the
antecedent of her.
apostropheMark of punctuation (’) showing
that letters have been omitted (as in
it’s late), or preceding or following
the s that indicates the possessive
for nouns (as in the dog’s bowl).
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Glossary of grammatical terms
appositionRelationship between two
expressions, usually consecutive,
that refer to the same person or
thing. Words in apposition are
nouns or noun phrases, for example,
my husband, the football fan.
articleKind of determiner that shows
whether a general or a specific
example of something is referred to.
The indefinite article in English is a
or an; the definite article is the.
aspectGrammatical feature of verbs that
indicates, for example, whether an
action is finished or ongoing. In
English, there are two aspects, the
perfect and the continuous.
asteriskMark (*) used to signal the presence
of a footnote, or of characters not
included in the text. In emails it
marks emphasis.
attributiveAn attributive adjective is one that
immediately precedes a noun, for
example painful in a painful memory.
auxiliary verbVerb such as be, have or do that is
used with other verbs to indicate
person, number, mood, tense
or aspect, as in I have met him or
Do you know each other? (Modal
auxiliaries are a special kind of
auxiliary verb.)
bracketOne of a pair of marks, [ ], that
are used to set apart text requiring
particular treatment.
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Grammar Guide
caseForm of an adjective, noun or
pronoun in some languages that
shows its relation to other words in
the sentence, for example whether
it is the subject (nominative
case). In English, only personal
pronouns show inflection for case.
clauseGroup of consecutive words
containing a subject and a
predicate, forming part of a
sentence or constituting a sentence
itself.
closed compoundCompound word that is written
with no intervening space between
the elements, such as highland.
collective nounNoun that is singular in form but
that denotes a group of people or
things, such as committee or flock.
colonMark of punctuation (:) used, for
example, before a list of items.
commaMark of punctuation (,) used to
indicate a pause.
comparativeThe form of an adjective or adverb
used in comparisons, ending in
-er or formed by using more, for
example fuller, more friendly.
complementWord or phrase coming after the
verb in a sentence that completes
the verb and describes the subject
of the sentence. In, She was a good
doctor, the complement is a good
doctor.
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Glossary of grammatical terms
common nounNoun that denotes any or all of
a class of things, such as dog or
magazine. It is usually spelt in
lowercase letters, unlike a proper
noun, and can be preceded by an
article.
complex sentenceSentence that contains at least one
subordinate clause.
compound sentenceSentence consisting of two or
more clauses that can stand as
independent clauses.
compound wordWord made up of two or more
single words (pruning shears,
playwright, double-decker).
concordOld-fashioned term for agreement.
concrete nounNoun representing something that
can be touched or seen, such as
window, flower or desk.
conditional clauseSubordinate clause, usually
beginning with if (or unless), that
expresses a condition that has to
happen (or not happen) for the main
part of the sentence to be true. For
example, Let’s go out, unless he calls in
the next ten minutes.
conjugationThe different forms, or inflections,
of a verb, such as sings, singing, sang
and sung.
conjunctionWord such as and or because that
links words, phrases or clauses
and shows the relationship between
them.
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Grammar Guide
continuousThe form of a verb denoting
continuous or uninterrupted
action, formed by be and the
present participle: He was crying,
He’s really enjoying it! Also called
progressive.
contractionWord or pair of words such as
she’d that is shortened by leaving
out certain letters and replacing
them with an apostrophe. Or, an
abbreviation, for example, Dr for
Doctor or St for Street or Saint.
copulaLinking verb, such as be or seem. A
copula is an intransitive verb that
can be followed by a complement,
a noun or adjective that relates back
to the subject, as, for example, in
I am Fred, or I feel sick.
count nounNoun that refers to a countable
thing and is typically used in both
the singular and plural, for example,
one shirt, two shirts, or one mouse,
two mice.
dangling participleParticiple or participial phrase that
is placed so as to modify the wrong
noun, or no noun at all, as in the
incorrect Driving down the street, the
house came into view.
dashInformal mark of punctuation (–
or —), often occurring as one of a
pair, that sets apart parenthetical
remarks.
declensionThe inflection of nouns, pronouns
and adjectives. The related verb is
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Glossary of grammatical terms
decline: Pronouns decline in English,
but adjectives don’t.
demonstrative pronoun Pronoun that specifies the thing it
refers to, such as this, that, these and
those.
dependent clauseAnother name for subordinate
clause.
derivativeWord that is derived from another
word, by inflection or by the
addition of affixes that change the
meaning. For example, quickly is a
derivative of quick.
determinerWord that precedes a noun or
adjective to limit or determine its
reference. For example, this, each,
some or either.
direct objectNoun or pronoun in the predicate
of a sentence that receives the action
of the verb, such as the ball in She hit
the ball.
ditransitive verbVerb, such as give or take, that can
take both a direct and an indirect
object.
double negativeThe incorrect use of two negating
words in a clause or sentence, such
as He doesn’t have no money.
ellipsis1. A sequence of three full points
that is used in writing to show that
words have been left out or text has
been left unfinished. 2. The omission
of words from a phrase, clause or
sentence because they are understood
by the reader from the context.
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Grammar Guide
exclamation markMark of punctuation (!) that signals
an exclamation.
finiteVerb form that signifies a tense,
person and number, for example,
I ate the apple, or They are playing
on the swings. Finite is used as both
a noun and an adjective. (Compare
infinitive.)
full sentenceIndependent sentence that has a
subject and a predicate.
full stopMark of punctuation (.) used to end
a written sentence and for various
other purposes.
functional shiftChange in a word from one
grammatical function to another,
without a change in the spelling. As
when the noun wallpaper is used as
a verb, for example, to wallpaper.
future perfectVerb tense used to indicate
completion in the future of
something that is currently not
complete, for example, By this time
tomorrow he will have left.
genderCategory of inflection that affects
only pronouns in English, dividing
them into masculine (he, his, him),
feminine (she, her, hers) and neuter
(it, its).
gerundNoun ending in -ing that is formed
from a verb, for example, smoking in
the phrase non-smoking carriage.
governmentThe grammatical principle by which
the form of one word determines
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Glossary of grammatical terms
what form another syntactically
connected word must take. The
related verb is govern.
gradable adjectiveAdjective denoting a quality that
can be present in varying degrees,
and that regularly appears in the
comparative and superlative form.
homonymAny of two or more words with
identical pronunciation but different
meanings, such as bare and bear.
hyphenMark (-) that separates syllables
of certain compound words, or of
words that break over a line.
hyphenated compoundCompound word that is
written with a hyphen, such as
higgledy-piggledy.
imperativeThe mood of verbs used in
commands and requests. In English
verbs the form of the imperative is
identical to the infinitive.
impersonal verbVerb that does not have a personal
subject, such as rain in it is raining.
indefinite pronounPronoun that does not specify who
or what it refers to, such as some
or any.
independent clauseAnother name for main clause.
indicativeThe mood of verbs used to make
ordinary statements and questions.
indirect objectNoun or pronoun in a predicate
that is the usually the recipient or
the beneficiary of the action of the
verb, such as Mum in We gave Mum
a bouquet for her birthday.
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Grammar Guide
infinitiveThe basic, uninflected form of
a verb that has no markers as to
number, tense or person. Many
infinitive constructions in English
are accompanied by modal verbs, as
in You must go, or by the preposition
to, as in I’m dying to see you.
(Compare finite.)
inflection1. Form of a word that is derived,
usually in a predictable way, from
the main form, such as the past
tense of a verb, the comparative
of an adjective, or the plural of a
noun. 2. System by which words in
a language make these systematic
changes.
initialismAbbreviation formed by putting
together the first letter of a group of
words, for example, BBC for British
Broadcasting Corporation or CIA for
Central Intelligence Agency.
intensifying adverbOlder term for sub-modifier.
interjectionAny of a class of words or phrases
that express emotion and that are
usually used in isolation, such as
um, Wow! or Cool!
interrogative pronounPronoun used to ask a question,
such as who or what.
intransitive verbVerb that cannot take a direct
object, such as abound, cling, hanker
and skateboard.
irregular verbIn English, a verb in which the
past tense and/or past participle
cannot be predicted from the form
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Glossary of grammatical terms
of the infinitive and must be learnt.
Examples include bite, eat, see and
wind. Also called a strong verb.
limiting adjectiveDeterminer that limits the noun it
modifies, such as certain or this.
linking verbAnother name for copula, for
example, be or seem.
main clauseClause in a sentence containing
a finite verb form and capable
of standing alone as a complete
sentence. Also known as an
independent clause.
mass nounNoun that is typically used in the
singular and without an indefinite
article, denoting something that
is homogenous or abstract, such as
meat, sand or happiness.
modal auxiliaryVerb such as can, could, may, might,
shall, should, will, would and must
that is used with an infinitive
or other verb forms to express
modality or mood. A kind of
auxiliary verb.
modifier
Adjective or adverb.
moodEssentially, there are three moods
associated with English verbs: the
indicative (expressing fact), the
imperative (expressing command)
and the subjunctive (expressing
possibility).
negationThe conversion of a positive statement
to its opposite, using no, not, never,
none, nor, nothing, nobody or never.
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Grammar Guide
nominativeThe case of nouns, pronouns and
adjectives that are the subject of
a sentence. In English only the
personal pronouns show variable
nominative forms, for example, I,
he, she, we. Also called subjective.
non-gradable adjectiveAdjective denoting a quality that
does not exist in degrees, for
example, mortal, failing and unique.
non-restrictive clauseSubordinate clause, typically
beginning with who or which
and enclosed by commas, that is
not essential for establishing the
identity of its antecedent.
nounWord that stands for a person, place
or thing.
noun phraseUnit in a clause that functions as
a noun, consisting of a noun or
pronoun and all of its modifiers.
numberCategory of inflection for
nouns, pronouns and verbs that
distinguishes whether one or more
than one thing is referred to.
objectiveThe case of direct objects,
indirect objects, and objects of
prepositions.
open compoundCompound word that is written
with a space between the elements,
such as fast lane.
parenthesis1. Word or phrase functioning as
an additional remark within text,
which remains grammatically
complete without it. 2. In the
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Glossary of grammatical terms
plural, parentheses, a pair of
marks, ( ), used to enclose such
material.
part of speechAny of the usually eight functional
categories into which English words
are traditionally divided.
participleNon-finite form of a verb that is
used to form compound tenses
and also functions as other parts
of speech. English verbs have a
present participle (ending in -ing),
and a past participle (ending in -ed,
except in irregular verbs).
passive voiceFeature of a verb when the subject
of the sentence is the recipient of
the action of the verb, as in the
sentence, The house was destroyed
by the storm. (The other category
of voice in English is the active
voice.)
past perfectTense formed by adding the
past participle to had, used to
distinguish the earlier of two
actions in the past, when the later
one is expressed in the past tense or
implied by context.
perfectTense or aspect of English verbs
denoting an action or condition
existing in more than one point
in time, formed by combining a
finite form of have with the past
participle of a verb, for example,
has passed in She has passed the
examination.
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Grammar Guide
personCategory of inflection affecting
personal pronouns in English, and
distinguishing between the speaker
(first person), the person spoken
to (second person) and a person
or thing spoken of (third person).
English verbs mostly have a unique
form for the third person singular
present.
personal pronounPronoun that stands in place of
the speaker, the person spoken to,
or the person spoken about. The
English personal pronouns are I,
we, you, he, she, it and they.
phrasal verbVerb consisting of an inflecting
root and one or more adverbs or
prepositions that functions as a
semantic unit, for example, break
down, look forward.
phraseSequence of two or more words
acting together that does not
contain both a subject and a
predicate, so is not a clause.
pluralThe division of grammatical number
that denotes two or more things, as
in, for example, apples, mice, we.
possessiveGrammatical case showing
possession and indicated by
inflection in English pronouns, and
by the addition of ’s or ’ to the end
of nouns.
predicateGrammatical term meaning the
part of a sentence that includes the
verb and the other elements that
106
Glossary of grammatical terms
modify the verb, for example sat on
the sofa in Sophia and her friends sat
on the sofa.
predicate adjectiveAdjective that is used in the
predicate of a sentence, and not
before a noun (attributively), such
as awake in Suddenly she was wide
awake.
prefixLetter or group of letters added to
the beginning of a word, such as
anti- in anti-nuclear.
prepositionWord that introduces a
prepositional phrase or completes
a phrasal verb, for example, to,
for or with. Prepositions express
relationships between words.
present perfectTense formed by adding the past
participle to a present form of have,
expressing action begun in the past
and still continuing in, or having
an influence on, the present. An
example is, have done in You have
done very well.
principal partsSet of forms from which all
inflections are derived. In English
the principal parts of verbs are the
infinitive, the simple past tense
and the past participle.
progressiveAnother name for continuous.
pronounWord that takes the place of
a noun.
proper adjectiveAdjective derived from a proper
noun, such as Japanese from Japan.
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Grammar Guide
proper nounNoun that refers to a particular
person, place or thing, for example,
John, London, the Louvre. It
generally begins with a capital letter
and is not usually preceded by an
indefinite article.
punctuationMarks added to written language
in accordance with rules that help
to clarify its meaning. Examples
include the full stop, the comma,
the colon, the semicolon and the
apostrophe.
question markMark of punctuation (?) that ends a
question, or indicates that the writer
is making a guess.
quotation marksMarks (‘ ’) placed around words to
indicate that they are a quotation,
or that they are being considered in
a special way.
redundancyThe unnecessary repetition of words
with the same meaning. The related
adjective is redundant.
reflexive pronounPronoun with the same referent
as the subject of the sentence or
of clause in which it stands. The
English reflexive pronouns have the
suffix -self or -selves.
reflexive verbVerb that can take a reflexive
pronoun as a direct or indirect
object, such as enjoy in He really
enjoyed himself.
regular verbIn English, a verb in which the
past tense and the past participle
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Glossary of grammatical terms
are identical with each other and
formed by adding -d or -ed to the
infinitive, while sometimes also
making other predictable changes.
Examples include bandy, mow, strut
and type.
relative clauseSubordinate (or dependent) clause
that is usually introduced by a
relative pronoun, for example, who
delivers the paper in The boy who
delivers the paper lives in the next
street.
relative pronounAny of a large group of pronouns
that link relative clauses to their
antecedent. The commonest ones
are that, who and which.
reported speechThe use of verbs such as say and tell
to indicate that the writer is quoting
what someone else said.
restrictive clauseSubordinate clause, typically
beginning with that or who, that
identifies or limits its antecedent.
An example is that I chose in The
dress that I chose was full length.
semicolonMark of punctuation (;) that
indicates a pause and is intermediate
in function between a comma and
a colon.
sentenceUnit of language consisting of a
subject and a predicate, either of
which may be present or implied,
that expresses an independent
statement, wish, question,
command, exclamation or request.
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Grammar Guide
sentence adverbAdverb, typically placed at the
beginning of a sentence, that
modifies or expresses some
condition about the entire sentence,
for example, Incredibly in Incredibly,
she believed everything he said.
shortening Abbreviation usually consisting of
just the first few letters of the word,
for example, etc. for et cetera, or deli
for delicatessen.
simple past1. The second principal part
of English verbs, most often
formed by adding -d or -ed to the
infinitive. 2. The finite tense that
uses this form.
simple sentenceSentence with a single main clause
and no subordinate clauses.
singularThe division of grammatical number
that denotes a single thing, as in, for
example, apple, mouse, I, jumps.
split infinitiveInfinitive construction in which
an adverb intervenes between to
and the infinitive, as in He claims to
actually know the king personally.
stative verbVerb that expresses a condition or
state rather than an action, such as
like or believe.
subjectIn grammar, the thing that
a sentence is about. It can be
represented by a noun, a noun
phrase, a pronoun, or something
that is nominalised by the use
of punctuation. An example is
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Glossary of grammatical terms
The floating restaurant in The floating
restaurant has re-opened.
subjectiveAnother name for nominative.
subjunctiveThis mood is used for special
statements that may express
something imagined, wished for, or
possible. An example is were in If
he were to visit, would you go to the
seaside?
sub-modifierAdverb that indicates the intensity,
degree or extent of an adjective
or another adverb, for example,
surprisingly in She drove surprisingly
fast.
subordinate clauseClause that does not constitute an
independent sentence and modifies
the main clause or some part of it.
substantiveTechnical term for noun.
suffixLetter or group of letters added to
the end of a word, such as -less in
waterless.
superlativeThe form of an adjective or adverb
used to indicate the highest or most
extreme degree, ending in -est or
formed by using most in front of the
modifier: fullest, most particular.
syntaxThe set of rules governing the order
of words in phrases, clauses and
sentences. The related adjective is
syntactic.
tenseThe feature of a verb that indicates,
in a general way, when. The simplest
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Grammar Guide
division of English verb tenses is
into past, present and future.
transitive verbVerb that can take a direct object,
such as bash, give, peel and whip.
verbWord that describes an action or
characterises a state or condition.
voiceSet of categories for which verbs
inflect, used to indicate the relation
of the subject to the action of the
verb. English has an active and a
passive voice.
word classAnother term for part of speech.
112
part ii
Vocabulary Builder
114
chapter 7
Choosing the right word
Si je mets bleues après pierres, c’est que bleues
est le mot juste, croyez-moi.
Gustave Flaubert
letter to Charles-Augustin Sainte-Beuve (1862)
The first part of this book focused on some of the more technical
aspects of grammar and usage in English. In this second part,
we move away from such analytic considerations and turn to
words themselves – that is, words as used creatively by writers
for the purposes of expression. This means thinking about the
meaning and resonance of words, and the nuances that shape
the writer’s intended effect.
English has one of the richest and largest vocabularies of
the world’s languages, owing partly to its historically having
come under many linguistic influences – whether Germanic,
French or Latin, or broader global ones.
It may be true that no two English words have precisely the
same meaning. Certainly, many words overlap in sense, and
convey notions that are similar but with marginally different
emphases. Such words are known as synonyms and can be
found in a thesaurus, a tool often recommended for exploring
words and finding inspiration for, or more likely reminding
oneself of, alternative modes of expression.
In this chapter, we list sets of words that have shared
meanings but are used slightly differently. The sets are divided
into three main word classes – adjectives, nouns and verbs.
Writers may find these interesting to browse in pursuit of fresh
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Grammar Guide
and varied language for their purposes – ideally, the below
might even trigger some happy instances of lighting upon
exactly the right word, or mot juste.
Choosing the right adjective
More than any other type of word, adjectives (see chapter 1,
page 19) enable the description of fine shades of meaning. They
are not the largest class of words in English, but they probably
feature the most variants, so having a wide selection of them
at one’s fingertips is vital to being able to fine-tune speech and
writing. Below are sets of adjectives whose meanings closely
overlap. Each adjective is briefly defined, and then examples
are given of how it is used.
Most adjectives have a corresponding adverbial form
ending in -ly. If so, the adverb usually has the same nuances of
meaning as its related adjective. For example, quiet Æ quietly;
stealthy Æ stealthily; stoic Æ stoically. Adjectives also often have
a corresponding noun, again with the same shades of meaning,
ending perhaps with -ness, -ity or -cy. For example, naked Æ
nakedness; efficient Æ efficiency; fragile Æ fragility.
aware, cognizant, conscious, mindful, sensible
having knowledge of the existence of something
aware knowing something either intellectually or intuitively
• I wasn’t aware of any problem. • The leadership is well aware
of the current situation. • I wasn’t aware that I was sitting in the
wrong seat until I saw people nudge each other.
cognizant (formal) having knowledge of something • make
people cognizant of the fact that the committee’s decision will be final
conscious fully appreciating the importance of something
• conscious of the need to make progress • He was conscious that
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Choosing the right word
his predecessor had not lasted long in the job, so he was acting
cautiously.
mindful actively attentive, or deliberately keeping something
in mind • mindful of the need to proceed cautiously • mindful that
the younger children would have to be watched carefully
sensible (formal) keenly aware of something • We are very
sensible of the fairness of your offer.
bad, criminal, delinquent, mischievous, naughty
guilty of wrongdoing or disruptive behaviour
bad term that may apply to a whole range of wrongdoing, from
the most trivial to the most immoral or evil, though usually
reserved for the less serious • He’s a nice little boy, not so bad,
really. • His lie did not seem very bad at the time, but it later came
back to haunt him.
criminal punishable as a crime under the law • Their driving
was at best incompetent and at worst downright criminal. •
criminal behaviour
delinquent antisocial or unlawful, or (formal) neglectful of
a duty, commitment or responsibility • Most of the delinquent
youngsters with whom I worked did not need to be involved in
antisocial activity. • We had two types of delinquent taxpayers:
those who could not pay on time owing to hardship, and those who
refused to pay in response to poor services.
mischievous playfully naughty or troublesome, or (formal)
causing or meant to cause little serious trouble, damage or hurt
• She was just normal – active, sports-loving, fun-loving, a little
mischievous.
naughty mildly badly behaved or disobedient, or (humorous)
mildly indecent or sinful • my naughty little cousin splashed in the
bath • a set of naughty postcards
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Grammar Guide
careful, conscientious, scrupulous, thorough,
meticulous, painstaking, assiduous, punctilious,
finicky, fussy
exercising care and attention in doing something
careful wide-ranging term, suggesting attention to detail and
implying cautiousness in avoiding errors or inaccuracies • The
project was given approval after careful consideration. • the result
of some very careful planning
conscientious showing great care, attention and industriousness
in carrying out a task or role • a very conscientious secretary • Are
you always so conscientious about keeping promises?
scrupulous having or showing careful regard for what is
morally right, or for correct procedure • draw up the sheet with
scrupulous care • I will be absolutely scrupulous in not favouring one
candidate when I moderate the debate.
thorough extremely careful and accurate • a thorough search
• a thorough understanding of programming principles
meticulous extremely careful and precise • meticulous attention
to detail • She pasted the reviews with meticulous care into her
scrapbook.
painstaking involving or showing great care and attention to
detail • years of painstaking research • a lengthy and painstaking
investigation
assiduous undeviating in effort and care • They paid assiduous
attention to the sorting of each submission as the contestants
registered. • He is assiduous in ensuring compliance with the law.
punctilious very careful about the conventions of correct
behaviour and etiquette • She was usually very punctilious about
telling her mother if she was going to be late. • He has always been
punctilious in the exercise of his duties.
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Choosing the right word
finicky difficult to please, and tending to concentrate on small
or unimportant details • He was finicky about how his fish was
seasoned. • finicky car buyers
fussy tending to worry over details or trivial things • The dog
isn’t all that fussy about where he naps. • She’s got a right to be fussy
about the seating plan for the state dinner.
cautious, careful, chary, circumspect, prudent,
vigilant, wary, guarded, cagey
attentive to risk or danger
cautious aware of potential risk and behaving accordingly • his
cautious approach to economic reform • Years of army training had
taught her to be cautious when faced with an unknown situation.
careful taking reasonable care to avoid risks • Be very careful
when you withdraw money from an ATM in full public view.
• I was extra careful not to make any mistakes.
chary cautiously reluctant to act • Why had Janet been so chary of
telling us where she had gone?
circumspect taking into consideration all possible consequences
of an action and so unwilling to take risks • Both men offered
only circumspect answers to my questions. • Government officials
were circumspect about the incident.
prudent showing good judgement or shrewdness • prudent
financial planning for foreseeable expenses • It’s certainly prudent to
use sunscreen if you are out in the midday sun.
vigilant alert and conscious of possible dangers • Doctors
are urging the public to be vigilant about the virus. • A vigilant
neighbour foiled the attempted burglary.
wary showing watchfulness or suspicion • She was always wary
of dogs. • People were becoming more wary about voicing their
opinions in public.
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Grammar Guide
guarded reluctant to share information with others • He was
guarded, and there was a note of scepticism in his tone. • Her
responses to these personal questions were heavily guarded.
cagey (informal) secretive and giving little away • She was
cagey about why she had rejected the offer. • Asked by a comparative
stranger about his personal finances, he was understandably and
sensibly cagey.
cowardly, faint-hearted, spineless, gutless,
­pusillanimous, craven, chicken
lacking in courage
cowardly lacking in courage, or caused by a lack of courage
• too cowardly to admit his mistake • a wicked and cowardly attack
faint-hearted timid and lacking in resolve • The industry’s huge
International Spring Show is not for the faint-hearted.
spineless seriously lacking willpower or strength of character
• The prime minister was criticised as spineless over his U-turn.
• too spineless to stand up to their boss
gutless seriously lacking in courage and determination • They’re
too gutless to oppose the measure in public.
pusillanimous showing a contemptible degree of cowardice
• The general could not of course tolerate pusillanimous conduct in
battle.
craven showing a contemptible degree of cowardice and
weakness of will • an act of craven stupidity • a craven surrender
to pressure
chicken (informal, often used by children and young people)
cowardly, or too scared to do a specific thing • The boy refused to
climb the tree, and got called chicken by the other kids.
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Choosing the right word
dead, deceased, departed, late, lifeless, defunct,
extinct
no longer living, functioning or in existence
dead term describing organisms that are no longer alive,
physical objects that no longer function or exist, and abstract
entities that are no longer valid or relevant • He was dead before
his body hit the floor. • The car battery was dead.
deceased (formal, restricted to people, especially in legal or
other technical contexts, or as a euphemism) no longer living
• the heirs of a deceased partner • His grandmother, now deceased,
hailed from Yorkshire.
departed (literary, restricted to people) no longer living • the
soul of our dear departed brother
late (restricted to people) having died recently or within living
memory • the late George Burns
lifeless not living, or apparently not living • They lay lifeless in
the snow. • They found the deer cold and seemingly lifeless.
defunct no longer operative, valid or functional, or no longer
in existence • attempts to revive a defunct ceasefire • former editorin-chief of a now defunct newspaper
extinct no longer in existence, or no longer active • an animal
that was declared extinct in 1936 • small houses clinging to the
lower slopes of extinct volcanoes
dirty, filthy, grubby, grimy, soiled, squalid, unclean
not clean
dirty marked by dirt or covered in dirt • Diesel engines have very
dirty exhaust emissions. • That year, over a million children died
from diarrhoea spread by dirty water.
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Grammar Guide
filthy extremely or disgustingly dirty • Just look at your shoes –
they’re filthy! • I was flung into a filthy cell with a lot of other poor
wretches.
grubby slightly dirty • a rather grubby handkerchief • Travelling
always made her feel grubby.
grimy heavily ingrained with accumulated dirt • the faint light
from a grimy window • Her face was grimy with tears.
soiled stained or marked, especially during normal use • soiled
linen • His white shirt was a little soiled.
squalid unsanitary and unpleasant • living in squalid conditions
• She lived alone in a squalid boarding house.
unclean dirty or impure, especially in moral or religious
contexts • casting out unclean spirits from people • unclean political
battles
doubtful, uncertain, unsure, in doubt, dubious,
sceptical
feeling doubt or uncertainty
doubtful undecided or feeling hesitant • The council was doubtful
that the public would want to pay for the changes. • She felt doubtful
that their next date would be any more interesting than their first
one had been.
uncertain or unsure lacking certainty or confidence • She
seemed uncertain of her English, and asked for everything to be
repeated. • Some of the biggest names in investment banking are
unsure about the future of the economy.
in doubt feeling uncertain • When in doubt, the jury must acquit
and not convict. • If the umpires are in any doubt about what to do,
they consult with the referee.
dubious doubtful and, often, suspicious • The Mayor was
dubious about exactly what the new alliance planned to do with the
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Choosing the right word
funding. • The food at the back of the refrigerator looked distinctly
dubious.
sceptical questioning the truth or likelihood of something
• Most people are sceptical about get-rich-quick schemes. • I remained
highly sceptical about the results of the survey.
dry, dehydrated, desiccated, arid, parched,
shrivelled
lacking moisture
dry having little or no moisture • prolonged periods of hot, dry
weather • Use an exfoliating cream to remove patches of dry skin.
dehydrated experiencing fluid loss, or preserved by drying
• They were seriously dehydrated after five days without food or
water. • instant foods such as oatmeal and dehydrated soup
desiccated (used of products, especially food) free from
moisture, or preserved by drying • desiccated coconut
arid (used pertaining to land) dry from lack of rain • a plant
that grows in hot, arid climates • the arid Red Sea coast
parched dry from excessive heat or lack of rain • My throat was
parched. • the recent floods in this usually parched region
shrivelled dry, shrunken and wrinkled • an unwatered plant with
sad, shrivelled leaves • His skin was shrivelled like a dried apple.
effective, efficient, effectual, efficacious
producing a result
effective causing a result, especially the desired or intended
result • an effective solution to the water supply problem
efficient capable of achieving the desired result with the
minimum use of resources, time and effort • an efficient use of
personnel
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Grammar Guide
effectual (formal) potentially successful in producing a desired
or intended result • The two countries need to reach an effectual
understanding.
efficacious (formal) having the power to achieve the desired
result, especially an improvement in someone’s physical condition
• Diet may be as efficacious as medication in controlling the condition.
fragile, delicate, frail, flimsy, frangible
easily broken or damaged
fragile not having a strong structure or not made of robust
materials, and therefore easily broken or damaged • protected by
a fragile wooden structure • an ecologically fragile area
delicate similar to fragile; used especially of things that are
beautiful or remarkable because of their fragility • a delicate lace
fabric • delicate fernlike foliage
frail too easily damaged, or not likely to survive rough
treatment • Only one frail hope remained.
flimsy weak and too easily broken, or thin and easily torn • The
bottom fell out of the flimsy carton. • a flimsy folding chair
frangible (technical) brittle, or designed to be easily broken
• glass and other frangible products • frangible aluminium masts
funny, comic, comical, droll, facetious, humorous,
witty, hilarious
causing or intended to cause amusement
funny causing amusement, especially enough to provoke
laughter • funny spontaneous banter • He realised the ad was trying
to be funny, but it went beyond good taste.
comic used in the same way as funny, especially to describe
books, poems or plays • a comic actor • a comic novel about the
difficulties of being different
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Choosing the right word
comical funny to the extent of being absurd, especially if
unintentional • Their dismay was almost comical. • had a comical
rolling walk
droll funny because it is playful or odd, or dryly humorous
• a droll description of a new recruit who had arrived that day
facetious supposed to be funny but ill-timed, inappropriate
or silly • Don’t try to be facetious; it doesn’t suit you. • a facetious
remark that seemed disrespectful
humorous intended to make people laugh • He could keep people
entertained with a seemingly endless fund of jokes and humorous
anecdotes.
witty using words in a clever, inventive, humorous way • He
gave a witty account of their first date. • It is not just informative,
but presented in a witty fashion.
hilarious extremely funny • Just when you think you’re in for a
standard ending, the play surprises you with a hilarious twist.
generous, liberal, magnanimous, munificent,
bountiful
giving readily to others
generous willing to give money, help or time freely • I was
deeply touched by her generous gift. • I’ve seen how generous he is
with his time and what an inspiration he is to young writers.
liberal free with money, time or other assets • During her
lifetime, she was a liberal benefactor to public institutions.
magnanimous very generous, kind or forgiving • She gave him
the disputed point in a magnanimous gesture of fair play. • It is
easy to be magnanimous when you have been as fortunate in life as
I have.
munificent very generous, especially on a grand scale
• She received a munificent sum for books written and yet to be
written.
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Grammar Guide
bountiful (literary) generous, particularly to less fortunate
people • The company was bountiful in its donations to charity.
hard, difficult, strenuous, tough, arduous,
laborious
requiring effort or exertion
hard requiring mental or physical effort or exertion • The work
was always hard and sometimes dangerous. • It is hard to imagine
Paula being afraid of anything.
difficult requiring considerable planning or effort • Some
of the questions on this paper are too difficult for the children.
• Improvements in this area may turn out to be the most difficult to
achieve.
strenuous requiring physical effort, energy, stamina or strength
• strenuous physical activity • Let’s have those who are the fittest do
the more strenuous tasks.
tough requiring great effort or strength, often emotionally
• Tough decisions await the administration, not least over public
spending. • It will be tough for him on his own, but I think
he’ ll cope.
arduous requiring hard work or continuous physical effort
• a long, arduous task • He left the comforts of the town to make the
arduous journey into the interior.
laborious requiring unwelcome, often boring, effort and hard
work • slow, laborious hand-picking of fruit • Producing charts and
graphs without the appropriate software is a laborious process.
impassive, apathetic, phlegmatic, stolid, stoic,
unmoved
showing no emotional response or interest
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Choosing the right word
impassive showing no outward sign of emotion, especially
on the face • a rare smile that transformed his usually impassive
face • The defendant was impassive as the jury announced its
verdict.
apathetic not taking any interest in anything, or not bothering
to do anything • The political turmoil has left voters apathetic.
phlegmatic generally unemotional and difficult to arouse
• Although she was disappointed at the news, her response was
phlegmatic.
stolid solemn, unemotional, and not easily excited or upset
• He was a stolid, dignified judge, who spoke in deliberate and
measured tones.
stoic showing admirable patience and endurance in the face
of adversity without complaining or getting upset • a stoic
acceptance of the lack of job security in the industry • He was a stoic
child, unfazed by the hospital’s procedures.
unmoved showing no emotion, surprise or excitement when it
would normally be expected • The country’s head of state appeared
unmoved by widespread international criticism of her policies. • His
desperate pleading left her unmoved.
intelligent, bright, quick, smart, clever, able, gifted
having the ability to learn and understand easily
intelligent having a highly developed ability to learn facts
and skills and apply them • a highly intelligent group of engineers
• We’re looking for trainees who are intelligent, inquisitive and
passionate about their work.
bright showing an ability to think, learn or respond quickly,
especially used of younger people • He’s a bright and unusually
focused little boy. • lucky to work with a team of very bright
colleagues
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Grammar Guide
quick alert, perceptive and able to respond quickly • She’s quick:
you’ll only need to explain it to her once.
smart (informal) showing intelligence and mental alertness
• too smart to be taken in by the hype • He’s smart, but he should
have listened to their advice.
clever having sharp mental abilities, sometimes suggesting
showy or suspect motives • As a bridge player, he’s very clever at
anticipating his opponents’ moves. • clever use of the media to gain
public sympathy
able capable or talented • an exceptionally able manager who gets
results from her team
gifted talented, especially artistically or creatively; also
used in educational circles of children who are exceptionally
intelligent • acclaimed as an exceptionally gifted pianist from the
time of his first solo recital • take on the challenge of teaching the
gifted students
legal, lawful, decriminalised, legalised, legitimate,
licit
permitted, recognised or required by law
legal established or allowed under the law • It is perfectly legal
to charge a reasonable interest rate on unpaid accounts. • Your spouse
will still have a legal right to inherit from you.
lawful a less common word meaning legal • The rate increases
were found to be reasonable under the regulations and therefore
lawful. • He believed he had lawful authority to be on the property.
decriminalised no longer categorised as a criminal offence
• Possession of marijuana in small amounts is decriminalised in the
Netherlands.
legalised to create a new law declaring something to be legal
• casino-style and other legalised gambling
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Choosing the right word
legitimate correct according to the law, or having official status
defined by law • The bill of sale is your proof that you sold your old
car in a legitimate business transaction. • He was declared the king’s
legitimate heir.
licit (formal) a rarely used word meaning legal • Laws vary for
licit and illicit drugs.
living, alive, animate, extant
having life or existence
living having life; not dead or non-existent • Deserts harbour
very few living things. • one of our greatest living film stars
alive not dead, or (of inanimate things) still in existence • Is
your granddad still alive? • An inspiring teacher, he kept Latin
alive at a time when it had ceased to be taught in many schools.
animate used especially to distinguish living animals and
plants from inanimate objects such as rocks, water or buildings
• The pronoun ‘they’ may refer to animate beings, or to objects.
extant still in existence or alive; surviving • The crypt is the
earliest extant part of the cathedral.
lucky, fortunate, happy, providential, serendipitous
experiencing or relating to advantage or good fortune
lucky bringing or experiencing success or advantage, especially
when this seems to happen by chance • You’re lucky she didn’t see
you do that.
fortunate bringing or experiencing unexpectedly great
success or advantage • I feel very fortunate to have such great
colleagues.
happy resulting in something pleasant or welcome • By a happy
coincidence, we already knew each other.
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Grammar Guide
providential happening at a favourable time • It was
providential that a runner happened to pass just at that moment.
serendipitous favourable and happening entirely by chance
• Our serendipitous discovery of the chemical’s medicinal properties
led us to the patent office.
mean, nasty, vile, low, base, ignoble
below normal standards of decency
mean unkind or malicious • All he does is give me a hard time.
He’s got to be the meanest man I’ve ever had the misfortune to work
for.
nasty showing spitefulness, malice or ill-nature • She’s got a
nasty streak, a nasty snide way of putting people down.
vile despicable or shameful • a vile exploiter of his fellow human
beings • a vile thing to say
low without principles or morals • How could he be so low as to
make political mileage out of last week’s tragedy?
base (formal) lacking proper social values or moral principles
• appeal to people’s baser instincts
ignoble dishonourable and contrary to the high standards of
conduct expected • When even our best and brightest behave so
ignobly, we face a bleak future indeed.
moving, pathetic, pitiful, poignant, touching, heartwarming, heartrending
arousing emotion
moving causing deep feelings, especially of sadness or
compassion • a very moving description of life for children in these
orphanages • the deeply moving funeral of a friend who had died
young
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Choosing the right word
pathetic arousing feelings of compassion and pity, often
centred on someone who is vulnerable, helpless or unfortunate
• There was a pathetic dignity about the old mare as she stood there,
patient and undemanding. • He looked so pathetic: cold, frightened
and alone.
pitiful arousing compassion and pity, or arousing contempt or
derision • a picture of a pitiful starving kitten • a pitiful sum of
money
poignant causing strong, often bittersweet feelings of sadness,
pity or regret • the opera’s most poignant moment • The girl died
just three days after our poignant pictures were taken.
touching causing feelings of warmth, sympathy and tenderness
• He has been a tremendous support to me and my family in many
small and touching ways. • You have a touching faith in your
employer’s generosity!
heart-warming inspiring warm or kindly feelings, usually by
showing life and human nature in a positive and reassuring
light • It is heart-warming that so many youngsters would like to
see older members of society enjoying a better standard of living. •
The former director recently found a heart-warming way to repay
his childhood nanny – he helped build her a new house.
heartrending causing intense sadness or distress, especially
arousing sympathy for someone else’s suffering or hardship
• heartrending handmade posters depicting victims who are still
missing • These refugees often have heartrending stories to tell.
naked, bare, nude, undressed, unclothed
devoid of clothes or covering
naked not covered or concealed, especially having no clothing
on any part of the body • a ceiling decorated with frescoes of naked
cherubs
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Grammar Guide
bare without the usual furnishings or decorations, or not
covered by clothing • The three men sat around a bare wooden
table. • have bare legs in summer
nude not wearing any clothes at all, especially in artistic
contexts • the nude statue in the courtyard
undressed not wearing any or many clothes, used especially
when clothes have just been removed or are about to be
put on • The children were undressed and ready to put on their
nightclothes.
unclothed wearing little or no clothing • a window full of
unclothed mannequins • He felt awkwardly unclothed in just a towel.
necessary, essential, vital, indispensable,
requisite, needed
describes something that is required
necessary required to achieve a desired result, or by authority
or convention • Our son says he’ll get a bank loan if necessary.
• Repairs are necessary to ensure everyone’s health and safety.
essential of the highest importance for achieving something
• The essential things for a good meal are one tasty ingredient and
some imagination. • It is essential that a social worker review the
home environment before the patient’s discharge.
vital extremely important to the survival or continuing
effectiveness of something • The MP’s support for the negotiations
was vital to their success. • The neighbourhood watch has a vital role
to play in reducing crime.
indispensable essential, or extremely desirable or useful • No
one is truly indispensable, although it is hard to get ahead without a
trusted second-in-command. • Online resources have become almost
indispensable to history teachers.
requisite (formal) necessary for a specific purpose • The
UN resolution fell only four votes short of achieving the requisite
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Choosing the right word
two-thirds majority. • We ended up rejecting the majority of
applicants because they didn’t have the requisite skills.
needed required or desired • Further research is needed to confirm
these findings.
new, novel, innovative, fresh, newfangled,
original
never experienced before or having recently come into
being
new recently invented, discovered, made, bought, experienced,
or not previously known or encountered • new research in AI
technologies • over 125,000 species of flora and fauna, many of
which were entirely new to science
novel new and different, often in an interesting, unusual
or inventive way • The company came up with a novel idea for
reaching coffee drinkers. • The bank will pioneer a novel way of
detecting credit crime.
innovative new and creative, especially in the way something
is done • a programme to support flexible, innovative transport
alternatives
fresh excitingly or refreshingly different from what has been
done or experienced previously • I want a completely fresh
approach. • a fresh start in a different city
newfangled puzzlingly or worryingly new or different, especially
seeming gimmicky or overcomplicated • one of those newfangled
small cameras that do almost everything for you • A traditionalist at
heart, he is wary of newfangled ideas.
original unique and not derived from anything else •When
we analysed the report more closely, we realised that the ideas were
not so original after all.• Leonardo da Vinci’s highly original use
of light
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Grammar Guide
obscure, abstruse, recondite, arcane, cryptic,
enigmatic
difficult to understand
obscure difficult to understand because it is expressed in a
complicated way or because it involves areas of knowledge
or study that are not known to most people • a rather obscure
branch of mathematics called graph theory • a notion that may at
first seem somewhat obscure
abstruse not easy to understand, often because it involves
specialist knowledge or is expressed in specialist language
• academic books with abstruse titles • He is so occupied with
abstruse ideas that he is incapable of coping with everyday
activities.
recondite requiring a high degree of scholarship or specialist
knowledge to be understood • an excellent professor with an
obvious knowledge of an often recondite subject
arcane requiring information that is secret, or known only to a
few people, in order to be understood • The current pay structure
is arcane and outdated. • arcane symbols were drawn around the
entrance to the ancient tomb
cryptic deliberately mysterious or ambiguous and seeming to
have a hidden meaning • cryptic clues • a fax worded in cryptic
language so that others could not understand
enigmatic having a quality of mystery and ambiguity that
makes it difficult to understand or interpret • the enigmatic smile
of the Mona Lisa
esoteric understood by or intended for only an initiated few
• dictionaries for more esoteric or specialist domains • an esoteric
lecture about the origins of black holes
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Choosing the right word
old-fashioned, outdated, antiquated, archaic,
obsolete, passé, antediluvian
no longer in current use or no longer considered
fashionable
old-fashioned no longer considered fashionable or suitable
because of changes in taste or technology, or nostalgically
favouring or maintaining the style of a former time • They had
very old-fashioned notions of gender.
outdated no longer relevant to modern life because it has been
superseded by something better, more fashionable, or more
technologically advanced • With the advent of streaming, my
old CD player is starting to look outdated. • a hopelessly outdated
computer system
antiquated regarded as in need of updating or replacing,
though still functioning or in use • How can we make any
progress with these antiquated notions about what our mission is?
archaic belonging to a much earlier period of time, often
suggesting a lack of relevance to modern life • Opponents argue
that the practice is archaic and degrading.
obsolete superseded by something new, and in some cases
therefore no longer in use • a software tool for managing data
that renders everything else obsolete
passé dismissed as no longer current or fashionable • Will
attaching ‘e-’ to the front of a word soon become passé?
antediluvian extremely old-fashioned and outdated • The old
rotary dial phone must seem antediluvian to my grandson. • He
condemned what he called antediluvian attitudes to work practices.
periodic, intermittent, occasional, sporadic
recurring over a period of time
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Grammar Guide
periodic recurring or reappearing from time to time • carry out
periodic inspections • El Niño, a periodic weather pattern
intermittent occurring at irregular intervals • The pain was
usually intermittent, although in some patients it was continuous.
• Thunder, lightning and intermittent rain delayed the start of the
tournament.
occasional occurring infrequently at irregular intervals • Her
family kept in contact by email, social media and occasional visits.
• He sat silent, emitting only an occasional suppressed giggle.
sporadic occurring irregularly and unpredictably • Despite a
truce announced last month, sporadic fighting continues. • Prior to
the mid-1960s, pollution issues received only limited and sporadic
attention from the general public.
pliable, ductile, malleable, elastic, pliant, plastic
able to be bent or moulded
pliable flexible and easily bent or moulded • good-quality,
pliable leather • The pliable minds of youngsters are easily influenced
by the media.
ductile (of metals) easily drawn out into a long continuous
wire or hammered into thin sheets • The alloy possesses a high
proportion of tin to copper, giving the metal special ductile qualities.
malleable (of metals or similar substances) able to be shaped
without breaking or cracking • Iron possesses a very low carbon
content, which makes it tough and malleable.
elastic able to be stretched without breaking and then to return
to an original shape • An elastic material such as rubber is easily
pulled into long strings. • Add enough water to form a soft elastic
dough and knead until smooth.
pliant supple and easily bent • To execute this move, the wrist
must be pliant and completely relaxed.
plastic easily shaped, moulded or modelled • plastic clay
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Choosing the right word
proud, arrogant, conceited, egotistical, vain
pleased with oneself
proud justifiably pleased and satisfied with one’s achievements
or similar circumstance, or self-satisfied and having an
exaggerated sense of self-worth • We were very proud of our DIY
project. • Some people may be too proud to accept help, even in times
of great need.
arrogant feeling or showing self-importance and contempt for
others • What made this arrogant man assume that I would be
interested in him? • Sometimes he displays not just extreme selfconfidence, but an almost arrogant attitude.
conceited showing excessive satisfaction with your personal
qualities or abilities • She was less brilliant than her sister and,
perhaps as a consequence, also less conceited. • I don’t know how
to say this without sounding conceited, but my son is something
special.
egotistical having an inflated sense of self-importance,
especially when this is shown through constantly talking or
thinking about yourself • a documentary that portrays her as
egotistical and hungry for publicity • an intensely egotistical and
unfeeling man
vain excessively self-satisfied, especially suggesting that
someone is overly concerned and pleased with his or her own
personal appearance • He was vain about his looks, and even more
vain about his physique. • Being vain, she did not want to be seen
without make-up.
sarcastic, ironic, sardonic, satirical, caustic
intended or intending to mock
sarcastic characterised by words that mean the opposite of
what they seem and are designed to mock • She cared little for
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Grammar Guide
his sarcastic jokes. • ‘Nice shot,’ she said sarcastically, as I missed the
waste-paper basket.
ironic deliberately stating the opposite of the truth, usually
with the intention of being amusing • The nickname Charles the
Bald may not have been descriptive but ironic, implying Charles
was exceptionally hairy.
sardonic mocking and cynical or disdainful, though not
deliberately hurtful • a sardonic smile • He gradually evolved into
a more polished politician – his sardonic humour emerged, and his
views became more refined.
satirical using ridicule to criticise faults, especially in the arts
or politics • a satirical TV puppet show • He was a sharp, satirical
observer of the social scene.
caustic harsh and bitter and intended to mock, offend or belittle
• a barrage of witty and caustic editorials • His caustic style made
him the most controversial American sports commentator of his time.
secret, clandestine, covert, furtive, stealthy,
surreptitious
involving concealment
secret known by only a few people and intentionally withheld
from general knowledge • supported by a majority in a secret
ballot • The find was kept secret so that it could be professionally
excavated by the archaeology department.
clandestine concealed, usually because illegal or unauthorised
• It appeared he was having a clandestine relationship with a
married woman. • clandestine arms deals
covert not intended to be known, seen or found out, often for
official reasons • a covert police operation • a covert intelligence
and sabotage campaign
furtive cautious and careful in order to escape notice • Sandra
was whispering to her neighbour, with occasional furtive glances in
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Choosing the right word
Tom’s direction. • The stranger looked around, then walked in an
oddly furtive manner towards the gate.
stealthy done quietly, slowly and cautiously in order to escape
notice • Casting a stealthy glance around, he leant forward and
lowered his voice.
surreptitious done in a concealed or underhand way to escape
notice • surreptitious checking for clues to the thief ’s identity • take
a surreptitious look at the name on the envelope
silent, quiet, reticent, taciturn, uncommunicative
not speaking or not saying much
silent not speaking or communicating at a particular time,
especially through choice, or not inclined to speak much • Both
men were silent for a moment. • He’s a rather silent type, not fond
of small talk.
quiet not inclined to speak much, often because of shyness,
or not speaking or communicating at a particular time • Keep
quiet and sit still, would you? • Dan, who was nearly five years old,
was very bright, but quiet.
reticent unwilling to communicate very much or talk freely,
or to reveal all the facts about something • The usually reticent
athlete surprised us by sharing his views on the rest of the season.
• The boss of the cosmetics empire was reticent when it came to
discussing his business philosophy.
taciturn habitually reserved in speech and manner • Both
men were taciturn and found it difficult to put ideas into words.
• The team’s coach, never particularly talkative, has been even more
taciturn than usual.
uncommunicative not willing to say much, or tending not to
say much • Fred was somewhat reserved and uncommunicative
concerning his recent experiences.
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Grammar Guide
talkative, chatty, gossipy, garrulous, loquacious
talking a lot
talkative willing to talk readily and at length • The normally
talkative champion refused to be drawn on his prospects for the
tournament. • Danny was in a talkative mood.
chatty talking freely about unimportant things in a friendly
way • My niece was her usual chatty self, talking about her hamster.
gossipy talking with relish about other people and their
lives, often unkindly or maliciously • articles ranging from the
informative to the gossipy • a gossipy neighbour
garrulous excessively or pointlessly talkative • a garrulous host
with a thousand stories to tell to any guest who would listen
loquacious tending to talk a great deal • Usually loquacious, she
was so surprised that she was momentarily at a loss for words. • Her
loquacious older brother was talking enthusiastically about the new
venture.
temporary, fleeting, passing, transitory,
ephemeral, evanescent, short-lived
lasting only a short time
temporary lasting or designed to last for a limited time • The
flash caused only temporary injury to the man’s sight. • In some
organisations, temporary jobs offer a step on the way to regular
employment.
fleeting very brief or rapid • a fleeting moment of happiness
• Most reviewers predicted the book would enjoy only fleeting success.
passing superficial and not long-lasting • This man had no
feelings for her other than a passing interest. • Are recycled clothes
just this year’s passing fad?
transitory existing only for a short time • the transitory nature
of stardom
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Choosing the right word
ephemeral lasting for a short time and leaving no permanent
trace • Fashions are ephemeral; new ones regularly drive out the
old.
evanescent (literary) disappearing after a short time and soon
forgotten • a shimmering, evanescent bubble
short-lived lasting only for a short time • The actor, who earlier
this year vowed never to go on stage again, has been tempted out of
his short-lived retirement.
thin, lean, slim, slender, emaciated, scraggy,
scrawny, skinny, svelte
without much flesh, the opposite of fat
thin having little body fat • I’d forgotten how thin her face has
become.
lean muscular and fit-looking • He had a typical runner’s
physique, short and lean.
slim pleasingly thin and well-proportioned • Tall and slim, the
ballerina’s body had the tautness of an athlete’s.
slender gracefully and attractively thin • A tall, slender model
walked down the fashion-show runway.
emaciated unhealthily thin, usually because of illness or
starvation • Aid officials in the war zone reported seeing seriously
undernourished, even emaciated people.
scraggy or scrawny unpleasantly or unhealthily thin and bony
• A scraggy old cat lives in the barn. • A dog with a scrawny look
rooted around in the bins.
skinny extremely thin, or tight-fitting • A new-born chimpanzee
seems a skinny little thing compared with a human baby. • He was
wearing skinny jeans.
svelte slender and elegant • She was svelte and sophisticated in
her little black dress and pearls.
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Grammar Guide
verbal, spoken, oral
expressed in words
verbal using words, especially spoken words • a stream of verbal
abuse • Body language conveys meaning often missed in merely
verbal communication.
spoken expressed with the voice • the development of students’
understanding of the spoken word • Written language needs to be
more ‘correct’ than spoken language.
oral expressed in spoken, as opposed to written, form • Assessment
will be by written essays and an oral examination. • The committee’s
findings relied on oral histories and journals, DNA evidence and
genealogical records.
unlawful, illegal, illicit, wrongful
not in accordance with laws or rules
unlawful not permitted by the law or by the rules of an
organisation or religion, or not recognised as valid by those
laws or rules • The police officer was aware that possessing a knife
was not per se an unlawful act. • This change makes it unlawful for
employers to have different compulsory retirement ages for men and
women.
illegal contravening a specific written statute, rule or law,
especially a criminal law • drug smuggling and other illegal
activities • Under the new ruling, it is illegal to gather in groups of
more than six people.
illicit not permitted by the law, suggesting especially that
something is considered morally wrong or unacceptable • illicit
weapons and drugs • The divorce papers cite his numerous illicit
affairs.
wrongful (often used in civil lawsuits) unjust, unfair or
against conscience, but not punishable by criminal law • the
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Choosing the right word
wrong ful use of confidential information • awarded damages for
wrong ful arrest
unruly, intractable, recalcitrant, obstreperous,
wilful, wild, wayward
not submitting to control
unruly boisterous, disruptive and difficult to control or
discipline • Police tried to subdue the more unruly elements of the
crowd. • unruly behaviour
intractable (formal) strong-willed and refusing to be
controlled, or difficult to solve • The new party leader proved to
be even more intractable than his predecessor. • The area has some
intractable social problems.
recalcitrant obstinate and defiant in refusing to submit to
discipline or control • an armed force sufficient to enforce the law
on recalcitrant individuals • When she spoke, it was in the voice that
she reserved for recalcitrant children.
obstreperous noisy, difficult to control, and uncooperative
• an incident between a shop assistant and an obstreperous customer
wilful stubbornly disregarding the opinions or advice of others
• His wilful refusal to listen to the other side was infuriating. • the
challenge of raising a wilful child
wild showing a general lack of control or restraint • When we
were young and inexperienced, we did some rather wild things.
wayward disobedient and uncontrollable • The boy’s mother
worked hard to keep track of her sometimes wayward son. • It was
years before I gave up trying to change his wayward lifestyle.
unwilling, reluctant, disinclined, averse, hesitant,
loath
lacking the desire to do something
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Grammar Guide
unwilling not prepared to do something • The authorities seem
unable or unwilling to take tough action. • He put down rebellions
viciously, in an attempt to impose his harsh rule on his unwilling
subjects.
reluctant showing no enthusiasm for doing something and only
doing it if forced • Although elderly, she valued her independence
and was often reluctant to accept help.
disinclined showing a lack of enthusiasm for something rather
than a strong objection to it • It will probably be a long session, so
I’m disinclined to go this time.
averse (formal) strongly opposed to or disliking something
• I’m not averse to putting it all in writing if you think it will help.
• averse to marriage
hesitant not eager to do something because of uncertainty or
lack of confidence • Throughout the first set, both players looked
tense and were hesitant to attack. • She felt hesitant about getting
involved.
loath very unwilling to do something • Today’s Hollywood
producers seem loath to take chances on newcomers. • I’m loath to
admit it to her for fear of what she’ll say.
usual, customary, habitual, routine, wonted
often or frequently done, used, bought or consumed
usual normal, common or typical • He made his way home by his
usual route. • Mum responded in the usual way.
customary conforming to regular or typical practice • It’s
customary for us to give presents to everyone in the family. • He
responded with his customary good humour.
habitual done so often or repeatedly that the behaviour or
practice has become ingrained • a habitual slouch • He addressed
the meeting with his habitual frankness.
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Choosing the right word
routine normal, regular and usual in every way, even
predictable, repetitive and monotonous • nurses who are engaged
in routine work on the wards • They found a fault in the fuel supply
during a routine check.
wonted (formal) usual or typical • Briefly overcome with emotion,
she soon resumed her wonted composure.
vacant, unoccupied, empty, void
lacking contents or occupants
vacant without occupants or contents, often temporarily
• positions left vacant by teachers • In this part of the country, there
is plenty of vacant land. • vacant hotel rooms
unoccupied not lived in by anybody, or currently without
occupants • The building was unoccupied at the time of the fire.
• You can use the unoccupied desk over there.
empty not containing or holding anything, or without
occupants • She took a last hasty gulp of coffee and put the empty
cup on the counter. • Cinemas showing the film were almost empty.
void having no contents, or having no incumbent, occupant or
holder • void spaces between the particles • She was without rental
income during the period the property was void.
valid, cogent, convincing, reasonable, sound
worthy of acceptance or credence
valid having a solid foundation or justification • Mrs Smith
raises a valid point in her letter. • We are required to notify all other
parties unless there is a valid reason why such notice should not be
given.
cogent forceful and convincing to the intellect and reason • You
presented a cogent analysis of the situation. • The way they argued
their case was neither logical nor cogent.
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Grammar Guide
convincing likely to overcome doubts and win support
• Your explanation leaves questions unanswered and is not wholly
convincing. • I need to see convincing evidence before I can accept
this theory.
reasonable acceptable and in keeping with common sense • We
must show reasonable grounds for wanting to dismiss the employee.
• It seemed a reasonable assumption at the time.
sound based on good sense and acceptable reasoning, and
worthy of approval • Her portfolio is diversified in accordance
with sound investment policy. • He offers some sound advice on road
safety.
weak, feeble, infirm, debilitated, decrepit,
enervated
lacking physical strength or energy
weak not physically fit or mentally strong • By this time I felt too
weak to think rationally. • I’m just a weak fool who can’t do what
he knows he should.
feeble lacking physical or mental strength or health • Weak
from loss of blood, he made a feeble attempt to stand.
infirm lacking strength as a result of long illness or advanced
years • elderly and infirm people • Increasingly infirm, she was
unable to visit us this year.
debilitated with strength and energy temporarily diminished
as a result of illness or physical exertion • feeling thoroughly
debilitated after his surgery • Rescuers found the pair in a halffrozen and debilitated condition.
decrepit (informal) made weak by advanced years • His body
may have grown increasingly decrepit, but his mind remains sharp.
enervated (literary) made weak and tired by physical or mental
exertion • The morning outside in the intense heat made us feel faint
and enervated. • enervated by worry and the long ordeal of waiting
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Choosing the right word
wet, damp, moist, dank, humid, sodden, saturated,
soaking, sopping
not dry
wet term used to describe everything from paint that is not
yet quite dry to something that is completely covered in water
• a wet sponge • I was wet through but completely unharmed.
damp slightly wet, especially undesirably so • The mattress was
too damp to sleep on.
moist slightly wet, usually desirably so • a rich moist cake
dank (of a place) unpleasantly damp and cold and usually with
a bad smell • The walls of the cave were cold, dank and rather
slimy.
humid (of air) having a high water content, often also
suggesting accompanying heat • the humid swamps of Florida
sodden extremely wet and heavy with retained moisture
• Torrential rain left their clothes and packs sodden.
saturated penetrated with moisture and thoroughly soaked
• There is no indication that farmers would be able to work the
saturated fields even if the weather were drier.
soaking (informal) extremely and undesirably wet • After he had
walked half a mile in driving rain, his shoes were soaking wet.
sopping (informal) extremely and undesirably wet • a tangle of
sopping hair
widespread, prevalent, rife, epidemic, universal
occurring over a wide area
widespread existing or happening in many places, or affecting
many people • This graceful antelope was once widespread in North
Africa. • Drugs in sport are becoming a much more widespread
problem.
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Grammar Guide
prevalent occurring commonly or widely as a dominant feature
• the prevalent public mood • These diseases are prevalent among
young children.
rife full of or very common, especially in reference to something
undesirable • Looting was rife in the region. • The City was rife
with rumours of takeovers.
epidemic spreading more quickly and more extensively than
expected • Bribery in the country was reported to have reached
epidemic proportions.
universal affecting the whole world, a whole country, or
everyone in a large group or wide area • His decision was met
with almost universal condemnation, even from those who had
earlier supported him. • Mobile phones have become a universal
feature of life.
wordy, verbose, long-winded, rambling, prolix,
diffuse
using too many words or not concisely expressed
wordy using an excessive number of words in writing or speech
• Avoid being wordy in memos: stay brief and to the point.
verbose expressed in language that is wordy and not precise
• He recently finished writing his memoirs which, at 1,088 pages,
are just as verbose as his endless political speeches.
long-winded tediously wordy in speech or writing • a longwinded question • The records were disappointingly terse in respect
of important topics, and infuriatingly long-winded when it came
to trivial ones.
rambling excessively long with many changes of subject
• a rambling fifteen-page letter • He told a long, rambling story to
which he forgot the punchline.
prolix tiresomely wordy • This prolix style will put readers off.
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Choosing the right word
diffuse lacking organisation and conciseness • His ideas were
so diffuse I couldn’t really understand what he was saying. • the
conflicting, volatile and diffuse demands of different political groups
Choosing the right noun
(see chapter 1, pages 4) are the largest class of words in
English and, like adjectives, are rich in synonyms. Precision
in using nouns is important for both accuracy and style, so it’s
helpful to have a selection of different, but related, nouns at
one’s disposal.
Below are thirty-one sets of nouns that – in at least one
of their main senses – share the same core meaning but have
slightly different nuances.
nouns
ability, skill, competence, aptitude, capacity,
capability
necessary skill, knowledge or experience to do something
ability natural tendency to do something successfully or well
• Her first attempt at the hurdles course already demonstrated her
unusual ability for the sport. • Honeybees show a remarkable ability
to respond collectively to outside stimuli.
skill ability to do something well, gained through training or
experience • She made all the arrangements with consummate skill
and professionalism. • good communication skills
competence ability that has been developed, measured against
a standard • professional competence built up over the preceding
twenty years
aptitude natural tendency to do something well, especially
one that can be further developed • The students’ aptitude for
mechanical design is clear from the robot they made.
capacity mental or physical ability • his youthful energy and
capacity for hard work • limited capacity to sustain an interest in
politics
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Grammar Guide
capability power or practical ability to do something • Do they
have the capability to cover such a large service area? • the relationship
between a company’s size and its technological capabilities
anger, annoyance, irritation, resentment,
indignation, fury, rage, wrath, ire
feeling of strong displeasure in response to an assumed
injury
anger strong feeling of grievance and displeasure • His face
turned red with anger. • I didn’t want to face their anger.
annoyance mild anger and impatience • a source of annoyance
to him • I couldn’t find my credit card, much to the annoyance of the
people queueing behind me.
irritation impatience and exasperation • reply with ill-concealed
irritation • a sign of his intense irritation with the bureaucracy he
was up against
resentment aggrieved feelings caused by a sense of unfair
treatment • The policy of reducing overtime provoked bitter
resentment throughout the workforce. • Try to overcome your feelings
of resentment at not being chosen and move on.
indignation anger because something seems unfair or
unreasonable • The suggestion that she could perhaps have worked
harder was met with indignation.
fury violent anger • Their eyes were fixed on each other in cold fury.
• Fury at the rejection welled up in him.
rage sudden and extreme anger • jealous rage • When the boy
clumsily dropped the tray, Toby flew into a rage.
wrath strong anger, often with a desire for revenge • the wrath
of God • I don’t want to incur the wrath of my manager by changing
the plan.
ire (literary) strong anger • This decision drew the ire of rights
activists.
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Choosing the right word
answer, rejoinder, reply, response, retort, riposte
thing said, written or done in acknowledgment of a
question or remark, or in reaction to a situation
answer reaction, usually written or spoken, to a question,
communication or situation • give the right answer • She searched
for an appropriate answer to Jason’s question.
rejoinder (formal) sharp, critical, angry or clever reply, usually
spoken • ‘Of course the school is to blame,’ came the parents’ angry
rejoinder.
reply answer or reaction to a question, communication or
request • a written reply to our letter • ‘How do you know that?’ she
asked, but her friend only giggled in reply.
response spoken or written answer, or a reaction to a situation
• Could I have your response by Wednesday? • His comments sparked
an angry response in the press. • a steady improvement in ambulance
response times
retort sharp spoken response, often to criticism • Polly managed
to suppress a cutting retort.
riposte quick or witty reply, usually spoken • I never manage to
deliver a riposte at the time, but always think of one later.
backer, angel, guarantor, patron, sponsor
person who provides financial support
backer someone who gives moral or financial support • The
project’s main backer has withdrawn his support.
angel someone who provides financial support for an enterprise,
for example, a theatrical venture • Without the investment of
West End angels, many shows would never open.
guarantor someone who gives a legal undertaking to be
responsible for another person’s debts or obligations • My
mother acted as guarantor for the loan.
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patron someone who gives financial or moral support to
another person, an institution or a charity, especially in the
arts • monarchs were great patrons of the arts • A wealthy patron
brought the young opera singer to this country and paid for his
music lessons.
sponsor person or organisation that contributes money to help
fund an event, usually in return for publicity, or gives money to
a person taking part in a fundraising activity • look for sponsors
for a charity concert • We would like to thank our sponsors for
donating the prizes.
beginner, apprentice, novice
person who has not acquired the necessary experience or
skills to do something
beginner someone who has just started to learn or do something
• classes for both beginners and advanced students • a course that
teaches beginners the basics of drawing
apprentice someone who is being taught the skills of a trade
over an agreed period • become an apprentice electrician
novice someone with no previous experience or skill in
an activity undertaken • a political novice working on his first
campaign • a ski trail for novices
candidate, contender, contestant, aspirant,
­applicant, entrant
person who is seeking to be chosen for something or to
win something
candidate someone who is being considered for a job, grant or
prize, running for election, or taking part in an examination
• the Liberal candidate •candidates for the newly created supervisory
posts
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contender competitor, especially a person who has a good
chance of winning • a contender for the best supporting actor
award • She is emerging as a strong contender for the presidency.
contestant someone who takes part in a contest or competitive
event • a contestant on a popular TV quiz show • To win, the
contestant must score eleven points.
aspirant someone aspiring to distinction or advancement
• another aspirant to the peerage • a challenge from a rival aspirant
to the role
applicant someone who has formally applied to be a candidate
for something • the hiring manager will choose eight applicants to
interview • It’s claimed that the company is turning away hundreds
of job applicants.
entrant someone who enters a competition or examination
• I was the only entrant, so the event was cancelled.
courage, bravery, fearlessness, nerve, guts, pluck,
mettle
personal resoluteness in the face of danger or difficulties
courage ability to show strength and determination, whether
physical, mental or moral, against a wide range of difficulties
or dangers • a supreme act of courage • It took courage to speak out
against the proposal.
bravery ability to deal with pain, challenge or danger without
showing fear • She was awarded the George Cross for her bravery.
• A friend paid tribute to his bravery throughout his long illness.
fearlessness extreme lack of fear in the face of dangers or
challenges • a police officer displaying grit, fearlessness and devotion
to duty • We walked across the viaduct with the fearlessness of the
young.
nerve coolness, steadiness and self-assurance • He didn’t have
the nerve to confront me. • She almost lost her nerve and backed out.
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guts (slang) strength of character and boldness • It takes a lot
of guts to get back to normal activities after such a terrible injury.
• Why don’t they have the guts to tackle the problem?
pluck resolution and willingness to continue struggling against
the odds • Very few people have the pluck to stand up to a huge
corporation. • With a sizable dose of pluck, he managed to secure an
interview.
mettle spirited determination • The match today will test their
mettle. • Only time will tell if she has the mettle to rise to the challenge.
dislike, distaste, hatred, disgust, loathing,
repugnance, abhorrence, animosity, antipathy,
aversion, revulsion
feeling of not liking someone or something
dislike attitude or feeling of aversion, disapproval or distaste
• a dislike for sudden change • Their cat took a dislike to me and
stalked away.
distaste mild dislike, mainly of behaviour and activities • He
wrinkled his nose in distaste at the rubbish in the park. • a distaste
for horror films
hatred or hate intense dislike or hostility • verbal expressions of
hatred • It was an inflammatory speech designed to stoke hate.
disgust feeling of horrified and sickened disapproval • He
pointed in disgust to the animal’s filthy cage.
loathing intense dislike • A passionate loathing of materialism is
evident in his writing. • I developed an irrational loathing for the
song after having heard it repeatedly.
repugnance strong disgust, mainly directed at behaviour and
activities • He expressed his repugnance at the motiveless assault.
• international repugnance at the past week’s violence
abhorrence feeling of aversion or intense disapproval • our deep
and abiding abhorrence of social injustice
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animosity feeling of hostility and resentment • a nation with a
history of animosity towards rival exporters • There was no personal
animosity between my sister and me.
antipathy deep-seated dislike or hostility • his well-known
antipathy to the nationalist cause • These rumours fuelled the crowd’s
antipathy towards the government.
aversion strong feeling of dislike • He has always shown an
aversion to most forms of exercise. • an instinctive aversion to being
bossed around
revulsion sudden violent feeling of disgust • experience a deep
feeling of revulsion at the waste of human life • The case sent a wave
of revulsion through the community.
fight, battle, war, conflict, engagement, skirmish,
clash
struggle between opposing forces
fight physical struggle between individuals or groups such as
battalions or armies • They had a fight with the guard and captured
his rifle. • The fight for the village was part of an operation to subdue
local resistance.
battle large-scale fight involving combat between opposing
forces, warships or aircraft as part of an ongoing war or
campaign • killed in the Battle of Arras • Her brother was one of
the casualties of the air battle.
war state of hostilities between nations, states or factions
involving the use of arms and the occurrence of a series of
battles • at the outbreak of war • a long-running civil war • the
war years • the post-war period
conflict warfare between opposing forces, especially a prolonged
and bitter but sporadic struggle • an end to bloody conflict in
the Balkans • a border conflict with sporadic troop clashes • armed
conflict
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Grammar Guide
engagement hostile encounter involving military forces • the
rules of engagement • Planes attacked artillery bases in the largest
military engagement of the war to date.
skirmish brief minor fight, usually one that is part of a larger
conflict • a skirmish with guerrillas in which several soldiers were killed
• The last skirmish in the three-day battle came just after midnight.
clash short fierce encounter, usually involving physical combat
• The meeting was marred by a clash between the demonstrators and
security guards.
fire, blaze, conflagration, inferno
burning and flames
fire light, heat and flames caused by something burning,
whether deliberately or accidentally produced • the crackling fire
in the hearth • a fire that gutted the building
blaze brightly and intensely burning, or large, fire • The blaze
threatened to engulf a nearby house. • A 7,500-acre blaze closed the
main road over the weekend.
conflagration large fire that causes a great deal of damage • The
explosion of the fuel tanks consumed the warehouse in a terrifying
conflagration.
inferno fire or place that is burning fiercely • The store rapidly
became a roaring inferno of smoke and fire.
flaw, imperfection, fault, defect, failing, blemish,
shortcoming
feature that detracts from perfection
flaw physical feature that prevents something from being
totally perfect and detracts from its value, or weakness in
someone’s character, or in a plan, theory or system • a tiny flaw
in the glass • a fatal flaw in their strategy
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imperfection something that makes a person or thing less
than perfect • a minor imperfection on the shiny surface • They
accepted us, with all our imperfections, as colleagues.
fault something that detracts from the integrity, functioning
or perfection of a thing, or a weakness in someone’s character,
usually more serious than a flaw • a design fault • regarded it
as a serious fault of the education system • His worst fault is his
unreliability.
defect fault in a machine, system or plan, especially one that
prevents it from functioning correctly, or a personal weakness
• A house may show a hidden defect several years after construction.
• a metabolic defect • She regarded my reluctance to stand up for
myself as a character defect.
failing something that mars a person or thing in some way,
especially an unfortunate feature of someone’s character • The
management acknowledged this failing in the system. • At least
rudeness isn’t one of my failings.
blemish mark that detracts from the appearance of something,
or a feature that detracts from someone’s personal standing
• a small blemish that only an expert would have noticed • the only
blemish on an otherwise perfect record
shortcoming failure or deficiency in someone’s character or in
a system or organisation • The omission of this quality check is a
shortcoming in the service offered. • The team’s main shortcoming
has been defence.
habit, custom, tradition, practice, routine, wont
established pattern of behaviour
habit action or pattern of behaviour that is regularly repeated,
so much so that it becomes predictable or typical of someone
• He has the habit of buying two coffees with his paper every
morning.
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custom way someone normally or routinely behaves in a
situation, or traditional practice of a community or group
• It’s our custom to wait until everyone has arrived before we sit
down.
tradition long-established action or pattern of behaviour in
a certain community or group, especially one that has been
handed down from generation to generation • In keeping with
local tradition, beef will not be served.
practice established way of doing something, especially one
that has developed through experience and knowledge • It’s
always good practice to rinse the cutting board. US spelling uses
‘practice’ only, whereas UK spelling uses ‘practice’ as a noun and
‘practise’ as a verb after each use.
routine typical pattern of behaviour that is regularly followed
on a day-to-day basis, sometimes with the suggestion that
this is monotonous • He had quickly re-established his old
routine of writing all day and then going out at night with his
friends.
wont (formal) something that someone does regularly or
habitually • The spaceship’s crew, as is their wont, have run into a
spot of trouble and solutions are being sought.
jargon, vocabulary, terminology, slang, idiom,
argot, parlance, lingo, -speak, -ese
language used by a certain group of people
jargon expressions associated with a certain specialised activity,
profession or culture, especially terms that are not generally
understood by outsiders • technical jargon • We have the opportunity
to generate a billion-dollar tourism product – to use that ghastly jargon.
vocabulary words used by or known to a particular group,
activity, profession or culture • My Chinese vocabulary has
improved. • Ongoing scientific, technological and social changes
generate a stream of new vocabulary.
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terminology words and expressions used by people involved
in a specialised activity • commercial and financial terminology
• Of the world’s fifty-three subspecies of Asian hornbills, only nine,
in the terminology of a recent conference on the status of these birds,
are ‘stable’.
slang words, expressions and turns of phrase used instead
of standard terms in casual language • He used vulgar slang
inappropriate to someone in his position.
idiom style of expression associated with a certain person or
group • Her new book fails to capture the American idiom quite as
well as her last one did. • Only a teenager can write in an authentic
teenage idiom.
argot specialised terms associated with a particular group
• prison argot
parlance style of speech or writing used by people in a
particular context or profession • In estate agent parlance, the
house is in a ‘ desirable’ part of the city.
lingo (informal) way of speaking associated with a certain,
usually specialised group of people, or foreign language • My
wife picked up the lingo as soon as we moved here. • An expert can
help translate the lingo used by lawyers into plain English.
-speak suffix added to nouns to describe the language used by
a certain group of people or in a certain context, suggesting
that it is obscure or difficult to follow • I’m not put off by techspeak. • The document is full of politician-speak.
-ese suffix added to nouns to describe the language associated
with a group of people, especially when it is jargon-like • No
matter what the government announces, it always seems to be
expressed in bureaucratic officialese. • confusing legalese
job, assignment, task, chore, duty
piece of work to be done
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job activity done regularly for pay • He had managed to get
himself a job on a building site. • Omar said he would make himself
useful doing odd jobs.
assignment particular task given as part of the work required
for an occupation or a course of study, often with a deadline;
allocation of a task to someone • He rarely turned down a
modelling assignment. • She had been sent on special assignment to
assist the head of security at headquarters.
task piece of work that requires effort, often imposed by
an employer or someone in authority, and usually of short
duration or with a deadline • Your group has the task of finding
three different materials, with costs, delivery methods and dates, by
the 15th.
chore relatively short routine undertaking, either imposed
by someone in authority or self-imposed, requiring effort
and considered dull or even unpleasant • ask for help with the
household chores
duty something required to be done to meet obligations to
other individuals or to society • One duty of law enforcement is to
investigate suspected cases of fraud.
knowledge, erudition, information, learning,
scholarship, wisdom
what can be or is known
knowledge understanding gained through observation,
investigation, reasoning, experience or study • The family
brought decades of experience and knowledge to the making of fine
furniture.
erudition learning gained through advanced study of scholarly
subjects, often of a specialised or difficult nature • His essays
combine keen observation with wit, erudition and compassion.
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information facts or data • The organisation provides the public
with information about the vaccine to help them make informed
choices. • the increasing use of social media as a source of information
learning understanding gained through formal study,
especially study of an advanced nature • a writer of obvious
learning with a great admiration for Western civilisation
scholarship learning gained through study of an academic,
often specialised, subject • a multi-volume work of scholarship
that took more than a decade to complete
wisdom ability to use what is known or learnt sensibly and to
combine it with experience and good judgement • Will he use
his experience and wisdom to resolve the dispute? • another health
report challenging the conventional wisdom about high blood
pressure
lack, shortage, deficiency, deficit, want, dearth
insufficiency or absence of something
lack shortage or complete absence of something • There was a
distinct lack of interest in cleaning up after the party. • The charity
suffers from a lack of funds.
shortage lack of something that is needed or required
• a shortage of skilled labour • The drought will cause severe food
shortages.
deficiency shortfall in the amount of something necessary, for
example, a nutrient in the human body, or an inadequacy in
the supply or performance of something • People who don’t drink
milk may develop a calcium deficiency. • We accept responsibility for
any deficiency in our safety procedures.
deficit amount by which something falls short of a target
amount or level • rally from a two-goal deficit to win the game
• a budget deficit
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want or dearth scarcity or absence of something • exhausted
from overwork and want of sleep • People were paying in banknotes
so there was a dearth of coins for change at the fair.
language, tongue, speech, dialect, idiolect
communication by means of words
language speech of a country, region or group, or use of spoken
or written words as a communication system • the delight of
hearing new languages when travelling in other countries • Persian
was the official language of much of the Indian subcontinent for
centuries.
tongue language used by a specific country, nation or
community • students whose mother tongue is unknown to me
• Neither of them could speak the other’s native tongue.
speech spoken language, especially as distinct from written
language • In many cultures, children begin to acquire speech
between ages one and two. • Her speech was slow after her surgery,
but she understood everything we said.
dialect regional variety of a language, or a form of a language
spoken by members of a certain social class or profession • the
dialect spoken on the island
idiolect individual person’s speech habits or vocabulary • an
unfamiliar word that was not in my idiolect
lie, untruth, falsehood, fabrication, fib, white lie
thing that is not true
lie false statement made deliberately • He described the statements
of his accusers as ‘a pack of lies’. • What Susan said was a blatant lie.
untruth something that is presented as being true but is in
fact false • This young woman was clearly quite capable of telling
untruths when it suited her.
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falsehood (formal) lie or untruth • Conspiracy theorists perpetrate
falsehoods online.
fabrication invented statement, story or account, devised with
the intent to deceive • His story of putting it in his car so he could
find the real owner later was a complete fabrication.
fib (informal) insignificant harmless lie • It shows on your face
when you tell a fib. • ‘I haven’t left my desk all day.’ ‘That’s a fib!
I can see the raindrops on your coat!’
white lie minor harmless lie, usually told to avoid hurting
someone’s feelings • tell little white lies to avoid conflict • Why
hadn’t she told a white lie and said the colour was flattering?
love, liking, affection, fondness, passion,
infatuation, crush
strong positive feeling towards someone or something
love intense feeling of positive emotion towards, or enjoyment
of, a person or thing, especially a passionate feeling of romantic
desire and sexual attraction • When Lynn met Paul it was love at
first sight. • She was the love of his life.
liking feeling of enjoying something or finding someone or
something pleasant • He sipped his coffee, which was just to his
liking. • She developed a liking for him.
affection fond or tender feelings towards someone or something
• a man with a deep affection for animals • Twelve-year-old boys
don’t usually welcome displays of affection.
fondness feeling of affection or preference • gazing with
fondness at her two little sons • He developed a fondness for music
as a child.
passion intense or overpowering emotion, either love for someone,
usually of a strong sexual nature, or strong liking or enthusiasm
for something • He wanted to experience a grand passion. • Her early
passion for painting had developed into a successful career.
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infatuation intense but short-lived, often unrealistic love for
someone, usually of a romantic or sexual nature • his infatuation
with an older student • She had thought she was in love, but it had
only been an infatuation.
crush (informal) temporary romantic infatuation, especially
in teenagers and young people • I was a young girl of eleven
with a crush on a film star. • Soon afterwards he met Clare and
immediately developed a crush on her.
mistake, error, inaccuracy, slip, blunder, faux pas
act or judgement that is incorrect or improper
mistake incorrect, unwise or unfortunate act or decision
caused by bad judgement, lack of information or carelessness
• Everyone makes mistakes; just try to learn from them. • Our big
mistake was to forget the map.
error something that unintentionally deviates from a
recognised standard or guide • If it had gone undetected, this
dosage error would have had disastrous consequences for the patient.
• The leadership made an error in appointing such an outspoken
personality to head the committee.
inaccuracy something that is incorrect because it has been
measured, calculated, copied or conveyed wrongly • I crosschecked the lists and found two inaccuracies, which I corrected.
slip minor mistake or oversight, especially one caused by
carelessness • There was a slip in the first act, but I don’t think
anyone noticed.
blunder serious or embarrassing mistake, usually the result of
carelessness or ignorance • The young Ghanaian scored another
goal after a blunder by Scotland’s defence.
faux pas (literary) embarrassing mistake that breaks a social
convention • I made a reference to her elder brother, then realised
I had committed a faux pas.
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mixture, blend, combination, compound, alloy,
amalgam
thing formed by mixing materials
mixture number of elements or ingredients brought together
• Add the water and beat until the mixture is light and fluffy. • She
felt a mixture of emotions.
blend something formed by putting together two or more
things to form a new whole in which the original elements lose
their distinctness • her little-known first novel, a lively blend of
romance and mock-romance • a blend of passion fruit, peach juice,
aromatic herbs and spring water
combination something formed by the association of two or
more things that retain their distinctness • the combination of
beauty, wit and charm • A combination of talent and hard work has
given the company an edge.
compound chemical formed of two or more elements; more
generally, something composed of two or more separate parts
• volatile chemical compounds • compound words such as ‘ bookstore’
and ‘air conditioning’
alloy term for a metal formed by combining two or more
elements • Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon.
amalgam alloy of mercury with another metal; more generally,
something that is a mixture of two or more elements or
characteristics • The technique of ‘mercury gilding’ involved using
an amalgam of gold and mercury. • The culture of the United States
is a complex amalgam of various traditions.
motive, incentive, inducement, spur, stimulus,
impetus
reason or thing that prompts action
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motive reason for doing something or behaving in a certain
way • a crime that appears to have no motive • Walker stressed the
need to maintain the highest standards in this new enquiry, fearing
there were ulterior political motives for the investigation.
incentive external motive, often some kind of reward, that
inspires extra enthusiasm or effort • Seeing a clear path to
advancement was the incentive we needed to complete that difficult
phase of training. • financial incentives for companies to reduce
pollution
inducement reward or other benefit intended to persuade
someone to do something or to attract someone to a certain
course of action • The government offered inducements to
homeowners who lived in the flood area to persuade them to relocate
to higher ground. • The library’s summer festival will hopefully be
an inducement for children to read more.
spur thing such as the hope of a reward or the fear of
punishment that encourages action, effort or energy • Trade
frequently acts as a spur to economic expansion. • Shopkeepers saw
sales increase as the street was upgraded, and that in turn was a
spur for them to spruce up their stores.
stimulus thing that encourages an activity or process to begin,
increase or develop • The arrival of new businesses provided the
commercial stimulus the town needed. • The possibility of lower
interest rates acted as a stimulus to the economy
impetus energy or driving force that prompts someone to
undertake or accomplish something • In the early 19th century,
the impetus for setting up schools came almost exclusively from
the Church. • data that gives further impetus to the growing
environmentalist movement
origin, source, derivation, provenance, root
beginning
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Choosing the right word
origin beginning, whether in terms of time, place, situation, or
the idea from which something arose • Some of the concepts now
in vogue have their origins in the 19th century. • Researchers from
overseas often decide not to return to their country of origin.
source place, person or thing from which something came
into being or was obtained • It is important to trace the source of
your error. • Consider the source of the information before you decide
whether to trust it.
derivation origin or source of something, especially a word,
phrase or name • The word ‘candid’ is a derivation from the Latin
candidus, meaning white or shining.
provenance place of origin of something, or history of
ownership of a work of art or artefact • a jade disc of Chinese
provenance • Some experts have questioned the provenance and
even authenticity of many of the museum’s exhibits.
root fundamental cause, basis or origin, especially of a feeling
or a problem • Various factors appear to be at the root of the
discontent. • The root of the problem lies in lack of communication.
problem, mystery, puzzle, riddle, conundrum,
enigma
issue difficult to solve or person hard to understand
problem difficult situation, matter or person • an ongoing
problem • problems with the staff
mystery event or situation that is difficult to explain, understand
or find out about, or a person about whom little is known • the
key to understanding the mysteries of the universe • Barry’s comings
and goings are unpredictable: he remains a mystery.
puzzle problem whose solution requires ingenuity, situation
that is difficult to resolve, or someone whose behaviour or
motives are difficult to understand • He was almost ready to
confront the murderer; one final piece of the puzzle remained.
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riddle perplexing or confusing issue • ‘The riddle of Tsar Nicholas
II’s remains has been solved,’ the DNA team announced.
conundrum something puzzling or confusing that seems to
have no solution • The moral dilemma posed a conundrum.
enigma someone or something that is not easily explained or
understood • Juliet was very much an enigma to him.
smell, odour, aroma, bouquet, scent, perfume,
fragrance, stink, stench, reek
way something smells
smell general term, covering neutral, pleasant or unpleasant
smells • a black substance that had the most awful smell • the smell
of wet mittens
odour neutral or unpleasant smell • the rank odour of sweat
• Horses can smell dry oats, which for us essentially have no odour.
aroma distinctive pleasant smell, especially one related to
cooking or food • the heady aroma of roasted coffee beans
bouquet characteristic pleasant smell, usually associated with
fine wines • the wine has an oaky bouquet
scent pleasant, sweet smell, for example, of flowers;
characteristic smell given off by an animal • The air was heavy
with the scent of blossom. • Badgers can sometimes become nervous if
they catch the scent of a stranger.
perfume sweet, pleasant and heady smell, especially that of
flowers or plants • the perfume of jasmine
fragrance sweet pleasant smell, especially a delicate or subtle
one • the faint, elusive fragrance of his cologne • The red roses filled
the air with their fragrance.
stink strong unpleasant smell • the stink of sewage
stench strong unpleasant smell, especially one associated
with burning or decay • The stench of rotting cabbage hung in
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the air. • Rescue workers wore face masks to protect them from
the stench.
reek strong unpleasant smell • the pungent reek of salted fish
subject, topic, subject matter, matter, theme,
burden
issue under discussion
subject issue being discussed, examined or otherwise
considered • I didn’t bring up the subject of money with my cousin.
• Restoration of the wreck will be the subject of an exhibition at the
Maritime Museum this year.
topic matter dealt with in writing or discussion • The paper
identified four major topics for consideration. • the current hot topic
of conversation
subject matter subject focused on in a book, film, discussion
or other medium • Her favourite subject matter is suburban
family life. • a photographer whose subject matter is the aftermath
of war
matter well-defined area of mutual concern, discussion or
correspondence • Let’s take up this matter when we have our
schedules in front of us. • I’ll hold, please – it’s an urgent matter.
theme distinct recurring and unifying idea in music, literature,
art or film • Loyalty and betrayal are the principal themes of this
book.
burden (literary) main argument in, or gist of, a piece of
literature, music or art • The main burden of the book is that the
middle classes have lost their moral compass.
talent, gift, flair, bent, knack, genius
ability to do something well
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Grammar Guide
talent natural ability to do something well • a persuasive speaker
with a natural talent for diplomacy • Our company has a great
wealth of underutilised talent.
gift natural ability, especially an artistic ability or a social skill
• Hannah had inherited a gift for music. • He had the rare gift of
speaking to the point just at the appropriate moment.
flair natural ability to do something well, especially a creative
or artistic one • The film director creates a sense of place with
masterly flair.
bent natural ability, inclination or liking for something
• Technical schools are always looking for students who have a
resourceful, practical bent.
knack intuitive or acquired skill for something • There is a knack
to opening the bottle.
genius exceptional intellectual or creative ability • Beethoven’s
unparalleled genius for the symphonic form
type, kind, sort, category, class, species, genre
group having a common quality or qualities
type group of individuals or items with strongly marked and
readily defined similarities • Certain types of bacteria can build
up resistance to disinfectants. • The reactor was of the same type as
the one used at Chernobyl in 1986.
kind group of individuals or items connected by shared
characteristics • comparing soils of different kinds • the kind of
music danced to in the 1600s
sort group of things or people with a common feature • leisure
activities of various sorts • What sort of subjects will you be painting?
category set or group of things or people that are classified
together because of common characteristics • I’m looking for the
best deal in each category: desktop, laptop and handheld. • It’s not a
usual pudding, but I’d still put it in that category.
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class set of things with a property in common • there are
other classes of drugs used in the treatment of cardiac arrest
• They won eleven medals in the twelve weight classes at the world
championships.
species taxonomic unit for groups of animals, plants, insects
or other organisms • a meadow containing several species of rare
orchid
genre style or category of painting, writing, dance or other
art form • genres such as the thriller and the spy novel • The club
promises to showcase quality music of all genres.
wage, salary, pay, fee, remuneration, emolument,
honorarium, stipend
money given for work done
wage fixed regular payment made to an employee • The club
pays my wages. • a national minimum wage
salary fixed regular annual sum, usually paid monthly,
especially to a clerical or professional worker • teachers’ salaries •
an annual salary of £100,000
pay wage or salary • a month-long strike for better pay and
conditions • ‘Equal pay for equal work’ is a slogan of the feminist
movement.
fee payment made to a professional person by a client • Such
lawyers charged high fees and served only the elite. • The costs of
expert’s fees are to be met equally by the parties concerned.
remuneration payment for work, goods or services • a
review body to advise on the proper remuneration for teachers
• a need to investigate the levels of remuneration paid to day-care
workers
emolument (formal) payment for work • Unfortunately, his
fame was not accompanied by large emoluments and he died nearly
penniless.
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Grammar Guide
honorarium money given in exchange for services for which
there is normally no fixed charge • Group members receive
a small honorarium in recognition of their expertise and time
spent.
stipend regular payment or allowance for living expenses,
especially one made to a member of the clergy or a student
• The priest’s yearly stipend was barely sufficient to live on.
work, labour, toil, drudgery
sustained effort required to do or produce something
work physical or mental effort required to do or achieve
something, used of animals and machines as well as people
• Most installation programs will do the configuration work for you.
• You will have general managers to coordinate your work.
labour strenuous work, usually physical • Joseph began a hard life
of prayer, fasting and manual labour. • After three hours of litterpicking, the results of our labour were evident.
toil tiring, often boring, physical work, usually over a long
period • His rough hands bore testimony to a life of toil.
drudgery work that is hard and unrewarding, especially work
that continues over a long period • the drudgery of sorting, coding,
boxing and stacking a warehouse full of files
worry, unease, care, anxiety, angst, stress
troubled state of mind
worry troubled state of mind resulting from concern about
current or potential difficulties • I’m beside myself with worry.
• She quite forgot her own worries in her concern for him.
unease feeling of anxiety or lack of satisfaction with a situation
• I felt a sense of unease as soon as the phone rang late that night. • The
announcement provoked considerable unease among UN officials.
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care object of concern • He began whistling as though he hadn’t a
care in the world. • Your good news has banished my cares.
anxiety nervous apprehension about a future event or a
general fear of possible misfortune • parental anxieties about
a child’s academic progress • Although she has been teaching for
eight years, she always feels a twinge of anxiety at the beginning
of a new year.
angst non-specific ongoing worry about the human condition
or the state of the world • the angst that accompanies shifts in
global power • Only in our youth-obsessed culture could such
adolescent angst be of such interest.
stress worry and nervous apprehension related to a situation or
event • relaxation techniques to help relieve the stress of everyday
life • Now that my workload is lighter, I feel less stress.
Choosing the right verb
Consider the following everyday English verbs of movement:
crawl, slither, creep, clamber, stagger, lurch. Each is different, with
its own vivid associations. Like other word classes in English,
verbs (see chapter 1, page 7) arrived from various linguistic
sources, and some initially had roughly the same meaning.
But over time, individual verbs have taken on their own sense
distinctions, resulting in a richness found only rarely in other
languages.
Listed below are sets of verbs whose meanings are close.
The short definitions and example sentences are intended to
suggest, or prompt memory of, which of the alternative verbs
might best fit which kind of context.
accomplish, achieve, attain, carry out, pull off,
realise
bring something to a successful conclusion
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Grammar Guide
accomplish carry out or complete something successfully
• You don’t accomplish anything by blaming other people. • Mission
accomplished, we headed for home.
achieve succeed in doing something, usually with effort • three
main ways in which the committee hopes to achieve its aims • an
example of what can be achieved through good planning
attain reach a specific objective • a desire to attain certain goals
• attain a full command of the English language
carry out perform a task or activity • carry out the instructions
to the letter • She found it hard to believe that Jim would carry out
his threat.
pull off (informal) achieve something impressive, particularly
through a combination of skill and luck • The goalkeeper pulled
off a fine save. • They pulled off a fine performance despite having
missed rehearsals.
realise fulfil a specific vision, plan or potential • Why not realise
your full potential? • His dream was realised when he signed with
Arsenal.
agree, concur, acquiesce, consent, assent
accept an idea, plan or course of action that has been put
forward
agree have the same opinion as someone else about a course of
action • We agreed to meet at nine o’clock the next morning. • They
have agreed in principle to sell off the land.
concur agree or reach agreement formally on a specified point
• I fully concur with my colleague’s comment. • Do the two sides
concur that a settlement can be reached?
acquiesce agree to or comply with something or after an
initial refusal • Peter was not entirely happy with the proposal, but
eventually acquiesced.
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Choosing the right word
consent agree to something or give formal permission for
something to happen • consent to the marriage
assent approve something formally • The directors assented to the
new policy in a statement to the board.
annoy, irritate, exasperate, vex, irk
cause a mild degree of anger in someone
annoy cause impatience or anger in someone • Must you tap
your foot when you know how much it annoys me?
irritate annoy someone slightly • If this medication irritates your
skin, call me right away.
exasperate arouse anger or frustration in someone • Exasperated
at the lack of progress, he shouted at the team to pull harder.
vex annoy someone, especially causing upset or distress • The
question about the relative importance of economics and welfare is
one that always vexes me.
irk annoy someone by being tiresome or tedious • It irked her to
see how little attention he paid to her efforts.
change, alter, modify, convert, vary, shift,
transform, transmute
make or become different
change make or become different in some way • The society we
live in is changing rapidly. • pressure to change public attitudes to
health
alter change, especially change an aspect of something • try to
alter the perception of the city as a cultural desert • Don’t alter the
schedule.
modify make minor changes or alterations, especially in order
to improve something • It is possible to modify even the very oldest
of behaviour patterns. • modifying the maths curriculum
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Grammar Guide
convert change something from one form or function to another
• the process by which food is absorbed and converted into energy and
heat • plans to convert the buildings into luxury apartments
vary change within a range of possibilities, or in line with
something else, with a suggestion of instability • Opening times
may vary with the season. • You can vary the menu according to
your taste.
shift change from one position or direction to another • The
focus of your paper may shift as you write. • For most of us, our
native language is alive and constantly shifting.
transform make a radical change into a different form • The
playground is being transformed into a community garden. • A good
teacher can transform the life of a student.
transmute change into another form, used especially in
technical contexts • The Old Norse word borg, meaning ‘citadel’,
was later transmuted into borough. • The ancient alchemists tried
to transmute base metals into gold.
collect, accumulate, gather, amass, assemble,
stockpile, hoard
bring dispersed things together
collect bring things together, or put a group of similar things
together as a hobby • He started collecting stamps at the age of
nine. • Our sensory organs collect information about everything
around us.
accumulate obtain over a period of time • We seem to accumulate
objects faster than we can organise them. • An enormous amount
of information about the species has been accumulated over the last
century.
gather bring together things from various locations • go to
the forest to gather firewood • She is gathering information on the
subject.
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Choosing the right word
amass put a large quantity of things together over time • the
growing evidence that is being amassed by investigators • He is
thought to have amassed a fortune of hundreds of millions of dollars.
assemble bring together in an orderly way • one of the greatest
orchestras ever assembled
stockpile collect and store things in large amounts for future
use • The town stockpiled sand and salt for the roads in case of
another cold winter.
hoard collect and store in large amounts, often secretly • The
squirrels hoarded hundreds of acorns under the porch. • I wondered
what had happened to those carefully hoarded letters.
complain, object, protest, grumble, grouse, carp,
gripe, whine, nag
indicate dissatisfaction with something
complain express discontent or unhappiness about a situation
• Nearby neighbours had complained about the noise and the mess.
• He complained bitterly that no one ever took him seriously.
object be opposed to something, or express opposition to it
• We object strongly to the two proposals. • Sports groups have
objected that the plan takes away space once intended to be used as
a playing field.
protest express strong disapproval or disagreement • a day of
action to protest against the proposed fare hikes • From about eight
months old, babies are likely to protest loudly at being passed around
between people.
grumble complain or mutter in a discontented way, sometimes
repeatedly or continually • Grumbling, he picked up his brush and
got down to work. • She grumbled about the cold coffee.
grouse complain regularly and continually, often in a way that
is not constructive • grouse about the commercialism of art • ‘These
talks are leading nowhere,’ one of the negotiators groused.
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Grammar Guide
carp keep complaining or finding fault, especially about
unimportant things • He was a mean employer, carping all the
time. • carp about the seating arrangements
gripe (informal) complain continually and irritatingly • He was
griping about the fact that I had not presented him with an advance
copy of the book. • You griped when I was in the house all day, and
now that I’ve found a job you’re still unhappy!
whine complain in an unreasonable, repeated or irritating way
• Stop whining – there’s nothing we can do about it! • She always
suggests the cinema, then whines that it’s so expensive.
nag find fault with someone regularly and repeatedly • He
nagged his sister about her visiting them in the country.
copy, reproduce, duplicate, clone, replicate,
re-create
make something that resembles something else
copy make a sample or instance that is the same as something
else • Taking a photo is quicker than copying longhand.
reproduce make a copy of something by technical means
• an attempt to reproduce human speech digitally • No part of this
publication may be reproduced without the prior permission of the
publisher.
duplicate create an identical version of something • Give the
notes to my assistant so they can be duplicated. • She had the office
key duplicated for the fire and police departments.
clone make a near or exact reproduction, especially of a piece
of equipment or an organism • any scientist who wishes to clone
a human being faces an ethical dilemma • The gene has been cloned
and sequenced.
replicate create an identical version of something • undocumented
experiments that cannot be replicated in the laboratory • The original
findings have been successfully replicated by other investigators.
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re-create make something that looks the same as something that
either no longer exists or exists in a different place • The theatre
company has gone all out to re-create the play’s 1970s ambience. • The
stories attempt to re-create the magic of childhood.
criticise, censure, castigate, blast, condemn, find
fault with, pick holes in, nitpick
express disapproval of or dissatisfaction with someone or
something
criticise express disapproval of or dissatisfaction with
something • The new policy was strongly criticised by leading
charities. • He has criticised the government for not launching an
investigation.
censure make a formal, often public or official statement
of disapproval • The three senators were censured by their peers.
• It is not known whether the player will be censured for his bad
sportsmanship.
castigate (formal) criticise or rebuke someone severely • In
her speech she castigated her political opponent for exaggerating
the problem. • He was castigated as an alarmist by the rest of the
profession.
blast (informal) criticise someone severely • She blasts
homeowners who waste water during the drought. • The Olympic
champion yesterday blasted critics who claim sport is driven by
endorsement.
condemn give an unfavourable judgement on someone or
something • The committee condemned the ruling for denying care
to those who need it most. • This breach of medical confidentiality
was strongly condemned by the patient’s attorney.
find fault with criticise someone, often unfairly • He finds
fault with everything I do. • It is difficult to find fault with this
entertaining and lively account.
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Grammar Guide
pick holes in look for and find mistakes, particularly in an
argument • pick holes in someone’s ideas • I invited them to pick
holes in my paper before I did the final version.
nitpick find fault, often unjustifiably, with insignificant details
• You’d have thought he would be easy to work with, but Maria said
he was always nitpicking. • We’re nitpicking now at the difference
between the words fundamentally and basically.
deduce, infer, assume, reason, conclude, work out,
figure out
reach a logical conclusion
deduce come to a logical conclusion, often without using all
the relevant information • While it is relatively easy to deduce
a cause from an effect, it is more difficult to predict effects from
causes. • From the bustle and activity we deduced that a guest was
expected.
infer draw a conclusion from specific circumstances or evidence
• We can infer from the witty menu that the owner has a sense of
humour.
assume accept something as true without checking or
confirming it • She had always assumed that her mother was born
in Paris. • He could have reasonably assumed from what was said
that his employment prospects were good.
reason consider information and use it to reach a conclusion
in a logical way • Scott reasoned that it wouldn’t be Ann
knocking at the door, because she had a key. • Either there was
no burglar at all, or the burglar was not interested in diamonds,
he reasoned.
conclude form an opinion or make a judgement after much
consideration • The report concluded that a world recession was
likely. • They were forced to conclude from the evidence that the case
had been mishandled.
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Choosing the right word
work out find a solution or explanation through careful thought
or reasoning • Try and work out what the poem is about. • It took
me a long time to work out the answers in the maths section.
figure out find a solution or reach a conclusion by careful
thought or reasoning • Your task is to figure out what this phrase
means. • I just can’t figure out what he’s going to do with himself all
day long.
defeat, beat, conquer, vanquish, overcome,
­triumph over, thrash, trounce, wallop
win a victory
defeat win a victory over an enemy or competitor, or cause
someone or something to fail • The Spartans succeeded in defeating
their enemies. • She played a major role in defeating the bill.
beat defeat someone in a contest, or succeed in the face of
difficulty • ‘I am the champion of the world and will beat him
again,’ he said. • After a paralysing accident a month ago, his goal
is to walk again, though he realises he will have to beat the odds to
do it.
conquer defeat and take control of a people in war, or succeed
despite difficulty • They vowed to retake their conquered land.
• She’s already conquered her toughest career challenge.
vanquish defeat someone decisively in a battle or competition
• Pakistan emerge victorious and England are once again vanquished.
overcome win or succeed after a struggle • After struggling to
overcome injuries and a serious illness, she finally got to play before
the end of the season. • The effects of centuries of prejudice will not
be easily overcome.
triumph over succeed against an opponent or against difficult
odds • That one person’s letter of protest set off a chain of events,
proving that sometimes right can triumph over the big corporations.
• He triumphed over a formidable opponent.
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Grammar Guide
thrash gain an easy decisive victory in a contest • Manchester
United, who were thrashed in their last game by Liverpool, took
the lead.
trounce defeat an opponent decisively • In the first-round match
the veteran player fired powerful and well-placed groundstrokes to
trounce the newcomer.
wallop (informal) hit hard; defeat a competitor easily and
decisively • Though they got walloped in the first round, they were
excited to have finally qualified for the tournament.
disagree, differ, argue, dispute, take issue with,
contradict, agree to differ, be at odds
have or express a difference of opinion with someone
disagree have or put forward a different view or opinion • He
strongly disagrees with what was said. • I have to disagree since
I find the atmosphere quite stifling, not relaxing.
differ be different; have different opinions about something
• People may well differ on the issue of whether this development
is a good or a bad thing. • Accounts differ as to how many were
present.
argue express disagreement, especially continuously or angrily
• My brother and I argue about football all the time. • She knew
better than to argue with him when he used that tone of voice.
dispute have a heated argument • For years, scholars have
disputed this translation. • The two brothers are disputing the terms
of their parents’ will.
take issue with disagree strongly with a person or an opinion
• I would take issue with her view. • It is with regret that I have
had to take issue with a fellow member of our committee.
contradict argue against the truth or correctness of a statement
or claim • Let her tell her story and don’t contradict her. • Important
witnesses are contradicting each other’s accounts.
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agree to differ stop arguing and accept that the opposing
viewpoints are irreconcilable • We might as well agree to differ
about that and get along as well as we can. • If after discussion the
social worker and client agree to differ with respect to the report’s
content, both versions will be recorded.
be at odds be in disagreement • The Mayor seems to be at odds
with his own officials over this question.
disapprove, frown on, object, criticise, condemn,
deplore, denounce, censure
have an unfavourable opinion of something or someone
disapprove give a negative judgement of something based on
personal standards • Why do you disapprove so strongly of my
choice of car? • My aunt will disapprove if she finds out my sister
has moved out.
frown on express dislike or disapproval of something • a practice
that would be frowned on today • They come from an era when skimpy
clothing was frowned on.
object be opposed to something, or express opposition
• a petition objecting to the proposals • I don’t object to people
smoking in their own homes.
criticise point out flaws or faults • The retailers have been sharply
criticised for putting flyers on every car. • It is important to observe
and praise the good things as often as you criticise the child.
condemn pass an unfavourable judgement on someone or
something • The present system has been widely condemned as
unfair and archaic.
deplore disapprove of something strongly • We deplore all use of
violence. • I deeply deplore the government’s action.
denounce criticise or condemn something publicly and harshly
• a letter to the Financial Times denouncing the government’s
economic strategy • waiting for someone to denounce the wrongdoers
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Grammar Guide
censure make a formal, often public or official, statement of
disapproval • A partner with the firm was officially censured for
unprofessional conduct.
follow, chase, pursue, tail, shadow, stalk, trail
go after or behind
follow take the same route behind another person • ‘Will you
please follow me,’ she said. • He’s usually closely followed by two
bodyguards.
chase try to reach, catch or overtake another person who is in
front • Once a pack of reporters had chased him to his car.
pursue make an effort to catch up with a person being followed
• decide to pursue the thief
tail (informal) follow someone secretly for purposes of
surveillance • The report claimed officers tailed him, tapped his
phones and screened his mail.
shadow follow someone secretly, used especially of spies and
detectives • Until he saw the photographs, he had had no idea he
was being shadowed.
stalk try to get close to a person or hunted animal unobtrusively;
follow and criminally harass a person obsessively • be accused of
stalking the film star • a cat patiently stalking a bird
trail follow tracks or traces left by a person or animal no longer
in sight • Luckily the snowfall enabled us to trail the deer.
gaze, gape, gawk, ogle, rubberneck, stare
look at someone or something steadily or at length
gaze look for a long time with unwavering attention • He
gazed into her eyes. • People stood around gazing up at the arrivals
board.
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Choosing the right word
gape look at someone or something in surprise or wonder,
usually with an open mouth • The boys gaped at the sportscar.
• Matt gaped in astonishment.
gawk (informal) stare stupidly or rudely • There were crowds of
people gawking at the sculpture.
ogle look steadily at someone to show sexual interest • Don’t let
your date see you ogle anyone!
rubberneck (informal) stare at someone or something in an
over-inquisitive or insensitive way • Rubbernecking drivers
slowed in both directions to look at the wreckage.
stare look at someone or something directly and intently without
turning one’s eyes away • She tried hard not to stare. • He stared in
astonishment at the unwashed dishes that covered every surface.
get, acquire, obtain, gain, procure, secure
come into possession of something
get come to have something • He managed to get a job on a
building site. • ‘The public will get a raw deal,’ she claimed.
acquire come to possess something • the knowledge, skills and
understanding that students are expected to acquire • He inherited
some property and acquired more through marriage.
obtain get something, especially by making an effort or having
the necessary qualifications • The best results are obtained from
using quality materials. • You can obtain the forms you need from
your bank.
gain get something desirable through effort, skill or merit
• With daily physical therapy, I was gaining mobility in my knee.
• Students are encouraged to look for jobs in the summer to gain work
experience.
procure get something, especially with effort or special care
• He procured the spare part he needed by ordering it from a catalogue.
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Grammar Guide
secure get something, especially after using considerable effort
to persuade someone to grant or allow it • She finally secured the
agreement to buy her first house. • The team has secured significant
support from two local firms.
guide, conduct, direct, lead, steer, usher
show someone the way
guide lead someone in the right direction • Another rescue team,
guided by a search dog, located a baby that had survived the collapse
of the building.
conduct take someone to or around a certain place • I was
conducted by an attendant through a maze of corridors to an
enormous room.
direct show or indicate the way • We didn’t see a sign to direct us
to the Roman site.
lead show other people the way, usually by going ahead of
them • She led us into the house and introduced us to her two sisters.
steer encourage someone to take a certain course • She steered
them around the puddles.
usher escort someone to or from a place, especially a seat • She
ushered them into her office.
harm, damage, hurt, injure, wound
weaken or impair someone or something
harm cause injury or damage to, have a bad effect on, something
or someone • Smoking while pregnant harms the baby. • decisions
that will harm the economy
damage spoil, break or injure an object so it is less useful,
valuable or able to function; have a negative effect on something
abstract • The bombings have damaged prospects for a negotiated
settlement.
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Choosing the right word
hurt cause physical or mental pain or harm to a person or animal
• Laura tripped and fell, but didn’t hurt herself. • His words hurt.
injure cause physical harm to a person or animal, usually causing
at least a temporary loss of function or use; harm something
abstract such as reputation or pride • Two other people were
seriously injured in the quake. • He crash-landed his light aircraft
but walked away, suffering from nothing more than injured pride.
wound inflict physical harm on someone, especially from the
use of a weapon, a violent incident, or a serious accident; upset
or offend someone • be wounded in battle • He feels wounded by
the accusations.
hesitate, pause, falter, stumble, waver, vacillate
show uncertainty or indecision
hesitate pause before doing or saying something, as a result
of uncertainty or reluctance • He hesitated for a moment, then
walked swiftly to the door. • Please do not hesitate to call me if you
have any questions.
pause stop doing something briefly before continuing, or wait
a moment before doing something • She paused for a moment
to recover her self-possession. • Scarcely pausing for thought, she sat
herself down at the keyboard and started to play.
falter show a loss of confidence, often by speaking with
hesitation • the announcer faltered over the news headlines • In
such circumstances, our allies might falter in their commitment to
the defence treaty.
stumble trip; speak or act hesitatingly, confusedly or
incompetently • He stumbled over his answer, not knowing what
to say.
waver become unsure or begin to change from a previous
opinion • The defendant never wavered from his story. • He saw
the agony in her eyes and his resolve wavered.
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Grammar Guide
vacillate be indecisive or irresolute, changing between one
opinion and another • Her mind vacillated between laughing at
her fears and expecting something terrible.
hinder, block, hamper, hold back, impede, obstruct
put difficulties in the way of progress
hinder delay or obstruct the development or progress of
someone or something • Carrying so many bulky things will
hinder your progress. • The completion of the project was hindered
by bad weather.
block prevent movement through, into or out of something, or
prevent something from taking place • The street was blocked for
the parade. • Police blocked the tunnel until the fumes had cleared.
hamper prevent something from happening normally or as
planned • The rescue effort, hampered by foul weather over the
weekend, was resumed on Monday. • She claimed her injury did not
hamper her in the race.
hold back keep something from happening, or restrain
someone from doing something • The expense of data collection
and analysis is holding back development in this area. • He stopped
suddenly and held the child back.
impede interfere with the movement, progress or development
of someone or something • We had no flashlights, but darkness
did not impede our progress. • The two leaders agreed not to let their
rival claims to offshore oil fields impede the development of trade.
obstruct cause a serious delay in action or progress; block a
road or passageway • plead guilty to charges of conspiring to
obstruct justice • Obstructing the exit doors can be dangerous.
imitate, copy, emulate, mimic, ape
adopt the behaviour of another person
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Choosing the right word
imitate copy another person’s behaviour, voice or manner,
sometimes to make fun of them • Children learn many skills by
imitating their parents.
copy do exactly what someone else does • Lennie admired
George and tried to copy him. • A puppy will often watch and copy
an older dog’s actions.
emulate try to equal or surpass someone who is successful or
admired • She has a tough act to follow in attempting to emulate
her elder sister’s success. • He’s a great team-builder, and one whom
I would like to emulate.
mimic imitate someone in a deliberate and exaggerated way,
especially to amuse people • mimic the teacher’s home counties
accent • She whined, mimicking a spoiled child.
ape imitate someone in an absurd or grotesque way • ape the
lifestyle of the rich and famous
increase, expand, enlarge, extend, augment,
intensify, amplify
make larger or greater
increase become or cause to become larger in number, quantity
or degree • They increased admission prices by ten per cent last
month. • a world of ever increasing financial pressures
expand become or cause to become larger or more extensive
• Wood expands and contracts with temperature and humidity
changes. • We bought the property next door, which gave us space to
expand the business.
enlarge become, or cause something to become, larger
generally, or broaden something in scope and detail • They
enlarged the kitchen and created a home office. • The programme was
enlarged to include short summer courses for younger children.
extend make greater in length or area, longer in time, or
otherwise larger • Around the same time, both east and west
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Grammar Guide
breakwaters were extended. • The supermarket has extended its
range to include vegan and gluten-free products.
augment (formal) add to something to make it larger or more
substantial • augment the family income by doing some freelance
work • The municipality needs new recruits to augment the existing
police force.
intensify become, or cause something to become, greater
in strength or degree • As fighting intensified, communication
links became increasingly critical to the success of the mission. • The
incident only intensified her determination to do something about
the quality of the instruction her son was receiving.
amplify become, or cause something to become, louder, or
greater in intensity or scope • The floor and walls amplify the
noise. • attempt to amplify positive attitudes and reduce negative
ones
kill, murder, assassinate, execute, put to death,
slaughter, slay, put down, put to sleep
deprive of life
kill cause the death of a person or animal • Floods have killed at
least three people and forced hundreds from their homes.
murder commit the crime of taking the life of another person
deliberately and not in self-defence • She was found guilty of
murdering a teaching colleague.
assassinate murder a public figure by a sudden violent attack
• A police spokesperson told reporters that a plot to assassinate the
pontiff had been foiled.
execute take someone’s life as part of a judicial or extrajudicial
process • It was possible that the order would come to execute the
prisoner.
put to death deliberately take someone’s life in accordance
with a legal death sentence • put to death for treason
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Choosing the right word
slaughter kill farm animals for food, or kill a person or people
brutally • He said he’d slaughtered the calf humanely. • Hundreds
of soldiers were slaughtered in the offensive.
slay (formal or literary) kill a person or animal • Cain plotted to
slay his brother Abel.
put down or put to sleep kill a sick or injured animal • Some of
the animals were beyond help and had to be put down.
make, produce, create, fashion, manufacture
bring something into existence
make bring something into existence • The concern is the top of
the downhill course, where it is impossible to make artificial snow.
• Both bottles are made from the same recyclable plastic.
produce make something in large quantities or in a commercial
setting • The northern oil facility produces 5,000 gallons per day.
create make something using imagination and artistic skill,
or cause something to exist • creating a work of fiction on this
subject may present challenges • a building project designed to create
employment and training opportunities
fashion make something by shaping and working raw
materials, especially when using only the hands or handheld
tools • an exquisite brooch fashioned from mother-of-pearl and gold
manufacture make something in large numbers, usually by
machine in a factory • a plant manufacturing synthetic rubber
malign, defame, slander, libel, vilify
say or write something damaging about someone
malign criticise someone or something in a spiteful and
misleading way • The initiative had already been much maligned
in the press. • You’re maligning a man who was once your colleague
and a friend.
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Grammar Guide
defame make an attack on someone’s reputation with a view
to damaging it • The lawyer says his former partner defamed
him on a television news programme. • The company director
explained, ‘Our competitors have defamed our character and
called us pirates.’
slander (legal term) make false accusations in speech that
are damaging to someone’s reputation • Tensions remain high
between the two countries, with each side slandering the other. • The
former employee claimed the company had slandered her.
libel (legal term) make false and damaging accusations about
someone in writing, signs or images • the detective claims that he
was libelled in a television documentary
vilify make viciously damaging statements about someone
• They maintain the answer to the problem of homelessness is not to
vilify the vulnerable. • The candidate has been vilified as a toff with
no experience, making use of his connections.
mistreat, abuse, ill-treat, maltreat, ill-use
treat someone or something wrongly or badly
mistreat treat someone or something badly or roughly • It was
clear that some prisoners had been mistreated. • Children should be
taught that mistreating animals is unacceptable.
abuse treat a person or animal cruelly or violently, especially
on a regular or habitual basis • He was given a prison sentence
for abusing his son. • She has been accused of abusing the animals
in her care.
ill-treat or maltreat behave cruelly towards a person or animal
• If one child in a family is maltreated, others in the same family are
at high risk.
ill-use treat someone cruelly or unkindly • With a feeling of being
ill-used, he started to clear up the remains of last night’s dinner.
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Choosing the right word
misuse, abuse, misappropriate, misapply
use something for an inappropriate purpose
misuse put something to an inappropriate use • The former
CEO is charged with misusing government subsidies.
abuse use in a wrong or inappropriate way something that
should be used responsibly • A handful of cynical local officials
have behaved deplorably by abusing their powers. • She admitted to
having abused drugs and alcohol.
misappropriate take something, especially money, dishonestly
and use it improperly or illegally • He was sentenced to twelve
years in jail on charges of misappropriating company funds for
personal use.
misapply use something badly or wrongly • He said the appeals
court ‘ disregarded the facts and misapplied the law’.
nullify, abrogate, annul, repeal, invalidate,
negate
put an end to the effective existence of something
nullify make something legally invalid or ineffective, or
overturn something • Only the courts can nullify the decision.
• The country’s military rulers nullified national elections after prodemocracy candidates won a landslide.
abrogate (formal) end an agreement or contract formally
and publicly • The President abrogated the Intermediate-Range
Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty with Russia. • We cannot abrogate
our international obligations.
annul declare something officially or legally invalid or
ineffective • A court on Wednesday annulled the decree, saying it
was illegal. • Many parties have called for the election results to be
annulled because of alleged fraud.
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Grammar Guide
repeal end a law officially • We would like to repeal the ban on
hunting with hounds.
invalidate deprive something of its legal or other force or
value • Failure to disclose all relevant changes may invalidate your
insurance policy. • Does the result of this latest poll invalidate the
findings of the earlier survey?
negate (formal) make something ineffective • This argument
does not negate the point I am making.
object, protest, demur, remonstrate, expostulate
indicate opposition to something
object be opposed to something, or express opposition to it
• Two companies objected strongly to the proposals. • I don’t object to
people smoking in the privacy of their own homes.
protest express strong disapproval of or disagreement with
something, or refuse to obey or accept something, often by
making a formal statement or taking action in public • a peaceful
demonstration of several hundreds of thousands protesting against
the war • On the other side of the door, he heard Anne protesting
loudly at having to meet with him.
demur raise objections in a hesitant or tentative way • In response
to Alan’s offer, they at first politely demurred, but finally succumbed
to his persuasion. • Janet was invited to go, but demurred, preferring
to stay at home.
remonstrate reason or argue forcefully with someone against
something • ‘You don’t mean that!’ she remonstrated. • The court
heard that the shop owner had remonstrated with the couple for
unruly behaviour on his premises.
expostulate express strong disagreement or disapproval, or
attempt to dissuade someone from doing something • ‘Look
here, Peter, don’t be ridiculous!’ expostulated Cynthia. • Now and
again someone would try to expostulate with him, but he never
changed his mind.
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Choosing the right word
overlook, neglect, forget, omit
fail to do something
overlook fail to notice something or someone as a result of
inattention, preoccupation or haste • Despite the value of their
work, caregivers’ needs are often overlooked. • You seem to be
overlooking one central fact.
neglect fail to give proper attention to someone or something,
or fail to do something, especially owing to carelessness,
forgetfulness or indifference • The previous speaker neglected
to mention that unemployment has actually fallen. • They accused
industry officials of neglecting safety standards.
forget fail, or fail to remember, to give due attention to someone
or something • Don’t forget to bring a passport-sized photo with
you. • I forgot to tell you that we’re bringing the dog.
omit fail to do something; leave out • I omitted the smaller beauty
spots from the list to save space. • The organisers somehow omitted to
inform members of the time of the meeting.
perform, do, carry out, fulfil, discharge, execute
complete an action or task
perform carry out an action or accomplish a task, especially
when this requires skill or care, or is part of a set procedure
• Six patients had the procedure performed under local anaesthesic.
• Each child was to perform the same task within the specified length
of time.
do complete an action or accomplish a task • I’ve got a lot of
admin to do tomorrow. • A robot will do anything you ask it to.
carry out complete an action or task • Carry out the plan as we
agreed.
fulfil do what is necessary for the successful accomplishment
or realisation of something planned, promised or anticipated
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Grammar Guide
• promise to fulfil the request on time • The course will fulfil a
requirement for his degree.
discharge (formal, of a responsibility) complete successfully • The
people who take on the duties must be competent to discharge them.
execute put an instruction or plan into effect, or complete an
action or procedure that requires skill and expertise • Once a
plan is approved, the agency will execute it.
pull, drag, draw, haul, tow, tug, yank
move something towards oneself or in the same direction
as oneself
pull move something towards oneself or in the same direction
as oneself • They pulled their sledge ten miles without skis. • If you
pull the cord, your light will come on.
drag move something large or heavy with effort across a surface
• drag the crate over to the car • a scraping sound of something being
dragged along the ground
draw pull something with a smooth movement • I reached out
and drew her gently towards me. • He drew the note from his pocket.
haul pull something with a steady strong movement, often
involving considerable effort • a train hauled by a steam locomotive
• He grasped the narrow sill and hauled himself up.
tow pull something along behind by means of a rope or chain
• The two boats were towed into port. • We had to tow the damaged
car back to the repair shop.
tug pull at something with a sharp forceful movement, without
necessarily moving the object • Frantically, I tried to tug my
foot free. • The child approached and tugged at his arm, whining,
‘I want to go home, Daddy.’
yank pull something suddenly and sharply with a single strong
movement • He yanked the cable from the hook. • When the child
stepped off the curb, she yanked him back.
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Choosing the right word
question, quiz, interrogate, grill, give the third
degree
ask for information
question ask someone for information, especially formally or
officially and on a specific topic • Callers are questioned in detail
about their symptoms.
quiz subject someone to persistent questions • Alix was being
quizzed about her new boyfriend.
interrogate question someone systematically and intensively in
a formal or official context, for example, in a court case • Police
are interrogating two men and a woman arrested on Thursday.
grill (informal) question someone intensively • Lawyers on both
sides grilled a DNA expert about his analysis of the blood found in
the vehicle.
give the third degree (informal) question someone intensively,
especially in an aggressive way • My mother gave me the third
degree whenever I was out late.
recoil, flinch, quail, shrink, wince
draw back in fear or distaste
recoil move back suddenly and violently or react instinctively
with fear, pain or disgust • As the snake got closer to her, she
instinctively recoiled. • My legs were bare, and I recoiled in pain
from the burning leather of the car seat.
flinch make a usually small backward physical movement
because of fear or pain, or to avoid confronting something
unpleasant • He flinched at the needle’s prick. • I’m not a coward,
and I don’t flinch from trouble.
quail tremble or cower with fear or apprehension • Her voice
was steady, but she quailed inwardly. • Pat quailed at the thought
of being caught.
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Grammar Guide
shrink move away physically from something because of fear
or disgust, or feel reluctance to do something because of fear or
apprehension • She shrank away in undisguised terror. • It was not
the work I shrank from on my uncles’ farm, but the lack of freedom.
wince make an involuntary movement away from something
in response to a stimulus such as pain or embarrassment • He
shook his head and winced as she touched the cut. • Charles winced
at the thought of what he must look like in his ridiculous costume.
recommend, advise, advocate, counsel, suggest
put forward ideas to someone deciding on a course of
action
recommend suggest something approvingly • The report
recommended a number of changes. • I would recommend that you
try growing the following plant varieties that are suited to shade.
advise propose a certain course of action, or give advice in a
relatively open and objective way • Your lawyer can advise you
on the matters mentioned in this leaflet. • I would strongly advise
against buying this model.
advocate support or speak in favour of something • They have
never used, nor advocated the use of, violence. • We advocate the
teaching of fire safety practices, starting with very young children.
counsel (formal or literary) advise someone on a course of action
• Her cousin counselled Marie to delay her decision until she had had
time to think things over. • The team manager counselled patience as
the best strategy in the forthcoming match.
suggest propose something in a tentative way • I suggest that we
open the subject for discussion. • This issue is suggested as an area for
further research.
renew, recondition, renovate, restore, revamp
improve the condition of something
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Choosing the right word
renew replace something that is worn, broken, or no longer
suitable for use • The roof leaked badly and had to be renewed.
• Bones usually constantly renew and rebuild themselves, but when
someone has osteoporosis this doesn’t happen.
recondition return a machine or appliance to a good condition
or working state by means of repairs or replacement of parts
• reconditioned used cars • the workshop where they recondition the
aircraft engines
renovate get something into a better state by means of repairs,
redecoration or remodelling • newly renovated offices • money
needed to renovate crumbling school buildings
restore return something to its original state after it has been
damaged or has fallen into a poor condition • a fully restored flour
mill dating to 1830 • The painting is newly cleaned and restored.
revamp improve the appearance, condition or structure of
something by making sometimes superficial changes • a
construction programme to revamp the city’s shabby waterfront
• As the airline revamped its business, the workforce was reduced by
about 900.
overhaul return something to its original or working state by
means of extensive repairs, changes or adjustments • We stayed
in the town while the ship was being overhauled. • Industry analysts
had expected the company to overhaul its corporate structure.
refurbish bring something to a cleaner, brighter, more
functional state • It would cost about one million less to refurbish
the school than to build a new one. • refurbish the kitchen by buying
new appliances
ridicule, deride, laugh at, mock, send up
belittle by making fun of someone or something
ridicule make fun of or mock someone or something in a
contemptuous way • His feat has been ridiculed by reporters, who
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Grammar Guide
question whether he truly swam the whole distance, or whether he
went some of the way in his support boat.
deride ridicule or show contempt for someone or something
• Critics have derided his recent novels, but he still commands huge
advances.
laugh at make scornful fun of someone or something • People
laughed at our bulky winter jackets, but at least when the sun went
down we were warm.
mock treat someone or something with scorn, often by cruel
mimicking • It’s easy to mock, but you try doing it!
send up (informal) parody or mimic someone or something
• We’d mercilessly send up Dad’s complete incompetence with tools,
but he was a good sport about it.
safeguard, protect, defend, guard, shield
keep safe from actual or potential damage or attack
safeguard prevent something or someone from being harmed,
badly treated, or lost • They promised to safeguard local industry
while promoting a free-market approach. • measures to safeguard
our children against bicycle injuries
protect keep someone or something from harm or damage
• advice on protecting your skin against sun damage • efforts to
protect areas of outstanding beauty from overuse
defend ward off an actual or threatened attack • Fresh troops
were sent in to defend the beleaguered capital. • Charlie defended
himself well, and eventually beat off his attackers.
guard work to prevent damage, loss or attack through
vigilance and taking defensive measures • The main prison was
guarded by armed officers. • Guard against misuse of your credit
card.
shield prevent harm, damage or attack by using a physical
barrier or by intervening in a protective way • shield young
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Choosing the right word
children from alarming news bulletins • Dark glasses shielded his
eyes from the sun.
steal, pinch, filch, nick, purloin, pilfer, embezzle,
misappropriate
take property unlawfully
steal take something that belongs to someone else, illegally or
without the owner’s permission • a 1992 robbery in which more
than £20 million was stolen from a Geneva bank
pinch (informal) steal something • Who’s pinched my wallet?
filch (informal) steal something furtively and opportunistically,
usually a small item or something of little value • He filched the
wood he needed from his neighbour’s garden.
nick (informal) steal something, usually of relatively little value
• My bike’s been nicked!
purloin (formal) steal something, sometimes used humorously
or euphemistically • They pledge to prosecute sales of purloined
software, pirated videos, and the like. • The former weapons inspector
told how he had once caught a member of his team purloining a topsecret document.
pilfer steal small items of little value, especially habitually
• He accused the children of pilfering fruit from his stand. • It was
estimated that 25 per cent of food sent to the refugee camps was being
pilfered and sold on the black market.
embezzle take for improper or illegal personal use money or
property that has been given in trust by others • The former
executive embezzled company funds and will be prosecuted.
misappropriate take something, especially money, dishonestly
or to use it for an improper or illegal purpose • The treasurer
insisted that no company money had been misappropriated and
used for personal expenses. • The defendant was found guilty of
misappropriating public funds.
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Grammar Guide
teach, educate, train, instruct, coach, tutor, school,
drill
impart knowledge or skill in something
teach impart knowledge or skill to someone by instruction
or example • She taught maths at the school for twenty-one years.
• He taught me a great deal about crosswords, and I taught him how
to swim.
educate increase the knowledge or develop the abilities of
someone by formal teaching or training, especially in a school
or college context • a cost-effective way of educating children to
meet their individual needs • The police stress that they want to
educate bad drivers as much as bring them to court.
train teach the skills necessary for a task or job by means
of instruction, observation and practice • It is important for
professionals to be trained to work with volunteers. • We hired new
staff and trained them in skills ranging from bookkeeping to business
administration.
instruct teach someone a subject, methodology or skill, not
necessarily in a school or college context • a manual instructing
users how to run the computer software • get a professional to instruct
us in scuba-diving
coach give special instruction to one person or a small group
of people, especially in preparation for an exam, or to teach
sporting, artistic or life skills • On Saturdays, I used to coach the
local rugby team.
tutor give someone individual instruction in a subject or skill
• A native French speaker, he has been hired to tutor five students
after school for their French exam.
school train someone in a skill or area of expertise in a thorough
and detailed way • She had been schooled in good manners by her
parents.
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Choosing the right word
drill teach something to someone by means of repeated
exercises and practice • The most common intonation patterns
should be drilled early in the course. • The recruits were drilled
endlessly on the parade ground.
tear, rend, rip, split
pull or come apart by force
tear pull something apart, either by accident or on purpose, or
come apart • He tore the paper into little strips. • She was always
climbing trees and tearing her clothes.
rend pull something apart violently, or be pulled apart violently
• Something exploded with a sound of rending metal and shattering
glass.
rip tear something with a sudden rough action, accompanied by
a distinctive noise, especially accidentally • With one determined
movement, she ripped open the envelope. • You can’t wear those
flimsy clothes skateboarding – if you fall off, you’ll rip them to shreds.
split divide something with a single movement, usually by
force and into two parts • he was splitting wood to start a fire
• Split the cake in half horizontally and sandwich it together with
jam and buttercream.
throw, chuck, fling, heave, hurl, toss, cast
send an object through the air
throw use a physical movement to cause something to go
through the air • Fred applauded and threw his hat into the air.
• Police used blue-dyed water after a few pro-democracy protesters
threw petrol bombs at passing vehicles.
chuck (informal) throw something in a reckless or aimless way
• I chucked the application forms in the bin.
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Grammar Guide
fling throw something fast using a lot of force • She flung herself
face down on the bed. • Johnny flung aside his jacket and raced to
help his brother.
heave (informal) pull or throw something large or heavy • He
heaved the massive, rusty door open.
hurl throw something with great force • Demonstrators hurled
stones at the police. • His opponent seized him and hurled him to
the ground.
toss throw something small or light in a casual or careless way
• One of the children tossed a ball high in the air. • David sat back in
his armchair, tossing aside his magazine.
cast (literary) throw something in a particular direction • He
was cast overboard by the force of a huge wave.
try, attempt, endeavour, strive
make an effort to do something
try make an effort or an attempt to do or achieve something
• I tried so many times to convince her to go, but it was useless.
• I will try to get the report to you by Tuesday.
attempt make an effort to do something, especially without
much expectation of success • There are various theories that
attempt to explain the phenomenon of dreaming. • Several climbers
had already attempted the ascent, without success.
endeavour make a serious and sincere effort to do or achieve
something • They endeavoured to include every single family in the
history of the town.
strive make persistent efforts to achieve something • At this
hotel we are constantly striving to improve the level of service to our
guests. • Competing firms must strive to satisfy their customers or
they will not prosper.
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Choosing the right word
use, employ, make use of, utilise
put something to use
use put something into action or service • In photography,
different lenses are used for different purposes. • When talking about
computers we use the word ‘ hardware’ to describe the machine and
its accessories.
employ make use of something such as a tool or a resource
• the high-pressure selling techniques sometimes employed by doorto-door salespeople • There are seven base metals that are commonly
employed in the making of coins and artefacts.
make use of use what is readily available, especially in
a sensible or economical way • A split-level house makes
maximum use of land. • Members of staff are encouraged to make
use of the new health centre before or after work, or during their
lunch break.
utilise (often formal) use something in a way that takes
advantage of its potential • Karate is a method of fighting that
utilises all parts of the body as weapons. • We need to ensure that the
country’s varied and rich reserves are utilised in the most efficient
way.
want, desire, wish, long, yearn, covet, crave
seek to have, do or achieve something
want feel a need or desire for something • What do you want to
do this summer? • All I wanted was to pass my driving test and buy
my first car.
desire want something very strongly • He needed to
conquer his phobia if he was to lead the normal, happy life he
so desired.
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Grammar Guide
wish have a strong, sometimes unrealistic, desire to have or to
do something • ‘I wish I could live in a big apartment with high
ceilings,’ he said. • ‘I do wish we could help her somehow,’ sighed
Christine.
long have a strong desire for someone or something, especially
something difficult to achieve • We’ve all been longing to see
him. • She’d been longing for peace and quiet so that she could finish
her book.
yearn want something very much, especially with a feeling of
sadness when it seems unlikely that it can ever be obtained
• people who yearn to be free
covet have a strong desire to possess something, especially
something that belongs to someone else • This is his third failure
to get the job he so covets. • He covets his brother’s sportscar.
crave want something very much, especially when this desire is
physical • We’d been driving all day and craved a hot meal. • Will
craved the attention of his fans.
yield, capitulate, submit, succumb, surrender
give in
yield give way to something such as force, pressure, entreaty
or persuasion • The government would not yield to pressure, she
promised. • Many people yield to the temptation to smoke although
they realise the health implications.
capitulate stop resisting a superior force, especially one that
seems unbeatable • If we capitulate to these demands, we will lose
what we have worked so hard to gain.
submit accept someone else’s authority or will, especially
reluctantly or under pressure • We don’t intend to submit to that
kind of pressure. • The defeated army had no choice but to submit.
succumb give in to something owing to weakness or the
failure to offer effective opposition • In 1239 the city succumbed
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Choosing the right word
to Tartar invasion. • The actor, who once famously turned his back
on Hollywood, has succumbed to temptation by taking a role in a
blockbuster film.
surrender give way to the power of another person and stop
offering resistance, usually after active opposition • Still the
enemy refused to surrender. • Two of the suspects walked out of the
woods and surrendered to the authorities.
207
208
chapter 8
Commonly confused words
and word pairs
mrs malaprop: If I reprehend any thing in this world,
it is the use of my oracular tongue, and a nice
­derangement of epitaphs!
Richard Brinsley Sheridan
The Rivals (1775)
The mistaken use of a word for a similar-sounding one is
known as a malapropism, after the character of Mrs Malaprop
in Sheridan’s comedy The Rivals (1775), who excels at this sort
of error, to humorous effect. An earlier literary personification
of this kind of misspeaking is Dogberry in Shakespeare’s Much
Ado About Nothing (1598), though his name has less currency
today.
Of course, many words in English resemble one another in
spelling, sound or some other feature, while being unrelated
or only partly related in meaning, so mistakes are all too easy
to make. The word groups in this chapter give some hints as to
possible pitfalls. Some are more obvious than others, but are
included nonetheless, for good measure.
Whatever arrangement of epithets (adjectives), or indeed
‘derangement of epitaphs’, one has in mind, it is always
advisable to take care. As a writer, it is doubtless amusing
to exercise one’s wit, even at a fictional character’s expense,
but perhaps more awkward to end up on the receiving end of
the joke.
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Grammar Guide
accept and except
These words with similar pronunciations have no other
features in common.
⚪⚪
Accept functions only as a verb. It means variously ‘take
(something offered)’, ‘believe’ or ‘agree to’, as in
We cannot accept [not except] such a pathetic excuse.
⚪⚪
Except can be a preposition (see chapter 1, page 26)
meaning ‘to the exclusion of ’, as in
All students except [not accept] the freshers are eligible.
It’s also a conjunction (see chapter 1, page 26) meaning ‘if
it were not for the fact that’ and ‘otherwise than’, as in
I would have finished the course except [not accept] that I
became ill at the end of term.
The demonstrators did not quieten down except [not accept]
to regroup and create new slogans for later use.
Finally, it’s a verb used most often in the passive voice in
the meaning ‘leave out’ or ‘exclude’, as in
Only children were excepted [not accepted] from attendance.
adapt and adopt
These similar-sounding verbs are unrelated in meaning.
⚪⚪
Adapt means ‘change to meet requirements’, ‘adjust’ or
‘rewrite’, as in
adapt [not adopt] the cottage to a year-round dwelling
flora and fauna that had adapted [not adopted] to an arid
climate
adapt [not adopt] the novel for television.
⚪⚪
Adopt means ‘legally bring up (another’s child)’, ‘choose
and decide to use’ or ‘assume (a behaviour pattern)’, as in
adopt [not adapt] two boys
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Commonly confused words and word pairs
adopt [not adapt] a new ideology
adopt [not adapt] an attitude of superiority.
Note that both adapt and adopt can be either transitive
or intransitive (see chapter 1, page 8).
adjacent and adjoining
These adjectives are similar but not identical in meaning.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Two houses are said to be adjoining when they are next to
each other with a common wall. And, adjoining tables are
next to each other end to end, forming one long unit. In
other words, adjoining items join or touch.
Houses that are adjacent, on the other hand, can have a
space between them or even be on opposite sides of a road,
so long as there is nothing significant between them (for
example, another house) and they are close enough for
someone to pass easily from one to the other. Similarly,
adjacent tables are next to each other but not necessarily
touching.
Note also that adjoining, when used as a present participle,
can govern an object (the house adjoining ours), whereas adjacent
needs the addition of to (the house adjacent to ours).
adverse and averse
These adjectives have related meanings but are used in
different constructions.
Both words mean ‘opposed’ in different ways.
⚪⚪
Adverse is normally used before an abstract noun such as
circumstances or conditions when they are unfavourable or
likely to cause difficulties:
His tweet has brought them some adverse publicity.
⚪⚪
Averse describes a person who is disinclined to do
something or has a strong dislike for something. Sometimes
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Grammar Guide
it is used in the negative with a touch of irony. The pattern
is averse to, as in
He is not averse to eating out.
Averse is never used attributively (that is to say, before
a noun, see chapter 1, page 19), as adverse normally is.
affect and effect
These words not only sound similar but are also very
close in meaning.
⚪⚪
In everyday conversation and writing, affect is usually a
verb meaning ‘influence’ or ‘change’. Something that, or
someone who, affects another person or thing, influences
and/or changes that other person or thing.
The weather is unlikely to affect the result.
The new bus schedules won’t affect me. I drive to work.
⚪⚪
Effect, on the other hand, in everyday use, is usually a noun
meaning ‘change’, ‘influence’ or ‘changed state’. When
someone or something does something to another person
or thing, the result is an effect.
What would be the likely effect of raising the price by £10?
The effect was instantaneous: everyone fell silent.
Effect is often used in the phrase have an effect on (which is
very similar in meaning to affect):
The weather is unlikely to have any effect on the result.
In formal English, effect can also be used as a verb meaning
‘succeed in carrying out’:
The thieves effected an entry by smashing the lock on the back
door of the house.
It’s worth bearing in mind, though, that someone can effect
only a thing like an entry, a change or an escape (whereas
someone can affect either a person or a wider range of things).
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Commonly confused words and word pairs
afflict and inflict
The difference between these related words is largely one
of how they are used in constructions.
Afflict and inflict both express the idea of causing pain or
trouble for someone or something. The chief difference between
these verbs is in how they are used in grammatical constructions.
⚪⚪
A person inflicts something unpleasant on someone or
something:
They promoted measures to avoid inflicting further harm on
the environment.
⚪⚪
But a thing afflicts someone, or, more usually, a person is
afflicted (in the passive, see chapter 1, page 15) with or by
something unpleasant:
The population was afflicted by a series of natural disasters.
allusion, delusion and illusion
The common sounds in these words belie the differences
in their meanings.
While all three words can be traced back to the Latin verb
ludere, which means ‘play’, their modern meanings are quite
distinct. Allusion and illusion are the closest in sound but the
furthest apart in sense, while delusion shares some meaning
with illusion.
⚪⚪
An allusion is an indirect reference to a person, thing or
event:
The story contains allusions to her childhood in Africa.
⚪⚪
An illusion is something that deceives the senses or mind:
The shimmering effect above a hot road is an optical illusion.
By shutting himself in his room for hours, he kept up an
illusion of studying hard.
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Grammar Guide
⚪⚪
A delusion is something falsely believed, often to the
believer’s disadvantage (while an illusion is a wrong
impression received):
Visitors often labour under the delusion that the weather is
always hot here.
already and all ready
These word forms have distinct functions and meanings,
and slightly different pronunciations.
Already and all ready don’t mean the same thing, so they’re
not interchangeable.
⚪⚪
Already, an adverb, means ‘at a time earlier than expected’,
as in
When we got there they’d already left.
Adverbial already usually either precedes or follows a verb,
and is pronounced in short syllables.
⚪⚪
All ready means ‘all or totally prepared’, as in
Are the provisions all ready for tomorrow?
It typically follows a noun and a linking verb as a predicate
adjective (see chapter 1, page 20), and the all receives a
slight stress in pronunciation that is missing from already.
alternate and alternative
These adjectives have related but different meanings.
⚪⚪
The word alternative is often used to mean ‘available as a
possible substitute’, as in
The band decided to go with the song’s alternative title.
(Note that in American English alternate is the preferred
word in this context.)
Alternative also has an established sense of ‘mutually
exclusive’, as in
214
Commonly confused words and word pairs
Scientists are examining two alternative theories as to the
origin of the universe.
A more modern meaning of alternative is ‘departing from
or challenging traditional norms’, for example
He is an enthusiast for alternative therapies.
⚪⚪
Alternate, on the other hand, tends to mean ‘every second’,
as in
The year groups come into school on alternate days.
although and however
These words have similar meanings, but belong to
different parts of speech and have a different emphasis.
These two words both have the function of showing up a
contrast.
⚪⚪
Although is a conjunction, and tends to soften the
contrast. For example,
We got along very well, although we were from different
backgrounds.
Here, although, meaning ‘despite the fact that’, is used
to play down any expectation of contrast. The positive
statement comes first in the sentence, but the effect would
be the same if the clauses were reversed. If the subordinate
(or dependent) clause (see chapter 2, page 48) came first,
this would suggest from the outset that one would be wrong
if one thought this might cause us not to get along.
Although is not usually followed by a comma, but it
is often preceded by one.
⚪⚪
However, on the other hand, is an adverb, and tends to
emphasise a contrast. For example,
We were from different backgrounds. However, we got
along very well.
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Grammar Guide
Here, the initial sentence sets up an expectation: we were
from different backgrounds and so might not be expected
to get along. The purpose of however is to introduce a
statement that contrasts with the first.
However in this sense (but not when it is used in
phrases such as however hard you try) is always set apart by
commas when it comes in the middle of a sentence:
She, however, had other ideas.
It can also be preceded by a stronger punctuation mark
when it comes in the middle of a sentence:
The mistake was a very obvious one; however, the examiner
still managed to miss it.
although and though
These words have very similar meanings.
In many cases although and though are interchangeable.
⚪⚪
Although is a conjunction meaning ‘in spite of the fact
that’. For example,
Although she is clever, she lacks emotional intelligence.
In this example, although could be safely replaced by
though.
⚪⚪
Though, however, is generally more versatile, in that it
can occupy different positions in a sentence with more
grammatical flexibility. Though can function as either
a conjunction or an adverb. It’s the only option in the
phrases as though and even though, and in the following
types of uses:
I don’t like them, though.
It is true, though, that they have been kind to us.
The chair, though damaged, could still be used.
We enjoyed the day outside, cold though it was.
216
Commonly confused words and word pairs
altogether and all together
These word forms have different meanings and are
distinct parts of speech.
These words mean different things.
⚪⚪
Altogether means ‘completely’, ‘in total’ or ‘on the whole’,
and is an adverb:
It was an altogether spectacular tennis championship.
Altogether seventeen people are missing.
⚪⚪
All together means ‘everyone together’ or ‘all at the same
place or time’; it functions as an adjectival phrase. Usually
the word all can be removed without affecting the grammar
or the sense:
They arrived (all) together at nine.
The plates are (all) together on a separate shelf.
ambiguous and ambivalent
These adjectives share some of the same sense, but differ
in their application.
Both words describe uncertainty in understanding what is
meant.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Ambivalent is used of people and their attitudes. If
people are ambivalent about, for example, Scottish
independence, they are unsure about the advantages
and disadvantages and cannot easily decide between the
various arguments.
In contrast, ambiguous refers to information or context.
If a person makes an ambiguous statement about, for
example, nuclear power, then the statement has more than
one possible interpretation.
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Grammar Guide
amount and number
These nouns are interchangeable in some informal
contexts, but should be distinguished in formal writing.
⚪⚪
Amount is normally used with singular words that have no
plural, that is, so-called non-count nouns (see chapter 1,
page 5), such as coal, happiness and warfare:
a large amount of coal; any amount of happiness.
⚪⚪
In contrast, number is used with plural count nouns, such
as books, questions, ships and cheeses (= types of cheese):
a large number of books; an excessive number of questions; a
fair number of cheeses.
Note that, in everyday speech, amount is sometimes used
when number is strictly called for: a large amount of books. It is
better to avoid this usage in formal speaking and writing.
anxious and eager
These adjectives have some overlap in meaning but
different overtones.
Anxious and eager both refer to feelings regarding a future
event. In informal contexts, these two adjectives appear
interchangeably:
I am anxious to attend the concert.
I am eager to attend the concert.
⚪⚪
In writing, and in correct speaking, it is better to use eager
when there are feelings of eagerness or enthusiasm, as in
Sheila has never been more eager for the school year to
start.
⚪⚪
And anxious is more appropriate when there are feelings of
anxiety, for example
We are anxious to hear news of the missing students.
218
Commonly confused words and word pairs
anymore and any more
These word forms have distinct meanings and are
different parts of speech.
⚪⚪
Anymore is an adverb:
She doesn’t live here anymore.
Don’t you eat out anymore?
⚪⚪
The two-word any more is a common collocation
(juxtaposition) of two determiners (see chapter 2, page
33) and refers to any unspecified additional amount, as in
Is there any more pasta left?
anyone and any one
These word forms have distinct senses.
⚪⚪
Anyone is somewhat more common than anybody (which
has the same meaning). They both are used only of human
beings after a negative (see chapter 2, page 44) or a
question:
Has anyone seen my pen?
They don’t let in anyone who doesn’t have ID.
⚪⚪
The words any and one are written separately as any one
when they mean any one particular person or thing:
Any one of them could have started the fire.
The tables are all free, so you can sit at any one you like.
aural and oral
These adjectives are pronounced in a similar way but
their meanings are distinct.
These two words are often confused because they are homonyms
(sound the same) and have meanings that are close.
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Grammar Guide
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Aural relates to hearing and sounds. An aural test is an
examination testing hearing or comprehension by listening.
Oral, on the other hand, relates to speaking or the mouth.
In an oral test the answers are spoken rather than written.
avenge and revenge
These related words cannot always be used interchangeably,
and differ as to the parts of speech they can be assigned.
Both these words are associated with inflicting harm to
repay a wrong and related to the abstract noun vengeance.
The differences between them have to do with grammar and
shades of meaning, though there is a lot of overlap in meaning,
dictated by usage over time.
⚪⚪
Avenge is a verb, meaning ‘inflict harm in return for (a
wrong)’, and implying getting some sort of justice on
someone’s behalf:
They avenged their sister’s murder by securing life
imprisonment for the perpetrator.
‘When will our consciences grow so tender that we will act to
prevent human misery rather than avenge it?’
Eleanor Roosevelt, ‘My Day’ (February 16, 1946)
⚪⚪
Revenge is a verb but more usually a noun. It too implies
hurting someone in response to an injury, perhaps with
overtones of malice. Traditionally it suggests getting even
with an adversary by inflicting punishment or harm:
In an act of revenge for the bombing of our ship, the navy
shelled the terrorists’ training camps.
Bands of irregular soldiers set out to revenge their leader’s
assassination.
220
Commonly confused words and word pairs
‘Punishment is not for revenge, but to lessen crime and reform
the criminal.’
Elizabeth Fry, Note among her papers (1848)
avoid, evade and elude
These three verbs have related meanings but vary in tone
and nuance.
⚪⚪
Avoid is neutral in tone. If one avoids a responsibility, one
takes measures to prevent it from being necessary. Avoid
can be followed by a verbal noun ending in -ing, as in
We avoided having to pay.
⚪⚪
If one evades a responsibility, on the other hand, one gets
out of it in an underhand or deceitful way. Unlike avoid,
evade must be followed by an ordinary noun:
We evaded payment.
⚪⚪
Elude implies clever or ingenious avoidance:
We eluded our pursuers by hiding in the rafters of an old
hay barn.
It also has an extended meaning ‘fail to be recalled by’, as in
Her name eludes me.
await and wait for
These word forms are almost identical in meaning.
Await is slightly more formal in register. Someone awaits or
waits for test results or the arrival of a teacher, and travels to
exotic lands where great adventures wait or await. However,
await is not used with a for construction, for example,
Let’s review our notes as we await the judge.
Let’s review our notes as we wait for the judge to arrive in
the courtroom.
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Grammar Guide
awhile and a while
These word forms are different parts of speech and so
behave differently.
Both these expressions are derived from the word while, but
they have different roles in sentences.
⚪⚪
Awhile is an adverb:
Let us wait awhile [not for awhile].
⚪⚪
A while – written as two words – is a noun phrase (see
chapter 2, page 46) and is normally preceded by for:
I’m going to be away for a while.
Sometimes, however, the word for is left out, making
a while look more like an adverbial phrase, though it is still
strictly a noun phrase:
We had to wait quite a while.
This use is fairly easy to identify because while is qualified
in some way, for example, quite a while or a long while.
backward and backwards
While the sense of these words is similar, they are
different parts of speech.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Backward is the only form available for the adjective:
a backward glance.
Backwards is more usual for the adverb.
The vehicle moved slowly backwards.
(Note that in American usage, backward is more frequently
used in such adverbial contexts.)
because, as, for and since
These conjunctions can all be used to introduce
explanatory subordinate clauses, but they have slightly
different meanings and functions.
222
Commonly confused words and word pairs
⚪⚪
The conjunction since is used to introduce a dependent
clause giving a reason for the statement in the main clause.
The reason is either already well known or considered not
as important as the main statement:
Since you’re only staying a little while, we’d better eat now.
⚪⚪
The same is true of because, but this conjunction puts a
greater emphasis on the cause:
He liked her because she was witty and lively.
⚪⚪
The conjunction for functions in a similar way to since
and because, but is more formal in register. For tends to
introduce reasons that justify a statement (as because can
too), rather than explaining it:
She must have forgotten to invite them, for they didn’t turn up.
Note that for as a conjunction is never used at the beginning
of a sentence.
⚪⚪
As can function in a similar way to the other conjunctions.
However, its use can lead to ambiguity, for example:
As Luisa went back to work, Tony stayed at home to look
after the baby.
In this example, as can also be understood to mean either
‘because’ or ‘at the time that’. In such cases, it may be
better to avoid ambiguity and use either because or while
depending on the intended sense.
beside and besides
These words largely have distinct meanings and functions.
⚪⚪
Beside is a preposition referring to physical position
meaning ‘next to’:
Come and sit beside me.
It’s also used to mean ‘in addition to’, and this can lead to
potential ambiguity in respect of the ‘next to’ sense:
She owns another property beside this one.
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Grammar Guide
⚪⚪
Besides is an adverb meaning ‘moreover’:
It’s late – besides, the weather’s too cold.
It’s also a preposition meaning ‘in addition to’:
They’ve already spent a considerable sum on the house,
besides the cost of the extension.
between and among
As prepositions, these words function slightly differently.
⚪⚪
Some people insist on using among, and not between, when
more than two people or things are under consideration:
Her estate was divided equally among her five children.
In some instances, though, between may sound just as
natural:
We need to address the ongoing tensions between the sales
team, the art department and the management office.
⚪⚪
Certainly, when there are only two people or things are
under consideration, between should be used:
Conflict between East and West is not inevitable.
Among is never used in such cases.
biannual and biennial
These adjectives have distinct meanings.
⚪⚪
Biannual means ‘twice a year’. Semi-annual is a synonym
for biannual. For example,
Payment of interest is biannual.
⚪⚪
Biennial, on the other hand, means ‘every two years’. For
example,
They met at a biennial conference on the environment.
224
Commonly confused words and word pairs
Owing to general potential confusion as to which is which,
it may be advisable to use more straightforward expressions.
For example,
Interest is paid twice a year.
They met at a conference on the environment held every two
years.
blatant and flagrant
These adjectives have meanings that are similar but also
quite distinct.
Both these words describe openly offensive behaviour, but
there’s a difference.
⚪⚪
Blatant emphasises the brazen conspicuousness of the
offence, as in
a blatant breach of good faith in the negotiations
A blatant lie is one so bare-faced that no one can miss it.
⚪⚪
Flagrant, on the other hand, emphasises the shocking
seriousness or gravity of the offense, for example
flagrant racism
Flagrant disregard for human life is unforgivably shameless
or outrageous.
Note that blatant should not be used to mean merely
‘obvious’. Instead, use obvious, clear or glaring:
There is a glaring [not blatant] contradiction….
borne and born
These words have a common root but are differentiated
by conventions as to usage.
⚪⚪
Borne is the primary past participle (see chapter 1,
page 8) of the verb bear:
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Grammar Guide
The following points should be borne in mind.
His account is simply not borne out by the facts.
In meanings relating to birth, borne is used when the
mother is the subject of the verb, or when the verb is passive
followed by the preposition by:
Michelle had already borne six children.
The twins were borne by an Italian mother.
⚪⚪
When the subject is the child, born is the form used:
He was not born in hospital.
Born is also the adjective used in a combination, to indicate
condition, location or status of birth:
newly born pups; a northern-born poet.
borrow, loan and lend
These three verbs have related meanings, but differ in
their application.
All these verbs are used in connection with the temporary use
or possession of something that belongs to someone else.
⚪⚪
When a person borrows something from someone they
get it:
Can I borrow your car for an hour?
I borrowed £100 from my brother.
⚪⚪
When a person lends or loans something to someone they
give it:
Will you loan me your car for an hour?
My brother lent me £100.
Lend can be used figuratively, whereas loan cannot:
The old silver lends [not loans] an air of elegance to an
otherwise drab room.
226
Commonly confused words and word pairs
censor and censure
These words have different pronunciations and distinct
meanings.
Though spelt similarly, and from a common root, Latin censere,
which means ‘assess’, these two nouns have different meanings.
⚪⚪
A censor is a person who suppresses or removes information:
Film board censors have cut some of the more violent scenes.
⚪⚪
Meanwhile censure is severe criticism or condemnation:
The political manoeuvre came under censure.
Both words can also work as verbs, and as such they preserve
their distinct meanings.
centre on and centre around
These phrasal verbs have slightly different meanings.
While the phrasal verbs (see chapter 1, page 18) centre on
and centre around are close in meaning, there is a difference
in nuance.
⚪⚪
If one uses the verb centre to mean ‘focus on something’, it
can be used with the prepositions on or upon, as in
The court’s interpretation of the law centred on the issue of
freedom of speech.
⚪⚪
Here, the idea of a specific, narrow focus is implicit.
In the above example, substitution of around, which
signifies circular or diffuse movement, is imprecise. Centre
around is more acceptable if one wishes to convey a
generalised focus on a number of things, as in
Discussions centred around the witness’s credibility, his
previously conflicting statements and their admissibility.
An alternative to centre around is revolve around.
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Grammar Guide
ceremonial and ceremonious
These adjectives are related but have slightly different
meanings.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Ceremonial is the more neutral of the two words, describing
things that involve ceremony or are a part of it, for example,
ceremonial occasions. It’s not now used of people.
Ceremonious is used of people or their behaviour. A
ceremonious person, or a person with a ceremonious manner, is
one who likes and adheres to formalities. It is advisable to
avoid ceremonious where ceremonial can be used.
childish and childlike
These adjectives are broadly alike in meaning, but with
crucial distinctions.
Both words describe people or behaviour that have qualities
associated with children.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
However, childlike is complimentary and even affectionate
(childlike innocence).
Meanwhile, childish is a dismissive and disapproving term
(a childish tantrum).
classic and classical
These closely related words differ in their usage.
The meanings of the two words overlap.
⚪⚪
Essentially, classic as an adjective describes the value or
status of something (a classic example of Art Deco).
The noun classic means something created or made that is
of the highest quality. With an upper-case initial, Classics
is the study of the languages and cultures of ancient Greece
and Rome.
228
Commonly confused words and word pairs
⚪⚪
The adjective classical, though often implying a judgement
of value or worth, is a more factual reference to the literature,
art and culture of the ancient world or to the high period
of an art form (a classical education, classical music, classical
ballet).
climactic and climatic
These adjectives derive from different root words, and so
have separate meanings.
⚪⚪
Climactic means ‘forming an exciting climax’, as in
In a climactic [not climatic] passage, the author kills off the
heroine.
⚪⚪
Climatic, deriving from climate, means ‘relating to
weather’, as in
These severe climatic [not climactic] changes are caused by
global heating.
collaborate and corroborate
These verbs are unrelated in meaning, despite their
superficial similar appearance.
⚪⚪
Collaborate means ‘work with others to achieve something’:
Two authors collaborated on the biography.
⚪⚪
Corroborate means ‘present evidence in support of the
truth of something’:
As any language teacher can corroborate, spelling and
grammar are important.
The two words are not interchangeable.
compare to and compare with
These collocations have slightly different meanings.
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Grammar Guide
⚪⚪
In careful usage, compare to is preferred when two unlike
things are being likened:
She compared her skin to ivory.
⚪⚪
Compare with is used when the comparison is between
similar things and implies differences as well as similarities:
We can compare this hotel with the ones we visited in Europe
last year.
When compare is used intransitively (that is, without a
direct object), with should always be used:
The new model compares well with others in the same price
range.
Note that the adjective comparable follows compare in
being followed either by to or with, depending on whether
unlike or like things are being considered:
The agency provides a service comparable to that of a good
library.
The fires are comparable with the ones that recently hit
Australia.
complement and compliment
These words, while pronounced in a similar way, have
unrelated meanings.
The words are close in spelling but their meanings are quite
different.
⚪⚪
As a noun, a complement is something added to perfect a
thing and make it complete, as in
A fine wine is the perfect complement to good cooking.
There is also a specifically grammatical sense of
complement, a noun or adjective that relates back to the
subject after a linking verb (see chapter 1, page 9).
230
Commonly confused words and word pairs
⚪⚪
A compliment, on the other hand, is an expression of
praise:
The cook received many compliments from the guests that
evening.
Both words are also used as verbs, and both have
adjectival forms: complementary and complimentary.
Complimentary has the special meaning ‘given free’, so a
complimentary copy of a book is one given without charge.
A complementary copy, on the other hand, is a book that
completes a set.
consist of, comprise, include, compose and constitute
These five verbs overlap in meaning, but are distinct in
usage.
⚪⚪
Consist of is concerned with a whole having a number of
parts. It is used in the active voice, with the whole as their
subject and the parts as their object:
The meal consisted of several small dishes that everybody
dipped into.
⚪⚪
Comprise can be used in the same way as consist of:
The house comprises three bedrooms, a bathroom, a kitchen
and a living room.
But it also has another sense of ‘form’, so:
Retirees now comprise 20 per cent of the population.
And, so, potentially confusingly, can also be used in the
passive:
The house is comprised of three bedrooms, a bathroom, a
kitchen and a living room.
⚪⚪
If some but not all the parts of the whole are mentioned,
include is used instead:
The house includes a kitchen and a living room on the first
floor.
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Grammar Guide
⚪⚪
Compose and constitute are also concerned with parts
making up a whole. Compose is usually used in the passive,
and constitute in the active:
The team is composed of experts in the field.
The following commodities constitute the average household
diet.
connote and denote
These verbs have related but distinct meanings.
Denote refers to the main or literal meaning of a word,
whereas connote refers to its implications or associations. The
word family, for example, denotes a group of people related by
blood or marriage, but connotes the bonds of affection, trust
and loyalty that unite them.
continual and continuous
These related adjectives differ in usage.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Something continual continues, with breaks, over a period
of time. So a continual noise is one that is constantly
repeated, such as a dog barking.
Something continuous goes on without a break, and a
continuous noise is one that continues without stopping,
such as the roar of a waterfall.
The same distinction applies to the adverbs continually and
continuously:
Hecklers continually interrupted the speaker.
She drove continuously for two hours.
In popular usage, however, continual and continually are now
frequently used to mean ‘without stopping’.
232
Commonly confused words and word pairs
corporal and corporeal
These adjectives with a common root have developed
independent meanings.
Both these words derive from the Latin corpus, which means
‘body’.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Corporal means ‘relating to the body’ and is mainly used
in the expression corporal punishment, referring to the
infliction of physical hurt.
Corporeal means ‘material or physical rather than spiritual’:
The gods of antiquity were not just spirits but enjoyed a
corporeal existence.
council and counsel
These words are pronounced in a similar way but have
distinct meanings.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Council is a noun only, meaning a body of people, especially
in an advisory or administrative context.
Counsel is both a noun and a verb, and is associated with
advice, particularly of a professional nature, and the giving
of it. The noun counsel means either ‘advice’ itself, or a
barrister or other legal adviser. The verb counsel describes
the activity of professional advisers:
The company psychologist counsels employees coping with
stress problems.
International financial analysts counselled caution.
credible, credulous and creditable
These three adjectives are related but have different
meanings.
These adjectives, and the corresponding nouns credibility, credit
and credulity come from the same root, Latin credere, which
means ‘believe’, but have distinct meanings.
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Grammar Guide
⚪⚪
A person or thing is credible when he, she or it can be
easily believed:
My story may sound barely credible but I assure you it’s
true.
Credible also has the newer meaning ‘inspiring confidence’:
The government needs to develop a credible monetary
policy.
⚪⚪
Someone is credulous when he or she is all too ready to
believe:
Only the most credulous person would believe such a story.
⚪⚪
Creditable is connected with the word credit and means
‘bringing credit’:
An excellent squash player, she plays a creditable game of
tennis as well.
defective and deficient
These adjectives are related but have different senses.
Both words describe things that are less than perfect.
⚪⚪
Defective means ‘faulty’ and describes functional things,
whether processes, machines or the human senses:
If the workmanship is defective, they’ll replace the shoes with
a new pair.
Artillery officers sometimes have defective hearing.
⚪⚪
Deficient describes things that lack a quality, element or
ingredient necessary to their working:
Her voice is beautiful but a little deficient in power.
Their diet is deficient in vitamin D.
234
Commonly confused words and word pairs
definite and definitive
These adjectives are closely related but differ in sense.
⚪⚪
Definite describes something as being distinct or precise
without making any strong judgement about it:
He has definite ideas on the subject.
⚪⚪
Definitive denotes something authoritative, conclusive or
decisive; it is therefore a more evaluative word:
She wrote the definitive book on the subject.
denote and represent
These verbs have similar but distinct meanings.
⚪⚪
Denote is used to express ‘mean’, ‘refer to’ or ‘signify’:
That word denotes ‘ life’ in Spanish.
For our purposes, the word ‘corporation’ will denote the
XYZ Foundation.
⚪⚪
Represent is used to mean ‘symbolise’:
The red maple leaf represents Canada.
dependant and dependent
These words are interchangeable in only one context.
Dependant is interchangeable with dependent only in the noun
sense, which means ‘family member supported financially’.
deprecate and depreciate
These verbs have similar meanings, but also differ.
⚪⚪
To deprecate something is to express disapproval of it:
We deprecate the use of public money for non-essential
purposes.
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Grammar Guide
The adjective self-deprecating is derived from deprecate,
and means ‘criticising oneself ’, and hence ‘being modest’.
Deprecate also has a technological sense, meaning ‘become
obsolete’, as in
The app is being deprecated.
⚪⚪
To depreciate something is to belittle or disparage it, even
though it may not be wrong or bad in itself:
They were constantly depreciating our attempts to speak
Italian.
This use is increasingly rare.
Depreciate is also commonly used intransitively (without
an object), in financial contexts, to mean ‘lose value’:
The yen has depreciated 20 per cent in real terms.
derisive and derisory
These related adjectives have very similar meanings but
are applied differently.
⚪⚪
Derisive usually refers to a person or action and means
‘showing contempt or ridicule’:
He gave a derisive laugh.
⚪⚪
Derisory is often used of a thing and means ‘deserving
contempt or ridicule’:
They made us a derisory offer.
Derisory is sometimes substituted for derisive, as in
She looked at me with a derisive [or derisory] smile.
Careful writers try to maintain the distinction, however, and
it is advisable to avoid the use of derisory where derisive is
correct.
dessert and desert
These words have quite different meanings.
236
Commonly confused words and word pairs
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Dessert is a noun, pronounced with the stress on the
second syllable, and has only one modern meaning: ‘sweet
course eaten at the end of a meal’.
Desert is pronounced with the stress on the first syllable
when it is a noun meaning ‘arid area’. The stress is on the
second syllable when it is a noun meaning ‘something
someone deserves’, in such expressions as
They got their just deserts.
The stress is also on the second syllable when desert is used
as a verb, meaning ‘abandon something’ or ‘run away’.
discreet and discrete
These adjectives are unrelated in meaning, despite
identical pronunciation.
The homonyms discreet and discrete have quite different
meanings.
⚪⚪
Discreet is the more frequent word in general use and
means ‘tactful’, ‘not revealing secret information’ or ‘subtle
and unobtrusive’:
I made a few discreet enquiries.
⚪⚪
Discrete is a formal or technical word meaning ‘separate,
unconnected and distinct’:
Several discrete strands of evidence were pursued.
disinterested and uninterested
These adjectives have different senses.
Both words are related to the noun interest, and the adjective
interested.
⚪⚪
Uninterested is connected with the sense of interest ‘feeling
of curiosity and concern’ (She has no interest in cooking). If
a thing doesn’t interest someone, it’s uninteresting. If a
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Grammar Guide
person is not interested in something, they are uninterested
in it:
They seemed completely uninterested in what was going on
around them.
⚪⚪
Disinterested, on the other hand, is connected with the
sense of interest ‘personal stake or connection’ (She has
interests in various pharmaceutical companies). Disinterested
means ‘impartial’ or ‘not having a personal stake’. A
disinterested observer of a contest between two sides
wouldn’t be concerned who won, because they would have
no personal commitment to either side. (An uninterested
observer, on the other hand, would take no interest in what
was going on.)
If you were really disinterested, you’d have given Bobby as
much help as you gave Sal.
Increasingly, the word disinterested can be observed in use
to mean uninterested. This is strictly speaking incorrect.
each and every
These determiners have similar meanings but with different
connotations, and sometimes require different syntax.
Each and every both designate all the members of a group. In
some contexts, they follow the same syntax (see chapter 2,
page 29) and are almost interchangeable, as in
I examined each puppy in the litter.
I examined every puppy.
Here, there is just a slight shift in perspective from considering
the animals individually, with each, to considering them
collectively, with every.
⚪⚪
Each (like every), when placed before the noun, requires
the noun and the verb to be singular:
Each puppy is affectionate.
238
Commonly confused words and word pairs
Each (though not every) may also be placed after a plural
noun, with the effect that the plural governs the verb:
The puppies each have their own toys.
Each can refer to two or more (whereas every cannot refer
to two). Moreover, each can function not only like an
adjective (each puppy), but also as a pronoun (each of them) or
an adverb (Give them a bowlful each).
⚪⚪
As already noted, every (like each) placed before the noun
requires the noun and the verb to be singular:
Every puppy is affectionate.
However, every (unlike each) cannot follow a plural noun,
and it can only refer to three or more. Moreover while it can
function like an adjective (every puppy), it cannot (unlike
each) be other parts of speech.
economic and economical
Long-established usage preferences
differences between these adjectives.
⚪⚪
dictate
the
The adjective economic relates to economics or the
economy, and is concerned with aspects of the production,
distribution and consumption of goods and services:
He’s writing a comparison of Nobel Laureates’ economic
theories.
⚪⚪
The adjective economical, on the other hand, means ‘good
value’ or ‘careful with money’:
Public transport is economical, compared with taking taxis.
She was economical in her spending.
An area of overlap is the sense ‘justified in terms of avoiding
expenditure’:
an economical [or economic] use of electricity.
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Grammar Guide
fewer and less
These determiners both indicate a comparison of
quantities, but they are used differently.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Fewer is generally used with things one can count (fewer
meetings, fewer people).
The same rule applies to fewer than (fewer than twenty
people).
Less is generally used with things one cannot count (less
time, less prestige).
The same rule applies to less than (less than a two-thirds
majority).
In an exception to the rule, less than is used with nouns
that indicate distance, weight, volume, amounts of money,
or units of time, because they are thought of as collective
amounts instead of numbers:
a house less than two miles down the road
use less than five gallons of petrol
presents for less than £50
take less than four hours
Furthermore, plural nouns often precede the set phrase
or less:
You may use the express checkout lane if you have eight items
or less.
Explain your career goals in one hundred words or less.
Here, the plural nouns are regarded as collective amounts.
flammable and inflammable
These adjectives have the same meaning.
Although inflammable may at first glance look like the opposite
of flammable, the two words actually have the same meaning:
both describe something that is easily set on fire. In view of
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Commonly confused words and word pairs
the potentially disastrous consequences of misinterpretation,
flammable has become the word of choice, especially in the
labelling of commercial and industrial products. The word
most frequently used to convey the opposite meaning is
non-flammable.
flounder and founder
Despite apparent similarities, these verbs are different in
meaning.
Both verbs indicate that someone or something is in distress.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Flounder means struggle to regain one’s balance, or to
know how to proceed. Its literal sense is ‘flail about in
water’.
Someone who is floundering is typically in a temporarily
bad situation that can be overcome with effort.
Founder means fail, become disabled or collapse. Its literal
sense refers to a ship and is ‘fill with water and sink’.
It’s usually too late for someone or something that is foundering
or has foundered.
forebear and forbear
The noun has two possible spellings, but the verb only one.
Either spelling may be used for the noun, meaning ‘ancestor’.
⚪⚪
But forebear is the more frequent of the two:
The walls were lined with portraits of his illustrious
forebears [or forbears].
⚪⚪
Forbear is the only acceptable spelling for the verb,
meaning ‘hold back’ or ‘refrain’:
We should forbear [not forebear] from judging people on first
impressions.
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Grammar Guide
historical and historic
These adjectives are derived from the same noun, but
they are used in different ways.
Both these adjectives relate to the noun history.
⚪⚪
Historical means ‘belonging to or concerning the past’ and
may describe people or things, as in
a historical figure; a historical novel.
⚪⚪
The principal meaning of historic, on the other hand, is
‘important enough to go down in history’:
The election of the United States’ first African–American
president was a historic moment.
We support preservation of our city’s historic district.
Historic can sometimes be used in place of historical, but
historical should not be used in the sense of historic given
above.
idyll and ideal
These words are unrelated, can be assigned different
parts of speech, and have distinct meanings.
The noun idyll (and its related adjective idyllic) and the noun
(and adjective) ideal are quite distinct.
⚪⚪
Idyll (and idyllic) are narrower in meaning, referring to
a ‘carefree and happy situation or period, often featuring
unspoilt beauty and serenity’, as in
a pastoral idyll; an idyllic way to spend a summer afternoon
The title of Alfred Tennyson’s Idylls of the King (1885), a set
of poems about Arthur, Guinevere and Lancelot, references
the poetic form known as the idyll, which focuses on
rustic life.
242
Commonly confused words and word pairs
⚪⚪
Ideal refers to perfection, or to being the best in every
respect, as in
the ideal of beauty; the ideal way to tackle the problem
Note that an idyllic setting for a hotel, in the heart of the
countryside, is not necessarily ideal; an ideal setting for a
hotel, near a major airport, may be far from idyllic.
in, into and in to
These word forms are used differently.
⚪⚪
In formal written English, the preposition for inward
movement is into, not in:
She came into the room.
We welcomed him into the family.
It’s sometimes acceptable to use either in or into, but the
latter is usually preferable in formal English:
He put it into [or in] his pocket.
Using in for into can be misleading, as in
She jumped in the pool.
(Did she jump into the pool, or was she already standing in
the pool when she jumped?)
⚪⚪
Into should not be confused with in to. The preposition
into is never written as two separate words:
I went into [not in to] the house.
When the separate words in and to are juxtaposed, they
should not be joined together:
I went in to [not into] get my jacket.
Here, in is an adverb, and to the prepositional marker for
the infinitive (see chapter 1, page 7).
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Grammar Guide
imply and infer
These verbs have distinct meanings.
Both these verbs deal with communication that takes place
indirectly, without words that make the message explicit. But
the critical distinction relates to who:
⚪⚪
Imply is something a writer or speaker does. To imply
something is to suggest that it is true without actually
saying so.
Her testimony implied that she had seen her husband plant
the evidence.
⚪⚪
Infer is something a reader or listener does. To infer
something is to conclude that it is true without having
actually read it or heard it.
We inferred from her testimony that she had seen her husband
plant the evidence.
It is important to resist the temptation to substitute infer
when imply is intended. For example,
She didn’t actually say who was going to chair the meeting
but she implied [not inferred] that she was.
it’s and its
These word forms have different grammatical functions
and senses.
The confusion of its with it’s is one of the commonest mistakes
in the writing of English, and one of the easiest to avoid.
⚪⚪
It’s is a contraction of it is. Because the contraction
it’s is more frequent than its, it may be tempting to
get into the habit of always putting an apostrophe in
this combination of three letters. To avoid errors, after
writing it’s, read what your text aloud, substituting it is
244
Commonly confused words and word pairs
⚪⚪
for it’s. If it doesn’t make sense, then you are using the
wrong form.
Its is the possessive form of the pronoun it (see personal
pronouns, chapter 2, page 36); its is always followed by a
noun. Here are examples of the correct use of the possessive
pronoun its (no apostrophe).
Every dog has its day.
Sales of the book have skyrocketed; its success is attributed to
recent events in the news.
The station is struggling to keep its advertisers.
lay and lie
These verbs have different meanings, despite overlapping
inflections.
⚪⚪
The verb lay is mainly transitive (that is, takes an object),
as in
Lay the blanket across the bed.
The past tense of the verb lay is laid:
I laid [not lay] the blanket across the bed.
⚪⚪
The verb lie is intransitive (that is, does not take an object).
A common error is to use lay in place of the present
tense or present participle (see chapter 1, page 13,
and chapter 4, page 82) of lie, but this is unacceptable in
standard English:
Lie [not Lay] down on the bed.
The letter was lying [not laying] on the table.
Confusion may arise because lay is the simple past (see
chapter 1, page 8) of the verb lie:
I lay down on the bed.
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Grammar Guide
lose and loose
These similar-appearing words have distinct
pronunciations and meanings, and can be assigned
different parts of speech.
⚪⚪
Lose is a verb only, meaning variously ‘mislay’, ‘fail to win’
or ‘be deprived of ’, as in
I’ve lost my purse.
If we don’t improve our form, we’ll lose the game.
⚪⚪
Loose is an adjective, adverb and verb. As an adjective it
means variously ‘not firmly fixed’ or ‘not restrained’, as in
loose [not lose] floorboards; loose [not lose] dogs.
As an adverb, loose means ‘freely’, as in
dogs running loose [not lose].
As a verb it means variously ‘make less tight’, ‘untie’ or ‘fire
a projectile’, as in
She loosed her grip.
When they are about to set sail, they first loose the mooring
rope.
He loosed a volley of arrows.
luxuriant and luxurious
These adjectives have a common root but different
meanings.
Both these adjectives are related to the noun luxury, but their
meanings don’t overlap.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Luxuriant is used to describe something that grows in rich
profusion, for example, hair or vegetation.
Luxurious means ‘characterised by or suggestive of luxury’
as in
a luxurious bedroom; a luxurious lifestyle
246
Commonly confused words and word pairs
mythological, mythical and mythic
These adjectives are interchangeable in some contexts,
but have slightly different meanings.
These adjectives are interchangeable in the senses of ‘relating
to myth’ and ‘lacking factual basis’.
⚪⚪
Mythological has the narrowest range of meanings, as
indicated above. For example,
The unicorn is a mythological creature.
⚪⚪
Mythical can also be used in such contexts. In addition, it
has a sense of ‘fictitious’, for example,
a mythical client who gives rave endorsements
⚪⚪
Meanwhile, the variant mythic is the best option for the
sense ‘befitting or suitable to myth’, though mythical is
also possible:
the orator’s mythic [or mythical] ability to excite audiences
a mythic [or mythical] figure in global politics
nauseating, nauseated and nauseous
These closely related adjectives have distinct meanings.
⚪⚪
If a person experiences something sickening (that is, suffers
nausea or feels inclined to vomit), that thing is nauseating,
as in
a nauseating odour in the barn
Something that is disgusting in a moral sense is also
nauseating, as in
The way she flatters the boss is nauseating.
⚪⚪
If one feels sick (inclined to vomit) or disgusted, one is
nauseated.
I feel nauseated by the smell of food.
He is nauseated by their behaviour.
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Grammar Guide
⚪⚪
Meanwhile, nauseous can mean either nauseated (in the
physical sense) or nauseating (in either the physical or the
moral sense). For example,
She woke up feeling nauseous.
The stench was nauseous.
Their xenophobia is nauseous.
neither and none
These negating words are used in different ways.
Both words are used to effect
page 44).
⚪⚪
negation
(see chapter 2,
Neither is used when two items are under discussion; it
means ‘not either’. When only two things are involved,
neither is an appropriate choice:
Neither of the twins made it to the reunion.
When neither is used as a conjunction, it should be followed
with nor, not or, and the verb should agree (see chapter 2,
page 39) with the nearest noun:
Neither rain nor snow is going to stop mail delivery.
⚪⚪
The pronoun none is used when there are more than two
items under discussion; it means ‘not one’ or ‘not any’.
None, rather than neither, is the appropriate choice in the
sense ‘not one of several’:
None [or Not one] of these (four) options has any appeal.
number and quantity
These quantifying nouns have distinct areas of application.
Careful writers distinguish between quantity (‘amount of
something’) and number (‘total of countable persons or
things’.
248
Commonly confused words and word pairs
⚪⚪
Number is used for count nouns, as in
A large number [better than quantity] of people had
gathered in the square.
⚪⚪
Quantity is best reserved for references to inanimate
objects or inanimate non-count nouns, as in
a huge quantity of rotten wheat; a large quantity of fuel
on, on to and onto
These word forms are used in different contexts.
⚪⚪
Despite the objections of traditionalists, who hold that on
to is the correct choice, the preposition onto is now largely
established as the one to use when onward movement is
indicated:
The kids jumped onto the trampoline
This means that the kids moved from the ground to the
surface of the trampoline. Potentially confusingly, on is
sometimes alternatively used in this context:
The kids jumped on the trampoline
But this is ambiguous, since it could mean that the kids,
already on the trampoline, jumped up and down on it.
⚪⚪
On to, spelt as two separate words, should certainly be used
with verbs, where on is an adverb, as in
Let’s move on to [not onto] another topic.
partly and partially
These related adverbs are not always interchangeable.
Both these adverbs mean ‘in part’, ‘not completely’ or ‘to some
extent’, and are sometimes interchangeable:
Our first attempt was only partly [or partially] successful.
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Grammar Guide
However, there are subtle distinctions.
⚪⚪
Partly can be seen as meaning ‘in part’ or ‘with regard to
the part not the whole’, as in
He left early, partly [not partially] because he was bored.
Partly is always preferred when there is a distinct division
into parts:
The houses were built partly of wood and partly of stone.
⚪⚪
Partially means ‘incompletely’ or ‘not fully’, as in
Her mother is partially [not partly] sighted.
Partially should, of course, be avoided when there is any
risk of confusion with its other sense of ‘in a biased way’.
passed and past
Despite being pronounced alike and having related
meanings, these words are distinct in meaning and
belong to different parts of speech.
These homonyms are both derived from the verb pass.
⚪⚪
Passed is the past tense of the verb pass, as in
He passed me at 80 mph.
⚪⚪
Past is an adjective meaning ‘one-time’ or ‘former’, as in
She is the past president of our mountaineering club.
people and persons
These plural nouns are used in different contexts.
⚪⚪
The plural noun people is the preferred form for designating
human beings generally:
Thousands of people [not persons] jammed the stadium.
What on earth will people [not persons] think if you do that?
250
Commonly confused words and word pairs
⚪⚪
Persons is used only in certain narrow, typically legalistic
or otherwise official, contexts:
the Bureau of Missing Persons
the arrest of three suspicious persons loitering in Parliament
Square
plain and plane
These words with identical pronunciation have separate
meanings.
⚪⚪
Plain is more frequently used as an adjective meaning
‘simple’, ‘clear’ or ‘not patterned’, as in
a plain fabric
As a noun, plain simply denotes a large expanse of flat
land, as in
a treeless plain
⚪⚪
Plane is more commonly used as a noun denoting (among
other things) a flat surface or a level, as in
different planes of existence
As an adjective, plane means ‘flat and level’ or ‘twodimensional’, as in
a plane surface
practicable and practical
These adjectives overlap in meaning, but certain contexts
require one or the other.
These adjectives have overlapping meanings. Both indicate
that something can be done.
⚪⚪
Practicable means no more than ‘can be done’, as in
It is practicable to do the calculation in the traditional way.
Relatedly, impracticable means ‘impossible’.
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Grammar Guide
⚪⚪
In contrast, practical additionally implies that it is
appropriate, useful or sensible:
It is far more practical to use a computer to do the calculation.
Again, relatedly, impractical means ‘inadvisable because of
having little practical value’.
principle and principal
These words are pronounced the same but their meanings
are different.
These homonyms have not only different meanings but also
different functions.
⚪⚪
Principle is a noun only, meaning ‘basic assumption’,
‘ethical standard’ and ‘way of operating or working’, as in
the principles of a democratic system
a woman of principle
study the principles of the internal-combustion engine
⚪⚪
In contrast, principal, as a noun, is often a person, perhaps
a ‘college administrator’, ‘important participant’ or ‘lead
performer’, or an ‘amount of money invested’, as in
be sent to the principal’s office
a principal in an accounting firm
a principal of £500,000.
As an adjective it means ‘primary’:
our principal [not principle] reason for an appeal.
prophecy and prophesy
A single letter distinguishes the noun from the verb.
Though spelt almost alike, these words are pronounced
differently and have different grammatical functions.
252
Commonly confused words and word pairs
⚪⚪
Prophecy, a noun only, means ‘prediction’ or ‘ability to
predict the future’, as in
a dire economic prophecy
⚪⚪
Prophesy, a verb, means ‘predict’, as in
I would not go so far as to prophesy a recession just yet.
purposely and purposefully
These adverbs with a common root are not used
interchangeably.
These adverbs are sometimes confused. Although both imply
that someone has a specific purpose in mind, they’re used in
different contexts and aren’t interchangeable.
⚪⚪
Purposely means ‘on purpose’ or ‘intentionally’:
I purposely left the door unlocked.
⚪⚪
Purposefully means ‘in a determined way’ or ‘with a
particular goal’:
She strode purposefully across the garden.
read and red
These words are entirely different.
⚪⚪
The verb read has two pronunciations. In the infinitive or
present tense it rhymes with weed, and as the simple past
or past participle it rhymes with wed:
I read [not red] the letter aloud.
Have you read [not red] this book?
⚪⚪
The adjective or noun red denotes the colour of blood.
It sounds the same as read as a past form but is not a variant
spelling.
Confusion may arise because the past tense and past participle
of the verb lead is led.
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Grammar Guide
rebound and redound
These verbs are unrelated, but have similar contexts for
usage.
⚪⚪
In its figurative use, rebound is a metaphor based on an
object bouncing and returning. A ball that rebounds on
the person who threw it affects that person. In a similar
way, an action or statement can rebound on its creator,
affecting him or her directly and usually in a negative or
unwelcome way:
The decision to cut library services rebounded on local officials
when they were unable to get the information they required.
Rebound can also be used as a noun.
⚪⚪
Redound is a much rarer word and is sometimes used in
a similar way to rebound. But in its primary meaning it’s
followed by to and means ‘have a particular consequence’,
with something good or positive as the object (the opposite
connotation of rebound):
His efforts redounded to his credit.
Redound cannot be used as a noun.
regrettable and regretful
These related adjectives are applied to different sorts
of noun.
⚪⚪
Regrettable describes something that is a cause for regret:
These mistakes are regrettable.
The related adverb regrettably similarly refers to a cause of
regret:
The exam results are regrettably poor.
⚪⚪
Regretful often describes someone who has feelings of
regret for something:
They felt regretful at missing the opportunity.
254
Commonly confused words and word pairs
The adverb regretfully follows a similar pattern, referring to
feelings of regret:
She regretfully turned down the invitation.
reverend and reverent
These related words have different meanings.
⚪⚪
Reverend is an adjective or noun which refers to a member
of the clergy. For example,
the Reverend John Wesley
⚪⚪
Reverent is an adjective meaning ‘feeling or expressing
reverence’. For example,
a reverent silence; reverent pilgrims
review and revue
Though they sound alike, these words have different
meanings.
⚪⚪
Review is a common noun, for example
The novel had both good and bad reviews.
It is also the only acceptable spelling for the verb, meaning
‘examine again’ or ‘write a critique of ’.
⚪⚪
The spelling revue is restricted to the noun denoting a form
of theatrical entertainment.
sensual and sensuous
These adjectives are related but have different connotations.
Both words are connected with gratification of the senses.
⚪⚪
Sensual is the older word. In the 17th century it developed
special meanings associated with bodily appetites, for
example, eating and especially sexual satisfaction:
Her mouth looked sensual and inviting.
They enjoyed the sensual pleasures of the table.
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Grammar Guide
⚪⚪
At about the same time the poet John Milton seems to have
invented the word sensuous to refer more specifically to
the aesthetic and spiritual senses (for example, seeing and
hearing). It was taken up by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in
the 19th century. In current use, the two sets of meanings
increasingly overlap, since the senses are not readily
compartmentalised. Sensuous remains associated with
the physical senses in contradistinction to the intellect. It
is the word to use, for example, in connection with music
or poetry:
The conductor relished the sensuous parts of Ravel’s score.
should and would
These modal verbs are interchangeable in some instances,
but in other contexts they are distinct.
Teasing out the differences between these two
(see chapter 1, page 17) is not at all easy.
⚪⚪
modal verbs
Broadly, would is more usual than should in conditional
scenarios (see chapter 2, page 51) or in expressing desire:
If it were to rain, I would shelter in the cave. [conditional]
They would like to come. [desire]
In British English, there is a lingering distinction made
between first person and second or third person uses.
Would [not should] you like to go to the cinema? [second
person]
I would [or should] like a cup of tea. [first person]
Would is also required when referring to habitual past
action:
On Wednesdays I would go to the library.
⚪⚪
Should has the special role of denoting obligation, validity
or likelihood:
256
Commonly confused words and word pairs
I should stay until they arrive.
Should you be lifting that?
That should be our visitors now.
As already noted, in British English there are some minor
distinctions made on account of person. For example,
Should I open the window? [compare Would you open the
window?]
Should must be used in inverted constructions expressing a
condition:
Should it rain, the party will be held indoors.
Note that in conversational English, the contracted forms I’d,
you’d, etc., are regularly used instead of the full forms of would
and should in making simple statements (They’d like to come),
but these cannot be used in place of should in its senses of
obligation or likelihood.
social and sociable
These related adjectives differ in meaning.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Social is a general classifying adjective. It is a neutral word
that classifies a person or thing as being concerned in some
way with society or its organisation. For example, a social
club is a place provided for people to enjoy themselves,
and a social worker is involved in work done for people’s
welfare.
Sociable, in contrast, describes a particular quality. It
refers to a person’s capacity to deal in social ways with other
people, so, for example, a sociable worker is a worker who
enjoys the company of colleagues.
stationary and stationery
These adjectives are pronounced the same way but are
unrelated in meaning.
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Grammar Guide
The homonyms stationary and stationery are distantly related,
but have quite different meanings.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
Stationary is an adjective meaning ‘not moving’ (normally
used of vehicles),
Stationery, on the other hand, is a noun meaning ‘paper
products used for writing’.
straight and strait
These words are pronounced the same but are unrelated.
Straight and strait, despite some apparent similarities in
meaning, are unrelated in origin.
⚪⚪
Straight is an adjective meaning ‘not bent, curved or
crooked’, as in
a straight line
Note that the related word straightened, from the verb
straighten, means ‘made straight’.
⚪⚪
Strait is a noun denoting a narrow body of water or a
difficult situation, as in
dire straits
Strait was formerly used as an adjective meaning ‘narrow’,
‘confined’ or ‘strict’. But these senses survive only in derived
or combined forms, for example
straitened; straitjacket; strait-laced
Straitened, meaning ‘restricted’ (not to be confused
with straightened) is used chiefly in the phrase straitened
circumstances.
Note that straitjacket and strait-laced, however, are also spelt
straightjacket and straight-laced.
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Commonly confused words and word pairs
such as and such that
These conjunctive phrases introduce different sorts of
clauses or phrases.
⚪⚪
Such as and such
as, where the space is filled by a
noun, are used to introduce an item or items that exemplify
the thing already mentioned:
He quotes such illustrious writers as Shakespeare, Milton
and Austen.
The curriculum includes readings from illustrious writers
such as Shakespeare, Milton and Austen.
The new law affects only such people as are eligible for
supplementary benefits.
⚪⚪
The construction such
that, where a noun fills the
space, indicates the consequence of a stated circumstance:
The country faces such hardship that it will need a great deal
of foreign aid.
suspicious and suspect
These adjectives overlap slightly in meaning but have
particular applications.
These adjectives have overlapping meanings and so are readily
confused.
⚪⚪
Suspicious, the more frequent and versatile of the two,
may describe either a person who suspects, or a person or
thing that causes suspicion:
Her behaviour made us suspicious.
There were a couple of suspicious characters lurking by the
cash machine.
His behaviour was suspicious.
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Grammar Guide
⚪⚪
Suspect is used chiefly of things that cause doubt, suspicion
or distrust because they seem likely to be false, illegal or
dangerous:
His claims sounded suspect.
The police confiscated a suspect package.
The remains of a suspect tuna sandwich were sent away for
analysis.
their, there, and they’re
These three word forms sound alike, and all relate to
pronouns.
Even seasoned writers may on occasion be lured into the pitfall
of misusing these words.
⚪⚪
Their is a pronominal adjective, that is, an adjective derived
from a pronoun. It shows possession:
They have made their decision.
⚪⚪
There can be an adverb or a pronoun, for example,
Look over there quickly. [adverb]
There are several unanswered questions. [pronoun]
⚪⚪
They’re is a contraction of they are:
They’re sitting in the front row.
A similar confusion may arise in relation to theirs and
there’s. Theirs is an independent possessive pronoun:
Take your coats but leave theirs on the rail.
There’s is a contraction of there is:
There’s no good reason for you to stay here.
till and until
These words have the same meaning and differ mainly
in register.
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Commonly confused words and word pairs
Both words have the same meaning and function (conjunction
and preposition), and are largely interchangeable.
⚪⚪
Till (the older form) is more likely to be heard in speech:
Just wait till we get home!
⚪⚪
Until is more usual at the beginning of a sentence:
Until last week none of the post-graduate students had
arrived back at the university.
tortuous and torturous
These adjectives have a common root but different
modern meanings.
Both words come ultimately from Latin torquere, which means
‘twist’, but their meanings diverge in English.
⚪⚪
⚪⚪
A mountain pass is tortuous (‘with many turns or bends’).
By figurative extension, a legal argument can be tortuous
(‘complex or intricate’).
Torturous is more immediately derived from torture. This
may function as a reminder that a severe illness can be
torturous (‘causing pain’), as can a decision.
troop and troupe
These related words have similar meanings, but their
range is different.
Both these words can be used as nouns denoting a group of
people.
⚪⚪
Troop can apply generally to any large group or specifically
to a military unit.
The verb meaning ‘go in a large group’ is spelt troop (not
troupe):
We trooped in to school assembly.
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Grammar Guide
⚪⚪
Troupe is more limited, applying only to a group of actors,
dancers or other entertainers.
unaware and unawares
This pair of words are different parts of speech.
⚪⚪
Unaware is usually used as an adjective:
They ran forward, unaware of the danger.
⚪⚪
Unawares is an adverb only, used especially in the idiom
catch (or take) someone unawares, but also in other ways:
They crept up on us unawares.
wave and waive
These words are pronounced the same, but are unrelated
and have different meanings.
These homonyms have distinct meanings and spellings.
⚪⚪
The more common, wave, is a noun and verb with various
meanings. For example,
radio waves; tidal wave; wave goodbye
⚪⚪
To waive is to surrender or refrain from enforcing
something:
She waived her right to remain silent.
They decided to waive the restrictions.
The related noun is spelt waiver.
whose and who’s
These word forms sound alike, and have a shared relation
to pronouns.
⚪⚪
Whose means ‘of whom’ or ‘of which’ and denotes
possession or association:
262
Commonly confused words and word pairs
These are the children whose father [= the father of whom]
we saw yesterday.
There was a church whose steeple [= the steeple of which]
had been struck by lightning.
Some people feel uncomfortable with the use of whose
to mean ‘of which’, but it’s established usage, and the
alternatives are usually awkward.
⚪⚪
Who’s is a contraction of ‘who is’ or ‘who has’:
She’s the one who’s [= who is] coming to dinner next week.
Who’s [= who has] got my pen?
your and you’re
These word forms sound alike and are related to the same
pronoun.
⚪⚪
The word your, like their, is a pronominal adjective:
Your e-mail password must be protected.
⚪⚪
You’re is a contraction of ‘you are’:
You’re protecting your e-mail password, aren’t you?
263
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chapter 9
Commonly misused words
Otherwise, it is the usual abuse.
Hilary Mantel
Wolf Hall (2010)
Language changes constantly. It has to, because the world and
society are continuously in flux. New words, and new ways of
using existing words, are needed to deal with new realities. As
a result, linguists and grammarians are always at risk of finding
themselves behind the times. Additionally, if these factors do
not act as sufficient barriers to defining correct usage, language
experts (much like other types of experts) rarely entirely concur.
Despite all this, there is still at least broad agreement on
what words in English mean and how they should be used.
And, although the language is living and fluid, it would be
unreasonable to suggest that at any stage in its development
there has been a norm of ‘anything goes’. Instead, notions of
correct English usage have tended to be based on a mixture
of tradition, scholarship and the linguistic habits of educated
people.
The key to good English remains clear and effective
communication. This can be challenging when words are
used in complex or subtle ways. This chapter examines
some of the more involved aspects of English usage and,
more specifically, some of the ways words are commonly
misused.
Words in this chapter are treated in three categories:
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Grammar Guide
1. Misuse of words: this section focuses on individual words
that are often misused.
2. Misuse of word forms: this section examines inflected
forms (forms derived from the main word form) that are
often misused.
3. Problems with agreement: this section tackles issues
relating to subject–verb agreement for particular words.
Misuse of words
The commonly misused words in this section are categorised
and organised by part of speech (see chapter 1): noun, verb,
adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition and conjunction.
Problem nouns
alibi
In formal contexts, this technical noun should not be used in
the weakened meaning of ‘pretext’, because this potentially
compromises its precise legal sense of ‘claim or evidence that
someone was elsewhere’. It is better to avoid overuse when
excuse is the more natural word to use:
He used his illness as an excuse [not as an alibi] for leaving
work early.
crescendo
When used as a noun (or less commonly as a verb), crescendo
describes a process and not the end of a process. This is usually
well understood in musical contexts, where the word is a
technical term. In figurative uses, though, one may be lured
into using it as an alternative for climax, which is indeed the
end point or culmination of a process. In thoughtful usage,
noise or feeling can increase to a climax but it does so in a
crescendo. The following examples are correct:
The bird’s calls rose in a crescendo.
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Commonly misused words
The abusive phone calls reached a peak [not crescendo] the
following week.
enormity
Enormity shares a history with and closely resembles the
common adjective enormous. It’s easy to make the mistake of
thinking that enormity is the noun form of enormous, and
simply means ‘immensity’. This isn’t the case. Enormity carries
with it the idea of something very large, but it also conveys the
notion of something extremely bad:
We are shocked at the enormity of the terrorist attacks.
They committed crimes of unsurpassed enormity.
percentage
The noun phrase a percentage is better avoided when simply
‘some’ is intended. For example,
Some [not a percentage] of the students have tablets.
The word percentage is meaningless unless it’s qualified by an
adjective such as large or small, as in a large percentage of the
population. It’s still best avoided where many, much, a few or a
little will suffice.
Problem verbs
aggravate
The standard meaning of the verb aggravate is ‘make worse’.
Sometimes the use of aggravate to mean ‘irritate’ meets
with disapproval, despite a history of usage dating to the 17th
century:
We were aggravated by the continuous loud noise from the street.
Their bad behaviour is very aggravating.
Except in informal conversation, when aggravate appears in
this way it’s usually better to replace with another word such as
annoy, exasperate or irritate.
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Grammar Guide
author
Although the verb author has been in existence for over four
hundred years, some object to it in contexts such as
She has authored several books.
This is because, unlike write, it means to be responsible for the
content of a printed or published document. The verb author
may sound more natural in contexts referring to the creation
of, for example, reports or studies.
decimate
The popular meaning of decimate, ‘destroy’, now predominates,
perhaps because the need for a word meaning specifically ‘kill
one person in ten’ is unlikely to be needed today. Even so,
decimate is still better reserved for ‘removing a proportion of ’
or ‘reducing the strength of ’. For example,
Lack of funding has decimated public transport.
For the broader popular meaning, it is advisable to use
annihilate, exterminate, destroy or devastate.
depend
The verb depend should be followed by on when it introduces
a clause (see chapter 2, page 47) beginning with how, what,
where, whether, who or why:
It depends on how you interpret the word ‘ liberal’.
The amount you pay depends on what you earn.
The omission of on in sentences of this type is more acceptable
in speech than in writing, as in
‘Are you planning to go?’
‘It depends.’
get
The use of get instead of be to form the passive is more
acceptable in some contexts than others:
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Commonly misused words
The house is [or gets] cleaned once a week.
The exhibition was [not got] opened by the mayor.
Get is usually more informal than be: an interviewer might ask
an interviewee,
If you are offered the job, will you accept it?
Whereas the interviewee might tell a friend,
If I get offered the job, I’ll take it.
Get is probably most acceptable when it implies that the subject
of the sentence has at least some responsibility for an event or
action, as in
If you play with matches, you may get burnt,
as opposed to
The passengers may have been burnt during the crash landing.
may
While in modern usage modal verbs (see chapter 1, page 17)
may and might overlap, it is helpful to bear in mind that might
is the past tense of may.
In certain contexts, however, may is used to refer to the
past. Perhaps influenced by the idiom be that as it may, meaning
‘that may be so, but…’ or ‘with all due respect…’, it is legitimate
to use may in a clause admitting something was the case before
going on to make a more important point.
He may have been bad-tempered but he was a genius.
It remains more appropriate to use might when a more
straightforward past tense is required, usually implying
something was not the case:
He might have graduated from college in 2015, but his
curriculum vitae says 2016.
Might should also be used when a very unlikely hypothetical
situation is under discussion:
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Grammar Guide
We can still speculate that some passengers and crew members
of the downed aircraft might have survived in the cold
Atlantic waters.
refer
It is tempting to think that back in the phrase refer back is an
unnecessary repetition or redundancy (see chapter 12, page
350), because one of the implicit meanings of re- is ‘back’. But
a person may refer a problem or request on to a new authority
for a decision, or refer it back to the original decision-maker for
reconsideration. However, if refer directs people to something
already mentioned, for example, a text quoted, there is no need
to use back:
Let me refer you again to page 321 of my book.
transpire
The use of transpire to mean ‘happen’ or ‘occur’, is sometimes
regarded as not strictly correct, even though it’s been in
common use for several centuries. It may be safer to write, for
example,
Tell me what happened [not transpired] at the meeting.
Less controversially transpire refers to something previously
unknown and means ‘be disclosed’:
It transpired that the prime minister had known about the
plan all along.
Problem adjectives
actual
The adjective actual is legitimately used to mark a contrast. In
the sentence
The actual total was much higher than we had expected,
it serves to create a contrast with projected or estimated
totals.
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Commonly misused words
This adjective is often overused, however, as a merely
emphatic term with no real meaning. For example, in
He wanted to know if any damage had been done.
it may be tempting to add actual for emphasis (any actual
damage), but this would be redundant and poor style.
analogous
When used correctly, analogous should include a notion of
analogy, that is, of similarity in certain respects:
The mutual aid group is somewhat analogous to a colony of
bees.
It is better to avoid analogous when the comparison is only
general, and a more straightforward word such as similar,
equivalent, comparable or corresponding serves equally well,
as in
The new system is comparable [not analogous] to that used in
the electronics industry.
crucial
The core meaning of crucial is ‘decisive’:
Her casting vote was crucial.
However, crucial has been diminished and is often used to
mean nothing more than ‘important’. This is especially true
when the author wants to use a hard-hitting word, but it is
better to avoid such overuse:
If proportional representation is adopted, it is important
[better than crucial] to choose the best method.
due to
Traditionally, owing to rather than due to is the appropriate
prepositional phrase (see chapter 2, page 46) to use in
sentences such as these:
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Grammar Guide
The concert has been cancelled owing to [not due to]
circumstances beyond our control.
The flight was delayed owing to [not due to] bad weather.
The objection is based on the fact that due is an adjective
(without prepositional force) and so should describe a noun,
as in
The delay was due to bad weather,
where due modifies delay.
endemic
The adjective endemic refers to something that is found
throughout a particular area or group. Originally used of
diseases, it is now often used in other contexts:
Corruption is endemic in the industry.
Endemic is sometimes misused in the sense of ‘universal’
or ‘found everywhere’, without a particular context being
identified. In the following examples
Swearing is endemic among young people and
Swearing is endemic in the office,
the inclusion of the group (among young people) or area (in the
office) is required for correctness.
optimum
Note that the word optimum refers to quality, not quantity. It
means ‘best’, not ‘greatest’ or ‘most’:
the optimum temperature for the storage of perishable
foodstuffs
It sometimes happens that the best is also the greatest or most,
which may be the reason for the confusion about the meaning
of the word:
We are seeking optimum return on our investment.
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Commonly misused words
similar to
In its meaning ‘sharing some qualities’, the adjective similar is
followed by to, not as:
My own experience has been similar to yours.
I had a similar experience to [not as] yours.
this
In formal writing, the determiner (see chapter 2, page 33)
this should be avoided where the definite article the or the
indefinite articles a/an are the appropriate choices.
After the exam I had the worrying thought [not this worrying
thought] that I had not answered the third question.
Suddenly a woman [not this woman] selling cosmetics
appeared at my door.
Problem adverbs
actually
Like its root actual, the adverb actually is used most effectively
when it contrasts with what is theoretical or only apparent:
It sounds difficult, but it’s actually quite straightforward.
It is regarded as poor style to use actually as a sentence filler
with no real meaning, although this practice is common in
informal conversation:
Actually, I prefer her to her cousin.
ago
If ago is used, it should be followed by that and not since in a
following clause:
It was several weeks ago that I saw them.
If ago is left out, then since is used:
It is several weeks since I saw them.
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Grammar Guide
basically
Using basically as a sentence adverb (see chapter 1, page 22),
where it is reduced to adding emphasis, as in
Basically it’s a waste of time.
is common in informal conversation but should be avoided
otherwise. So too should the meaning ‘generally’, as in
It is basically the case that fats can cause heart disease.
Both uses are essentially conversation fillers and are not
required in speech, and certainly not in formal writing.
deceptively
When people are asked whether, for example, a deceptively
dangerous place to stand is a place that is more or less dangerous
than it appears, they respond variously. A substantial minority
admits they have no idea what deceptively is intended to
convey. Is a deceptively large house surprisingly large or
surprisingly small? Unless the context makes the meaning
clear, deceptively is best avoided. It is advisable only to use it
when the meaning is clear:
The solution is deceptively simple.
else
The adverb else (in some contexts categorised as an adjective)
should not be combined with besides, but, except or other
prepositions of this type. This creates redundancy, because
else has the same function as the accompanying prepositional
phrase.
For example, it is appropriate to write:
No one but the guard saw the intruder. [but not No one else
except the guard…]
When else follows an indefinite pronoun such as anyone,
nobody or someone in a possessive construction, the ’s should be
added to else, not to the preceding indefinite pronoun:
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Commonly misused words
We will not accept anyone else’s offer.
Else works possessively with the pronouns who and whose as
follows:
Who else’s mistakes could these be? and
Whose else are these boots but yours?
however
If however is used to mean ‘to whatever degree’, ‘in whatever
way’ or ‘how’ at the start of an introductory clause, a comma
should appear after that clause, as in
However hard it snowed during the night, the road crews
were able to clear the main arteries before the rush hour.
If however meaning ‘in whatever way’ modifies another adverb
and they appear as a pair in mid-sentence, one comma needs to
precede and another to follow the two words:
The coach has begun, however reluctantly, to admit major
flaws in the team’s tactics.
It is redundant to pair but with however. One or other should
be used, not both. In the following sentence, for example, any
temptation to add a final however should be resisted:
The flight was postponed, but the plane did eventually take
off five hours late.
literally
The use of literally to mean actually or really, as a way of adding
emphasis to a colourful figure of speech, is incorrect. For
example it should be:
The leader of the opposition is breathing fire. [not literally
breathing fire]
To add literally in this context would suggest that fire was
actually coming out of the politician’s mouth. An alternative,
of course, would be: The leader of the opposition is furious.
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Grammar Guide
The proper use of literally is fairly narrow. It is mainly used
to indicate that a statement is in fact true and not a figure of
speech:
These little cells called osteoclasts literally eat bones.
only
Ambiguity can be dispelled by careful placement of the
limiting adverb only. The position of only within a sentence
can determine its entire meaning. As a general rule, it should
appear next to the word being modified:
She had only a pound.
Only she had a pound.
Strictly this means only should usually not be placed between
a subject and a verb, nor between an auxiliary verb and a main
verb. For example
He does these things only to get attention. [not He only does
these things…]
She will eat only cheese. [not She will only eat…]
Vaguer usage is very common, however.
-wise
Some grammarians object to adverbs ending in the suffix -wise
when the meaning is ‘with regard to’, or with respect to’, as
in the controversial examples moneywise, timewise, and politicswise. It is better to rephrase:
This has been an exciting year in politics. [not an exciting
year, politics-wise]
The use of words ending in -wise is acceptable when the
meaning of the suffix is ‘in a particular manner or direction’, as
in clockwise, counter-clockwise and lengthwise.
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Commonly misused words
Problem pronouns
I
I is a personal pronoun (see chapter 1, page 23, and chapter 2,
page 36). It is the first person singular and in the form found in
the dictionary, the subjective: I agree. Me is the objective form,
coming after verbs and prepositions: She agrees with me.
Potential confusion arises when I or me is linked to another
pronoun, or to another noun, by conjunctions and or or. Is it you
and I or you and me?
If the phrase is the subject of the sentence or clause, the
answer is easy:
You and I know better than that.
When the phrase is not the subject, the correct choice is you
and me, as in
They have a present for you and me. [not you and I]
It is a matter for George and me [not you and I] to discuss.
When a pronoun follows a linking verb such as be and refers to
the same person or thing as the subject of the sentence, further
complexities, involving informal and formal language, arise.
Which of the following forms is correct?
It is I. (or It’s I.)
It is me. (or It’s me.)
Technically, It is I (or It’s I) is the correct choice in formal speech
or writing. (This is on the basis that it is correct to say, for
example, It is I who made the error.) In informal, conversational
contexts, however, the set phrasing It is me (or It’s me) is far
more common.
When a pronoun such as I or me comes after the verb
be and functions as the object of a verb or preposition in a
relative clause (see chapter 2, page 49), and when that
pronoun also functions as the complement (see chapter 1,
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Grammar Guide
page 9) of be, the situation becomes even more ambiguous.
Experts are divided as to whether I or me is more acceptable
in sentences such as
It was I [or me] you were looking for.
It’s always an option to recast such sentences to avoid this
difficulty:
I was the person you were looking for, or simply
You were looking for me.
that
For centuries that has been used to refer to people as well as
things. Sometimes this usage can be clumsy:
He’s the one that did it.
But it’s not incorrect, and occasionally that is the appropriate
choice of relative pronoun:
Anything or anyone that helps me is my friend.
we
Personal pronouns, for example, first person plural we, often
appear with appositives (that is, nouns that immediately follow
them, are synonymous with them, and serve to further identify
them). For example,
We pilots flew five missions last night.
It may be tricky to identify the appropriate grammatical form,
for example, the subjective we or the objective us, for such
pronouns. In such cases it may be helpful to identify the subject
and/or object of the sentence at the outset. If the pronoun is the
subject, it takes the subjective case (we); if the pronoun is the
object, it takes the objective case (us).
In the example above, if the appositive (that is, pilots) is
omitted, the choice of subjective we makes sense: We flew… is
correct, since one would not say Us flew…
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Commonly misused words
Take another example,
For us pilots, the mission schedule has been exhausting.
This is correct, because the pronoun us is the object of the
preposition for, and pilots is an appositive. For we pilots…
sounds unnatural, as does For we, the mission schedule has been
exhausting.
what
As a pronoun, the word what means ‘the thing that’, as in
This is much nicer than what he gave me last Christmas.
Remember what I told you.
Beware of adding what where it’s not needed:
It was a lot more difficult than [not than what] I thought it
would be.
Another common error is the use of what in place of that,
which or who:
This is the book that [not what] I told you about.
The woman who [not what] owns the dog is out at work all day.
whom
The objective form of the interrogative and relative personal
pronoun who is whom. It’s fallen into disuse in many contexts,
and constructions with who may take its place. In speech,
Do you remember whom you saw? may be expressed as Do you
remember who you saw? Similarly, The man to whom I was talking
may become The man I was talking to (omitting the relative
pronoun entirely).
In formal contexts, whom is often still preferred. Note that
whom is incorrect in sentences where it would be the subject
of the verb:
The woman who [not whom] we thought was dead is still
alive.
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Grammar Guide
In this sentence, the relative pronoun who is the subject of was
and is not the object of thought.
Problem prepositions
about
The use of the preposition about to assert some kind of
equivalency is non-standard. It is better to avoid usages such
as these:
She’s about winning and nothing more.
The main character in the novel is about power.
Here, about is used to assert some kind of correspondence,
however vague, between one entity (in these examples the
subject, that is, she, main character) and another that the first
entity supposedly illustrates or represents (that is, winning,
power). It is better to rephrase:
She is obsessed with winning and nothing more.
The central interest of the main character in the novel is power.
as
The preposition as can be used to show the capacity in which a
person or thing exists or acts:
She has a job as a copywriter.
As a doctor I understand these problems.
It is important to avoid ambiguity, or apparent absurdity, in the
placement of the as clause:
As a judge, you know I do not like being asked such questions.
This sentence does not make it clear who the judge is: the
speaker or the person spoken to.
like
The preposition like should not be used as a conjunction
meaning ‘as’, ‘as if ’ or ‘as though’ to introduce a fully developed
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Commonly misused words
clause (that is, one with a subject and a verb), unless informally.
In such circumstances, it is better to recast:
It sounds as if [not like] she may resign.
This pizza smells and tastes good, just the way it should. [not
This pizza smells and tastes like a good pizza should.]
It’s acceptable to use like in a comparison as long as there is no
verb in the part of the sentence following like:
She ran the company like a tyrant.
Moreover, like should not be used as a meaningless adverbial
filler:
‘What were the main characters doing in the first chapter?’
‘They were, like, trying to understand the reasons countries
go to war’.
It’s also not acceptable to introduce speech with like:
She was like, ‘Don’t worry, I’ll do it.’
Such usage is non-standard in both oral and written
communication, and so deemed to be poor style, except in
fictional dialogue.
of
Because the common preposition of is pronounced with a v
sound, it is all too easy to encounter the pitfall of using it as
the written representation of contractions of the verb have.
The preposition of, of course, is nearly always the first word
in a prepositional phrase, and is therefore followed by a noun
or noun phrase. The contraction of have, spelled ’ve, is nearly
always part of a compound tense and is typically followed by a
past participle. For example,
He could’ve [not could of] been killed.
You should’ve [not should of] followed the instructions.
It would’ve [not would of] been quicker to walk.
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off
There are two usages of off as a preposition that should be
avoided in formal writing. The first is the use of off plus an
erroneous of, rather than simply off alone:
The actors stepped off [not off of] the stage.
The second is the use of off after verbs such as buy or borrow,
which mean ‘to obtain something’:
I bought the computer from [not off] my housemate.
Problem conjunctions
and/or
This combination of two common conjunctions is a useful device
for expressing possibilities in a concise form. A and/or B gives the
three options ‘A only’, ‘B only’ or ‘both A and B’. On the other
hand, since and/or is not a particularly elegant expression, it’s
best restricted to scientific, legal and business contexts. In more
general contexts it is better to rephrase. For example,
Sarah or Anne, or perhaps both of them, will participate in
the chess championship.
as far as
The conjunction as far as requires a subject and the verb be
concerned, or possibly go, after it, to create a fully developed
clause, rather than a phrase. The following are acceptable:
As far as I am concerned, the matter is closed.
The season looks promising, as far as our local team goes.
It is important not to confuse the conjunction as far as with the
prepositions as for, as to, as regards or regarding. The following
examples are correct:
As for our [not As far as our] winning the championship, it
is highly unlikely, or
As far as our winning the championship goes, it is highly unlikely.
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Commonly misused words
both
The versatile word both has many roles, as a pronoun (I like
both), adjective (I like both cars) or conjunction (both pleasant and
cheerful). Its mobility in a sentence is so great that its meaning
can become ambiguous. For example, in the sentence,
They are both pleasant and cheerful.
It’s not immediately clear whether both belongs with they or with
the complement of the sentence, pleasant and cheerful. In speech,
intonation will usually clarify the intention. However, when
writing, it is important to ensure the reader is not left in doubt.
Note that, when both is paired with and as a conjunction,
it’s important to keep a balance between the two parts of the
construction, with regard to the position of both and the types
of words linked:
She is both charming and intellectual. [not She is both
charming and an intellectual.]
He both sings well and likes to paint. [not He is both a fine
singer and likes to paint.]
if not
In addition to its use in conditional clauses, if can introduce
an elliptical clause meaning ‘even’ or ‘even though not’. In
We have hundreds, if not thousands, of items in stock.
the if not fairly plainly means ‘even’. In
It’s a clever idea, if not a practical one.
it fairly plainly means ‘even though not’. But in
He’s good-looking, if not very handsome.
it’s unclear which of those meanings is intended – at least out
of context. Often it’s clear what if not means only because the
context shows what the phrase must mean. When if not may
be unclear, it is better to choose another wording.
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plus
Use of plus as a conjunction to introduce an
clause (see chapter 2, page 48) is informal:
independent
She is the chair of the electrical engineering department, plus
she has her own consulting firm.
In more formal writing, it is better to rephrase:
As well as being the chair of the electrical engineering
department, she has her own consulting firm.
Similarly, in formal writing it is advisable to avoid using plus in
place of and as a conjunction joining two subjects in a sentence:
Lack of practice and [not plus] a knee injury have caused her
to drop out.
seeing
The use of seeing that as a conjunction, not grammatically
attached to a particular subject, is established in modern
English and conforms to a pattern used also in given that,
granted that and similar constructions. For example,
Perhaps a higher grade might be in order, seeing that you have
made only two errors.
However, it may be wise to distinguish seeing that from the less
established seeing as, used in the same way, but considered less
appropriate for formal writing:
I’ll leave now, seeing that [not seeing as] you look tired.
where
It is better style to avoid using where to introduce a clause
following nouns that are unrelated to the ideas of place and
space. Instead in which can often be used:
These are cases in which [not where] conferring with a
specialist makes sense.
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Commonly misused words
This is a situation in which [not where] monetary
considerations have less weight.
Note that the preposition from is needed with where when the
context involves a point of origin:
Where did that cat come from?
From where we sit, we can see the stage clearly.
It is important to avoid the redundant, dangling use of at with
where. For example,
He doesn’t know where the car is. [not where the car is at]
Use of the preposition to with where in contexts involving
destination is similarly better avoided. For example,
Where are you going? [not Where are you going to?]
Misuse of word forms
Words in this section have unusual inflected forms (forms
derived from the root form) and so may lend themselves to
misuse in certain contexts.
agenda
Although agenda is strictly speaking a plural noun meaning
‘things to be done’, the singular form agendum is no longer
used. Instead, agenda is used in the singular as if it were ‘a list
of things to be done’. Its plural form is agendas:
The agenda for tomorrow’s meeting has been changed.
This item has appeared on a number of previous agendas.
blond
The general rule in English is that adjectives don’t decline,
that is, have different forms for variation in gender or number.
But a few adjectives – for example blond, and some nouns
borrowed directly from French – do show such patterns.
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When describing the colour of someone’s hair, blond is
usually used for a person of either sex:
Jane has blond hair.
When used as a noun or adjective to describe somebody
directly, blond is often used of a man or boy and blonde of a
woman or girl:
He is blond. Jane is blonde/is a blonde.
This difference reflects the masculine and feminine endings
in the French words. The same pattern can be seen in the
borrowed nouns fiancé (masculine) and fiancée (feminine).
choose
The irregular verb choose has as its past tense chose. Because
of the variety of sounds associated with the oo spelling in
English, writers occasionally fall into the trap of substituting
one of these for the other, causing confusion for the reader. It
may be helpful to remember that choose rhymes with snooze,
while chose rhymes with nose, with the same number of vowels
in each pair.
criterion
Like some other words that come to us unchanged from
Latin, criterion (singular) has an irregular plural, criteria. It’s
incorrect to use criteria as a singular noun (with criterias as
a bogus plural). The phrase set of criteria may be used when a
singular expression is required. Criteria when it appears as a
subject should always take a plural verb form:
The selection criteria are somewhat opaque.
graffiti
Like many words introduced into English from other
languages, graffiti (from Italian) didn’t come with all its parts,
and this occasionally causes issues in use. Graffiti is in fact a
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Commonly misused words
plural noun in Italian, and its singular is graffito. The singular
noun gets some use in technical contexts, such as archaeology,
where it means ‘inscription in stone’. But for practical purposes,
the plural graffiti is considered a mass noun in English, taking
a singular verb:
Graffiti has become a challenge for London Transport.
To distinguish a single instance of graffiti from the mass noun,
it’s possible to use the rare singular, but more common to write
‘piece of graffiti’.
phenomenon
Usage varies for the plural ending of nouns derived from
Latin and Greek words. For phenomenon, a singular noun
from Greek, the false singular phenomena should be avoided.
Similarly, never attach an -s plural, as phenomena is already
the plural form. So,
These physiological phenomena [not phenomenas] are
fascinating.
The word phenomenon should not be overused in nonscientific or non-philosophical contexts. It is best restricted
to people, events and things that are extraordinary, not
merely interesting or vaguely out of the ordinary. In scientific
contexts, however, it’s the word of choice for designating an
observable event.
prove
The past participles proved and proven both appear with
auxiliaries as verbs, and also as predicate adjectives (after
be, see chapter 1, page 19). Which one to use is a matter of
choice, for example,
We have proved [or proven] our case, and
The case is proven [or proved].
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Proved is not, however, ordinarily used as an adjective
preceding a noun. The following are standard forms:
proven cases; a proven fact
stratum
The plural of stratum is strata, reflecting the word’s Latin
history. Neither the false -s plural stratas nor the false Latin
plural stratae should be used. So,
on all strata [not stratas nor stratae] of society
wrought
Wrought is a rare past tense and past participle of the verb
work. In modern English, work is treated as a regular verb with
the regular past inflection worked. Wrought is seen in only a
few, somewhat specialised situations, such as ones relating to
metalwork (wrought iron), and the set phrase What hath God
wrought (used by Samuel Morse in the first successful test of
the telegraph).
‘But the fools caught it,
Wore it in the world’s eyes
As though they’d wrought it.’
William Butler Yeats, ‘A Coat’ (1914)
Note that wrought is not the past tense and past participle of
wreak, for which the past tense in wreaked. So, the collocation
is wreaked [not wrought] havoc.
Problems with agreement
In chapter 2 we discussed the rules governing the agreement
(see chapter 2, page 39) of nouns and verbs in clauses. The
following nouns, arranged alphabetically, present usage
problems with regard to agreement.
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Commonly misused words
any
When used as a pronoun, any can be followed by a singular or
plural verb depending on the writer’s intended meaning. (For
examples, see chapter 2, page 43.)
data
Use of the term data has exploded, to keep pace with the
use of computer technology and statistical methods. Because
the word’s meaning is much like that of the singular noun
information, and its Latin -a plural is less recognisable as a
plural than a final -s would be, it’s often treated as singular.
This use is extremely common, and few perceive it as incorrect
today, especially given the word’s connotation of a collection or
single unit made up of many informational subunits.
In scientific and academic writing, however, data is usually
treated as plural:
Our data have been assembled over a number of years.
In other contexts, data may be treated as singular, especially
when it describes a body of facts, without regard to individual
constituents or how they might be manipulated:
No data was available for the three days in question.
The proper and technical singular of data is datum. It’s seldom
used.
dice
Used with a plural verb, dice means ‘small cubes with sides
marked with dots for numbers, used in games and gambling’.
The singular of this noun, rarely used, is die. Dice, used with
a singular verb, means a gambling game in which these cubes
are used.
half
The noun half is singular, but it’s treated as plural when
followed by a plural noun (with or without of ) or when it refers
to a plural:
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Grammar Guide
Half the people aren’t coming at all.
At least half of them are behaving inexcusably.
With many singular nouns, half can be used in the patterns
half a share, half of a share, and a half share.
majority
When majority is used to refer to a group of people or things
as a unit or whole, it takes a singular verb:
A majority in the House of Lords intend to vote against.
When majority refers to the people within a group, it is better
to use a plural verb:
The majority of our students have rooms on campus, with only
a minority living out.
It is important to ensure that any pronouns referring to
majority feature the same number (see chapter 1, page 11) as
the verb. The following is correct:
The majority has had its say. [not has had their say]
Or, when the focus is on a group as individuals:
The majority of the peers have cast their votes.
media
Media is historically a plural of the Latin word medium. It
can be safely used with a singular verb, however, depending
on what it is intended to mean. When the subject is the
broadcast, digital and print press in general, including all
its personnel, equipment and policies, a singular verb is
acceptable. The word is also invariably preceded by the in such
usages:
The media has covered the story ad nauseam.
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Commonly misused words
Plural media should be avoided to refer to a single system or
method of communication. The singular medium should be
used instead:
Print is an outdated medium.
It is important to avoid the bogus plural medias. The correct
form is media, as in new media.
number
Either a singular or a plural verb can accompany the
collective noun number, depending on how it is used. If the
definite article the precedes number, a particular number
is stipulated, even if of and a series of things comes next.
Therefore, a singular verb should be used with number
preceded by the:
The number of surgical masks available is limited.
If, on the other hand, the indefinite article a precedes number,
a plural verb should be used:
A number of surgical masks are available.
one
When a prepositional phrase immediately follows one and
modifies it, sense determines whether the verb should be
singular or plural. In any given case one choice is right and
the other wrong. To decide which verb form to choose, the
starting point should be what follows the preposition. For
example, in
He is one of those people who are [not is] always trying to
impress
the key preposition is of. If we try transposing the example, we
can see that it is not equivalent in meaning to
Of those people, he is one who is always trying to impress.
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Rather, transposing another way, the idea is
Of those people who are always trying to impress, he is one.
Here the form of the verb be is governed not by one but by
people, and therefore one of those people who are is right.
In the following example the choice of the form of be is
governed by only:
She is the only one among those people who is worth talking to.
If we transpose, we can see the idea is
Among those people, she is the only one who is worth talking to.
So in this case one among those people who is is right.
people
In most cases people behaves as a plural, as in
People are strange; you never know what they will do.
However when people means ‘a group of human beings
sharing a specific nationality, culture or language’, it’s regarded
as a singular and when used in the plural, takes an -s plural
ending:
a Celtic people
one of several such peoples noted for their pacifism
The possessive of people is formed by adding an ’s if one people
is intended:
She’s the people’s choice for President.
If many peoples are intended, the possessive is formed by
adding an apostrophe after the plural -s:
Various Native American peoples’ representatives attended
the conference.
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Commonly misused words
per cent
If per cent stands alone without a subsequent prepositional
phrase, either a singular or a plural verb can be used with it:
Sixty per cent is accounted for.
Sixty per cent are accounted for.
If a prepositional phrase following per cent contains a noun or
pronoun object regarded as a unit or a whole, a singular verb
should be used:
Sixty per cent of the electorate is accounted for.
If the object of the preposition in such a phrase is regarded as a
number of people or things, a plural verb is appropriate:
Sixty per cent of the votes are accounted for.
percentage
If the definite article the precedes percentage, just one specific
percentage is indicated, so a singular verb should be used:
The percentage of families living below the poverty line is
shocking.
If the indefinite article a precedes percentage, and when the
noun or pronoun in any subsequent prepositional phrase is
regarded as a countable plural, not a unit or a whole, a plural
verb should be used:
A large percentage of the errors are to be found in this text.
If the noun or pronoun object in such a phrase is singular or
is regarded as a unit or a whole, a singular verb is appropriate:
A large percentage of the electorate remains undecided.
series
The plural of the singular noun series is the same: series. So,
series can take either a singular or a plural verb depending
on its meaning. If it is used to mean ‘a single set of things’, a
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singular verb is appropriate, even if series is followed by the
preposition of and a plural noun:
A series of medical tests is planned for next week.
If series is used in the plural to mean ‘two or more sets of
things’, a plural verb is appropriate:
Several series of medical tests are planned over the next
month.
what
If what is used as the subject of a clause, it takes a plural or
singular verb depending on whether its complement (that
is, the word or phrase completing the sentence) is plural or
singular. (For examples, see chapter 2, page 42.)
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chapter 10
Word families
nicholas: That dear octopus from whose
tentacles we never quite escape,
nor, in our inmost hearts, ever quite wish to.
Dodie Smith
Dear Octopus (1938)
English belongs to a family of languages (Germanic) that also
includes German and the Scandinavian languages. In addition
to this, it draws a large number of words from two languages
that are not directly related to Germanic, namely Greek
and Latin.
Roots
Learning to recognise some of the Greek and Latin roots in
modern English words can offer important clues as to what
the words mean. This in turn enriches one’s appreciation of
English, and some of the subtleties at play in the language. To
that end, this chapter presents some key word families based
on Greek and Latin, as well as a few other roots. Individual
words are for the most part accompanied by simple definitions
and examples of usage, to enable fuller understanding.
aerial, aerobic, aerodynamic, aerospace
This word family shares the element aer, which comes from the
Greek aer, meaning ‘air’.
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Grammar Guide
aerial 1. consisting of, typical of, or relating to the air 2. carried
out from or involving aircraft • aerial photography
aerobic living or taking place in the presence of free oxygen;
relating to exercise taken to improve the cardiovascular system
• The bacteria were grown under aerobic conditions. • Aerobic
exercise increases respiration and heart rates.
aerodynamic designed to reduce air resistance, especially to
increase fuel efficiency or maximum speed • The racing car was
built with sleek, aerodynamic lines.
aerospace 1. the Earth’s atmosphere and outer space 2. relating
to the design, manufacture and flight of vehicles or missiles that
fly in and beyond the Earth’s atmosphere • Aerospace medicine is
concerned with the stresses experienced by the human body in flight.
androgynous, android, misandry, polyandry
This word family shares the element andr, which comes from
the Greek andros, meaning ‘man’.
androgynous exhibiting elements that are both masculine and
feminine • She had a nice cameo role as an androgynous security
guard.
android robot or automaton in the form of a man • Their modest
domestic needs were served by an android called Marnya.
misandry hatred of men • The organisation’s latest ad campaign is
accused of promoting misandry.
polyandry practice of having more than one husband • studying
an island with a tradition of polyandry
anthropoid, anthropomorphism, misanthropy,
philanthropy
This word family shares the element anthr, which comes from
the Greek anthropos, meaning ‘human being’.
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Word families
anthropoid resembling humans • anthropoid apes
anthropomorphism instance of ascribing human qualities to
something not human • As children, we accept talking animals
in stories without knowing or caring that it is an example of
anthropomorphism.
misanthropy hatred or dislike of people in general • With a
scowl or gruff word for all he met, his misanthropy was known to
everyone in the neighbourhood.
philanthropy sympathy and concern for fellow humans, or
acts that show this • Her interest in helping others started with
a second-hand clothes project, and she remained committed to
philanthropy her whole life.
antibiotic, biology, biopsy, biotechnology, probiotic
This word family shares the element bio, which comes from the
Greek bios, meaning ‘life’.
antibiotic substance that kills or inactivates bacteria •
Antibiotics have no effect against viruses.
biology the science that deals with all forms of life, including
their classification, physiology, chemistry and interactions •
human biology
biopsy removal of a sample of tissue from a living person for
laboratory examination • The doctors decided to do a lung biopsy.
biotechnology use of biological processes in industrial
production • Early examples of biotechnology include the making of
cheese, wine and beer, while later developments include vaccine and
insulin production.
probiotic substance that contains microorganisms claimed
to be beneficial to humans and animals or to promote their
growth • Probiotics can be used to help restore healthy digestion
after illness.
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Grammar Guide
benefactor, beneficial, beneficiary, benefit,
benevolent
This word family shares the element bene, which comes from
the Latin bene, meaning ‘well’.
benefactor financial supporter of a cause, institution or person
• Years later I found out the name of my secret benefactor.
beneficial producing a good or advantageous effect • The
exercise should prove beneficial to his health.
beneficiary someone entitled to money or property by a will,
trust or insurance policy • Her nephew was the main beneficiary
of her will.
benefit something that has a good effect or promotes wellbeing • They eventually reaped the benefits of their hard work.
benevolent showing kindness or goodwill • a benevolent smile
bel canto, cantata, canto, cantor, recant
This word family shares the element cant, which comes from
the Latin canere, meaning ‘sing’ or ‘chant’.
bel canto style of operatic singing that uses a pure, even tone •
her distinctive bel canto voice
cantata narrative composition for choirs, set to music but not
acted • His conducting brought out the drama inherent in the arias
of the cantata.
canto main division of a long poem • In Canto XXXI of the
poem, the course of the narrative shifts.
cantor someone whose job is to sing in a synagogue or cathedral
• A rabbi and cantor will lead participants through the Haggadah.
recant withdraw formally a statement made earlier • They were
given the chance to recant, they did so, and they went on with their
work.
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Word families
➔ Other words that come from the same Latin source
include accent, chant and incantation.
capitation, capitulation, decapitate, per capita,
recapitulate
This word family shares the element capit, which comes from
the Latin caput, meaning ‘head’.
capitation assessment or fee based on the number of people, or
‘heads’ • The insurance company pays the doctor a capitation fee for
each covered person enrolled in his practice plan each year.
capitulation complete surrender, or the terms of this • They
gave in on most of the disputed items, but stopped short of complete
capitulation.
decapitate cut off the head • I remember once as a child
decapitating my toy soldiers.
per capita for each person or ‘head’ • The annual per capita
income of this city is £17,000.
recapitulate summarise or repeat the main headings • Let’s
recapitulate the steps to take if you are in the path of the storm.
conclude, exclude, include, preclude, seclude
This word family shares the element clud, which comes from
the Latin claudere, meaning ‘close’.
conclude come to a final decision about something • In the end
we concluded we had no option but to collaborate.
exclude prevent someone from taking part in something or
entering a place • All members of staff were automatically excluded
from the competition.
include make someone part of a group • I longed to be included
in their games.
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preclude rule something out in advance • Careful screening of
applicants should preclude the possibility of the wrong candidates
being called for interview.
seclude keep separate or apart • He lived in a secluded villa,
away from the prying eyes of the public.
➔ Other words that come from this Latin root include
cloister, conclusive, recluse and the medical term occluded,
meaning ‘blocked’.
anachronism, asynchronous, chronology,
­synchronicity, synchronise
This word family shares the element chron, which comes from
the Greek chronos, meaning ‘time’.
anachronism something that is out of place with respect
to time • The film was set in the Old West, but had some
anachronisms, such as a reference to the FBI, which wasn’t
established until 1908.
asynchronous not occurring at the same time, or, in computing,
involving a data transfer protocol that does not use fixed time
intervals • an asynchronous communications link
chronology order in which events occur, or a list of these •
Detectives are now working to establish the chronology of events
prior to the murder.
synchronicity coincidence of events that seem to be related
but are not the cause of one another • Those with an interest
in synchronicity will be intrigued by these two simultaneous deaths
thousands of miles apart.
synchronise make something happen, work or operate at the
same time • Let’s synchronise our watches and be back here again
at half past two.
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Word families
corporal, corps, corpulent, corpus, incorporate
This word family shares the element corp, which comes from
the Latin corpus, meaning ‘body’.
corporal of the human body; physical • corporal punishment
corps group of soldiers or others with a common purpose • The
signal corps set up drill exercises early that morning.
corpulent fat • He’s quite corpulent now so can’t wear his old suit
to the event.
corpus (formal) body of texts or writings • the corpus of
Shakespeare’s works
incorporate combine with something else • I managed to
incorporate the exercises into my daily routine.
➔ The legal term habeas corpus literally means ‘You
should have the body.’
abdicate, dedicate, indicate, predicate
This word family shares the element dic, which comes from the
Latin dicare, meaning ‘proclaim’.
abdicate give up a high office formally or officially, especially
the throne • The King was forced to abdicate in favour of his
brother.
dedicate commit oneself or one’s life to something • He
dedicated himself to serving God.
indicate point something out or point to something • A sign
indicated the way to the town.
predicate base an opinion, an action or a result on something
• Advertising rates are predicated on the newspaper’s circulation
figures.
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centrifugal, fugitive, refugee, subterfuge
This word family shares the element fug, which comes from
the Latin fugere, meaning ‘flee’.
centrifugal moving outwards from the centre • The centrifugal
force on the roller coaster pushed us to the edge of our seats.
fugitive person who is fleeing • Interpol tracked the fugitive
across Europe.
refugee someone who has escaped from something • a boatload
of refugees stranded in the Mediterranean
subterfuge something done to evade a rule, escape a
consequence, etc. • subterfuge employed to hide his secret past
➔ The Latin original of the saying ‘time flies’ is tempus
fugit, which also shares this root.
gynarchy, gynaecology, misogyny, polygyny
This word family shares the element gyn, which comes from
the Greek gyne, meaning ‘woman’.
gynarchy rule by women • The gynarchy is subject to the same
power struggles as other groups.
gynaecology branch of medicine that deals with women’s
health • a professor of clinical obstetrics and gynaecology whose
speciality is infertility
misogyny someone who hates women • His constant cracks and
putdowns revealed him to be a misogynist.
polygyny practice of having more than one wife • Very few
cultures permit or encourage polygyny today.
compel, dispel, expel, impel, propel, repel
This word family shares the element pel, which comes from the
Latin pellere, meaning ‘beat’.
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Word families
compel force someone to do something • He was compelled to
appear before the court.
dispel to get rid of something such as a false idea • She was
eager to dispel any notion I might have that it would be easy.
expel push or drive something out with force • Air is expelled
under pressure through special outlets in the machine casing.
impel make someone feel the need to do something • I felt
impelled to explain to her why I was there.
propel push someone or something forward • jet-propelled
aircraft
repel force back or away • a lotion designed to repel mosquitoes and
other biting insects
➔ Other words that come from this Latin root include
appeal, push, pulse, repeal and repulsion.
abject, conjecture, dejected, interject, trajectory
This word family shares the element ject, which comes from
the Latin jacere, meaning ‘throw’.
abject 1. completely hopeless 2. utterly contemptible • More
than 700 million people worldwide live in abject poverty.
conjecture opinion based on guessing, or the process of
doing this • There has been much conjecture in the press about an
impending engagement.
dejected disheartened and depressed, or cast down • The fans
felt dejected at the cancellation of the match.
interject say something while another person is speaking • He
interjected questions throughout my presentation.
trajectory path followed by something in flight • They did a
final trajectory correction this morning and the craft landed right
on target.
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circumlocution, elocution, interlocutor, locution
This word family shares the element locu, which comes from
Latin loqui, meaning ‘speak’.
circumlocution roundabout way of speaking, or a roundabout
expression • The subject was delicate, and it required a degree of
circumlocution to avoid offending the guests.
elocution skill of speaking aloud, or the study of doing this •
When I was young my mum made me take elocution lessons.
interlocutor participant in a conversation • He’s only been in
office two weeks, so there hasn’t been an interlocutor there.
locution style of speech; word or expression • It’s a distinctive
locution that’s only heard in this part of the country.
➔ Note the similarities between this family and the next,
both of which derive from the Latin word for ‘speak’.
colloquial, eloquent, grandiloquent, loquacious,
soliloquy
This word family shares the element loqu, which comes from
the Latin loqui, meaning ‘speak’.
colloquial appropriate to or reflecting ordinary informal
speech • She speaks fluent colloquial Spanish.
eloquent forcefully, fluently or vividly expressive in language •
The president of the student body made an eloquent request for better
library resources.
grandiloquent using florid or pompous language • Politicians
who give such grandiloquent speeches show little understanding of
job opportunities in the region.
loquacious overly talkative • The interview programme offers
loquacious celebrities an unparalleled opportunity for self-promotion.
304
Word families
soliloquy talking to oneself, especially an instance of this in
drama • Hamlet’s well-known soliloquy, ‘To be or not to be.’
amnesia, amnesty, mnemonic
This word family shares the element mne, which comes from
the Greek mnasthai, meaning ‘remember’.
amnesia loss of memory • Excessive alcohol use can lead to bouts
of amnesia.
amnesty official pardon to someone who has committed a
political crime • We declared an amnesty on behalf of all illegal
immigrants.
mnemonic relating to or aiding the memory • I learnt the order
of the notes in the spaces on the treble clef using the mnemonic FACE.
amortise, mortmain, mortuary, post-mortem, rigor
mortis
This word family shares the element mort, which comes from
the Latin mors (mort-), meaning ‘death’.
amortise gradually eliminate a debt by regular payments • The
loan will be amortised over twenty-five years.
mortmain permanent possession of land by a religious
organisation • A clause enabled them to purchase and hold lands
in mortmain.
mortuary building where corpses are prepared for burial • The
body was embalmed in the mortuary.
post-mortem examination of a corpse to determine the cause
of death • The post-mortem revealed the cause of death to be head
injuries sustained in the accident.
rigor mortis rigidity that sets into the bodies of warm-blooded
creatures after death • estimate time of death from the degree of
rigor mortis
305
Grammar Guide
parable, parley, parole
This word family shares the element par, which comes from
the Latin parabola, meaning ‘parable’ or ‘story’.
parable story with a moral lesson, with symbolic characters
and events • the parable of the loaves and fishes
parley conference of discussion, especially between opposing
sides • The parley over the new boundary lasted well into the night.
parole early release of a prisoner on certain conditions that
he or she promises to meet • He was allowed out on parole after
two years.
➔ The word palaver, which can mean unnecessary
trouble or time-wasting talk, comes from the same root,
via a Portuguese word.
bacteriophage, oesophagus, macrophage,
sarcophagus
This word family shares the element phag, which comes from
the Greek phagein, meaning ‘eat’.
bacteriophage any of a group of viruses that infect and devour
bacteria
oesophagus tube that carries food from the mouth to the
stomach
macrophage type of white blood cell that ingests infectious
agents in the body
sarcophagus a stone coffin or other container • The ancient
sarcophagus was the centrepiece of the Egyptian exhibit.
➔ The Greeks believed that a certain kind of stone
consumed corpses and this stone was used to make
coffins; hence sarcophagus.
306
Word families
acclaim, clamour, exclaim, proclaim
This word family shares the element clam or claim, which
comes from the Latin clamare, meaning ‘call’.
acclaim praise someone or something publicly • She was
acclaimed the winner by an enthusiastic audience.
clamour loud noise of people shouting together • We could
barely hear ourselves speak for the clamour of the crowd.
exclaim say something suddenly and loudly • ‘It’s you!’ she
exclaimed in astonishment.
proclaim announce something publicly or formally • He was
proclaimed leader after winning a secret ballot.
precipice, precipitant, precipitate, precipitous
This word family shares the common element preci, which
comes ultimately from Latin praeceps, meaning ‘headlong’.
precipice steep or vertical rock face • He stood right on the edge
of the precipice, gazing down.
precipitant immediate cause of another thing • a severe
asthmatic attack without any apparent precipitant
precipitate bring about suddenly or prematurely • symptoms of
the disease can be precipitated by stressful events
precipitous done too quickly • His precipitous reaction just made
things worse.
➔ The meanings of precipitate and precipitation that
describe rain and snow come from the same Latin root
and share the idea of ‘falling from a high place’.
concise, decide, excise, incisive, precise
This word family shares the common element cid or cis, which
comes from Latin caedere, meaning ‘cut’.
307
Grammar Guide
concise using as few words as possible • give a clear, concise
account of what happened
decide make a choice about something • We had to decide which
of the candidates was best.
excise remove or delete something • The paragraph had been
excised from the final manuscript.
incisive expressed in a clear, direct way • sum up the situation in
a few incisive comments
precise exact and accurate • We don’t yet have precise details of
what went wrong.
➔ Other words that come from this Latin root include
chisel and scissors.
abrupt, disrupt, interrupt, rupture
This word family shares the element rupt, which comes from
the Latin rumpere, meaning ‘break’.
abrupt sudden and unexpected • The car came to an abrupt halt.
disrupt stop the normal course of a process or activity • The
latecomers disrupted the service.
interrupt halt the flow of a speaker or of a speaker’s words with
a question or remark • Wait till Grandma’s finished talking – it’s
rude to interrupt.
rupture break, burst or tear something, or become broken,
burst or torn • The rock ruptured the bottom of the boat. • A blood
vessel had ruptured.
circumspect, introspection, prospectus,
retrospective, spectrum
This word family shares the element spect, which comes from
the Latin specere, meaning ‘see’.
308
Word families
circumspect thoughtful and cautious before acting • Officials
were circumspect about the type of aircraft involved in the incident
and its location.
introspection examination of one’s own thoughts and feelings
• We should all take time from our busy schedules for introspection.
prospectus document that describes the major benefits or
attractions of something, such as a share offer • The company
prospectus outlines the plan to use the proceeds of the offer to finance
low-cost residential housing.
retrospective looking backwards in time, into the past •
The show is a retrospective of his work over the last twenty-five
years.
spectrum range or scale of related things • At one end of the
spectrum a work is produced using a computer as a tool, while
at the other there is little or no direct human involvement in the
process.
➔ The original sense of circumspect is ‘looking around’,
as someone who was being cautious would do.
geothermal, isotherm, thermodynamics,
thermometry, thermotropic
This word family shares the element therm, which comes from
the Greek thermos, meaning ‘hot’.
geothermal relating to heat produced inside the Earth • energy
derived from geothermal deposits
isotherm line on a map connecting points of equal temperature
thermodynamics the branch of physics that deals with heat
and motion • attempts to defy the second law of thermodynamics
thermometry the science of measuring temperature • Acoustic
thermometry tracks long-term changes in ocean temperature by
using sounds transmitted through the ocean.
309
Grammar Guide
thermotropic (of plants, etc.) turning towards a source of heat
• Most liquid crystals are thermotropic.
ectopic, topical, topography, topology
This word family shares the element top, which comes from
the Greek topos, meaning ‘place’.
ectopic occurring in an abnormal place • An ectopic pregnancy
occurs in a Fallopian tube rather than in the womb.
topical of interest currently or locally • She sprinkled her speech
with topical references.
topography detailed mapping of an area or surface •
topographical maps
topology the branch of mathematics that deals with surfaces
Affixes
English, like many other languages, has meaningful units call
affixes: letters or combinations of letters that can be added,
usually to the beginning or end of a word, to change its meaning
in a predictable way. Like roots, many affixes in English derive
from Latin and Greek.
Prefixes are affixes that start a word. Instances include
anti-, non- and un-, all of which reverse the meaning of a
word, changing it to its opposite (for example, able and unable).
The prefix nano- indicates something very small, or, more
precisely, something divided into parts of a billion (for example,
nanosecond).
An affix occurring at the end of a word is called a suffix.
The suffix -logy is usually used to create a noun denoting
the study of a subject (for example, musicology, dermatology,
pharmacology). The suffix -phobia is a sign of a noun meaning
the fear of something (for example, agoraphobia). If someone
310
Word families
has an inflammation, its name may end in -itis (for example,
tonsillitis).
The great advantage of being able to recognise these
elements is that it enables prediction of the meaning of a word
not encountered before. It also gives a deeper understanding
of the word.
The lists below give some of the affixes still being used
to form new words in English. Many of the new words are
in technical fields, such as chemistry or medicine. Aceto-, for
example, which comes from Latin acetum, meaning ‘vinegar’,
forms compounds such as acetify and acetone.
Prefixes
In the list of prefixes below, note that prefixes ending with
a vowel occasionally lose the vowel or change it to another
when prefixed to a word beginning with a vowel (for example,
octo- Æ octave).
Prefix and
meaning
ambi-, ‘both’,
amphi-, ‘both
sides’
biblio-, ‘book’
Example words
bibliography, bibliomania
broncho-, ‘tube
leading to lung’
bronchial, bronchitis
endo-, ‘within’
endogenous, endomorph,
endoplasm
dys-, ‘ill’, ‘bad’
equi- ‘equal’
Root
ambidexterity, ambiguous, Latin ambi, ‘on
ambisexual amphibious,
both sides’
amphitheatre
Greek amphi, on
‘both sides’
dysfunction, dysentery,
dyslexia
equidistant, equitable,
equivalent
311
Greek biblion,
‘book’
Greek brongkhos,
‘windpipe’
Greek dys, ‘bad’
Greek endon,
‘within’
Latin aequus,
‘equal’
Grammar Guide
Prefix and
meaning
Example words
Root
ethno-, ‘people’,
‘culture’
ethnocentrism,
ethnographer, ethnology
eu-, ‘well’, ‘good’
eulogy, euphemism,
euphoria
Greek ethnos,
‘race’, ‘culture’,
‘people’
geo-, ‘earth’, ‘soil’
haemo- ‘blood’
hepta-, ‘seven’
hetero-, ‘other’,
‘different’
hexa-, ‘six’
homeo-, homo-,
‘alike’, ‘same’
geography, geologist,
geometry
Greek ge,
‘Earth’
heptagon, heptameter,
heptathlon
Greek hepta,
‘seven’
hexagon, hexagram,
hexameter
Greek hex, ‘six’
haemoglobin,
haemophilia,
haemorrhage
heterodox, heterogeneous,
heterosexual
homogeneous,
homeopathy, homosexual
iso-, ‘equal’
isobar, isometrics, isotope
mal-, ‘bad’
maladjusted, malcontent,
malpractice
mono-, ‘one’
octo-, ‘eight’
omni-, ‘all’
ortho-, ‘straight’,
‘correct’
Greek eus, ‘good’
monocle, monologue,
monopoly
octave, octogenarian,
octagon
omnipotent, omnipresent,
omniscient
Greek haima,
‘blood’
Greek heteros,
‘other’
Greek homious,
‘similar’ and
homos, ‘one’
Greek isos,
‘equal’
Latin malus,
‘bad’
Greek monos,
‘alone’
Greek octo,
‘eight’
Latin omnis, ‘all’
orthodontist, orthography, Greek orthos,
orthopaedic, orthodox
‘straight’,
‘correct’
312
Word families
Prefix and
meaning
pan-, panto-, ‘all’
paedo-, pedo-,
‘child’
penta-, ‘five’
poly-, ‘many’
proto-, ‘first’,
‘original’
psycho-, ‘mind’,
‘mental’
quadri-, ‘four’
tele-, ‘distant’
tetra-, ‘four’
theo-, ‘god’
trans-, ‘across’
Example words
Root
panacea, pandemic,
panorama
Greek pan, ‘all’,
‘every’
pentagon, pentagram,
pentathlon
Greek pente,
‘five’
pedagogue, paediatric,
paediatrician
polygon, polysyllable,
polytechnic
protoplasm, prototype,
protozoan
psyche, psychoanalyse,
psychology
quadrangle, quadrilinear,
quadruped, quadruplet
telecommunications,
telephoto, telemedicine
tetrachloride, tetragon,
tetrahedron
theocracy, theology
transalpine, transfer,
transgender
Greek pais,
‘child’
Greek polus,
‘much’
Greek protos,
‘first’
Greek psukhe,
‘breath, mind,
soul’
Latin quattuor,
‘four’
Greek tele, ‘far
away’
Greek tettares,
‘four’
Greek theos,
‘god’
Latin trans,
‘across’
English words that relate to numbers may borrow prefixes
from both Greek and Latin, such as Latin quadri- and Greek
tetra-, both of which mean ‘four’. In cases where there are
two possible prefixes, the Greek forms may be reserved for
scientific and mathematical terms, though this is not always
the case.
313
Grammar Guide
Suffixes
Suffix and
meaning
Example words
Root
-agogue, ‘leader’,
‘bringer’
demagogue, pedagogue,
synagogue
Greek
agein, ‘lead’
-arch, ‘leader’
monarch, oligarch,
patriarch
Greek arkhein,
‘rule’
-ana, ‘collection of Americana, Victoriana
things’
-arium, ‘place’
-centric, ‘centring
or focusing on’
-cide, ‘killer’,
‘killing’
-cracy, ‘rule’,
‘government’
-escent,
‘beginning’
-gamy, ‘marriage’
-gen, ‘thing that
produces’
-genesis,
‘producing’,
‘originating’
aquarium, herbarium,
planetarium
Latin -arium,
‘place’
egocentric, ethnocentric, Latin centrum,
Eurocentric
‘centre’
homicide, pesticide,
suicide
aristocracy, democracy,
plutocracy
Latin caedere,
‘kill’
Greek kratos,
‘rule’
adolescent, convalescent, Latin -escent,
effervescent
participial
form indicating
‘beginning’
bigamy, monogamy,
polygamy
Greek gamos,
‘marriage’
biogenesis, mutagenesis,
oncogenesis
Greek genesis,
‘origin’, ‘source’
allergen, antigen,
hallucinogen
-metry,
‘measurement’
geometry, psychometry
-phile, ‘one who
likes’
bibliophile, Francophile
-onym, ‘name’,
‘word’
Latin -ana,
‘relating to’
acronym, homonym,
synonym
314
Greek -genus,
‘born’
Greek metron,
‘measure’
Greek onoma,
‘name’
Greek filos,
‘loving’
Word families
Suffix and
meaning
-phobia,
‘irrational fear’
-rrhoea, ‘flow’
Example words
Root
agoraphobia,
arachnophobia,
claustrophobia
Greek phobos,
‘fear’
diarrhoea, seborrhoea
Greek rhein, ‘flow’
-scope,
‘instrument for
viewing’
horoscope, microscope,
telescope
Greek scopein,
‘look’, ‘see’
-vore, -vorous,
‘devouring’
carnivore, herbivore,
omnivorous
-sect, ‘divide’, ‘cut’ bisect, dissect
-tomy, ‘surgical
removal’
appendectomy,
dichotomy, vasectomy
315
Latin sectus, ‘cut’
Greek tomos,
‘cutting’
Latin vorus,
‘devouring’
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chapter 11
Just the opposite
Light, dark. Fear, courage. Cold, warmth.
Female, male. It is yourself, Therem.
Both and one. A shadow on snow.
Ursula K. Le Guin
The Left Hand of Darkness (1969)
Familiarity with both a word and its opposite implies
knowledge of two related words. Though it may seem
counterintuitive, polarities represent links. Thesauruses and
certain dictionaries may list not only synonyms (see chapter 7,
page 115) but also sometimes opposites, known as antonyms.
And, like both synonyms and word families (see chapter 10,
page 295), antonyms contribute to the vast interconnectedness
of English words.
This chapter introduces word pairs. Adjectives, nouns
and verbs are given, along with their often unpredictable
opposites. Words that form an opposite in a standard way – for
example, by adding the prefixes in-, un-, non-, dis- or de- – are
not included here, though there is a short final section on nonstandard in- and un- word antonyms. Words for which both
members of the pair are common or well-known are similarly
excluded. The aim of the chapter is to further map linguistic
connections, by linking words as opposites that may not be
obvious.
317
Grammar Guide
Antonyms
In the list below, words on the left are followed by an
opposite term on the right with their meaning in between.
Under the left-hand word is a short definition of its meaning,
to clarify which sense of the word is intended. For example,
the headword ailing is opposite to thriving, and it is defined
as meaning ‘experiencing difficulties and becoming weaker’.
So, a company that is ailing is suffering economic difficulties
or failing, whereas one that is thriving is flourishing and
doing well.
Adjectives
antonym /
adjective
meaning
above board
honest, legal and without
deception
existing in thought but not
physically
present in great quantities
appallingly bad
considered to be satisfactory
sufficient in quality or quantity
to meet a need
deserving to be respected
full of praise for someone or
something
(of a parent or child) related by
adoption
having an abundance of material
wealth
ready or tending to attack or do
harm to others
experiencing difficulties and
becoming weaker
abstract
abundant
abysmal
acceptable
adequate
admirable
admiring
adoptive
affluent
aggressive
ailing
opposite
318
underhand
concrete
scarce
superb
inadmissible
insufficient
despicable
contemptuous
biological
impoverished
defensive
thriving
Just the opposite
adjective
meaning
antonym
aloof
uninvolved or distant,
sometimes out of a sense of
superiority
friendly, without anger or bad
feelings
as much or as many as required,
usually with some left over
showing or expressing hostility
quaint, extremely out of date,
or badly in need of updating or
replacing
expressing regret or contrition
for something
showing proud self-importance
and disregard for others
able to express thoughts, ideas
and feelings clearly
confident in stating one’s
position
shrewd and discerning, and not
easily fooled
loud or clear enough to be heard
strongly opposed to or disliking
something
involved
brutal or primitive
enhancing someone’s
appearance
offensively, often intentionally,
obtrusive and conspicuous
full of noisy enthusiasm and
energy, and often roughness or
wildness
authentic and genuine in nature
self-assertive in an aggressive or
rude way
civilised
unflattering
amicable
ample
antagonistic
antiquated
apologetic
arrogant
articulate
assertive
astute
audible
averse
barbarous
becoming
blatant
boisterous
bona fide
brash
319
hostile
scant
appeasing
futuristic
unrepentant
humble
incoherent
meek
naive
indistinct
inclined
discreet
sedate
bogus
unassertive
Grammar Guide
adjective
meaning
antonym
brazen
showing or expressing boldness
and complete lack of shame
willing to tolerate a wide range
of ideas and behaviour
growing or expanding rapidly
coy
broad-minded
burgeoning
callous
intolerant
dwindling
showing no concern if other
people are hurt or upset
capable
good at tasks or jobs
circuitous
lengthy because indirect
clumsy
poorly coordinated physically
combustible
able to catch fire and burn
complimentary expressing praise or approval
compulsory
required by law or an authority
concave
curved inwards like the inner
surface of a bowl
conceivable
possible to imagine, understand
or believe
conscious
awake and responsive to stimuli
constrained
lacking naturalness or
spontaneity because of selfconsciousness, reserve or
inhibiting circumstances
convincing
(of argument or statement)
persuading someone to believe
something is true or real
cooperative
doing, or willing to do, what is
asked or required
credulous
easily convinced that something
is true
cursory
done in a quick or superficial
way
warm-hearted
damning
debatable
laudatory
incontestable
very critical or unfavourable
open to discussion and
uncertain
320
inept
direct
adroit
fireproof
disparaging
elective
convex
unimaginable
comatose
unfettered
implausible
adversarial
sceptical
thorough
Just the opposite
adjective
meaning
antonym
deferential
showing or expressing polite
respect or courtesy
no longer operative, valid or
functional
feeling lack of hope, especially
because of disappointment
irrational as a temporary result
of a physical condition such as
a fever
openly showing love and
affection towards someone
extremely unhappy and
discouraged
feeling or showing firmness or
a fixed purpose
causing or deserving intense
dislike
causing harm or damage
not straightforward or honest
about one’s intentions
deeply and faithfully religious
lacking self-confidence and shy
persistent and hard-working
unhappy because reality does
not match expectations
in disagreement
giving the freedom to decide
depending on individual
circumstances
able to identify subtle
differences and appreciate good
quality or taste
insincere and often withholding
information
showing a lack of faith in or
loyalty to someone or something
condescending
defunct
dejected
delirious
demonstrative
despondent
determined
detestable
detrimental
devious
devout
diffident
diligent
disappointed
discordant
discretionary
discriminating
disingenuous
disloyal
321
active
elated
lucid
inhibited
ecstatic
irresolute
adorable
beneficial
forthright
irreligious
assured
idle
jubilant
harmonious
obligatory
uncritical
artless
constant
Grammar Guide
adjective
meaning
antonym
dispropor­
tionate
docile
unequal or out of proportion in
quantity, size or value
quiet, easy to control, and
unlikely to cause trouble
unable or unwilling to shed
tears
uncertain or doubtful about
something
commensurate
enthusiastic and excited to do
something
not causing difficulty or
requiring much effort
said or saying something in
a forceful, expressive and
persuasive way
displaying great vigour or force
free of ignorance, prejudice or
superstition
showing passionate interest in
something or eagerness about
something
lasting for only a short time
not easily angered or upset
(formal) high in rank, position
or esteem
beyond what is considered
acceptable, usual or necessary
nervous and liable to become
quickly excited
strikingly unusual and
suggesting faraway places
willing to talk openly and at
some length
possessing knowledge and skill
acquired over a length of time
loath
dry-eyed
dubious
eager
easy
eloquent
energetic
enlightened
enthusiastic
ephemeral
even-tempered
exalted
excessive
excitable
exotic
expansive
experienced
322
headstrong
lachrymose
convinced
arduous
inarticulate
lethargic
benighted
apathetic
timeless
fractious
lowly
moderate
imperturbable
parochial
limited
fledgling
Just the opposite
adjective
meaning
antonym
explicit
expressing details in a clear and
obvious way
uncovered and therefore visible
or without protection
situated on, happening on, or
coming from the outside
outside or additional to the
usual courses of study at an
educational institution
characterised by spending
excessively or wastefully
implicit
well known, commonly seen or
heard, and easily recognised
known and recognised by many
people
able to support life or procreate
likely to change, especially in
affections, intentions, loyalties
or preferences
using a non-literal sense of a
word or words
relating to a child’s relationship
with his or her parents
with an end or limit
presenting an appearance that
causes dread or fear
communicative and informative
having a pleasant or sweet smell
open, honest, and sometimes
forceful in expression
characteristic of or suitable to a
relationship between friends
characterised by thriftiness and
avoidance of waste
feeling unfulfilled or unsatisfied
alien
exposed
external
extramural
extravagant
familiar
famous
fertile
fickle
figurative
filial
finite
formidable
forthcoming
fragrant
frank
friendly
frugal
frustrated
323
buried
internal
intramural
parsimonious
obscure
barren
loyal
literal
parental
endless
approachable
close-lipped
malodorous
mealymouthed
hostile
lavish
fulfilled
Grammar Guide
adjective
meaning
antonym
garrulous
excessively or pointlessly
talkative
applying to any member of a
group or class
having the qualities or value
claimed
very large, tall or bulky
proceeding or developing slowly
by steps or degrees
done or given reluctantly
having or showing no deceit or
expectation of being deceived
taciturn
made commonplace and stale by
overuse
hesitant or done with frequent
irregular pauses
happening or done in a way that
has not been planned
relating to or sounding in
harmony
providing or willing to give
assistance or information
consisting of parts or individual
elements that are unrelated or
unlike each other
having a large amount of hair
with a relatively high level of
moisture in the air
done too quickly because of a
real or perceived lack of time
fresh
existing only in the mind, not
in reality
showing no emotion, especially
in facial expression
actual
generic
genuine
gigantic
gradual
grudging
guileless
hackneyed
halting
haphazard
harmonious
helpful
heterogeneous
hirsute
humid
hurried
imaginary
impassive
324
specific
sham
minuscule
abrupt
generous
cunning
fluent
methodical
discordant
obstructive
homogeneous
hairless
arid
measured
expressive
Just the opposite
adjective
meaning
antonym
impenitent
having no regret for immorality
or misbehaviour
unsuitable or out of place
not fitting, timely or suitable
not well thought out or clearly
expressed
lacking thought or consideration
for other people and their
feelings
showing no curiosity about or
interest in something
giving comprehensive and
thorough consideration to
something
making no distinctions
impossible to doubt, question
or deny
lethargic and not showing any
interest or making any effort
unpleasant to eat
adhering firmly to a viewpoint
showing or having knowledge
of a situation or subject
not very large, solid or strong
done on purpose, not by
accident
happening from time to time
easily angered or annoyed when
things do not go as desired
resisting attempts to control,
correct or influence
tending to be shy and quiet, or
ill at ease in a group
incapable of being defeated or
beaten, owing to great strength
or skill
contrite
inapposite
inappropriate
incoherent
inconsiderate
incurious
in-depth
indiscriminate
indisputable
indolent
inedible
inflexible
informed
insubstantial
intentional
intermittent
intolerant
intractable
introverted
invincible
325
appropriate
apposite
lucid
attentive
inquiring
superficial
discerning
questionable
industrious
palatable
adaptable
unenlightened
material
coincidental
constant
accepting
biddable
extroverted
vulnerable
Grammar Guide
adjective
meaning
antonym
inviting
suggesting or offering pleasure
or enjoyment
inhospitable
jovial
juvenile
cheerful in mood or disposition
relating to young people
morose
adult
knowledgeable
having knowledge
ignorant
languid
laudable
lenient
lacking vigour and energy
admirable and worthy of praise
showing tolerance or mercy
in dealing with crime or
misbehaviour
tolerant of different views and
standards of behaviour in others
dead, or seeming to be dead
tending to talk a great deal
involving comfort, elegance and
often expense
vivacious
contemptible
harsh
very generous, kind or forgiving
greatest in size or importance
having or showing a desire to
harm others
full of hate and showing a desire
to harm others
officially required
clear to see or understand
extremely careful and precise
not strong or intense in colour
or sound
mean-spirited
ancillary
benevolent
liberal
lifeless
loquacious
luxurious
magnanimous
main
malevolent
malignant
mandatory
manifest
meticulous
muted
naive
negligible
authoritarian
animated
tight-lipped
spartan
benign
discretionary
latent
slapdash
bold
having an excessively simple and cynical
trusting view of the world
too small or unimportant to be
significant
worth considering
326
Just the opposite
adjective
meaning
antonym
net
remaining from an amount after
all necessary deductions have
been made
occurring at night, as opposed
to during the day
with no interesting or
remarkable characteristics
gross
unaware of or paying no
attention to someone or
something
free from prejudice and
receptive to new ideas
occurring at just the right time
tending to take a hopeful and
positive view of future outcomes
left to individual choice
well-behaved or peaceful
creative or unique
with elaborate or excessive
decoration
arrogant and tending to issue
orders to others
late or after the scheduled time
done openly and without any
attempt at concealment
aware
having an unhealthily pale
complexion
insignificant or unimportant
having the ability to persuade
people or the effect of
persuading them
relevant to the matter being
considered
florid
nocturnal
nondescript
oblivious
open-minded
opportune
optimistic
optional
orderly
original
ornate
overbearing
overdue
overt
pallid
paltry
persuasive
pertinent
327
diurnal
outstanding
bigoted
ill-timed
defeatist
compulsory
anarchic
derivative
austere
meek
premature
disguised
significant
unconvincing
extraneous
Grammar Guide
adjective
meaning
antonym
placid
calm and tending not to become
excited or disturbed
involving friendship, affection
or love between people without
sexual relations
lacking power, strength or
effectiveness
concerned with practical results
in the real world
immediately before something
else
existing or happening during
pregnancy but before childbirth
organised or arranged ahead of
time
enjoying advantages available to
only a few
taking the initiative rather than
reacting to events
relating to or belonging to a
profession
extremely extravagant or
wasteful
done at once and without delay
lying on one’s stomach
from a simpler, less
sophisticated place
showing a clear determination
boisterous
questionable
quixotic
open to doubt or disagreement
impulsive, unpredictable and
impractical
indisputable
down-to-earth
reactionary
opposed to social or political
change regarded as liberal or
progressive
progressive
platonic
powerless
pragmatic
preceding
prenatal
prepared
privileged
proactive
professional
profligate
prompt
prostrate
provincial
purposeful
328
romantic
omnipotent
utopian
ensuing
postnatal
impromptu
disadvantaged
reactive
lay
frugal
dilatory
supine
cosmopolitan
aimless
Just the opposite
adjective
meaning
antonym
rebellious
opposing or defying authority,
accepted moral codes, or social
conventions
cultured and polite in habits,
tastes or appearance
not readily showing or
expressing emotions
possessing determination and
purposefulness
tending to respond to something
characterised by control,
especially in not being
excessively emotional or
aggressive
unwilling to talk freely or reveal
all the facts
disagreeable or discourteous in
manner or action
conformist
dedicated to a deity or religious
purpose
not controlled by a religious
body or concerned with
religious or spiritual matters
applying to some but not others
concerned with one’s own
interests, needs and wishes
while ignoring those of others
lasting or living for only a short
time
reserved, diffident and
uncomfortable in the company
of others
having enough money to cover
expenses and debts
relating to, occupying or
happening in space
profane
refined
reserved
resolute
responsive
restrained
reticent
rude
sacred
secular
selective
selfish
short-lived
shy
solvent
spatial
329
coarse
demonstrative
vacillating
impervious
abandoned
communi­cative
civil
divine
indiscriminate
altruistic
enduring
outgoing
bankrupt
temporal
Grammar Guide
adjective
meaning
antonym
spontaneous
resulting from internal or
natural processes, with no
apparent external influence
not being what it claims to be
no longer pleasant to eat or of
interest
(of speech or writing) unnatural
or lacking in fluency
causing mental or emotional
stress
giving in or tending to give in
to the demands or the authority
of others
happening or existing after
something
having the intended result
as much as is needed
done in a methodical and
organised manner
forced
having or showing concern
about upsetting or offending
people
tending to talk readily and at
length
only slightly related
involving or based on theory
lasting for only a short time
conforming with reality or fact
indiscreet
impossible to explain or give a
reason for
ill-suited to the wearer
complete or guaranteed, with
no conditions, limitations or
provisos attached
explicable
spurious
stale
stilted
stressful
submissive
subsequent
successful
sufficient
systematic
tactful
talkative
tangential
theoretical
transient
true
unaccountable
unbecoming
unconditional
330
genuine
fresh
idiomatic
relaxing
dominant
previous
abortive
inadequate
arbitrary
reticent
direct
applied
abiding
apocryphal
flattering
qualified
Just the opposite
adjective
meaning
antonym
uncontro­versial unlikely to provoke argument or
disapproval
uncritical
too readily accepting, without
question
unfair
not equal or just
unfamiliar
not previously known or
recognised
unflappable
able to maintain composure
under all circumstances
uninformed
lacking facts or knowledge
about a situation or subject
unrelated
not connected by similarities,
source or family
contentious
valid
having a solid foundation or
justification
showing or characterised by
many different forms or kinds
open to persuasion by corrupt
means, especially bribery
expressed in language that is too
long-winded or complicated
indefensible
cautious and watchful
based on sound reasons,
information or evidence, or on
undisputable facts
experienced in life
unsuspecting
baseless
varied
venal
verbose
wary
well-founded
worldly
331
discerning
equitable
conversant
excitable
well-read
allied
monotonous
incorruptible
concise
innocent
Grammar Guide
Noun
antonym /
noun
meaning
abolition
act of officially ending a law,
regulation or practice
political system in which the
power of a ruler is unchecked
and absolute
very large amount of something
rate at which something
increases in velocity
act of adding something onto or
into something else
feeling of pleasure and approval,
and, often, wonder
nervous anxiety
attitude or way of behaving
marked by unselfish concern for
the welfare of others
quality of something possibly
being understood in more than
one way
someone from whom one is
directly descended, especially
someone more distant than a
grandparent
complete or exact opposite of
something
austerity and self-denial,
especially as a principled way
of life
someone or something that is
useful and contributes to success
preservation
behind the scenes
substance, act or words that
soothe
forefront
irritant
absolutism
abundance
acceleration
addition
admiration
agitation
altruism
ambiguity
ancestor
antithesis
asceticism
asset
background
balm
opposite
332
democracy
scarcity
deceleration
deduction
scorn
composure
egotism
clarity
descendant
equivalent
hedonism
liability
Just the opposite
noun
meaning
antonym
base
lowest, bottom or supporting
part or layer of something
financial supporter of a cause,
institution or individual
something that is a great benefit
to someone
apex
stop, pause or interruption
body of people ordained for
religious service
behaving or thinking in a
socially acceptable or expected
way
powerful feeling of dislike
towards someone or something
considered to be worthless,
inferior or undeserving of
respect
guilty verdict
continuation
laity
benefactor
boon
cessation
clergy
conformity
contempt
conviction
demotion
reduction in the rank, status
or position of someone or
something
denial
statement saying that something
is not true or not correct
detractor
belittler of something or
someone
detriment
damage, harm or disadvantage
dilution
thinning or weakening of a
substance by the addition of
another substance
disagreement
expression of a difference of
opinion
disappoint­ment feeling of sadness or frustration
because of failed expectations
discontent
unhappiness or dissatisfaction
discord
disagreement or strife
333
beneficiary
nuisance
deviance
esteem
acquittal
elevation
admission
proponent
benefit
concentration
accord
jubilation
contentment
harmony
Grammar Guide
noun
meaning
antonym
disdain
extreme contempt or disgust for
something or someone
disinclination reluctance to do something
disintegration irreversible breaking into
components or fragments
disorgani­sation lack of organisation or orderly
arrangement
disrespect
lack of respect
divergence
moving apart of two or more
things
dystopia
imaginary place where
everything is as bad as it could
possibly be
approval
epilogue
short speech, usually in verse,
that an actor addresses directly
to the audience at the end of a
play
act of founding or starting
something
word or phrase used in place of
a term that might be considered
too direct, harsh, unpleasant or
offensive
sudden loud release of energy
and a rapidly expanding volume
energetic and socially confident
person
prologue
shortcoming
act or process of separating into
parts
someone who comes from a
country other than one’s own
part of a building, usually below
the ground, that transfers and
distributes the weight of the
building
forte
fusion
establishment
euphemism
explosion
extrovert
failing
fission
foreigner
foundation
334
urge
cohesion
coordination
esteem
convergence
utopia
abolition
dysphemism
implosion
introvert
compatriot
superstructure
Just the opposite
noun
meaning
antonym
glut
larger supply of something than
is needed, especially of a crop or
product
dearth
hindsight
opportunity to understand and
judge an experience after it has
occurred
quality of being modest or
respectful
dry outer covering of some
fruits, nuts and grains
foreknowledge
tendency of a body at rest to stay
at rest
failure to show or express
gratitude
unfair or unjust treatment of
someone, or an instance of this
smaller number or lesser amount
than is needed
feeling of curiosity or concern
about something
action undertaken to change
what is happening or might
happen in another’s affairs
section at the beginning of a book
or other text, usually summarising
it or setting the scene
momentum
liberty
loyalist
freedom from captivity
firm supporter of a country,
ruler or government
custody
defector
macrocosm
complex large structure, often
the world or the universe,
considered as a single entity
containing numerous smaller
structures
microcosm
humility
husk
inertia
ingratitude
injustice
insufficiency
interest
intervention
introduction
335
arrogance
kernel
appreciation
equity
adequacy
apathy
laissez-faire
coda
Grammar Guide
noun
meaning
antonym
miser
person who hates spending
money or spends very little
word or sentence consisting of
only one syllable, for example,
‘yes’
belief that there is only one God
boredom or dullness arising
from the fact that nothing
different ever happens
act that denotes change or
progress
spendthrift
nadir
lowest possible point
acme
oblivion
state of being entirely
unconscious
state of being unknown or
inconspicuous
execution of or compliance with
laws, instructions or customs
person who tends to feel hopeful
and positive about future
outcomes
awareness
head or ancestor of an important
family
area around the edge of a place
desire to improve the material,
social and spiritual welfare of
humanity, especially through
charitable activities
short message added to the end
of a letter, after the signature
person who previously held a
specific position
piece of music that introduces or
precedes another one
scion
monosyllable
monotheism
monotony
movement
obscurity
observance
optimist
parent
periphery
philanthropy
postscript
predecessor
prelude
336
polysyllable
polytheism
variety
stagnation
celebrity
contravention
defeatist
centre
misanthropy
preamble
successor
finale
Just the opposite
noun
meaning
antonym
prequel
film or novel set at a time
preceding the action of an
existing work
condition of enjoying great
wealth, success or good fortune
sequel
belief that the supreme power
of a country should be vested in
the people
act or quality of holding
back, limiting or controlling
something
exposing of information
formerly secret or unknown
monarchism
stability
condition of being stable
flux
troublemaker
person who constantly causes
problems
conciliator
prosperity
republicanism
restraint
revelation
destitution
abandon
concealment
Verb
antonym /
verb
meaning
admit
adore
affirm
allow someone to enter a place
love intensely
declare positively that
something is true
make something worse
cause a person or animal to be
hostile
gain in value
bring people or things together,
or gather together in one place
help someone to do or
accomplish something
aggravate
antagonise
appreciate
assemble
assist
opposite
337
bar
abhor
negate
alleviate
pacify
depreciate
disperse
impede
Grammar Guide
verb
meaning
antonym
buoy up
give support or encouragement
to someone
dishearten
court
try to win influence with
someone or to win someone’s
approval or favour through
flattery or attentiveness
reduce the length or duration of
something
shun
exclude someone from entering
or taking part in something
get weaker
express harsh criticism or
condemnation of something or
someone, usually in public
make something smaller or less
important
end an association or
relationship with another person
or group
break up as a group or
organisation, or cause a group or
organisation to break up
expand into a new area of
business
reveal information, especially
information that was previously
secret
decrease little by little in
size, number or intensity, and
approach zero
entitle
expose someone or something
to danger
make wealthier
safeguard
curtail
debar
decline
denounce
diminish
disassociate
disband
diversify
divulge
dwindle
endanger
enrich
338
extend
flourish
endorse
augment
join
assemble
specialise
conceal
accrue
impoverish
Just the opposite
verb
meaning
antonym
enslave
subject someone to a
dominating influence that takes
away his or her freedom
start or set up something that
is intended to continue or be
permanent
make an already bad or
problematic situation worse
free someone from blame or
accusation of guilt
dig up a corpse from a grave
declare officially that someone is
not to blame or is not guilty of
wrongdoing
use up time, energy, effort or
some other resource
blow up or burst with a sudden
release of energy and a loud
noise, or cause something to
blow up or burst explosively
emancipate
fuse
join together to create a whole
separate
impair
lessen the strength or
effectiveness of something
show that someone or
something played a part in a
criminal or harmful activity
stir up feelings in, or provoke
action by, someone
contaminate or cause infection
in a person or animal with a
disease-producing agent
excite someone to an intense
emotion such as anger or
jealousy
enhance
establish
exacerbate
exculpate
exhume
exonerate
expend
explode
implicate
incite
infect with
inflame
339
abolish
ameliorate
blame
bury
incriminate
conserve
implode
exonerate
quell
inoculate
against
assuage
Grammar Guide
verb
meaning
antonym
inherit
receive something when a
person dies in accordance with
the terms of a will or as the
result of a bequest
fill someone or something with
energy or life
bequeath
liquefy
become or cause something to
become liquid
congeal
mollify
calm or soothe someone who is
angry or upset
provoke
obfuscate
make something obscure or
unclear
comply with
illuminate
successfully urge someone to do
something
make someone less angry, upset
or hostile
represent something as being
less important or significant
than it is
make someone feel angry or
exasperated
dissuade
examine someone or something
closely and carefully
accompany someone who is
leaving a room or building
join with someone in using
something
loosen or relax
cause a strong nervous reaction
become less active or intense
flick through
invigorate
observe
persuade
placate
play down
provoke
scrutinise
see out
share
slacken
stimulate
subside
340
enervate
contravene
exasperate
overstate
appease
usher in
monopolise
tauten
soothe
erupt
Just the opposite
verb
meaning
antonym
terminate
come to an end, or bring
something to an end
commence
vilify
make malicious and abusive
statements about someone
act contrary to something such
as a law, contract or agreement,
especially in a significant way
praise
violate
observe
Positives and negatives
Transforming a word with a positive meaning into its antonym
often entails adding a prefix (word beginning) meaning ‘not’.
Such prefixes include un-, non-, in- and dis- (for example,
unkind, non-resident, insensitive and disappear).
Appearances can be misleading, however. There are
some words beginning with un-, in-, etc. that look as if they
should be negatives but in fact have no positive equivalent.
Unwieldy, for example, means ‘cumbersome’, but there is no
opposite word wieldy to contrast with it. Disgruntled meaning
‘unhappy’ may be used of, say, employees, but gruntled occurs
only as a joke.
There are other words with prefixes that look as if they
should be negative forms, but that don’t in fact express
negation, that is, not being or doing something. For example,
inhabitable, which means ‘suitable to live in’, means the same
as habitable rather than the opposite. This is because the in- in
this instance derives from the Latin word for ‘in’ rather than
meaning ‘not’. Similarly, passive and impassive both mean ‘slow
to react’, though in slightly different ways.
In the table below, the words listed in the left-hand column
all begin with apparent ‘not’ prefixes, but, for one reason
or another, cannot be changed into an antonym simply by
removing the prefix. The meaning of the word is shown in the
341
Grammar Guide
middle column. A genuine possible antonym is shown after it,
in the right-hand column.
Ten words beginning with im- and their opposites
Word
Meaning
Antonym
immaculate
spotlessly clean and neat
dirty
impeccable
perfect and flawless
flawed
impassive
impecunious
impertinent
implacable
implicit
implode
impoverished
impudent
showing no emotion
having little or no money
rude and disrespectful
not possible to appease
not stated directly
collapse inwards
poor
rude and disrespectful
expressive
well-off
respectful
forgiving
explicit
explode
wealthy
respectful
Twenty words beginning with in- and their opposites
Word
Meaning
Antonym
inadvertently
accidentally
deliberately
incessant
non-stop
intermittent
inane
indefatigable
indestructible
indifferent
indomitable
inebriated
inept
inert
inevitable
stupid
untiring
impossible to break or
destroy
sensible
flagging
fragile
not interested or
sympathetic
concerned
drunk
sober
impossible to defeat
submissive
clumsy
competent
motionless
unavoidable
342
active
avoidable
Just the opposite
Word
Meaning
Antonym
inflammable
liable to catch fire
non-flammable
insatiable
impossible to satisfy
easily satisfied
inordinate
inscrutable
insufferable
intransigent
intrepid
invaluable
invincible
excessive
moderate
enigmatic or difficult to read transparent
unbearable
bearable
fearless
fearful
unbeatable or impossible to
defeat
vulnerable
stubbornly refusing to
give in
indispensable or extremely
valuable
flexible
worthless
Twenty words beginning with un- and their opposites
Word
Meaning
Antonym
unassuming
modest
self-important
unbending
very stubborn
flexible
unavailing
unceasing
uncouth
undoubted
unflappable
ungainly
unkempt
unnerved
unprecedented
unrest
unruly
unscathed
useless, ineffective
non-stop
bad-mannered
beyond any doubt
remaining calm
awkward and clumsy
messy and badly groomed
made nervous
never known or done
before
successful
intermittent
well-mannered
doubtful
agitated
graceful
well-groomed
encouraged
established
angry or violent protest
order
not harmed
harmed
hard to control
343
well-behaved
Grammar Guide
Word
Meaning
Antonym
unsightly
ugly to look at
attractive
unstinting
generous
sparing
too big to handle easily
manageable
untoward
unswerving
unwieldy
unwittingly
unexpected, and
unpleasant or inconvenient
steady and unchanging
unknowingly
344
favourable
unreliable
knowingly
chapter 12
Clichés and redundancy
Roy’s repertory was extensive and his scent for the
word of the minute unerring; it peppered his speech,
but aptly, and he used it each time with a sort
of bright eagerness, as though his fertile brain
had just minted it.
Somerset Maugham
Cakes and Ale (1930)
This chapter examines some bad habits that can creep into
writing and hinder its effectiveness: clichés and redundancy.
What constitutes cliché or redundancy can be quite subjective,
and to some degree all writing is susceptible to them. Used
sparingly and deliberately, these elements can serve an effective
purpose, but excessive or ill-considered use generally makes
writing less forceful, less persuasive and less concise.
Clichés
A cliché is a fixed expression that has become stale through
overuse. It’s useful to be able to recognise clichés and, unless
they are intended for literary effect, avoid them when there is a
more appropriate expression available. In everyday life, clichés
may have a role; Somerset Maugham, for example, wittily
points to those who ‘have invented so wide a range of pithy
and hackneyed phrases that they can carry on an amusing and
animated conversation without giving a moment’s reflection to
345
Grammar Guide
what they are saying and so leave their minds free to consider…
more important matters’ (Cakes and Ale, 1930).
In writing too, it may be worth bearing in mind that one
person’s cliché is another person’s useful shorthand or otherwise
satisfying expression. The borderline between idiom and cliché
is thin and sometimes blurry. As Dakin in Alan Bennett’s The
History Boys (2004) puts it, ‘Clichés can be quite fun. That’s
how they got to be clichés.’
Problems arise, however, when set expressions no longer
seem original, striking or vivid. One attraction of clichés is
that many of them started life as fashionable terms. The first
time curate was used to mean ‘present material’ in a business
rather than in a museum or art context, for example, it probably
created a frisson. But the nth time it is heard, it is unlikely to
leave the same impression.
Exceptionally, of course, the deliberate and knowing use
of cliché can be very effective in pinpointing meaning. Often
this is for humorous effect, especially when used satirically to
highlight human behaviour.
Here is an A to Z list of some set words and expressions
that, with all the provisos touched on above, may be best used
only with care. Note that some, for example, it goes without
saying and at this moment in time also suggest redundancy
(see page 350 below).
A
an accident waiting to happen
add insult to injury
agree to disagree
all in a day’s work
all things to all people
aka
armed to the teeth
at the end of the day
awesome
at this moment in time
awesome
B
bad hair day
beat a hasty retreat
been there, done that
beneath contempt
the best-laid plans
best practices
346
Clichés and redundancy
the big picture
big society
blissful ignorance
a bolt from the blue
boots on the ground
the bottom line
brave the elements
breath of fresh air
breathe a sigh of relief
bright and early
a bright future
a budding genius
but that’s another story
by leaps and bounds
by a twist of fate
draconian measures
drastic action
draw a line in the sand
at the drop of a hat
E
empower
end of story
epoch-making
eternal reward
the eyes of the world
C
the calm before the storm
a case in point
a commanding lead
commune with nature
compare apples and
oranges
conspicuous by its absence
cool as a cucumber
crystal clear
D
dead as a doornail
defend to the death your right
to...
deliver the goods
the depths of despair
don’t go there
down but not out
F
fake news
fall on deaf ears
far be it from me
fast and loose
a (media) feeding frenzy
the feel-good factor
fever pitch
few and far between
the finer things of life
first and foremost
flavour of the month
a fond farewell
food for thought
a foregone conclusion
from the sublime to the
ridiculous
G
generous to a fault
a glittering occasion
the global village
going forward
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Grammar Guide
gone but not forgotten
a graphic account
grind to a halt
H
hale and hearty
a hapless victim
the happy pair
a haughty stare
have the bandwidth
having said that
head over heels
the healing process
heave a sigh of relief
hedge one’s bets
history repeats itself
history tells us
I
ignorance is bliss
one’s inner child/self
innocent bystander
in no uncertain terms
in the same boat
iron out a difficulty
irreparable damage/loss
it goes without saying
it is interesting to note
it is what it is
J
just deserts
K
keep a high/low profile
L
a labour of love
the lap of luxury
last but not least
a lean and hungry look
leaps and bounds
a level playing field
life’s little lessons
long haul
lost in thought
lost in translation
low-hanging fruit
M
a mad dash
the marketplace of ideas
a matter of life and death
the moment of truth
a moot question
the mother of all…
a motley crew
movers and shakers
my better half
myriad
N
a necessary evil
needless to say
needs no introduction
never see the light of day
the new normal
nip in the bud
no spring chicken
not rocket science
not waving but drowning
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Clichés and redundancy
O
off the beaten track
one’s own worst enemy
the only game in town
an open secret
overcome with emotion
P
pandemonium reigned
paradigm shift
a pillar of society
play the blame game
play your cards right
a plethora of…
plumb the depths
at this point in time
poster boy/girl for
powers that be
pull no punches
put one’s head above the
parapet
Q
quality time
R
raise the spectre of
reach out
the realms of possibility
reign supreme
render a decision
reopen old wounds
retail therapy
ride an emotional roller-coaster
ring true
a risky business
rotten to the core
S
sadder but wiser
a sea change
seal one’s fate
second to none
a seething mass
sick and tired (of)
a sign of the times
silver lining(s)
six of one, half a dozen of the
other
skeleton(s) in the cupboard
the sky’s the limit
the spice of life
stamp of approval
steep learning curve
a step change
synergy
T
think outside the box
thoughts and prayers
thrilled
throw the baby out with the
bathwater
time immemorial
the tip of the iceberg
tip the scales
the thrust of the argument
touch base
turn the page
turn over a new leaf
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Grammar Guide
U
uncharted waters
V
a vale of tears
a viable alternative
view with alarm
a volley of criticism
W
water under the bridge
a watery grave
wax eloquent
white as a sheet
wide-open spaces
a window of opportunity
win-win situation
woke
the wrong end of the
stick
Y
yadda, yadda, yadda
Redundancy
Redundancy in language means unnecessary repetition, that
is, using a word whose meaning is already conveyed by another
word. It may alternatively be referred to as wordiness, verbosity
or tautology. For example, since antiques are by definition old,
the phrase an old antique is an instance of redundancy.
Simple repetition isn’t necessarily a fault in speaking or
writing. It may be necessary to make one’s meaning clear, or
for emphasis or other stylistic effect:
Come close; come closer; closer still!
‘But the fact is I was napping, and so gently you came rapping,
And so faintly you came tapping, tapping at my chamber door,
That I scarce was sure I heard you’
Edgar Allan Poe, The Raven (1845)
What makes for poor style, however, is anything that suggests
the writer is not in control of the words being used or not
aware of their meaning. That’s why grammarians don’t like
redundancy.
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Clichés and redundancy
Redundant expressions
Use of the phrase a hollow tube may suggest the writer doesn’t
know that tubes are by definition hollow. Similarly, the phrases
shuttle back and forth and yo-yo up and down give the impression
of unawareness as to how shuttles and yo-yos move. A gift
is always freely given, so, when shops refer to free gifts, it’s a
redundant expression.
Abbreviations and acronyms present a high risk of
redundancy, since it’s easy to forget what the letters in the
abbreviation stand for. For example, since ATM stands for
‘automated teller machine’, ATM machine is a redundancy. The
same is true of:
●●
●●
●●
GPS system, since GPS stands for ‘global positioning system’
PIN number, since PIN means ‘personal identification
number’
HIV virus, since HIV stands for ‘human immunodeficiency
virus’.
Of course, it may seem pedantic to insist on correction of these,
since, for example, the phrases ATM machine and PIN number,
though strictly redundancies, are, practically speaking, quite
useful as a reminder of the acronyms’ meanings.
Some common word-based redundant expressions are given
below; the words in small capital letters are not required, and
each expression is followed by a brief explanation.
allude to indirectly
Allude already means ‘refer to something indirectly’ or ‘hint at
something’. It is possible to say, for example,
She alluded to the buyer several times in our conversation but
never actually mentioned his name.
assemble together
Assemble means ‘come together’, so there is no need to add
together. The verbs gather and congregate have similar meanings,
so likewise do not require a further together.
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Grammar Guide
blend together
Blend means ‘mix substances together’; it’s unnecessary to add
together. The same is true of fuse and merge, since both these
verbs already imply two or more things mixing together to
form one.
terrible catastrophe
A catastrophe is a terrible event or disaster. There’s no such
thing as a catastrophe that’s not terrible. The same applies to
the noun tragedy, which similarly does not need to be preceded
by the word terrible.
consensus of opinion
Since consensus already means ‘a view or opinion that
is generally shared’, expressions such as general consensus
and consensus of opinion are, strictly speaking, tautological.
Occasionally a modifier can be justified, as in There was a
consensus of feeling, but no consensus of opinion. It is advisable to
consider whether or not consensus without modifiers already
expresses what is intended.
serious crisis
A crisis means ‘dangerous or worrying time’, so cannot be
anything other than serious.
on A daily basis
This long-winded adverbial phrase has the same meaning
as the adverb it contains: daily. The same is true when other
adjectives such as global, regular, continuing, weekly, monthly and
hourly replace daily. In all cases, it is better to use simply the
adverb, for example, regularly, rather than the whole phrase, on
a regular basis.
single entity
Entity is a singular noun that means ‘thing’. It’s generally not
necessary to put single or one in front of it, since it’s already
implied.
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Clichés and redundancy
explode violently
To explode means ‘burst or shatter noisily and violently’.
A related redundancy is the expression violent explosion.
basic fundamental
A fundamental means ‘basic element or principle’; it cannot be
anything other than basic.
opening gambit
A gambit is an opening move in chess. Opening gambit is a cliché
that reveals a (perhaps understandable) lack of appreciation of
how a gambit in chess works.
broad general terms
It’s acceptable to write either general terms or broad terms.
They mean the same thing. But the phrase broad general terms
is a redundancy. The temptation to add broad should be resisted
in other contexts too. The following noun phrases, for example,
are both correct and adequate: general issues, general vicinity,
general topics, general education, general surveys.
past history
History by definition is in the past.
current/present incumbent
An incumbent is the current holder of an office or post, so
preceding the word with current or present is unnecessary.
universal panacea
A panacea is a supposed cure for all diseases or problems, so
the idea of universality is already implied.
chief/leading/main protagonist
A protagonist was originally the main character in a play, so
the idea of ‘main’, ‘leading’ or ‘chief ’ is already implied.
future prospects
Prospects are possibilities, usually favourable ones, that are
hoped for in the future. It’s not necessary to state that twice.
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Grammar Guide
original prototype
A prototype is already a first or original model of something
from which later versions develop. For example,
Engineers are testing a prototype [not original prototype] of
the car.
reason why
Some linguists argue that the reason why is redundant, while
others disagree. The safest course is to avoid using it. It is better
to say
The reason [not reason why] he failed is that he did not work
hard enough.
new recruit
A recruit is a newly enlisted member of the armed forces, or
someone who has just joined an organisation. There’s no need
to specify that a recruit is new.
recur again/over and over /repeatedly
To recur means ‘occur again’. It is possible to say
The problem kept recurring.
But the following is tautologous:
The problem kept recurring again and again.
reiterate again
To reiterate means to repeat something. So unless one is
repeating again something already repeated once or more, it’s
not necessary to use again with reiterate.
totally/completely unanimous
Unanimous means ‘completely in agreement’:
The judges were unanimous in their verdict.
Any addition of completely or totally is redundant.
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Clichés and redundancy
various different…
Various means ‘of different kinds’. If various is used, different
is not required, and vice versa.
in any way, shape or form
Way is a noun of very general reference and it’s not made more
specific or otherwise changed by adding shape or form to it.
This expression is mainly used for emphasis. It usually refers to
something that is already abstract, making the sense of shape,
and to some degree of form, not entirely appropriate.
from whence
The expression from whence has occurred frequently over
the centuries, most notably in translations of the Bible.
Nonetheless, it’s best to avoid use of from with whence, because
whence already means ‘from where’.
Empty words
Avoiding empty words is important in writing for clarity,
precision and getting a message across. It’s best not to be too
swingeing, though, since sometimes extra words are fulfilling
a purpose.
English is remarkable for the flexibility of its vocabulary
and grammar. This allows for essentially the same words to
be combined in different ways, and thereby slightly shift the
focus, tone or register. For example,
There were children playing in the park. [factual in tone]
Children were playing in the park. [descriptive in tone]
Many constructions in English have the effect of making
language sound more indirect and formal. Used appropriately,
these constructions can be very effective. It is better to avoid
them when they serve no purpose, however.
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Grammar Guide
Sentences beginning with grammatical expletives
It’s useful to begin a sentence with a ‘placeholder’ word like
it or there when the verb comes before its subject or has no
complement:
There are a dozen good reasons why you shouldn’t be here now.
There is a way.
It’s not that I don’t want you to come.
However, it is advisable to avoid these constructions when the
subject of the sentence can be made more vivid and the whole
more succinct. Thus,
There is a need for more people to read this article,
can be rephrased as
More people need to read this article.
And
It is necessary for students to report to their form rooms at the
start of the school day,
can be revised to read
Students must report to their form rooms at the start of the
school day.
The pointless passive
Passive constructions are useful when there is a good reason to
conceal or ignore the agent in a sentence:
All the applications had been filed by the deadline.
Does anyone know why the doors have been left unlocked?
However, the passive voice is merely cumbersome when a valid
subject exists for a sentence. Thus, instead of
In his diaries it is made clear that . . .
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Clichés and redundancy
it is possible to write
His diaries make clear that . . .
Needless fillers
conjunctions (see chapter 1, page 26) serve the useful
purpose of relating ideas to each other. They should not be used
needlessly however, and it is certainly better to avoid wordy
conjunctive phrases that could be either replaced by a single
word or deleted entirely. For example,
I went into the kitchen in order to make a pot of coffee
is better expressed as
I went into the kitchen to make a pot of coffee.
Other phrases with a quasi-linking function that are best
treated with caution include
it should be noted
as a matter of fact
it is significant that
as previously stated
it has been determined that
the reason that
the question is
one must recognise that
Very often such phrases are better simply omitted, and the rest
of the sentence reworked slightly as required.
Verbs, not verbal nouns
Certain colourless verbs such as make and use may combine
with verbal nouns in constructions that could be expressed
with an ‘action’ verb in the active voice. For example, it would
be advisable to consider replacing is used to detect with detects,
make the arrangements for with arrange, and do the calculations
with calculate.
357
358
part iii
Dictionary of Literary Terms
360
Literary terms
Every sentence, every word, was new to them and
they listened to what he said like bright-eyed ravens,
trembling in their eagerness to catch and interpret
every sound in the universe.
Toni Morrison, Song of Solomon (1977)
‘Literary terms’ is a way to describe a range of linguistic and
stylistic features that writers employ in their work to enhance
their writing. This might be for creative effect – to make their
prose more interesting and absorbing, or to develop their
poetic voice, or used to render a non-fiction account more
understandable or persuasive.
The hundred plus terms in the list below puts a name to
some literary and rhetorical devices you are probably employing
in your work already and may introduce you to others that you
might find helpful to expand your creative repertoire. Many
are figurative features, such as those you probably first met at
school, such as simile, metaphor and onomatopoeia, and are
joined by those that might be less familiar, such as metonymy,
synecdoche and zeugma. Each term is accompanied by a
concise definition and sometimes an example or two of the term
in context. These quotations are mostly drawn from literary
texts – classics and more contemporary works. Collectively
they highlight the richness of the English language: how it
can be twisted and turned to strengthen any form of writing.
Why do you need to know what each literary term or figure of
speech is called? Well, you don’t: but as with the other parts of
this book, there is much to learn here that helps enhance our
understanding of vocabulary and its usage. Being interested
in words and how words can shape our writing, how certain
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Grammar Guide
phrases or expressions might make our writing more fluent,
or more poetic or more readable, is the very essence of the
writer’s art. Some of the entries below are not strictly literary
or rhetorical devices but are included as they form part of an
author’s toolkit.
The date given in each quotation is the year of publication
of the original source where known. Cross-references to other
entries are shown in small caps.
Morris Zapp went on to illustrate his thesis with a number of
passages from classic English and American literature.
David Lodge, Small World (1984)
A
adage
A popular saying or expression which conveys a shared and
often repeated belief. It might be a proverb or an aphorism
or a maxim, but has a sense of universal truth about it: a phrase
that has been handed down from one generation to the next
as a piece of folklore whose origins are unknown (‘too many
cooks spoil the broth’, ‘he who laughs last, laughs longest’). An
adage, when used in a literary text, might suggest a universality
and, because of its pithiness, might seem to be a well-known
expression even if only recently coined. Like many turns of
phrase, overuse can turn an adage into a hackneyed phrase or
cliché.
Life is like a box of chocolates. You never know what you’re
going to get.
Winston Groom, Forrest Gump (1986)
adynaton
An articulation of the seeming inexpressibility of an idea or
feeling or thing by explicitly stating that words are unable
to describe it or by comparing it to something so vast that it
is too great to be grasped. As such, it is akin to the sublime,
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Literary terms
when something eludes clear definition and hyperbole, when
something is extreme, beyond the possible.
It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle,
than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.
Mark’s Gospel, New Testament, chapter 10
He soon felt that the fulfillment of his desires gave him only
one grain of the mountain of happiness he had expected.
Leo Tolstoy, Anna Karenina (1877)
Anything approaching the change that came over his features
I have never seen before, and hope never to see again. He
cried in a whisper at some image, at some vision – he cried
out twice, a cry that was no more than a breath: ‘the horror!
The horror!’
Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness (1899)
allegory
A story with a double meaning where one thing represents
another to allow multiple interpretations beyond the literal
or overt. It suggests some educative purpose, such as in the
Fables of Aesop. Each tale has a moral message, told often
through animal characters who take on human characteristics
(see anthropomorhism). For example, in his most famous
tale, the steady tortoise wins a race against the flashy and
arrogant hare to illustrate the adage ‘slow and steady wins
the race’.
Allegory is used by writers in a cautiously veiled attempt
to avoid direct criticism of a system or regime and thus official
censure. One of the best-known literary and theological
allegories is John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress (published in two
parts: 1678, 1684). The names for places and the stages in the
pilgrimage that the protagonist Christian follows represent the
religious life, as he navigates the City of Destruction to ascent
to the Celestial City.
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Grammar Guide
George Orwell’s Animal Farm (1945) is a political allegory
criticising communist Russia; C. S. Lewis’ The Chronicles of
Narnia are often read as religious allegory: Aslan represents
Jesus or God, the White Witch evil or sin, and Edmund
Judas.
There, shining in the sunrise, larger than they had seen him
before, shaking his mane (for it had apparently grown again)
stood Aslan himself.
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950)
alliteration
The repeated use of the same vowel or consonant, especially at
the beginning of a series of words, to create a distinct rhythm.
Dr Seuss’ ABC (1963) is packed full of alliterative phrases,
such as: David Donald Doo dreamed a dozen doughnuts and
a duck-dog, too. Alliteration is sometimes used for character
names for comic effect or to make them memorable, for
example: Milly-Molly-Mandy, Luna Lovegood, Harry Hole
and is well-known in playground tongue-twisters such as
that about fossil hunter Mary Anning: She sells seashells on
the sea shore.
Gerard Manley Hopkins’ verse is suffused with rhythmic
devices, including alliteration:
With swift, slow; sweet, sour; adazzle, dim;
‘Pied Beauty’ (1918)
As is the poetry of Wilfred Owen, where alliteration is used to
capture the harsh brutalities of the First World War:
What passing-bells for these who die as cattle?
— Only the monstrous anger of the guns.
Only the stuttering rifles’ rapid rattle
Can patter out their hasty orisons.
‘Anthem for Doomed Youth’ (1920)
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Literary terms
allusion
A reference which is (often) subtly implied, but which assumes
the reader will comprehend, based on a shared understanding
or knowledge of what is being alluded to. Authors might
reference a person, an event or book in their work. Many
common allusions are rooted in Greek mythology, such as
‘Achilles’ heel’, or in fiction. We regularly use allusions in
daily speech as a form of linguistic shorthand to convey a
characteristic or attribute. A miserly individual is known as a
‘Scrooge’ (Dickens’ A Christmas Carol) a capricious personality
as a ‘Jekyll and Hyde’ (R. L. Stevenson) and a womaniser as a
‘Don Juan’ (Lord Bryon) or a ‘Casanova’. An allusion can be
an explicit nod to an historical character (proper noun), as in
the last example, or an adjective that embodies a characteristic
of the person referred to: someone who is narcissistic,
machiavellian or quixotic. Allusions that are references to the
Bible and Shakespeare abound, as you would expect from such
long-standing, lengthy and linguistically rich sources.
Aldous Huxley’s novel Brave New World (1932) is drawn
from a line in Shakespeare’s The Tempest (1610–11):
Oh, wonder!
How many goodly creatures are there here!
How beauteous mankind is! O brave new world,
That has such people in’t!
In his short story ‘French Joe’ from his Collected Short Stories
volume 4, W. Somerset Maugham (1963) makes allusions to an
‘historical’ figure (Jack Robinson) and a biographer (Boswell):
‘Now you sit down,’ she said, ‘and I’ll make up the bed before
you can say Jack Robinson.’
* * *
No, I have never read Boswell. I have not read books, I have
lived.
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Grammar Guide
The grimacing feline in Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in
Wonderland is alluded to here:
Montag stopped eating . . . he saw their Cheshire cat smiles
burning through the walls of the house.
Ray Bradbury, Fahrenheit 451 (1953)
amplification
Expanding a sentence to draw attention to or to exaggerate or
intensify an aspect of a story or argument. An example that
carries profound bleakness is John Milton’s depiction of Samson’s
blindness, and thus his own, in Samson Agonistes (1671):
O dark, dark, dark, amid the blaze of noon,
Irrecoverably dark, total eclipse
Without all hope of day!
Altogether more upbeat, is Roald Dahl’s insistent description
of the gum-chewing Violet Beauregarde – which ultimately
proves to be her undoing:
‘I just adore gum. I can’t do without it. I munch it all day long
except for a few minutes at mealtimes when I take it out and stick
it behind my ear for safekeeping. To tell you the truth, I simply
wouldn’t feel comfortable if I didn’t have that little wedge of
gum to chew on every moment of the day, I really wouldn’t.’
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (1964)
analogy
A comparison between two similar things used to illustrate
an argument or explanation. These things might not be in any
obvious sense similar, but figuratively might be drawn together
to highlight a specific characteristic or sentiment.
There is no frigate like a book
To take us lands away
Nor any coursers like a page
Of prancing poetry
Emily Dickinson,
‘There is no Frigate like a Book’ (1894)
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Literary terms
anaphora
One or more words repeated sequentially or consecutively,
especially at the beginning of a series of statements, to attract
the reader’s attention.
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the
age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch
of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of
Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope,
it was the winter of despair.
Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities (1859)
Which is itself alluded to at the start of Autumn (see
allusion):
It was the worst of times, it was the worst of times.
Ali Smith (2017)
anecdote
The retelling or recounting of a personal story or experience,
often to reference a specific event from which to extrapolate
a broader point. It is used frequently in non-fiction to make a
text more intimate or engrossing, more relevant or practical.
In fiction, it can be used, for example in dialogue, as a mini
story to fill-in a character’s back story or help develop plot or
demonstrate an aspect of their personality. In the case of Lydia
Bennet, the anecdotes she recounts to her sisters reveal her
giddy and gossipy nature:
‘Do you know, mamma, that my uncle Philips talks of
turning away Richard? And if he does, Colonel Forster will
hire him. My aunt told me so herself on Saturday. I shall walk
to Meryton to-morrow to hear more about it, and to ask when
Mr. Denny comes back from town.’
Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice (1813)
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Grammar Guide
anthimeria
Swapping one part of speech in a way that is not grammatically
correct, for example replacing a verb with a noun for
metaphorical effect.
Let me not suppose that she dares go about, Emma Woodhouseing me!
Jane Austen, Emma (1815)
The thunder would not peace at my bidding.
William Shakespeare, King Lear (c.1606)
anthropomorphism
Animals, objects or other non-human beings are given human
characteristics and portrayed as though they were human. This
is a common trope in children’s literature or in allegorical works
(see allegory), for example in Dodie Smith’s One Hundred
and One Dalmatians (1956), the story is told through the voice
of the dalmatian Pongo, who displays human attributes as he
gently makes fun of his non-canine master.
As far as I could see, the old notion that a bachelor’s life was so
glamorous and carefree was all nonsense. It was downright dull.
In Watership Down (1972), Richard Adams imbues his cast of
rabbit characters with distinct personalities and humour:
‘Captain,’ said Bluebell, ‘ do you know what the first blade of
grass said to the second blade of grass?’ Hazel looked at him
sharply, but Holly replied, ‘Well?’ ‘It said, ‘’Look, there’s a
rabbit! We’re in danger!’’
Richard Adams, Watership Down (1972)
Death is anthropomorphised in this example:
Where are my manners? I could introduce myself properly,
but it’s not really necessary. You will know me well enough
and soon enough, depending on a diverse range of variables.
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Literary terms
It suffices to say that at some point in time, I will be standing
over you, as genially as possible.
Markus Zusak, The Book Thief (2005)
antimetabole
When words or phrases in one part of a sentence are inverted
and used in the second part. Such as in these poetic asides from
Maggie Gee’s The Burning Book (1983):
Look as you would be done by: be done by as you look.
‘ do as you would be done by, be done as you did’
* * *
This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end, but
it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning.
Winston Churchill (1942)
antiphrasis
Where a word is used opposite to its actual meaning and thus
is a form of irony. For example, Little John (Robin Hood’s
largest companion) or describing an enemy as a ‘friend’.
‘Hello, Harry’ said George, beaming at him. ‘We thought we
heard your dulcet tones.’
‘You don’t want to bottle up your anger like that, Harry,
let it all out,’ said Fred, also beaming. ‘There might be a couple
of people fifty miles away who didn’t hear you.’
J. K. Rowling, Harry Potter and the Order of the
Phoenix (2003)
antithesis
Placing two opposites alongside each another to highlight
their differences to create a contrasting effect or to emphasise a
point or argument based on such contrast.
Better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heaven.
John Milton, ‘Paradise Lost’ Book 1 (1667)
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Grammar Guide
‘Tis better to have loved and lost
Than never to have loved at all.
Alfred Lord Tennyson, ‘In Memoriam’ (1850)
So instead of turning myself into a metropolitan adult,
I ended up recreating my suburban adolescence.
Nicky Hornby, Fever Pitch (1992)
antonomasia
This has several meanings. Either an epithet or title used in
place of a person’s actual name, such as The Bard of Stratfordupon-Avon for Shakespeare or The High Priestess of Soul for
Nina Simone. Or a more indirect description, such as Victor
Frankenstein’s references to the creature he has made:
I beheld the wretch – the miserable monster whom I had created.
Mary Shelley, Frankenstein (1818)
It also describes a noun that encapsulates an individual’s
qualities which are similar to those of a well-known character
or real-life person. For example, a Judas is someone not to be
trusted or who might betray another. See also metonymy.
aphorism
A short statement which is intended to summarise an accepted
truth in a distinctively clever or witty way. The opening sentence
of Pride and Prejudice is a universally acknowledged example.
Some aphorisms might not be evidence-based and thus not
truths as such, but are assertions which suggest they are truisms.
Tall, thin people need a lot to eat.
Eva Ibbotson, One Dog and His Boy (2011)
All we have to decide is what to do with the time that is given
to us.
J. R. R. Tolkien, The Fellowship of the Ring (1954)
There’s nothing as scary as the future.
John Irving, A Prayer for Owen Meany (1989)
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Literary terms
apologue
A fable or short story which is intended to teach a moral lesson,
often using animals as characters. See also allegory and
anthropomorphism.
apophasis
Asserting or emphasising something by denying it or stating
that it will not be mentioned. This is also known as paralipsis. It
can be used in fiction, where a character provides some historical
or plot detail that the author may wish the reader to know.
‘Ssh’ said Grace Makutsi putting a finger to her lips. ‘It’s not
polite to talk about it SO I don’t mention the Double Comfort
Furniture Shop which is one of the businesses my fiancé owns
you know. I must not talk about that. But do you know the
store Mma?’
Alexander McCall Smith, Blue Shoes and
Happiness (2006)
aporia
An expression of insincere doubt, when a speaker pretends not
to know the answer to (an often rhetorical) question and
then may proceed to answer it or expect the reader or audience
to contemplate a possible response. Hamlet’s ‘To be, or not to
be’ soliloquy is one of the best-known examples. The plays of
Samuel Beckett are full of such questions and indecisions.
Where now? Who now? When now? Unquestioning. I, say
I. Unbelieving. Questions, hypotheses, call them that. Keep
going, going on, call that going, call that on.
opening lines of The Unnamable (1953)
It is sometimes used as a synonym for paradox, when a
statement contradicts itself.
I’m intelligent. Some people would say I’m very, very, very
intelligent.
Donald Trump, Fortune (2000)
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Grammar Guide
aposiopesis
This is where a sentence ends abruptly, where a character is
unable to continue coherently or reach a conclusion, where
their speech or thoughts trail off. It can be used to highlight
moments of drama or emotion. It is frequently indicated by
three-dot-ellipsis or a dash.
She looked perplexed for a moment, and then said, not fiercely,
but still loud enough for the furniture to hear:
‘Well, I lay if I get hold of you I’ll –’
She did not finish, for by this time she was bending down
and punching under the bed with the broom . . .
Mark Twain, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876)
‘I know there isn’t no beast – not with claws and all that,
I mean – but I know there isn’t no fear, either.’
Piggy paused.
‘Unless –’
William Golding, Lord of the Flies (1954)
apposition
A noun or noun phrase which provides additional information
about another noun or noun phrase in the same sentence.
Gussie, a glutton for punishment, stared at himself in the mirror.
P. G. Wodehouse, Right Ho, Jeeves (1934)
archaism
An out-of-use word or phrase originating from an earlier time
period. Sometimes used to suggest a character’s old-fashioned
ways, in particular to poke fun at them or in historical novels to
provide authenticity as to the ways in which people in history
spoke. Too much ‘authentic’ dialogue might slow a story
down and make it less engaging: it’s a matter of balance. An
obsolete word is one that has fallen out of usage altogether;
an archaic word is one that is old-fashioned or antiquated and
not much used other than for deliberate stylistic effect. You
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Literary terms
may encounter terms and phrases in works that were written
centuries ago – which were stock phrases when they were used
but which have little currency for a modern reader. Thus, the
need, for example, of notes and glosses in editions of Chaucer,
Shakespeare or Milton.
I love thee and thou art so lovely and so wonderful and so
beautiful and it does such things to me to be with thee that I
feel as though I wanted to die when I am loving thee.
Ernest Hemingway, For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940)
– set during the Spanish Civil War though
reflecting romantic prose of an earlier period
I subsided into one of my glooms. . . . my spirits instantly
revived and, on the day in question, at just after two o’clock,
I walked over to Trafalgar-square and stationed myself at the
foot of the Gallery’s steps.
Michael Cox, The Meaning of Night (2006)
– crime novel set in Victorian London
archetype
A universal idea or image or person which serves as a common
example or representation and is recognisable because of its
frequent use. See also allusion and antonomasia.
she certainly loved him as he was, neither a Michelin Man
nor an ageing Adonis, his legs were his best physical asset, a
walker all his life . . .
Bernardine Evaristo, Girl, Woman, Other (2019)
If Lee began to be the cliché, the woman-next-door, Tony
Wagener was the archetype of the man-next-door (formerly
the nice-boy-next-door) whom the average girl would be
lucky to marry. He was healthy, attractive, good-natured,
age twenty-five, and he couldn’t take his eyes off Lee.
Patricia Highsmith, ‘Things Had Gone
Badly’ in Nothing that Meets the Eye:
The Uncollected Stories (2002)
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Grammar Guide
assonance
The repeated use of the same vowel sounds to create a distinct
rhythmic pattern, to set a mood or reiterate the meaning of words.
Soft language issued from their spitless lips as they swished
in low circles round and round the field, winding hither and
thither through the weeds.
James Joyce, Portrait of the Artist as a
Young Man (1916)
In the stormy east-wind straining,
The pale yellow woods were waning,
The broad stream in his banks complaining,
Heavily the low sky raining
Over tower’d Camelot;
Alfred Lord Tennyson, ‘The Lady of Shalott’ (1842)
asyndeton
Writing stripped down to its crucial meaning and essentials,
where, for example, conjunctions or pronouns are omitted. This
can be used for dramatic effect, to give pace to a narrative, to
create tension or atmosphere. Where repeatedly employed it
might become a distinctive and arresting aspect of a writer’s style,
as in this pared-back description of an American landscape:
Montana, portrait to landscape, the kind of open that was
almost too much to breathe in.
Chris Whitaker, We Begin at the End (2020)
auxesis
The listing of concepts or things in their ascending order of
importance.
Since brass, nor stone, nor earth, nor boundless sea,
But sad mortality o’er-sways their power,
William Shakespeare, ‘Sonnet 65’ (1609)
His own tastes were precise, narrow, and somewhat specialist.
A. S. Byatt, Possession (1990)
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Literary terms
B
bathos
Originally a term coined by poet Alexander Pope to describe
(and mock) the writing of his fellow poets; an unintentional
attempt to create an elevated expression but failing to do so.
It is characterised by abruptly turning from a serious point
to a trivial one. Synonymous with anti-climax, a deliberate
transition from the sublime to the ridiculous, typically for
comic effect.
Here thou, great Anna! whom three realms obey,
Dost sometimes counsel take – and sometimes tea.
Alexander Pope, ‘The Rape of the Lock’ (1712)
It can also create a more serious mood, in this case one of
deflation.
Choose Life. Choose a job. Choose a career. Choose a family
Choose a fucking big television, choose washing machines,
cars, Compact Disc players, electrical tin openers . . .
Irvine Welsh, Trainspotting (1993)
C
cacophony
A series of conflicting sounds used together to create an
inharmonious rhythm; the opposite of euphony.
When our brother Fire was having his dog’s day
Jumping the London streets with millions of tin cans
Clanking at his tail, we heard some shadows say
‘Give the dog a bone’ - and so we gave him ours;
Louis MacNeice, ‘Brother Fire’ (1943)
chiasmus
Where the grammatical structure of one phrase or sentence is
repeated in a second phrase or sentence where a related concept
appears in reverse order. Used to persuade and move a reader
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Grammar Guide
or audience. It differs from antimetabole when the inversion
is of repeated words or phrases.
Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to
negotiate.
John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address (1961)
. . . In his face
Divine compassion visibly appeerd,
Love without end, and without measure Grace,
John Milton, ‘Paradise Lost’ Book 3 (1667)
circumlocution
A circuitous and indirect style of writing which uses far more
words than are necessary for sense and comprehension. Such
literary ‘going round the houses’ may be used to illustrate
the meandering loquaciousness (verbosity) of a character.
Kenneth Widmerpool in Anthony Powell’s twelve-novel
sequence A Dance to the Music of Time is a good example of a
character who uses several words when one might do and so
highlights his own pomposity when decrying that of others for
satirical effect.
‘The point I put forward is that the normal course of action
would result in a vast deal of letter-writing between Messrs
Turnbull, Welford & Puckering, Messrs Quiggin & Craggs,
Messrs Goodness-knows-who-else, I propose to cut across
that. [. . .] I’ve developed a positive mania these days against
pushing paper. Man-to-man. That’s the way. Cut corners.
I fear pomposity is not one of my failings. I can’t put up with
pompous people, and have often been in trouble on that very
account.’
Books do Furnish a Room (1971)
cliché
A common phrase which has been repeated so often that it
has lost any sincere or impactful meaning. It might be used
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Literary terms
deliberately to shine light on a character’s speech patterns,
personality or as a form of shorthand that readers will
be familiar with. Best avoided in most cases. It is a mainstay
of journalistic prose: one way to get a story across concisely
in a way that most readers will comprehend.
Roald’s letters reveal how seminal this moment was for
him . . . And certainly the stars were on Roald’s side. He was
in the right place at the right time.
Donald Sturrock (ed), Love from Boy:
Roald Dahl’s Letters to His Mother (2017)
consonance
The repetition of the same consonant sounds framing different
vowel sounds (note the ‘s’ sound in ‘uncertain’ and ‘rustling’ in
the line below).
And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain
Edgar Allan Poe, ‘The Raven’ (1845)
conundrum
A confusing or amusing riddle which is often answered with
a pun. In Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, by Lewis Carroll
(1865), the Mad Hatter poses a riddle ‘Why is a raven like a
writing desk?’ which has no answer. (Though Carroll was
persuaded to provide a response in the Preface to later
printings.)
To summarize: it is a well-known fact that those people who
must want to rule people are, ipso facto, those least suited to
do it. To summarize the summary: anyone who is capable
of getting themselves made President should on no account
be allowed to do the job. To summarize the summary of the
summary: people are a problem.
Douglas Adams, The Restaurant at the End
of the Universe (1980)
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Grammar Guide
D
diacope
The repetition of a word or words in a sentence, with other
words dropped in between; used for emphasis or to enhance a
description.
If you knew Time like I know time you wouldn’t talk about
wasting it. Time is not an ‘it’, It’s a ‘ him’. So there!
Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
(1865)
The girl and the boy outside, they look at each other and they
hurry away down the road, and when they turn the corner
the street is empty and quiet again.
The street is empty and quiet and still, the light is
brightening, shadows hardening, the haze of dawn burning
away.
Jon McGregor, If Nobody Speaks of Remarkable
Things (2002)
digression
A deviation in a story which is not strictly relevant to the
main plot but which is used deliberately for literary effect, for
example to highlight certain attributes of a character.
digressions, incontestably, are the sunshine; - they are the life,
the soul of reading
Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy (1759)
dissonance
An arrangement of cacophonous or discordant sounds to create
a harsh and jarring effect. See also cacophony.
doppelgänger
A double of a person, either as a vision or as a twin or lookalike, which is used to show an alternative, often darker, side
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Literary terms
of a character. For example, Stevenson’s Jekyll and Hyde (two
personalities in one body).
I learned to recognise the thorough and primitive duality of
man; I saw that, of the two natures that contended in the field
of my consciousness, even if I could rightly be said to be either,
it was only because I was radically both.
Robert Louis Stevenson, The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll
and Mr. Hyde (1886)
double-speak
Language which is purposefully vague or attempting to disguise
or distort meaning. We are used to politicians deliberately
circumnavigating questions posed of them. Double-speak
is calculated avoidance of truth, unlike euphemism which
is used to avoid a direct reference often to avoid conflict or
distress.
In 1984 George Orwell (1948) coins the term ‘doublethink’
which is his literary version of double-speak: the rulers of
Oceania brainwash their population with contradictory
pronouncements such as ‘War is Peace’, ‘Freedom is Slavery’,
‘Ignorance is Strength’.
duologue
A conversation between two characters, or a play with only two
speaking characters. Willy Russell’s play Educating Rita (1980)
is a conversation between university tutor Frank and student
Rita; all other characters are off-stage.
E
epigram
A short, often witty statement to praise, commemorate or
mock, often used as an inscription at the start of a book or
chapter. It’s a device that writers frequently employ to indicate
some influence on their own writing or to foreshadow
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Grammar Guide
an action or theme that characterises the novel or chapter
that follows. Epigrams range from a direct nod to a book’s
title:
Oh, lucky Jim,
How I envy him,
Oh, lucky Jim,
How I envy him.
old song
Kingsley Amis, Lucky Jim (1954)
To the more erudite:
πάντα χωρεῖ καὶ οὐδὲν μένει
Everything changes and nothing remains still.
plato, Cratylus
Kate Atkinson, Life After Life (2013)
Or the not immediately decipherable (unless you read Dutch):
Alle molens vangen wind
Annie Proulx, That Old Ace in the Hole (2002)
epistrophe
Successive phrases or sentences where the final word is
repeated.
When I was a child,
I spoke as a child,
I understood as a child,
I thought as a child.
Walt Whitman, ‘Song of Myself ’ from
Leaves of Grass (1855)
epithet
An adjective or description used to qualify a specifically named
person or thing, that captures their most admired or despised
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Literary terms
qualities and is universally the way they are referred to. An
epithet often becomes a de facto ‘nickname’ for the person
or object and can appear directly before or after the name:
Catherine the Great or Ivan the Terrible.
eponym
The protagonist or character whose name is also given to the
title of a work: The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Anne of
Green Gables, Moby Dick, Matilda, Pippi Longstocking.
A Place Called Winter (Patrick Gale) and The Little House on
the Prairie (Laura Ingles Wilder) are references to places, which
are at the heart of the respective novels and take on a character
of their own. See also personification.
equivocation
Language which is deliberately ambiguous to hide or skirt
around the truth. It can be useful as a plot device to cause
the reader or a character to uncover information during the
course of a narrative which is initially kept from them. Akin
to double-speak and circumlocution.
euphemism
A seemingly harmless word or phrase with a second meaning
which is considered impolite or inappropriate or might wish
to convey a less literal meaning in a subtle way. Some of
literature’s best examples have thinly veiled erotic sub-texts,
as in John Donne’s metaphysical love poem ‘The Flea’ (1633)
in which a humble flea is the poetic conceit for a passionate
seduction:
Mark but this flea, and mark in this,
How little that which thou deniest me is;
It sucked me first, and now sucks thee,
And in this flea our two bloods mingled be;
Thou know’st that this cannot be said
A sin, nor shame, nor loss of maidenhead,
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Grammar Guide
Euphemisms are much loved by the British in everyday speech
as well as in factual commentary; a spade is not always called
a spade, particularly when referring to illness and death
(‘passed away’, ‘kicked the bucket’, ‘is pushing up daisies’).
In prose it might be used to deal with a sensitive subject in
a tactful way. The dialogue of characters in novels might be
equally restrained and the meaning conveyed through socially
acceptable terms that reflect the status of the individual and
mores of the time.
Euphemisms can also be used to side-step truths, in
particular when uttered by a politician who is attempting to
divert attention from an event, pronouncement or disastrous
policy or to keep actual facts from being revealed. ‘I’m
standing down to spend more time with my family’ is usually
seen as code for some shenanigans that might bring their
office into disrepute, which is itself code for an ex-marital
affair. In such cases it could be seen as an example of (massive)
understatement.
euphony
A series of complementary sounds, usually vowels or soft
consonants, which flow together and create a smooth rhythm.
Seasons of mists and mellow fruitfulness,
Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;
John Keats, ‘To Autumn’ (1820)
exclamation
An outburst of speech or emotion.
Be with me always - take any form - drive me mad! only do
not leave me in this abyss, where I cannot find you! Oh, God!
it is unutterable! I can not live without my life! I can not live
without my soul!
Emily Brontë, Wuthering Heights (1847)
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Literary terms
excursus
A thorough analysis of a point, often a digression which can be
found in an appendix or footnote. In The Curious Incident of the
Dog in the Night-Time by Mark Haddon (2003), the protagonist
Christopher uses footnotes to amplify aspects of the story he
narrates which tells the reader things that are not revealed in the
main text. As a device they also illustrate Christopher’s autism:
I do not like proper novels. In proper novels people say things
like, ‘I am veined with iron, with silver and with streaks of
common mud. I cannot contract into the firm fist which those
clench who do not depend on stimulus.’ 1
...
1
I found this book in the library in town when Mother took me into town once.
exemplum
An example or model or anecdote told to explain or teach a
moral lesson. See parable.
exposition
Information which is intended to set up the beginning of a
narrative and provide any background, history or context
necessary for the reader’s understanding about the setting,
period or characters in the story.
In the small hours of a blustery October morning in
a south Devon coastal town that seemed to have been
deserted by its inhabitants, Magnus Pym got out of his
elderly country taxi-cab and, having paid the driver
and waited till he had left, struck out across the church
square. His destination was a terrace of ill-lit Victorian
boarding-houses . . . In build he was powerful and stately,
a representative of something. His stride was agile, his
body forward-sloping in the best tradition of the AngloSaxon administrative class.
John le Carré, A Perfect Spy (1986)
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Grammar Guide
extended metaphor
A metaphor which is sustained throughout a piece of writing
and is returned to several times in order to extend or add depth
to the comparison or meaning.
Karla had tried this once or twice – scrunching her eyes shut,
and picturing the silent struggle for life that was beginning
somewhere within: the clamorous tadpole horde racing
through the darkness of the cervical canal; the egg in its pink
fallopian boudoir, languorously awaiting its courtiers. But
at some point, the positive images always got hijacked by
negative ones. . . [t]he egg would turn out to be ensnared,
like a fairy-tale princess, within an impassable thicket of
endometrial scar tissue.
Zoë Heller, The Believers (2008)
F
fable
A short story rooted in a moral lesson, often using animals as
characters with human characteristics. See also allegory.
I could end this with a moral, as if this were a fable about
animals, though no fables are really about animals.
Margaret Atwood, The Tent (2006)
figurative
Writing which relies on similes, metaphors and other
figures of speech.
The madness of an autumn prairie cold front coming through.
You could feel it: something terrible was going to happen. The
sun low in the sky, a minor light, a cooling star. Gust after
gust of disorder. Trees restless, temperatures falling, the whole
northern religion of things coming to an end.
opening lines of Jonathan Franzen’s
The Corrections (2001)
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Literary terms
figure of speech
A figurative phrase whose meaning is separate from the literal
definitions of the words which compose it, for example a
metaphor or simile. Used to embellish text to make it more
poetic or atmospheric or vividly absorbing.
His waistcoat was tight as a corset, a small fan of creases, like
crow’s-feet, on either side of the row of buttons.
William Boyd, The New Confessions (1987)
The heat, which had declined a little at the coming of the rains,
grew more oppressive than ever. At night a clamour of frogs
and crickets arose and this diabolical piping served to string
nerves which were already humming tight a little tighter.
J. G. Farrell, The Siege of Krishnapur (1973)
first-person narrative
Writing from the perspective of a real or fictional ‘I’ who
recounts their experiences. It can make the tone of a novel
more immediate and intimate for the reader: they see things
from the narrator’s perspective.
Almost everyone in heaven has someone on Earth they watch, a
loved one, a friend or even a stranger who was once kind, who
offered warm food or a bright smile when one of us had needed
it. And when I wasn’t watching I could hear the others talking
to those they loved on Earth: just as fruitlessly as me, I’m afraid.
Alice Sebold, The Lovely Bones (2002)
flashback
An interruption to chronological storytelling which interjects
a scene from an earlier time, either in the recent past or further
back, which impacts on the story being told, for example by
revealing something from a character’s past which might
explain their current actions or feelings.
He lay in his coffin-bed and tried to cover himself with a
blanket of recollection. He took himself to the Wiltshire lanes
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Grammar Guide
and woods of his childhood. He carried a butterfly net. Ahead
of him – always running on ahead . . .
Rose Tremain, Islands of Mercy (2020)
foreshadowing
When a writer gives hints in the early part of a novel about plot
or themes to follow in order to create suspense and anticipation.
Courage to do the right thing is a major theme in To Kill a
Mockingbird and is introduced early in the novel when Atticus
Finch says to his children:
I wanted you to see what real courage is, instead of getting
the idea that courage is a man with a gun in his hand. It’s
when you know you’re licked before you begin, but you begin
anyway and see it through no matter what.
Harper Lee (1960)
H
hamartia
A flaw or failure in a character, that they themselves are
not usually able to see, that leads to his or her downfall.
Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire (Tennessee
Williams, 1947) or Willy Lomax in Arthur Miller’s Death
of a Salesman (1949) are examples of tragic heroes who selfdestruct. Blanche’s tragic flaw is her propensity to choose
unsuitable partners, her inability to escape events from
her past, and psychological problems that have devasting
consequences.
* * *
All that most maddens and torments; all that stirs up the lees
of things; all truth with malice in it; all that cracks the sinews
and cakes the brain; all the subtle demonisms of life and
thought; all evil, to crazy Ahab, were visibly personified, and
made practically assailable in Moby-Dick. He piled upon
the whale’s white hump the sum of all the general rage and
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Literary terms
hate felt by his whole race from Adam down; and then, as if his
chest had been a mortar, he burst his hot heart’s shell upon it.
Herman Melville, Moby Dick (1851)
homage
A piece of writing intended to honour or commemorate
a person or event; writing which imitates the style of an
acclaimed writer in celebration of and deference to their work.
Fan fiction is an example of homage. Borrowings from earlier
writers is a well-worn activity. Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales
(1392) includes reworkings of stories from Boccaccio, Petrarch
and medieval treatises, fables and folk tales. The pilgrims’ tales
have themselves been retold or refashioned by writers to reflect
modern concerns.
Here begynneth the Migrant his tale.
*
In Syria once upon a time dwelt a company of rich
merchants, trustworthy and true.
*
We are sitting on the second floor of a corner office in
Birmingham. This is an area of white shirts and Pink Floyd
streets. Metal blinds are all down.
Dragan Todorovic, ‘The Migrant’s Tale’ from
Refugee Tales (2016)
Homage is a positive nod to an earlier writer’s oeuvre. pastiche
is less complimentary.
homophone
Two or more words which sound the same but are spelt
differently and have different meanings, for example ‘would’
and ‘wood’, ‘flower’ and ‘flour’. A type of pun or wordplay.
His death, which happen’d in his berth,
At forty-odd befell:
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Grammar Guide
They went and told the sexton, and
The sexton toll’d the bell.
Thomas Hood, ‘Faithless Sally Brown’ (1843)
hyperbaton
Where words are arranged in an unexpected way that upends
the usual grammatical order. Typified by the way Yoda (in ‘The
Empire Strikes Back’) speaks.
Much to learn, you still have.
hyperbole
Exaggeration intended to emphasise and highlight, and
which strays into the realm of untruth, something not to be
understood literally as gospel. Though Aston Villa supporters
may disagree, as for them the text below is less a matter of
opinion and more a statement of fact.
Whatever any other club might think, the greatest friendly of
all time took place on February 21st 1972, when 54,437 paid
the club receipts of £35,000 to see Third Division Villa take
on Santos, captained by Pele.
Dave Woodhall, The Aston Villa Miscellany (2008)
I
idiom
A common phrase whose meaning is not literal and is specific
to the language it originates from, for example ‘as fit as a fiddle’.
In John Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men (1937), Lennie asks
George (and it’s a repeated question and theme throughout the
novel):
‘How long’s it gonna be till we get the little place an’ live off
the fatta the lan’ – an tend the rabbits?’
* * *
And take your father and your households, and come unto me:
and I will give you the good of the land of Egypt, and ye shall
eat the fat of the land.
from ‘Genesis’, King James’ Version of the Bible
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Literary terms
imagery
Descriptions used to represent and recreate impressions,
surroundings and experiences.
It came to him that if he could recall more than a scant few
genuine acts of kindness in his life, then these might act as a
kind of guide-rail on which he could lean when the weather
of self-loathing blew in.
Rose Tremain, Islands of Mercy (2020)
innuendo
A phrase which is not meant literally but which insinuates
a hidden and usually insulting or sexualised meaning. See
euphemism.
invective
Writing which is intended to disparage or denounce, abuse or
insult a person, thing or idea. Dorothy Parker was renowned for
her wit, her satirical prose and verse and for her withering oneliners. In ‘Godmother’ (1928) she subverts a traditional happy
christening, as the eponymous narrator addresses the newborn:
I give her sadness,
And the gift of pain,
The new-moon madness,
And the love of rain.
irony
Sarcasm, where one thing is meant but the opposite is said or
done, used for humorous or exaggerated effect. A comedic or
poignant difference between what a character is saying and doing
in the present and what will later occur. Dramatic irony is when a
reader recognises this inconsistency before a character does.
Nobody can tell what I suffer! But it is always so. Those who
do not complain are never pitied.
spoken by Mrs Bennet; Jane Austen,
Pride and Prejudice (1813)
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Grammar Guide
Nobody heard him, the dead man,
But still he lay moaning:
I was much further out than you thought
And not waving but drowning.
Stevie Smith ‘Not Waving but Drowning’ from
New Selected Poems (1988)
J
juxtaposition
Where two things are placed together to create a contrast or
invite comparison.
‘The difficulty is,’ Mother said, ‘that Mr Tobias is a restless
man and wants to see the world, while I intend to remain
here for the whole of my life and never go away.’
Ruth Rendell, The Crocodile Bird (1993)
Sun and moon, rise and fall: the well-worn wheels of
nature that in Florida impinge where beach meets sea are in
Pennsylvania muffled, softened, sedimented over, clothed in
the profoundly accustomed.
John Updike, Rabbit at Rest (1990)
L
litotes
An understated or ironic figure of speech in which an idea or
thing is emphasised by rejecting its opposite, for example ‘You
won’t be sorry’ to convey satisfaction or pleasure.
Indeed, it is not uncommon for slaves even to fall out and
quarrel among themselves about the relative goodness of their
masters.
Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of
Frederick Douglass (1845)
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Literary terms
M
malapropism
The misuse of words for humorous effect, named after Mrs
Malaprop in R. B. Sheridan’s The Rivals (1775): We will not
anticipate the past, our retrospection will now be all to the future.
I am sitting on the steps mending my bike when Miss S. emerges
for her evening stroll. ‘I went to Devon on Saturday,’ she said.
‘On this frisbee.’ I suppose she means freebie, a countrywide
concession to pensioners that BR ran last weekend.
Alan Bennett, The Lady in the Van (1989)
maxim
A short statement which conveys a general principle, truth or
lesson. See also aphorism.
Never trouble trouble, till trouble troubles you.
Katie Fforde, Second Thyme Around (1999)
However forward-looking we may all pretend to be,
humanity is far more interested in its past than the future.
John Mortimer, Rumpole on Trial (1992)
metanoia
An exaggerated or extreme statement lessened or undermined
by a successive statement which suggests a changed mind or a
calmed emotion.
He who binds to himself a Joy
Does the winged life destroy;
But he who kisses the Joy as it flies
Lives in eternity’s sunrise.
William Blake, ‘Eternity’
metaphor
Where one thing is said to be another to invite comparison
or emphasise a similarity. The title of Maya Angelou’s
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Grammar Guide
autobiography is a metaphor: I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings
(1969) (see also symbolism), one she extends through the book:
To describe my mother would be to write about a hurricane in
its perfect power. Or the climbing, falling colors of a rainbow.
* * *
Who had they been, all these mothers and sisters and wives?
What were they now? Moons, blank and faceless, gleaming with
borrowed light, each spinning loyally around a bigger sphere.
Frances Hardinge, The Lie Tree (2015)
I found myself in a sea in which the waves of joy and sorrow
were clashing against each other.
Naguib Mahfouz, Echoes of an Autobiography (1997)
His head flicked round on his thin lizard neck as he took in the
position of the field.
L. P. Hartley, The Go-Between (1953)
metonymy
A recognisable or inherent aspect of a thing used to represent
the thing itself, for example a businessman being referred to as
a ‘suit’, the monarchy as the Crown, or newspapers collectively
as the Press.
mnemonic
An acronym used as a memory aid, for example ‘Will a jolly
man make a jolly visitor’ is a prompt to recall the first eight
Presidents of the USA: Washington, Adams, Jefferson,
Madison, Monroe, Adams, Jackson, Van Buren. A mnemonic
might sometimes be necessary to recall the spelling of a
‘difficult’ word: never eat cucumber, eat salmon sandwiches
and remain young.
motif
An idea or image which recurs throughout a piece of writing.
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Literary terms
N
nemesis
The embodiment of a punishment often presented as an
antagonist or enemy. Professor Moriarty is the arch enemy or
nemesis of detective Sherlock Holmes in some of Sir Arthur
Conan Doyle’s stories, explicit in the title of John Gardner’s
1974 novel: The Return of Moriarty: Sherlock Holmes’ Nemesis
Lives Again. See also dopplegänger.
neologism
A word which has newly entered the language or an existing
word which has developed a new or alternative meaning.
A recent example of the former is plandemic and of the
latter uplift: first used as a compound noun in 1845 in a poem
by Nathaniel Parker Willis and adopted by geologists with
reference to land movement.
Have you been taken in by the “plandemic”? This pun
encapsulates the suspicious notion that Covid-19 was not a
natural accident.
(31 October 2020)
When first asked to extend free school meals over the holidays,
the British government pointed to its “uplift” to universal
credit of £20 per week.
(7 November 2020)
both by Steve Poole, ‘Word of the Week’, in the Guardian
O
omniscient narrator
A narrator who is all-knowing and oversees the entire story,
meaning that they have information which is being withheld
from one or more characters but which they share with the
reader. See also third-person narrative.
Amy was having hard times at Aunt March’s. She felt her exile
deeply, and for the first time in her life, realized how much she
was beloved and petted at home. Aunt March never petted
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Grammar Guide
any one; she did not approve of it, but she meant to be kind,
for the well–behaved little girl pleased her very much, and
Aunt March had a soft place in her old heart for her nephew’s
children, though she didn’t think it proper to confess it.
Louisa M. Alcott, Little Women (1868)
onomatopoeia
Words which imitate the sounds they represent, for example
‘click’ and ‘clack’, or the use of consonant sounds to mimic the
sound they are describing, for example to create the rhythm of
high heels on a wooden floor.
tattarrattat: to describe the sound of a knock on the door.
James Joyce, Ulysses (1922)
All the time, there was the deafening zsh, zsh, zsh of the
rotor-blades.
Andy McNab, Bravo Two Zero (1993)
oxymoron
A phrase which joins contradictory words to create a paradox,
for example ‘pretty ugly’.
As for believing things, I can believe anything, provided that
it is quite incredible.
Oscar Wilde, The Picture of Dorian Grey (1890)
The Government plans to unleash creative destruction on the
civil service.
The Economist (October 2020)
P
palindrome
A word (e.g. noon) or phrase which reads the same forward and
backward, for example borrow or rob or Able was I ere I saw Elba
(attributed to Napoleon).
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Literary terms
parable
A short story which teaches a lesson or moral, similar to a
fable or allegory. Associated with biblical lessons in the New
Testament, for example the story of the Good Samaritan (Luke,
chapter 10), whose moral is love everyone not just your friends.
paradox
A statement which seems to contradict itself, but which
nevertheless conveys a truth or opinion.
You will have freedom of action—and you will be under strict
discipline to the committee.
Ralph Waldo Emerson Invisible Man (1952)
parallel structure
Repeating the same pattern or structure of words or sentences.
After generation upon generation, fathers upon forefathers,
mothers upon foremothers [...]
Anna Burns, Milkman (2018)
She also knows that this smell, this rotten scent, is not a
physical thing. It means something, It is a sign of something –
something bad, something amiss, something out of kilter in
her house.
Maggie O’Farrell, Hamnet (2020)
parallelism
Where sets of words or phrases are opposed but balanced, such
as ‘out of sight’ and ‘out of mind’.
Many are called but few are chosen.
Eat out to help out.
* * *
You forget what you want to remember, and you remember
what you want to forget.
Cormac McCarthy, The Road (2006)
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Grammar Guide
paraphrase
To simplify or shorten a complicated or longer text in order
to provide a more comprehensible version. For example the
condensing of a legal, technical or scientific text for a lay
audience.
parody
A comic or mocking imitation of the style of a writer. In this
example, Larkin provides a less romanticised view of the past
than the earlier poet Hood.
I remember, I remember,
The house where I was born,
The little window where the sun
Came peeping in at morn;
He never came a wink too soon,
Nor brought too long a day,
Thomas Hood, ‘I Remember, I Remember’ (1844)
‘You look as though you wished the place in Hell,’
My friend said, ‘ judging from your face.’ ‘Oh well,
I suppose it’s not the place’s fault,’ I said.
Philip Larkin, ‘I Remember, I Remember’ (1954)
pastiche
A piece of writing which is a combination of words, phrases
and passages taken from another writer or writers. A form of
parody.
I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky,
And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by,
John Masefield, ‘Sea Fever’ (1902)
I must go out to the shed again for another bucket of coal.
For some fur-lined boots and an anorak I would sell my soul.
Jeremy Nicholas, ‘Snow Fever’ (1987)
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Literary terms
pathetic fallacy
Attributing human emotions to things in nature, particularly
evident in poetic description, such as in Alfred Lord Tennyson’s
‘Maud’ (1855) in which The red rose cries . . . / And the white rose
weeps . . . / And the lily whispers.
Weather can be used to reflect a person’s mood:
Though the walk home took forever, I don’t remember much
about it except a certain gray, cold, rain-shrouded mood on
Madison Avenue—umbrellas bobbing, the crowds on the
sidewalk flowing silently downtown . . .
Donna Tartt, The Goldfinch (2013)
pathos
A piece of writing which evokes acute feelings of sympathy or
sadness.
Dickens’ novels provide plenty of examples. The reader
is asked to sympathise with downtrodden characters such as
Little Nell, Tiny Tim, Smike and Paul Dombey.
For not an orphan in the wide world can be so deserted as the
child who is an outcast from a living parent’s love.
Charles Dickens, Dombey and Son (1848)
She wants to see someone. To speak to someone. Someone from
another lifetime. Someone who made her feel safe.
Anna Hope, Expectation (2019)
peripeteia
Lectures or teachings while ‘on the hoof ’, delivered whilst
‘walking up and down’, for example John Wesley’s sermons.
persona
The character or identity taken on by a writer of a work,
embodied in the narration.
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Grammar Guide
In Never Let Me Go (2005), Kazuo Ishiguro’s narrator is
Kathy. She has an intimate, chatty voice, speaking directly to
the reader:
I don’t know how it was where you were, but at Hailsham the
guardians were really strict about smoking.
personification
An idea, or event presented as a human operation; adopting
human attributes. See also anthropomorphism.
But, look, the morn, in russet mantle clad,
Walks o’er the dew of yon high eastward hill.
William Shakespeare, Hamlet (1603)
I suppose he was fifty but to me he seemed hopelessly old and
utterly out of the picture: it was as though Father Time had
come down with his scythe to take a turn at the wicket.
L. P. Hartley, The Go-Between (1953)
platitude
A phrase in common use employed to restore peace or calm
emotion, but which has become meaningless and clichéd
from overuse.
Let sleeping dogs lie.
It’s all water under the bridge.
pleonasm
The redundant use of extra words which repeat rather than
expand meaning, such as burning fire or this is a really new
innovation.
polyptoton
The repetition of a word, or its root, with a different grammatical
application each time.
I look. But you are not looking at me. You don’t need to look
at me for the same reason God don’t look at man. For one look
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Literary terms
and may eye would burn out of him skull, burn to nothing,
not even a speck, not a dot, less than that.
Marlon James, A Brief History of Seven Killings (2014)
portmanteau word
The combination of two existing words to create a new one, for
example brunch or Britpop.
The sun-wind, the breeze that blows almost every summer
day in the Aegean, sent little waves curling like lazy whips
along the shingle.
John Fowles, The Magus (1966)
presaging
Similar to foreshadowing, using signs, warnings or omens
to suggest that something (usually negative) is going to happen
soon.
When I was little, four or five, my greatest fear was that some
day my mother might not come home from work.
Donna Tartt, The Goldfinch (2013)
proverb
Wit and wisdom from ‘ordinary’ people and their experiences
or observations.
Too many cooks spoil the broth.
though
Many hands make light work.
pun
A play on words; see also homophone.
If he do bleed, I’ll gild the faces of the grooms withhal, for it
must seem their guilt.
William Shakespeare, Macbeth (1606)
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Grammar Guide
Q
quip
A quick, often witty phrase or retort to something said.
True friends stab you in the front.
Oscar Wilde
‘Gut?’‘General Unified Theory.’ Kohler quipped. ‘The theory
of everything.’
Dan Brown, Angels and Demons (2000)
quotation
A phrase or passage taken from and attributed to another piece
of writing or speech. A good example of a quote that is also an
epigram, is the opening to the chapter ‘What a Whopper!’ in
Jonathan Coe’s Number 11 (2015).
We are all in this together.
George Osborne, about his austerity policies,
address to Conservative Party conference (2009)
It is an ironic (see irony) inversion of a maxim: the implication
is that nothing could be further from the truth.
R
rebus
A riddle or puzzle that combines letters with pictures or
symbols which represent syllables to create a word or phrase.
MT for empty
ccccccc for seven seas
I ♥ U for I love you
repetition
A word, sound, phrase or structure used multiple times in a row.
In the end, your past is not my past and your truth is not my
truth and your solution - is not my solution.
Zadie Smith, White Teeth (2001)
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Literary terms
rhetoric
Writing intended to persuade or convince, often employing
figures of speech to emphasise the intended effect and delivery.
Jonathan Swift’s pamphlet (1729) A Modest Proposal (sub-title:
For preventing the Children of Poor People From being a Burthen
to Their Parents or Country, and For making them Beneficial to the
Publick) uses irony, satire, metaphor and other rhetoric devices
to highlight the inequalities between rich and poor in early
eighteenth-century English society.
I have been assured by a very knowing American of my
acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well
nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and
wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled;
and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricasie,
or a ragoust.
rhetorical question
A question which is not intended to be answered but is instead
used to emphasise a point.
Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?
Edward Albee (1962)
But I also knew that I would never get used to the piercings
all over her face, or the tattoos all over her neck and throat
and around her eyes. Why would you disfigure yourself like
that? What had inspired her to do it?
Jonathan Coe, Number 11 (2015)
And did the Countenance Divine,
Shine forth upon our clouded hills?
And was Jerusalem builded here,
Among these dark Satanic Mills?
William Blake, ‘Jerusalem’ (c.1808)
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Grammar Guide
riddle
A statement or question with a double or hidden meaning that
the reader or listener is tasked with resolving.
What goes on four legs in the morning, on two legs at noon,
and on three legs in the evening?
Sophocles, Oedipus Rex (c.429 bc)
S
sarcasm
Humour which is ironic, insincere and often used to mock or
disparage.
One might be led to suspect that there were all sorts of things
going on in the Universe which he or she did not thoroughly
understand.
Kurt Vonnegut, Slaughterhouse-Five (1969)
‘No no, thanks to you, old boy,’ Bertrand said, with a welcome
return to his earlier comradeliness. ‘Very fine body of men, the
gentlemen of the Press.’
‘Nice of you to say so, sir,’ Dixon said, making his Edith
Sitwell face into the phone.
Kingsley Amis, Lucky Jim (1954)
second-person narrative
The ‘you’ perspective in story-telling, when the narrator addresses
or appeals to the reader directly. It is unusual in novels, but
commonly deployed in non-fiction, particularly in instructional
and inspirational manuals and in political entreaties.
You must be the change you wish to see in the world.
Mahatma Gandhi
You are not the kind of guy who would be at a place like this
at this time of the morning. But here you are, and you cannot
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Literary terms
say that the terrain is entirely unfamiliar, although the details
are fuzzy.
Jay McInerney, Bright Lights, Big City (1984)
self-fulfilling prophecy
A prediction or belief which influences people’s behaviour to
the extent that it is realised, but which would otherwise have
been avoided.
It was an impossible situation. Penn Knowlton had realized
that as soon as he realized he was in love with Ginnie
Ostrander – Mrs. David Ostrander.
Patricia Highsmith, ‘Variations on a Game’ in
Nothing that Meets the Eye: The Uncollected Stories (2002)
simile
Where one thing is said to be like another to invite comparison
and emphasise a similarity.
He was dressed like springtime itself in a gaudy blazer.
and
It was a hot day, so the marquee was like a furnace, and
nobody much wanted to be there.
Patrick Gale, A Place Called Winter (2015)
Time has not stood still. It has washed over me, washed me
away, as if I’m nothing more than a woman of sand, left by a
careless child too near the water.
Margaret Atwood, The Handmaid’s Tale (1985)
spoonerism
When the first consonant sounds of two or more words are
swapped to create a new phrase for humorous effect.
‘What’s the katter with misses’ I muttered (word-control
gone) into her hair.
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Grammar Guide
‘If you must know,’ she said, ‘you do it the wrong way.’
‘Show, wight ray.’
‘All in good time,’ responded the spoonerette.
Vladimir Nabokov, Lolita (1953)
statement
A straightforward expression.
We accept the love we think we deserve.
Stephen Chbosky, The Perks of Being a
Wallflower (1999)
stereotype
A cliché, an over-simplified, exaggerated and often
derogatory opinion which is applied to an entire group or type
of people. It can easily tip into prejudice and thus be offensive.
In literature, a character might deliberately be ‘from central
casting’, i.e. an archetype, who displays stock attributes or
characteristics, and as such is a form of creative shorthand that
a reader will be familiar with. A romantic hero is tall, dark
and handsome, a scientist mad and absent-minded, a technical
expert is a geek.
sub-text
A point of view (or ideas or a belief) which may be at variance
with the meaning of what is going on or written and suggests a
deeper perception of truth.
syllogism
A form of logical reasoning where two propositions or ideas,
which share a common element, together confirm a given
conclusion.
All mammals are animals. [major, general premise]
All cats are animals. [minor premise]
therefore: All cats are animals. [conclusion]
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Literary terms
symbolism
Where one thing, concept or idea is used to represent another,
for example a dove is used as a symbol of peace. See also
allegory.
All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely
players; they have their exits and their entrances; And one
man in his time plays many parts.
William Shakespeare, As You Like It (1599)
synecdoche
Where a part may be used for the whole or the whole stand for
a part.
All hands on deck!
Cambridge won the contest. Oxford mortified.
T
tautology
Repeating the same information using different words thus
making the second redundant, though it might be used to
highlight or emphasise a point. It is more specifically when
a predicate (the part of the sentence that includes the verb)
repeats a subject, for example ‘the dog is an animal’. Logical
tautology is an assertion of a formula that is always true, for
example, ‘my cat is black; my cat is never not black’. In prose,
tautology can be a vice – when text is lazily constructed and
where wordiness and repetition in meaning creep in and
are redundant. Where used purposefully it can indicate
an aspect (often to mock) of a character’s demeanour or
preoccupations, as illustrated by the self-consciously selfeffacing Uriah Heep:
‘[. . . ] I’m a very umble person.’. . .‘I am well aware that I am
the umblest person going,’ said Uriah Heep modestly, ‘ let the
other be where he may. My mother is likewise a very umble
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Grammar Guide
person. We live in an umble abode, Master Copperfield, but
have much to be thankful for. My father’s former calling was
umble; he was a sexton.’
Or for poetic effect:
Charles Dickens, The Personal History
of David Copperfield (1849)
This is the way the world ends
This is the way the world ends
This is the way the world ends
Not with a bang but a whimper.
T. S. Eliot, ‘The Hollow Men’ (1925)
third-person narrative
Writing from the perspective of a narrator who observes the
action, who describes the activities and feelings of the ‘he,
she, they’ of the story. This might be from the view of an
omniscient narrator or a more limited perspective of one
character in a novel.
Three days after the shooting in the night Heloise Gault read
the letter that had come from Father Morrissey, then turned
it over and read it again. She was a slender, slightly built
woman in her late thirties . . .
William Trevor, The Story of Lucy Gault (2002)
transferred epithet
When an adjectival word or phrase is attached to a noun
which it doesn’t strictly describe (thus transferred), for example
‘sleepless nights’. A person, not the night, experiences the
sleeplessness. It is a form of personification.
. . . An ecstasy of fumbling
Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time,
Wilfred Owen, ‘Dulce et Decorum Est’ (1920)
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Literary terms
trope
The figurative or metaphorical use of language or a recurring
theme or image with a common meaning.
U
understatement
The opposite of hyperbole or deliberate exaggeration where
something is presented as weaker or less important than it
actually is and thus in a sarcastic or ironic way.
I have to have this operation. It isn’t very serious. I have this
little tumor on the brain.
J. D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye (1951)
V
verbosity
Wordiness, using more words than are strictly necessary for
text to be comprehensible. Many readers might suggest that
Henry James is a master of verbose and tautological writing.
Under certain circumstances there are few hours in life more
agreeable than the hour dedicated to the ceremony known as
afternoon tea. There are circumstances in which, whether you
partake of the tea or not – some people of course never do – the
situation is in itself delightful.
opening lines of The Portrait of a Lady (1881)
The spoken equivalent is loquaciousness: garrulous, chatty,
free-talking and invariably indiscreet.
verisimilitude
The appearance of truth; all works of fiction have this quality
which the reader temporarily accepts.
W
witticism
An intelligent and humorous phrase. A book that shows a
prolonged and plentiful amount of wit (and thus numerous
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Grammar Guide
witticisms) across its 128 pages is W. C. Sellar and R. J.
Yeatman’s 1066 and All That (1930):
One of the most romantic aspects of the Elizabethan age was
the wave of beards which suddenly swept across History and
settled upon all the great men of the period.
wordplay
Manipulating the multiple meanings of different words,
especially to create puns, jokes and riddles.
Z
zeugma
Where one word is used to describe two others in different
contexts, for example ‘she lost her keys and her temper’.
Reading is one form of escape. Running for your life is another.
Lemony Snickett, The End (2006)
408