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TABLEOFCONTENTS
1.Ear
l
yI
r
onAgei
nZi
mbabwe2
2.Gr
eatZi
mbabwe-7
3.Mut
apaSt
at
e-13
4.Rozv
i
St
at
e22
5.Mf
ecanewar
sandZul
uSt
at
e29
6.TheNdebel
eSt
at
e37
7.ThePor
t
uguesei
nt
heMut
apaSt
at
e46
8.Mi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nZi
mbabwe61
9.I
ndust
r
i
al
i
sat
i
oni
nBr
i
t
ai
n74
10.
Col
oni
sat
i
onofSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca80
11.
Col
oni
sat
i
onofZi
mbabwe94
12.
Resi
st
ancet
oCol
oni
sat
i
on108
13.
Post1897t
o1950sZi
mbabwe117
I
NTRODUCTORYI
NFORMATI
ON
Thi
smar
ki
nggui
dewasdr
af
t
edwi
t
ht
hehopet
hati
twoul
dbeusef
ul
t
ocandi
dat
es
pr
epar
i
ngf
ort
hei
ror
di
nar
yl
ev
el
exami
nat
i
ons.Thequest
i
onsar
eact
ual
quest
i
onst
hatwer
e
askedonspeci
f
i
edy
ear
sandsessi
onsandexpect
edr
esponseswi
l
l
gui
decandi
dat
eson
howt
oanswert
hem.Somear
esi
mi
l
art
osomeseemi
ngl
ydi
f
f
er
entquest
i
ons.Thi
swas
del
i
ber
at
el
ydonef
ort
hecandi
dat
est
or
eal
i
set
hatdi
f
f
er
entwor
di
ngofquest
i
onsi
s
somet
i
mesusedt
oconf
useunsuspect
i
ngcandi
dat
es.
Candi
dat
esar
et
her
ef
or
emadeawar
e
t
hatatt
i
mesexami
ner
susedi
f
f
er
entwor
dswi
t
ht
hesamemeani
ng.
Quest
i
onsar
edi
v
i
dedi
nt
oTHREE[
3]cat
egor
i
essot
hatcandi
dat
esgetusedt
oquest
i
oni
ng
t
echni
quesandknowwhati
sexpect
edoft
hem i
neachcat
egor
y
.Candi
dat
esneedt
or
eal
i
se
t
hecommonl
yusedt
er
mssoasnott
omi
sf
i
r
ei
nt
heexams.
Letusbr
i
ef
l
yl
ookatwor
dscommonl
yused percat
egor
yandanexpl
anat
i
onwoul
dbedone
ast
owhati
sexpect
edf
r
om t
hecandi
dat
es.Thecommonl
yusedt
er
msi
ncat
egor
y1ar
e:
Li
st
,
I
dent
i
f
y
,
st
at
eandname.
Candi
dat
esneednotwr
i
t
eessay
sonsuchquest
i
onsbutmustdi
r
ect
l
yanswert
hem andar
e
bestadv
i
sedt
onumbert
hei
rr
esponses.Thesequest
i
onsr
equi
r
est
r
ai
ghtf
or
war
d
r
esponses/
answer
swi
t
houtel
abor
at
i
on.Responsest
ot
hesequest
i
onsmustbeshor
t
Page2of2
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sent
ences.
I
nCat
egor
y2,
t
hecommonl
yusedt
er
msar
e:
Descr
i
be.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Out
l
i
ne.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Showhow.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Candi
dat
esar
er
equi
r
edt
oshowt
hei
rf
ul
l
under
st
andi
ngofwhati
sdemandedbyt
he
quest
i
on.Theyneedt
of
ul
l
yexpl
ai
npoi
nt
st
ogetmaxi
mum poi
nt
s.Candi
dat
esar
er
equi
r
ed
t
oexpl
ai
nt
he12poi
nt
saspermar
kal
l
ocat
i
on.Mer
ei
dent
i
f
i
cat
i
onwi
t
houtel
abor
at
i
onmi
ght
r
esul
ti
ncandi
dat
esunnecessar
i
l
yl
osi
ngv
al
uabl
emar
ks.Wr
i
t
i
ngi
npoi
ntf
or
m wi
l
l
r
esul
ti
n
candi
dat
esget
t
i
nghal
fmar
ks.Candi
dat
esshoul
dal
sonot
et
hatatt
i
mest
hesequest
i
ons
maybedi
v
i
dedi
nt
oTWOPARTS.I
nt
hi
sscenar
i
ocandi
dat
esar
et
oexpl
ai
nsi
xpoi
nt
sf
ort
he
f
i
r
stpar
tandanot
hersi
xpoi
nt
sf
orsecondpar
t
.
CATEGORY3.
quest
i
onsatt
hi
sl
ev
el
ar
eanal
y
t
i
cal
/anal
y
si
s.Commonl
yusedt
er
ms/
Phr
ases
ar
e:
Towhat
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Howf
ar
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Ther
ear
eTHREEl
ev
el
st
oanswer
i
ngt
hi
scat
egor
yquest
i
onsandcandi
dat
esar
eexpect
ed
t
or
eacht
ot
hehi
ghestl
ev
el
i
ft
heyar
et
ogethi
ghermar
ks.
LEVEL1Onesi
dedanal
y
si
s[
mar
kr
ange13]
.
Nomat
t
erhowmanypoi
nt
sacandi
dat
e
expl
ai
ns,
t
hemar
kr
angedoesnotchangei
fal
l
t
hegi
v
enpoi
nt
sar
eonesi
ded.Eg3+0=3,
8+0.
=3
6+0=3.
LEVEL2Bal
ancedanal
y
si
s[
mar
kr
ange46]
.
l
ev
el
2answershowst
hatt
hecandi
dat
ehas
under
st
oodt
heweaknessoft
hequest
i
onandhast
huspr
esent
edabal
ancedr
esponse.
Eg
1+1=4,
2+1=4,
4+3=6, 5+4=6
LEVEL3Bal
ancedanal
y
si
spl
usj
udgement[
mar
kr
ange78]
.
Thi
si
st
hehi
ghestl
ev
el
.
The
j
udgementsent
encei
st
husamusti
facandi
dat
ei
st
ogethi
ghestmar
ks.Thi
sj
udgement
st
at
ementcanonl
ybev
al
i
dwheni
ti
saddedt
oabal
ancedanal
y
si
s.Theent
r
ypoi
ntt
o8
mar
ksshoul
dbe4poi
nt
s[
bal
anced]pl
usj
udgement
.Candi
dat
esar
eencour
agedt
ogi
v
eas
manypoi
nt
saspossi
bl
e. Eg2+1=7and2+2=8
Quest
i
onswi
t
ht
hei
rr
esponsesar
egr
oupedaccor
di
ngt
ot
opi
csandt
hi
swi
l
l
gi
v
ecandi
dat
es
anoppor
t
uni
t
yt
oconcent
r
at
eonapar
t
i
cul
art
opi
catanygi
v
ent
i
met
husgi
v
i
nghi
m/
hera
t
hor
oughpr
act
i
cepert
opi
c.
Page3of3
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Lat
eSt
oneAget
oEar
l
yI
r
onAge
[
Speci
men]
1[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xt
y
pesoff
oodsf
ort
heLat
eSt
oneAgepeopl
e[
6]
 Fi
sh,
Meat
,
i
nsect
s
 Fr
ui
t
s,
Root
s,
Gr
ass
 Tuber
s
(
b)
.
Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
cchangesi
nmet
hodsofpr
oduct
i
onoff
oodf
r
om t
heLat
e
St
oneAget
ot
heEar
l
yI
r
onAgei
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca. (
12)
.
 Far
mi
ngCr
opgr
owi
ngandl
i
v
est
ockkeepi
ng;
Set
t
l
edexi
st
ence
 Mi
ni
ng:
mi
ni
ngofi
r
onandcopper
;
smel
t
i
ngt
opr
oducei
r
ont
ool
se,
gaxes,
hoes,
kni
v
es,
ar
r
owsandspear
heads
 Hunt
i
ng:
becamemor
eor
gani
sedandef
f
i
ci
ent
 Tr
ade:
(
Bot
hi
nt
er
nal
andex
t
er
nal
)i
t
emswer
ecr
ops,
ani
mal
s,
t
ool
s,
cr
af
t
wor
k
et
c.Cont
r
ol
oft
r
adei
nt
hehandsoft
her
i
chandpower
f
ul
e,
gr
ul
er
s.
 Cr
af
t
wor
k;
pot
t
er
y
,
basket
r
yandweav
i
ng.
 Rai
di
ng:
ar
esul
tofbet
t
erandst
r
ongerweapons
 Di
v
i
si
onofl
abour:
I
r
onl
edt
ospeci
al
i
sat
i
one,
gt
her
eemer
gedspeci
al
i
sed
met
al
wor
ker
sandspeci
al
i
sedcr
af
t
smen
 Tr
i
but
esy
st
em:
basi
sofexpl
oi
t
at
i
on.Agr
i
cul
t
ur
al
pr
oduct
i
on,
di
st
r
i
but
i
onand
t
r
adecont
r
ol
l
edbyseni
orandr
ul
i
ngcl
ass.Tr
i
but
ef
i
nes,
t
axesandj
udi
ci
al
f
eespai
di
nf
or
m ofcat
t
l
e,
sheep,
i
v
or
y
,
gol
d,
cl
ot
h,
ski
ns,
beads,
i
r
ont
ool
s
andgr
ai
n.
(
c)
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
hesechangesbenef
i
tt
hepeopl
ei
nt
hi
sr
egi
onatt
hatt
i
me?
(
8)
I
r
onagebr
oughtspeci
al
i
sat
i
oni
nt
asksper
f
or
medbypeopl
ee,
gi
nmi
ni
ng,
t
ool
maki
ng,
t
r
adi
ngandhunt
i
ng,
aswel
l
ascr
opgr
owi
ngbywomen.
 Womenbecamer
egar
dedascommodi
t
i
esi
ndi
cat
i
ngweal
t
hi
nmar
r
i
age,
i
,
e
t
hemor
ewi
v
esonehadt
heweal
t
hi
eronewasconsi
der
ed\
r
egar
ded.
 Ther
ewasset
t
l
edexi
st
ence,
bet
t
erf
oodsecur
i
t
y
;
andsecur
i
t
yagai
nst
enemi
es.
Page4of4
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 Dev
el
opmentofbasi
cst
r
uct
ur
esofgov
er
nmentsy
st
em
 Speci
al
i
sat
i
onbr
oughtgr
eat
erpr
oduct
i
onandpr
osper
i
t
y
.
 Tr
i
but
esy
st
em l
edt
oexpl
oi
t
at
i
onofmanbyman
 Ther
esul
t
i
ngdev
elopmentofst
at
esl
edt
osoci
oeconomi
ci
nequal
i
t
i
es
 Rai
di
ngsy
st
em i
ncr
easedwar
f
ar
e
 Dest
r
uct
i
onoft
hev
anqui
shedandenhancementoft
hev
i
ct
or
s’
st
at
us
(
Nov2009)
2[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanyt
hr
eemi
ner
al
smi
nedandanyt
hr
eedomest
i
cani
mal
skeptbyt
heEar
l
yI
r
on
Agepeopl
eofSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca[
6]
.
Mi
ner
al
s:
i
r
on,
gol
d,
t
i
n,
si
l
v
er
,
copper
Ani
mal
s:
Cat
t
l
e,
sheep,
goat
s,
dogs
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
candsoci
al
l
changesf
r
om t
hel
at
eSt
oneAget
ot
heEar
l
yI
r
onAge
i
nt
heSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.[
11]
.
i
.
 Ear
l
yI
r
onAgepeopl
ebegant
omakei
r
ont
ool
ssuchashoes,
ar
r
ow
heads,
spear
heads,
whi
chwer
emor
eef
f
i
ci
entt
hanst
onet
ool
s
 I
r
ont
ool
senabl
epeopl
et
ocutt
r
eesandcl
earmor
el
andf
oragr
i
cul
t
ur
e
 Pr
oduct
i
onoff
oodr
esul
t
edi
nsur
pl
us
 Ther
ewasal
sol
i
v
est
ockr
ear
i
ngal
ongr
i
v
erv
al
l
ey
s
 Ear
l
yi
r
onagepeopl
emi
nedi
r
on,
gol
d,
copperandi
r
onor
e
 Smel
t
edi
r
onf
ashi
onedi
mpl
ement
s
 Ear
l
yi
r
onagepeopl
emadecl
aypot
sf
orcont
ai
ni
ngwat
er
,
gr
ai
nand
mi
l
k
 Hunt
i
ngi
mpr
ov
ed
 Gat
her
i
ngi
mpr
ov
ed
 I
r
onagepeopl
ebegant
ot
r
adesur
pl
uspr
oduct
s
 Fi
shi
ngi
mpr
ov
ed
 Vassal
spai
dt
r
i
but
e
 Rai
di
ngofweakergr
oups
Page5of5
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 Di
v
i
si
onofl
abourbasedonski
l
l
,
genderandage
i
i
. Av
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yoff
oodp r
eci
pi
t
at
edpopul
at
i
ongr
owt
h
 Bui
l
tmor
eper
manentshel
t
er
sofpol
eanddagga
 Cl
assesbegant
oappearasar
esul
tofdi
f
f
er
entski
l
l
ssuchas
bl
acksmi
t
hi
ng,
f
i
shi
ng,
t
r
adeandmi
ni
ng
 Pol
y
gamywaspr
act
i
ced
 Cat
t
l
eusedt
opayl
obol
a
 Ther
ewasal
sot
heemer
genceofr
el
i
gi
ouscer
emoni
esandr
i
t
ual
s
 Set
t
l
ement
saccor
di
ngt
ocl
ansandl
i
neages
 Di
v
i
si
onofl
aborbasedonski
l
l
,
genderandage
 Expl
oi
t
at
i
onof women
c.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
hesechangesbenef
i
tt
hepeopl
eofSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca?
i
.
BENEFI
TS
 i
r
onagepeopl
emademor
ef
oodandabal
anceddi
et
 wer
eabl
et
ocl
earmor
el
andf
oragr
i
cul
t
ur
e
 wer
emor
esedent
ar
y
 wer
eabl
et
oki
l
l
l
ar
gerani
mal
s
 t
r
adi
ngdev
el
oped–asasour
ceoff
or
ei
gngoods
 st
or
agef
aci
l
i
t
i
esi
mpr
ov
ed
 empl
oy
mentcr
eat
i
on
 l
i
f
eex
pect
ancyi
mpr
ov
ed
 secur
i
t
yf
oundi
nl
ar
gergr
oups
i
i
.
NONBENEFI
TS
 t
her
ewascompet
i
t
i
onf
orhunt
i
ng,
past
ur
i
ngandcul
t
i
v
at
i
onofl
and
 cl
assesbegant
o+emer
ge–l
owercl
asseswer
eexpl
oi
t
ed
 womenwer
eexpl
oi
t
ede.
g.Theydi
dmor
ear
duoust
asksl
i
kecr
opcul
t
i
v
at
i
on
 manuf
act
ur
eofi
r
onweaponspr
omot
edwar
f
ar
eandi
ncr
easedki
l
l
i
ngr
at
e
 di
spl
acementofst
oneagepeopl
e
 r
ai
di
ngbr
oughtst
r
i
f
e
Page6of6
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 l
anddegr
adat
i
on
(
June2006)
3.
(
a.
)I
dent
i
f
yanyt
hr
eeI
r
onAgesi
t
esi
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
caandt
hr
eemi
ner
al
s
[
6]
(
i
.
)
Ext
r
act
edbyt
heEar
l
yI
r
onAgepeopl
ei
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.
Gokomer
e,
Zi
wa, abv
eni
,
Zhi
zo,
Gr
eatZi
mbabwe,
Pel
i
ndaba,
Ly
denber
g,
Mapungubwe,
Chi
nhoy
i
,
Mal
i
pat
i
,
HwangeGameReser
v
es
(
i
i
.
) Gol
d,
i
r
on,
copper
,
zi
nc,
l
ead,
si
l
v
er
,
t
i
nandsal
t
(
b.
) Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
heEar
l
yI
r
onAgepeopl
ei
nSout
her
n
Af
r
i
ca. [
11]
 Agr
i
cul
t
ur
e:
-cr
opsgr
own–mi
l
l
et
,
sor
ghum,
cal
abashes
 Domest
i
cat
i
onofani
mal
s–cat
t
l
e,
goat
sandsheep
 Mi
ni
ng–gol
d,
copper–openshaf
t
s,
smel
t
i
ngandbl
acksmi
t
hi
ng
 Hunt
i
ngani
mpor
t
antsour
ceofmeat
,
el
ephant
sf
ori
v
or
y
 Gat
her
i
ngofwi
l
df
r
ui
t
s–ber
r
i
es,
t
uber
s,
sour
ceofsuppl
ement
ar
yf
ood
 Gat
her
i
ngdonebywomenwhi
l
stmenhunt
ed
 Tr
ade–expor
t
edgol
ddust
,
i
v
or
y
,
f
eat
her
st
of
or
ei
gner
s.
Di
v
i
dedi
nt
ot
wopar
t
s(
l
ocal
andext
er
nal
)
- I
mpor
t
edcl
ot
h,
beads,
seashel
l
s
 Cr
af
twor
k–pot
t
er
y
,
basket
r
y
,
smel
t
i
ngandbl
acksmi
t
hi
ng
 Rai
di
ng
 Pay
mentoft
r
i
but
e
 Fi
shi
ng
(
c.
) Towhatext
entdi
dt
hepeopl
eofSout
her
nAf
r
i
cabenef
i
tf
r
om t
heuseofi
r
on?
[
8]
i
.
BENEFI
TS
 Mor
eper
manenthomesofpol
eanddagga
 Cl
ear
i
ngoff
i
el
ds–mor
ef
ood,
bet
t
ernut
r
i
t
i
on
 Mor
ebal
anceddi
et
 Hunt
i
ngmademor
eef
f
i
ci
entandmi
ni
ngbecameeasi
er
Page7of7
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 Bet
t
erweaponr
yf
ordef
ence
 Popul
at
i
ongr
owt
h
 Pol
y
gamy
 St
at
ef
or
mat
i
on
 Tool
smor
edur
abl
e
 Tr
adedev
el
oped
i
i
.
DI
SADVANTAGES
 Expl
oi
t
at
i
onofpoorbyt
her
i
chascat
t
l
eheader
s,
l
abouri
nf
i
el
ds
 Conf
l
i
ct
sov
ercont
r
ol
ofr
esour
cessuchasmi
ner
al
s,
past
ur
esandl
and
becamecommon
 For
mat
i
onofcl
asses
 Lossofl
i
v
esduet
oi
ncr
easedwar
f
ar
e
(
Nov2008)
4. (
a.
) Nameanysi
xt
ool
susedbyt
heEar
l
yI
r
onAgepeopl
eofSout
her
n
Af
r
i
ca. [
6]
 Bowsandar
r
ows,
f
i
shi
nghooks,
hammer
s,
r
azor
s,
knobker
r
i
es,
scr
aper
s,
gr
i
ndi
ngst
ones,
i
r
onaxes,
kni
v
es,
hoes,
spear
heads,
swor
ds,
mat
t
ocksand
woodencl
ubs.
(
b.
) Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
heEar
l
yI
r
onAgepeopl
eofSout
her
n
Af
r
i
ca. [
11]
 Agr
i
cul
t
ur
e–gr
owi
ngt
r
adi
t
i
onal
Bant
ucr
ops–sor
ghum,
mi
l
l
et
,
beans.
 Rear
i
ngofani
mal
sl
i
kegoat
s,
sheep,
cat
t
l
e
 Mi
ni
ng–gol
d,
copper
,
i
r
on
 Bl
acksmi
t
hi
ng–maki
ngofi
r
oni
mpl
ement
ssuchasaxes,
hoes,
spear
s
 Tr
ade–exchangi
nggol
d,
i
v
or
y
,
l
i
v
est
ockf
orgr
ai
n,
cl
ot
hbeads.Local
l
yand
i
nt
er
nat
i
onal
l
ev
el
.
 Cr
af
twor
k–suchaspot
t
er
y
,
weav
i
ngandbasketmaki
ng
 Hunt
i
ngf
ormeatandhi
des
 Gat
her
i
ngwi
l
df
r
ui
t
sandber
r
i
es
 Lev
y
i
ngoft
r
i
but
ef
r
om subj
ect
s
 Di
v
i
si
onofl
abor–womenwer
egat
her
er
swhi
l
stmenwenthunt
i
ng
Page8of8
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 Rai
di
ngf
orcat
t
l
e–gr
ai
n
 Fi
shi
ng
(
c)Towhatext
entdi
di
r
ont
echnol
ogycont
r
i
but
et
ot
her
i
seofcl
asseswi
t
hi
nt
he
soci
et
i
esi
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca?
[
8]
(
i
.
)
CONTRI
BUTI
ON
 I
r
ont
echnol
ogy-engender
edsur
pl
uspr
oduct
i
onandemer
genceofhav
es
andhav
enot
 I
r
ont
echnol
ogyl
edt
oemer
genceofmi
ner
s,
bl
acksmi
t
hsandt
r
ader
sas
separ
at
ecl
asses
 Sur
pl
uspr
oduct
i
onbegotpol
y
gamy
,
asour
ceofl
abour
(
i
i
.
) OTHERFACTORS
 Past
or
al
economybef
or
ei
r
ont
echnol
ogy
 Li
neageandcl
anl
eader
sdev
el
opedi
nt
or
ul
i
ngcl
asses
 Def
eati
nwar
sr
esul
t
edi
nv
assal
age
 t
r
adebef
or
ei
r
ont
echnol
ogy
 char
i
smaofpeopl
e–madet
hem candi
dat
esf
orl
eader
shi
p
[
June2011]
5[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xi
r
ont
ool
spr
oduceddur
i
ngt
heEar
l
yI
r
onAgei
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.
[
6]
 axes,
hoes,
spear
heads
 swor
ds,
ar
r
owheads,
f
i
shi
nghooks
 r
azor
s,
hammer
s,
scr
apper
s
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hesoci
al
or
gani
sat
i
onoft
heEar
l
yI
r
onAgesoci
et
i
esi
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.
[
11]
Soci
al
or
gani
sat
i
on
 pol
y
gamypr
act
i
sed,
pay
mentofl
obol
a
 cat
t
l
eusedasasy
mbol
ofst
at
us/weal
t
h
 pat
r
i
l
i
neal
soci
et
y,
hel
dr
ai
nmaki
ngcer
emoni
es
 di
v
i
si
onofl
abourbysex,
pr
act
i
sedkur
onz
er
asy
st
em ormaf
i
as
 l
i
v
edi
nr
oundshapedhut
s
Page9of9
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 bel
i
ev
edi
nGodMwar
i
 bel
i
ev
edi
nspi
r
i
tmedi
umsandancest
r
al
spi
r
i
t
s
 l
i
v
edi
nr
i
v
erv
al
l
ey
saccor
di
ngt
ot
hei
rl
i
neages
 hadper
manentset
t
l
ement
s
 consul
t
edspi
r
i
t
ual
medi
umsi
nt
i
mesofcr
i
si
s
 Del
egat
eddut
i
es.
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwasr
el
i
gi
ont
oEar
l
yI
r
onAgesoci
et
i
esi
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca?[
8]
I
mpor
t
anceofr
el
i
gi
on
 I
tuni
t
edpeopl
e/
peacecr
eat
i
on
 Thechi
efwaschosenbyspi
r
i
tmedi
ums
 Ki
ngwasr
espect
edasGod’
schosenl
eader
 I
nr
ai
nmaki
ng[r
el
i
gi
oni
mpor
t
anti
nr
ai
nmaki
ngcer
emoni
es]
 I
nsuccessi
ondi
sput
es
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Mar
r
i
age,
t
r
adi
ngbr
oughtf
or
ei
gngoods.
 Far
mi
ngwast
hebackboneoft
hei
reconomy
 Pr
oducedbasket
sf
orst
or
i
ngandcar
r
y
i
ngf
ood
 Mi
ni
ngpr
oducedi
t
emsf
ort
r
ade
GREATZI
MBABWE
(
June2004)
6.(
a)I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xr
easonswhyGr
eatZi
mbabwewasbui
l
t
.
(
6)
 f
orenv
i
r
onment
al
f
act
or
s–e.
g.goodpast
ur
es,
per
enni
al
r
i
v
er
s–gol
ddeposi
t
s
 Ast
hechi
eforMamboscour
t
 Asanadmi
ni
st
r
at
i
v
ecent
r
e
 Asasy
mbol
ofpower
 Asat
r
adi
ngcent
r
e
 Asaf
or
t
r
essi
nt
i
mesofwar
 Asar
el
i
gi
ouscent
r
e
Page10of10
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 Asadwel
l
i
ngpl
acef
ornobl
es
(
b)Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
candsoci
al
act
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
hepeopl
eofGr
eatZi
mbabwe.
(
11)
(
i
)Economi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
esofGr
eatZi
mbabwe
Past
or
al
i
sm
 Kepther
dsofcat
t
l
ef
orf
ood–mi
l
kal
sof
orl
obol
a,
sl
aught
er
i
ngatr
i
t
ual
cer
emoni
es
 Goat
sal
sor
ear
edf
ormeat
Cr
opcul
t
i
v
at
i
on
 Theyal
sogr
ewcr
opssuchassor
ghum andmi
l
l
etf
orf
oodandbr
ewi
ngbeer
.
Cul
t
i
v
at
i
onofcr
opswaswomen’
swor
k.
 Hunt
i
ngandgat
her
i
ngwer
eal
soi
mpor
t
antsour
cesoff
ood.Tr
adegoods
suchasi
v
or
yandgol
df
or
medpar
tofeconomi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
esi
nt
hedr
yseasons.
 Mi
ni
ngofmi
ner
al
ssuchasi
r
oncopper
,
gol
d,
l
eadandt
i
n.
 I
r
onwasmai
nl
yusedf
ormaki
ngt
ool
sandweaponswhi
l
stcopperandgol
d
wer
eusedf
oror
nament
sl
i
kebangl
esandneckl
aces.
 Hencei
r
onsmel
t
i
ngandbl
acksmi
t
hi
ngwer
ei
mpor
t
antact
i
v
i
t
i
es.
 Tr
adewaspr
act
i
cedl
ocal
l
y/r
egi
onal
l
y
.
 Exchangi
ngi
r
oni
mpl
ement
sf
orgr
ai
nandl
ongdi
st
ancet
r
adewi
t
hf
or
ei
gner
s
suchast
heSwahi
l
i
andPer
si
ansexchangi
nggol
dandi
v
or
yf
orcl
ot
h,
gl
ass
beads,
seashel
l
set
c.
 Pot
t
er
ywasal
sopr
act
i
cedcl
aypot
sser
v
edasst
or
agef
orgr
ai
nandf
eat
ur
ed
i
nt
r
ade.
 Pay
mentoft
r
i
but
e
(
i
i
)Soci
al
Act
i
v
i
t
i
es
 Gr
eatZi
mbabwe,
ar
el
i
gi
ouscent
r
e
 Peopl
eofGr
eatZi
mbabwebel
i
ev
edi
ncr
eat
orGodcal
l
edMwar
i
 Nat
i
onal
spi
r
i
t
sMhondor
o,
andi
nancest
r
al
spi
r
i
t
s-Vadzi
mu.Thesewer
e
wor
shi
pedt
hr
oughspi
r
i
tmedi
ums.
 Soapst
oneZi
mbabwebi
r
dsmadeassy
mbol
sofShi
r
iy
aMwar
i
 Mhondor
osandMwar
iwer
econsul
t
edi
nt
i
mesofcr
i
si
ssuchaswar
,
dr
ought
set
ct
hr
ought
hespi
r
i
tmedi
ums-maswi
ki
r
o
Page11of11
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 Spi
r
i
tmedi
umsi
mpor
t
antati
nst
al
l
at
i
onofnewchi
ef
s
 Beerbr
ewedcat
t
l
esl
aught
er
edatt
r
adi
t
i
onal
cer
emoni
es
(
c)Towhatext
entdi
deconomi
cpr
obl
emsl
eadt
ot
hedecl
i
neoft
hest
at
e?
(
8)
(
i
)Economi
cf
act
or
s
 Shor
t
ageofr
esour
cessuchassal
tandpast
ur
es
 Exhaust
i
onofsoi
l
 Successi
v
edr
ought
s-poorhar
v
est
s
 Decl
i
nei
nt
r
adet
hr
oughdepl
et
i
onofr
esour
ces
(
i
i
)Soci
opol
i
t
i
cal
f
act
or
s
 Successi
ondi
sput
esi
nr
oy
al
f
ami
l
yl
eadi
ngt
omi
gr
at
i
ons
 Ov
erpopul
at
i
on
 At
t
acksf
r
om nei
ghbour
s
(
Nov2004)
7.(
a)Li
stanysi
xt
r
adei
t
emsexchangedf
orf
or
ei
gngoodsbyt
hepeopl
eofGr
eat
Zi
mbabwedur
i
ngt
hel
at
ei
r
onage.
(
6)
(
i
)Gol
d/cooper
(
i
i
)I
v
or
y
(
i
i
i
)Soapst
one/bowl
s
(
i
v
)
Ost
r
i
chf
eat
her
s,
i
r
ont
ool
s,
gr
ai
ns
(
v
)Beadsf
r
om seeds/j
ewel
l
er
y
,
cr
af
twar
e
(
v
i
)
Ski
nsofani
mal
s
(
v
i
i
)Li
v
est
ock
(
b)Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
heGr
eatZi
mbabwest
at
edur
i
ngt
hel
at
e
i
r
onage.(
11)
 Past
or
al
i
sm –keptcat
t
l
eandgoat
s
 Cul
t
i
v
at
i
onofcr
ops-mi
l
l
etandsor
ghum
 Di
v
i
si
onofl
abour
 Mi
ni
nggol
d
Page12of12
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 ;
pay
mentoft
r
i
but
e
 Fi
shi
ng
 Cr
af
t
wor
k-pot
t
er
ybasket
r
y
,
weav
i
ng
 Hunt
i
ng–f
ormeatandski
ns
 Tool
maki
nghoes,
kni
v
es,
ar
r
ows,
spear
s
 Tr
ade-l
ocal
andl
ongdi
st
ance
 Gat
her
i
ngoff
r
ui
t
s/
ber
r
i
es
 Rai
di
ng
(
c)Towhatext
entdi
dt
heeconomi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
escont
r
i
but
et
ot
hedecl
i
neoft
heGr
eat
Zi
mbabweSt
at
e?
(
8)
(
i
)Economi
cAct
i
v
i
t
i
es
 Shor
t
ageofsal
t(
l
edt
onor
t
hwar
dmi
gr
at
i
onofNy
at
si
mbaMut
ot
a)
 Shor
t
ageoff
ood(duet
odr
ought
sandsol
eexhaust
i
on)
 Past
ur
esf
orcat
t
l
e(
ov
er
gr
azi
ng)
 Fuel
andot
herr
esour
cesdepl
et
ed(
env
i
r
onment
al
degener
at
i
on)
 Decl
i
nei
nt
r
ade
 Ref
usal
t
opayt
r
i
but
e
(
i
i
)Ot
herr
easons
 Successi
ondi
sput
es
 Ri
seofambi
t
i
ousl
eader
s
 Ov
er
popul
at
i
on
 At
t
acksf
r
om nei
ghbour
s
(
Nov2005)
8.(
a)St
at
eanyt
hr
eecommodi
t
i
esi
mpor
t
edandanyt
hr
eecommodi
t
i
esexpor
t
edby
t
heGr
eatZi
mbabweSt
at
e.
(
6)
(
a)(
i
)Gl
assbeads,
cl
ot
h,
seashel
l
s,
br
asswar
e,
i
r
onwar
e,
axesandhoeheads,
chi
sel
s,
chi
nawar
e
Page13of13
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(
i
i
)I
v
or
y
,
gol
d,
ost
r
i
chf
eat
her
s,
ani
mal
ski
ns,
soapst
one/bowl
s,
l
i
v
est
ock/cat
t
l
e
(
b)
Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
candsoci
al
act
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
hepeopl
eofGr
eatZi
mbabwe(
11)
(
i
)Economi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
es
 Agr
i
cul
t
ur
e–gr
ewsor
ghum ,
mi
l
l
et
,
cal
abashes,
gour
ds
 Domest
i
cat
i
onofcat
t
l
e,
goat
sandsheepf
ormeat
,
mi
l
k,
t
r
adi
t
i
onal
cer
emoni
esandl
obol
a
 Mi
ni
ngi
r
on,
copper
,
gol
ddust
 Smel
t
i
ngandbl
acksmi
t
hi
ngmanuf
act
ur
eofhoes,
spear
headsand
ar
r
owheads
 Tr
adei
nt
er
nal
t
r
adeexchangi
nggr
ai
nf
orhoes,
spear
set
candext
er
nal
t
r
ade
exchangi
ngi
v
or
ygol
ddustf
orcl
ot
hgl
assandbeadswi
t
hSwahi
l
i
peopl
ef
r
om
Per
si
a,
I
ndi
a
 Hunt
i
ngf
ormeat,
el
ephant
sf
ori
v
or
y
 Gat
her
i
ngst
i
l
l
ani
mp or
t
antsour
ceoff
ood
 Di
v
i
si
onofl
abour–menwenthunt
i
ngandher
di
ngwhi
l
stwomenwent
gat
her
i
ng,
cul
t
i
v
at
edl
and.
 Cr
af
t
wor
k-;
basket
r
y,
maki
ngsoapst
onebowl
s,
Zi
mbabwebi
r
df
i
gur
i
nes
 Fi
shi
ng
 Tr
i
but
e
[
i
i
]
Soci
al
Act
i
v
i
t
i
es
 Gr
eatZi
mbabwer
el
i
gi
ouscent
r
e
 Fi
gur
i
nesofZi
mbabwebi
r
dexcav
at
edatGr
eatZi
mbabwe
 Peopl
eofGr
eatZi
mbabwe–bel
i
ev
edi
ncr
eat
or
GodMwar
i
,
 Bel
i
ev
edi
nexi
st
enceofot
hersuper
i
orbei
ngs,
ancest
r
al
spi
r
i
t
s
 Nat
i
onal
andr
egi
onal
spi
r
i
t
scal
l
edMhondor
os
 Communi
cat
i
onwi
t
hspi
r
i
t
smadet
hr
oughspi
r
i
tmedi
ums
 Spi
r
i
tmedi
umsusedt
oi
nt
er
pr
etv
oi
ceofHungwe[
Fi
sheagl
e]
 Pol
y
gamywaspr
act
i
ced
Page14of14
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 Cat
t
l
easast
at
ussy
mbol
 Di
v
i
si
onofl
abour
 Cat
t
l
el
oani
ngsy
st
em/
kur
onzer
a
 Set
t
l
ementsy
st
em/
dwel
l
i
ngs/
accommodat
i
on
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
r
adecont
r
i
but
est
ot
hedecl
i
neofGr
eatZi
mbabwe? [
8]
[
i
]
.
Tr
adeanddecl
i
ne:
 Cont
r
i
but
edt
hr
oughexhaust
i
onofr
esour
ces,
gol
d,
ost
r
i
chf
eat
her
s,
i
v
or
y
 Openi
ngofZambezi
t
r
adepr
eci
pi
t
at
eddecl
i
neoft
r
adeatGr
eatZi
mbabwe
 Unf
ai
rt
r
adepr
act
i
cese.
g.r
ecei
v
edwor
t
hl
essgoods
[
i
i
]
.
ot
herf
act
or
s
 Shor
t
ageofsal
t
 Per
si
st
entdr
ought
s
 Exhaust
i
onofpast
ur
e/
soi
l
whi
chsuppor
t
edagr
i
cul
t
ur
e
 Ov
er
popul
at
i
on
 Ther
ewer
eal
sosuccessi
ondi
sput
esandt
hr
eat
sofat
t
acksf
r
om ext
er
nal
enemi
es
 Ci
v
i
l
war
s
(
Nov2010)
9(
a)
.
Li
stanysi
xcr
af
t
spr
act
i
sedbyt
hepeopl
eofGr
eatZi
mbabwe.(
6)
 Pot
t
er
y
,
Basket
r
y
,
Weav
i
ng
 Bl
acksmi
t
hi
ng,
Scul
pt
ur
e,
Bui
l
di
ngofst
ones.
 Car
v
i
ngs,
Leat
her
wor
k,
Jewel
l
er
y
 Smel
t
i
ng,
Dr
um maki
ng
(
b)
.
Out
l
i
net
hef
act
or
swhi
chl
edt
ot
her
i
seofGr
eatZi
mbabwe.
(
11)
 Fav
our
abl
ecl
i
mat
egoodr
ai
nf
al
l
andav
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yofwat
erf
r
om r
i
v
er
ssuchas
t
heMt
i
r
i
kwi
.
 Absenceoft
set
sef
l
i
esandgoodpast
ur
ewhi
chsust
ai
nedpast
or
al
i
sm
Page15of15
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 Abundanceofgamef
ormeat
,
ski
nsandi
v
or
yi
nt
hear
ea
 Ar
eawasaccessi
bl
et
oi
nt
er
nat
i
onal
t
r
adewi
t
hSwahi
l
i
,
Ar
abs,
Per
si
ansand
Chi
neset
hr
oughSof
al
aandl
ocal
t
r
ade
 Hi
l
l
t
opwaspr
obabl
ychosenf
ordef
enceagai
nstenemi
esandasacent
r
ef
or
r
el
i
gi
ouswor
shi
p.
 Ri
seofambi
t
i
ousl
eader
swhounder
t
ookconquestofot
herl
i
neagest
o
cont
r
ol
t
r
ader
out
es,
r
esour
cesandt
ol
ev
yt
r
i
but
e
 Fer
t
i
l
el
andsf
oragr
i
cul
t
ur
e
 Abundanceofmi
ner
al
sf
ort
r
adeandt
ool
maki
ng
 Av
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yofgr
ani
t
er
ock
 Cat
t
l
el
oani
ngsy
st
em(
Kur
onzer
a\
Maf
i
sa)
 Thef
al
l
ofMapungubwe
 Pol
y
gamy
 St
r
engt
hoft
hear
my
.
(
c)
.
Towhatext
entdi
deconomi
cf
act
or
scont
r
i
but
et
ot
her
i
seoft
hest
at
e?
(
8)
Economi
cf
act
or
s
 Tr
adegoodsusedbyr
ul
er
st
ost
r
engt
hent
hei
rposi
t
i
ons
 Av
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yofsal
t
 Agr
i
cul
t
ur
e-f
oodav
ai
l
abl
e
 Past
or
al
i
sm
 Hunt
i
ngmeatandski
ns
 Tr
i
but
epay
ment
 Mi
ner
al
s-f
ort
r
ade,
maki
ngt
ool
sandweapons.
 Av
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yofwoodf
orf
uel
 Cat
t
l
el
oani
ngsy
st
emmadel
eader
sst
r
ong.
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Ri
seofambi
t
i
ousl
eader
s-l
eadi
ngandor
gani
si
ngpeopl
e
Page16of16
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 Tr
i
but
e
 Hi
l
l
t
opar
eaf
ordef
encepur
poses
 Rel
i
gi
on,
f
al
l
ofMapungubwe.
 Absenceoft
set
sef
l
i
es
 Ri
seofpopul
at
i
on
 Accessi
bi
l
i
t
yoft
hear
eat
hr
oughr
i
v
er
s
 Pol
y
gamy
 Rol
eoft
hear
my
 Goodr
el
at
i
onwi
t
hot
herpeopl
e
[
Nov2011]
10.[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xusesofcat
t
l
ei
nt
heGr
eatZi
mbabwest
at
e.
[
6]
 Pay
mentofl
obol
a(
br
i
depr
i
ce)
 For
m ofweal
t
h/st
at
ussy
mbol
 Loani
ngmaf
i
sacat
t
l
ef
orpol
i
t
i
cal
i
nf
l
uence
 Fort
r
ade
 Pay
mentoft
r
i
but
e
 Forr
i
t
ual
cer
emoni
essuchasr
ai
nmaki
ngcer
emoni
es,
appeasi
ngspi
r
i
t
s
 Forf
oodmi
l
kandmeat
 For
msoft
r
anspor
t
,
r
i
di
ng,
car
r
y
i
nggoods(
dr
aughtpower
)
 Mat
s,
cl
ot
hesandbl
anket
s
 Dr
ums,
pay
mentoff
i
nes,
manur
e,
f
l
ourpol
i
sh,
maki
ngshi
el
ds,
maki
ng
sandal
s,
hi
desandski
nsf
orcl
ot
hi
ngandbl
anket
s
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hef
act
or
st
hatl
edt
ot
her
i
seoft
heGr
eatZi
mbabwest
at
e. [
11]
 Fal
l
ofmapungubwe
 Goodr
ai
nf
al
l
suppl
i
es
 Av
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yofgr
ani
t
er
ock
 Rel
i
gi
ouspower
s
Page17of17
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 I
t
sgeogr
aphi
cal
l
ocat
i
on
 Li
v
est
ockowner
shi
pespeci
al
l
ycat
t
l
e
 St
r
ongar
my
 Mar
r
i
ageal
l
i
ances
 Fer
t
i
l
esoi
l
sf
orgowi
ngcr
ops
 Cont
r
ol
ofsur
pl
uspr
oduct
i
onbyl
eader
s
 Goodpast
ur
esf
ordomest
i
cani
mal
s,
cat
t
l
e,
got
asandsheep
 Abundantwat
ersuppl
i
esf
r
om near
byr
i
v
er
segMut
i
r
i
kweRi
v
er
 Pl
ent
yofFaunaf
ormeat
,
i
v
or
y
 Fav
our
abl
ecl
i
mat
e-f
r
eet
set
se-f
l
y
-pr
omot
i
ngcat
t
l
er
ear
i
ng
 Ri
chmi
ner
al
weal
t
hi
nt
henei
ghbour
hood,
e,
gcooper
,
gol
d,
i
r
on
 Sui
t
abl
epl
acef
ort
aki
ngr
ef
ugei
nwart
i
meNemnwaHi
l
l
 Hi
l
l
r
egar
der
dassacr
edf
orr
el
i
gi
ouspur
poses
 Cent
r
al
l
ocat
i
onmadear
eaaccessi
bl
et
ol
ocal
andi
nt
er
nat
i
onal
t
r
ade
 Emer
genceofi
nf
l
uent
i
al
andambi
t
i
ousl
eader
skeenonr
ul
l
i
ngal
ar
ger
pol
i
t
i
cal
uni
tandl
ev
y
i
ngt
r
i
but
e
 Abundanceoff
uel
,
Abundanceofsal
t
,
st
r
ongar
my
 Dev
el
opmentofi
r
ont
echnol
ogy
 Pol
y
gamyl
eadi
ngt
opopul
at
i
oni
ncr
ease
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwer
epol
i
t
i
cal
f
act
or
si
nt
her
i
seofGr
eatZi
mbabwe.
[
8]
I
mpor
t
anceofpol
i
t
i
cal
f
act
or
s
 Fal
l
ofMapungubwe
 Emer
genceofambi
t
i
ousl
eader
s
 Cont
r
ol
ofr
el
i
gi
on–r
uker
sr
egar
dedasdi
v
i
nel
yappoi
nt
edhencecommanded
uni
v
er
sal
r
espect
n
 Leader
s’
ambi
t
i
onswet
t
edbyconsi
der
at
i
onsoft
r
i
but
ecol
l
ect
i
on
 St
r
ongar
my
Page18of18
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 Uni
t
y
 Sui
t
abi
l
i
t
yoft
hear
eaf
ordef
encei
nwart
i
me
I
mpor
t
anceofot
herf
act
or
s
 Economi
cf
act
or
ssuchasaccessi
bi
l
i
t
yt
oi
nt
er
nat
i
onal
andl
ocal
t
r
ade
 Fer
t
i
l
esol
i
sf
orgr
owi
ngcr
ops
 Abundantpast
ur
esf
orl
i
v
est
ock
 Abundantmi
ner
al
weal
t
h
 Abundantf
auna
 Sui
t
abi
l
i
t
yofar
eaf
ordef
encei
nwart
i
me
THEMUTAPASTATE
[
Speci
men]
11[
a]
.
St
at
esi
xf
act
or
st
hatl
edt
ot
her
i
seoft
heMut
apaSt
at
e.
[
6]
 Depl
et
i
onofr
esour
cesatGr
eatZi
mbabweandt
her
esul
t
antmi
gr
at
i
onof
gr
oupsofpeopl
ef
r
om t
her
e.
 Needt
ocont
r
ol
l
ongdi
st
ancet
r
adeal
ongt
heZambezi
(
Sambav
ezi
)r
i
v
er
.
 Successi
ondi
sput
esatGr
eatZi
mbabwel
edt
ot
hemi
gr
at
i
onofdef
eat
ed
l
eader
st
onewar
ea.
 Ambi
t
i
ousl
eader
sl
i
keMut
ot
awant
edt
ost
ar
tnewst
at
es
 Exi
st
enceofbet
t
err
esour
cesi
nt
heNor
t
hEast
.
 Gr
owt
hi
npopul
at
i
onofShonapeopl
e.
 Emer
genceofsev
er
al
chi
ef
t
ai
nshi
psi
nt
hear
eal
edt
oamal
gamat
i
on
 Mi
l
i
t
ar
yst
r
engt
hofsomel
eader
shel
pedt
hem t
odomi
nat
eandexpand
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
heMut
apaSt
at
e.
[
11]
 Far
mi
ngbot
hagr
i
cul
t
ur
eandpast
or
al
f
ar
mi
ng
 Mi
ni
ng–f
ort
hi
ngsl
i
kei
r
on,
copperandweapons
 Cr
af
t
wor
kt
hemaki
ngofhousehol
di
t
emsl
i
kebasket
s,
pot
t
er
ydr
umsand
mat
s
Page19of19
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 Tr
ade–bot
hi
nt
er
nal
andext
er
nal
t
r
ade.Thef
or
meri
nv
ol
v
edexchange
bet
weendi
f
f
er
entgr
oupsofShonae,
gMi
ner
sexchangi
ngwi
t
hf
ar
mer
s;
and
t
hel
at
t
eri
nv
ol
v
edt
heShonaandout
si
der
sl
i
ket
heSwahi
l
i
andPor
t
uguese
whobr
oughti
nnewi
t
emsl
i
kecl
ot
handmai
ze
 Nat
i
onal
weal
t
hwasal
soaccumul
at
edt
hr
ought
r
i
but
epai
dt
ot
her
ul
er
 Hunt
i
ng–al
sopl
ay
edapar
ti
nt
heeconomyoft
heMut
apaasi
taugment
ed
t
hef
oodsuppl
y
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dt
heseeconomi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
escont
r
i
but
et
ot
hegr
owt
handexpansi
on
oft
heMut
apaSt
at
e?
[
8]
 Thesy
st
em ofdi
v
i
si
onofl
abourhel
pedt
opr
omot
et
heeconomyasdi
f
f
er
ent
gr
oupspl
ay
edt
hei
rpar
tt
oenhanceweal
t
h—e,
gmencoul
dconcent
r
at
eon
t
r
adewhi
l
ewomenpr
oducedf
ood.
 Cont
r
ol
oft
r
adebyl
eader
sgav
et
hem powerandweal
t
hwhi
chhel
pedt
hem
domi
nat
eot
herl
essweal
t
hygr
oups.
 Knowl
edgeofi
r
onmaki
ngal
sogav
epoweri
nt
er
msofweaponsandhel
ped
t
hel
eadi
nggr
oupt
oest
abl
i
shaut
hor
i
t
yandev
enexpandi
t
si
nf
l
uenceov
er
l
ar
gear
eas
 Resul
t
i
ngexhi
bi
t
i
onofpoweral
soenhancedgr
owt
handexpansi
onwhen
somesmal
l
eret
hni
cgr
oupsv
ol
unt
ar
i
l
yj
oi
nedt
heMut
apaki
ngdom.
 Theki
ng’
sal
l
egedr
el
i
gi
ouspower
swer
econt
r
ol
l
edt
hr
ought
hechi
ef
s
r
epr
esent
at
i
v
eal
soenhancedgr
owt
h
 Themi
l
i
t
ar
ypr
owessoft
henucl
eusgr
oupofMut
ot
ahel
pedt
oconquerot
her
ar
easandbr
i
ngt
hem undercent
r
al
i
zedaut
hor
i
t
y
.
[
JUNE2004]
12.[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xr
ul
er
soft
heMut
apast
at
ef
r
om t
he15thcent
ur
yt
ot
he17th
cent
ur
y
.[
6]
 Kapar
ar
i
dze
 Ny
at
si
mbaMut
ot
a
 Ny
anheweMat
ope
 Ny
ahumamukomber
anwa
 Mamv
ur
aMhande
 Ny
akambi
r
e/
Ny
akunembi
r
e
Page20of20
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 NegomoMapunzagut
a
 Gat
si
Ruser
e
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hepol
i
t
i
cal
st
r
uct
ur
eoft
heMut
apast
at
e
[
11]
Thepol
i
t
i
cal
st
r
uct
ur
eoft
heMut
apast
at
e
 Mut
apast
at
ev
er
yl
ar
geby1450
 BoundedbyZambezi
r
i
v
eri
nt
henor
t
h,
Li
mpopoi
nt
hesout
h,
t
heI
ndi
an
Oceani
nEastandt
heKal
ahar
i
deser
ti
nwest
 Hencet
her
ewasneedf
oref
f
i
ci
entsy
st
em ofgov
er
nment
 TheMut
apahi
msel
fwast
hecent
r
eofgov
er
nment
basedathi
s
headquar
t
er
smuzi
nda[
cour
t
]
.
 Ot
heri
mpor
t
antst
at
eof
f
i
ci
al
si
ncl
udedt
hecour
tchancel
l
or
,
t
hecour
t
chamber
l
ai
n,
t
hear
mycommander
,
t
heheaddr
ummer
,
t
hecook
 Thequeenmot
her
,
ki
ng’
ssi
st
eraswel
l
ast
heki
ng’
sni
nepr
i
nci
pal
wi
v
es,
nobl
esandpagessentbyv
assal
s
 Chi
efpr
i
est
soft
heMwar
i
cul
t
 I
nt
hei
mpor
t
antpr
ov
i
ncessuchasGur
uuswa,
Mbi
r
e,
Dande,
Bar
we,
Many
i
kaandUt
ev
et
heMut
apaputt
r
ust
edr
el
at
i
v
esorf
r
i
endst
or
ul
e
asv
assal
chi
ef
s
 Chi
ef
swer
echosen/
appoi
nt
edi
nconsul
t
at
i
onwi
t
hspi
r
i
tmedi
umsor
mhondor
os
 Eachv
assal
chi
efcol
l
ect
edt
r
i
but
eonbehal
foft
heMut
apai
nf
or
m of
i
v
or
y
,
gol
d,
gr
ai
n,
cat
t
l
eet
c
 Sentownsonwi
t
ht
r
i
but
et
oMut
apaassi
gnofl
oy
al
t
y
 Vassal
chi
ef
sal
sor
equi
r
edt
ol
i
ghtt
hei
rownf
i
r
ef
r
om Mut
apa’
sf
i
r
e
annual
l
y,
asf
ur
t
hersi
gnofl
oy
al
t
y
 Rebel
l
i
ousv
assal
swer
eat
t
ackedbyt
heki
ng’
sar
mywhi
chal
sohel
ped
t
ohol
dempi
r
e/
st
at
et
oget
her
 Mut
apamai
nt
ai
nedast
r
ongar
myf
ordef
ence
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dsuccessi
ondi
sput
escont
r
i
but
et
ot
hedecl
i
neoft
heMut
apast
at
e?
[
8]
Reasonsf
ort
hedecl
i
ne
Page21of21
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 Theki
ngdom wast
ool
ar
ge,
communi
cat
i
onwi
t
hal
l
par
t
swasdi
f
f
i
cul
t
 Poorl
eader
shi
pofcer
t
ai
nr
ul
er
swhol
ackedt
hechar
i
smaandmi
l
i
t
ar
y
pr
owess–t
okeepst
at
euni
t
ed
 Successi
ondi
sput
ese.
g.Por
t
ugueseagai
nstGat
si
Ruser
e,
Mamv
ur
aMhande
 I
nt
er
f
er
encef
or
mf
or
ei
gner
ssuchasSwahi
l
i
t
r
ader
sf
orbet
t
ercont
r
act
sf
r
om
r
ul
er
s
 Lat
eri
nt
er
f
er
encef
r
om Por
t
ugueset
r
ader
si
nt
he16th/
17thcent
ur
i
eswhohad
i
nf
l
uenceonr
ul
er
sl
i
keMamv
ur
aMhande,
Gat
si
Ruser
e
 For
ei
gner
sf
annedsuccessi
ondi
sput
est
aki
ngsi
desi
ndi
sput
es
 Br
oughtI
sl
am/
Chr
i
st
i
anr
el
i
gi
onwhi
chdest
r
oy
edt
r
adi
t
i
onal
r
el
i
gi
onauni
f
y
i
ng
el
ement
.
[
Jun2006]
13.[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xt
i
t
l
esofof
f
i
ci
al
si
nMut
apa’
sgov
er
nment
[
6]
Chancel
l
or
,
ar
mycommander
,
headdr
ummer
,
headdoor
keeper
,
cour
tchamber
l
ai
n
,
headcook,
Queenmot
her
,
ki
ng’
ssi
st
er
,ki
ng’
sni
nepr
i
nci
pal
wi
v
es,
chi
efspi
r
i
t
medi
um,ki
ng’
ssonsi
nl
aw,
v
assal
chi
ef
s,
chi
ef
s,
pr
ov
i
nci
al
chi
ef
s
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hepol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em andt
hesoci
al
sy
st
em oft
heMut
apast
at
e
[
8]
.
[
i
]
.
Pol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em ofMut
apast
at
e
 Ki
ngwast
hehi
ghestof
f
i
ci
al
,
cent
r
eofgov
er
nment,
commanderi
nchi
efof
ar
my
,
chi
efj
udge,
r
el
i
gi
ousl
eader
,
di
st
r
i
but
orofl
andandboot
y
 I
mpor
t
antof
f
i
ci
al
satchi
ef
scour
ti
ncl
udedar
mycommander
s,
chancel
l
or
,
headdr
ummer
,
headdoor
keeper
,
headcook,
ki
ng’
ssi
st
er
,
Queenmot
herand
t
heki
ng’
sni
nepr
i
nci
pal
wi
v
es
 Of
f
i
ci
al
sr
el
at
edt
oMut
apaSt
at
edi
v
i
dedi
nt
opr
ov
i
ncesundercont
r
ol
of
v
assal
chi
ef
ssuchasUt
ev
eofSof
al
a,
SendadaofSav
e,
Chi
kangaofMany
i
ka,
andMakombeofBar
we.
 Vassal
chi
ef
spai
dt
r
i
but
et
oMut
apa
 Vassal
chi
ef
sr
equi
r
edt
ol
i
ghtf
i
r
esev
er
yy
earf
r
om Mut
apa’
sf
i
r
e
 Al
sosentsonsasambassador
st
oMut
apaassi
gnofl
oy
al
t
y
 Mar
r
i
ageal
l
i
ances
 Mai
nt
enanceofanar
myaspar
tofpol
i
t
i
cs
[
i
i
]Soci
al
sy
st
em oft
heMut
apast
at
e
Page22of22
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 Shonabel
i
ev
edi
nhi
ghGodMwar
i
Cr
eat
orofmanki
nd
 Shonaal
sobel
i
ev
edi
nv
ar
i
ousspi
r
i
t
ssuchasf
ami
l
yancest
or
s,
cl
anand
Nat
i
onal
Spi
r
i
t
scal
l
edMhondor
os
 Spi
r
i
t
s–wer
econsul
t
edt
hr
oughspi
r
i
tmedi
ums
 Spi
r
i
t
sappear
edt
hr
oughbr
ewi
ngbeerandsl
aught
er
i
ngcat
t
l
e
 Bel
i
ef
si
nwi
t
chcr
af
t
 Pr
act
i
cedpol
y
gamy
 Kur
onzer
a/
cat
t
l
el
oani
ngsy
st
em
 Li
v
i
ngi
nv
i
l
l
agesaccor
di
ngt
ol
i
neages
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwasr
el
i
gi
oni
nt
hepol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em oft
heMut
apast
at
e?
[
8]
[
i
]
.I
mpor
t
anceofshonar
el
i
gi
on
 Shonar
el
i
gi
onmosti
nt
egr
at
i
nganduni
f
y
i
ngf
act
ori
nMut
apast
at
e
 NewMut
apa–chosenandi
nst
al
l
edbyNat
i
onal
Mhondor
o
 Mut
apar
espect
edasadi
v
i
ner
ul
er
 Ki
ngconsul
t
edspi
r
i
t
s/
mhondor
osi
nt
i
mesofcr
i
si
s,
war
,
f
ami
ne
 Ki
ngr
ul
edwi
t
hbl
essi
ngofspi
r
i
tmedi
ums
[
i
i
]Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 I
ncl
udedmi
l
i
t
ar
yor
gani
zat
i
onort
hear
myf
ordef
ence/
expansi
onoft
hest
at
e
 St
r
ongeconomybasedonf
ar
mi
ng,
past
or
al
i
sm,
mi
ni
ng,
t
r
adewhi
chhel
pedt
o
mai
nt
ai
nal
ar
gear
my
 Pay
mentoft
r
i
but
e,
r
oy
al
f
i
r
e
 Al
soi
mpor
t
anti
nensur
i
ngl
oy
al
t
yt
ost
at
e/
st
r
ongr
ul
er
[
Nov2006]
14.[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xi
t
emst
hatwer
eusedt
opayt
r
i
but
ei
nt
heMut
apaSt
at
e.
[
6]
Agr
i
cul
t
ur
al
pr
oduce,
l
abour
,
v
al
uabl
eski
ns,
gol
d,
cat
t
l
e,
i
v
or
y
,
i
r
onhoes,
ost
r
i
ch
f
eat
her
s,
j
ewel
l
er
y
/
beads,
guns,
cer
ami
cs,
f
or
ei
gngoods.
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heor
i
gi
nsandexpansi
onoft
heMut
apaSt
at
e.
Page23of23
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[
11]
[
i
]Or
i
gi
ns
 FoundedbyNy
at
si
mbaMut
ot
a
 Assumedt
obedi
r
ectsuccessort
oGr
eatZi
mbabwest
at
et
hatcol
l
apsed
t
h
ar
oundmi
d15 cent
ur
y
 I
deadependsonor
al
t
r
adi
t
i
onaboutMut
ot
a
 Sentagent
st
onor
t
her
npl
at
eausear
chi
ngf
orsal
t
 Di
scov
er
ednewsal
tdeposi
t
si
nnor
t
hsomov
ementt
oDandear
ea/
MtDar
wi
n
ar
ea
 Dr
oughtatGtZi
mbabwe
 Shor
t
ageofr
esour
ces
 Successi
ondi
sput
esshi
f
t
i
ngoft
r
adet
oZambeziv
al
l
ey
 Conquest
sandpl
underoft
heTongaandTav
ar
apeopl
e
 Al
l
i
ancest
ochi
efDzi
v
agur
u,
l
eadi
ngt
osuppor
tbyl
ocal
peopl
e
[
i
i
]
.
Dev
el
opment
/
Expansi
on
 Tr
adel
edt
oexpansi
onoft
hest
at
e
 Hi
ssonandsuccessor,
Mat
ope,
ext
endedt
er
r
i
t
or
yeast
war
dsbyconquer
i
ng
i
ndependentki
ngdomsofBar
we,
Mani
caandSof
al
a,
Ut
ev
e,
Madanda
 Mut
apaexer
ci
sedt
hepower
sofpar
amountchi
efov
ernor
t
heast
Mashonal
andandmuchofpr
esentdayMozambi
quef
or200y
ear
s
 Haddi
r
ectcont
r
ol
ov
erNEcor
nerofMozambi
que
 Ki
ngsofUt
ev
e,
MadandaandChi
kangapai
dt
r
i
but
e
 Ext
endedwest
war
dasf
arast
heKal
ahar
i
deser
t
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwast
hear
myi
nt
heexpansi
onoft
heMut
apaSt
at
e?
[
8]
[
i
]
.
I
mpor
t
anceoft
hear
myi
nst
at
eexpansi
on
 Conquestofnewt
er
r
i
t
or
y
 Col
l
ect
i
onoft
r
i
but
e
 Def
enceoft
hest
at
e
Page24of24
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 Suppr
essi
onofr
ebel
l
i
ons
 pr
ot
ect
i
ngt
heMut
apa
[
i
i
]Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Al
l
i
ancet
oDzi
v
agur
upr
i
est
sandsuppor
tf
r
om t
hel
ocal
s[
r
el
i
gi
on]
 Mar
r
i
ageal
l
i
ances
 Mi
l
i
t
ar
ypr
owess/
char
i
smat
i
cl
eader
shi
pofMut
ot
a&Mat
ope
 Weaknessesoft
hel
ocal
s.
[
Nov2007]
15[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xsoci
al
gr
oupswi
t
hi
nt
heGr
eatZi
mbabweSt
at
e.[
6]
 Far
mer
s;
Mi
ner
s;
Tr
ader
s;
Rul
i
ngCl
ass;
Spi
r
i
tMedi
ums;
Hunt
er
s;
 Pot
t
er
s;
Her
bal
i
st
s;
WarCapt
i
v
es;
Bl
acksmi
t
hs;
Sol
di
er
s;
Gat
her
er
s;
Sl
av
es;
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hepol
i
t
i
cal
andsoci
al
sy
st
emsoft
heGr
eatZi
mbabweSt
at
e.[
11]
[
i
]
Pol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em:
 Theki
ngwast
hepol
i
t
i
cal
,
j
udi
ci
al
andr
el
i
gi
ousov
er
l
or
d
 Ki
ngwasal
socommanderi
nchi
efoft
hear
myanddi
st
r
i
but
orofl
and
 Ki
ngwasassi
st
edbyt
het
r
adi
t
i
onal
counci
l
ofel
der
s
 Al
soappoi
nt
eddi
st
r
i
ctandv
i
l
l
agechi
ef
st
ocont
r
ol
di
st
r
i
ct
sandv
i
l
l
ages
r
espect
i
v
el
y
 Lesserchi
ef
spai
dt
r
i
but
easasi
gnofl
oy
al
t
y
 Theyal
sohadanar
myf
orpr
ot
ect
i
onoft
r
ader
sandf
ormai
nt
ai
ni
ngor
der
 Ki
ngshi
pwasher
edi
t
ar
y
 Ther
ewer
eal
soi
mpor
t
antof
f
i
ci
al
l
i
ket
heQueenmot
her
,
ki
ng’
swi
v
esand
sonsi
nl
awandar
mycommander
s.
[
i
i
]
.
Soci
al
sy
st
em:
 Gr
eatZi
mbabwesoci
et
ywaspat
r
i
l
i
neal
 Owner
shi
pofcat
t
l
ewasast
at
ussy
mbol
 Cat
t
l
ewer
eusedt
opayl
obol
a
Page25of25
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 Pol
y
gamywaspr
act
i
cedasasour
ceofl
abourandsol
di
er
s
 Gr
eatZi
mbabwesoci
et
ybel
i
ev
edi
ncr
eat
orGodMwar
i
andNat
i
onal
Spi
r
i
t
sor
Mondor
osandancest
r
al
spi
r
i
t
s,
Hungwebi
r
d
 Wor
shi
pwasdonet
hr
ought
hespi
r
i
tmedi
ums(
Masv
i
ki
r
o)
 Theki
ngwaschosenbyspi
r
i
tmedi
umsandl
edatr
i
t
ual
cer
emoni
essuchas
r
ai
nmaki
ngorhar
v
est
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwast
r
i
but
ei
nt
heGr
eatZi
mbabwepol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em?
[
i
]
I
mpor
t
anceoft
r
i
but
e:
 Ensur
edl
oy
al
t
yofl
esserchi
ef
st
ot
heki
ng
 Ensur
edl
esserchi
ef
swoul
dnotbecomet
or
i
ch,
power
f
ul
andambi
t
i
ous
 Enhancedt
heweal
t
h,
i
nf
l
uenceandpoweroft
heki
ng
[
i
i
]
.
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Al
soi
mpor
t
antwasr
el
i
gi
onwhi
chuni
t
edt
hepeopl
e
 Ki
ngwaschosenbyspi
r
i
tmedi
umshencecommandeduni
v
er
sal
r
espect
 Thear
myal
soi
mpor
t
antf
ordef
ence,
l
awandor
derdi
scour
agi
ngr
ebel
l
i
ons
 Tr
adewasi
mpor
t
antf
oraccesst
of
or
ei
gngoodsandst
r
engt
hoft
he
economy
 Agr
i
cul
t
ur
ewasi
mpor
t
antf
orast
r
ongeconomyandf
orf
eedi
ngt
hepopul
ace.
[
Nov2008]
16.[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xpr
ov
i
ncesoft
heMut
apaSt
at
eatt
hepeakofi
t
spower
.
[
6]
.
Gur
uuswa[
Tor
wa]
,
Mbi
r
e,
Chi
di
ma[
chi
demo]
,
Bar
we,
Many
i
ka,
Ut
ev
e,
Madanda
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
her
i
seandexpansi
onoft
heMut
apaSt
at
eupt
o1480.
[
11]
[
i
]
.
Ny
at
si
mbaMut
ot
a–ambi
t
i
ousbutunsuccessf
ul
cl
ai
mantt
ot
het
hr
one[
14201450]
 1420Mut
ot
asetoutt
oDandeRegi
oni
nsear
chofsal
t,
gol
d,
i
v
or
y
,
past
ur
es,
f
er
t
i
l
el
ands
 Al
sot
ocont
r
ol
t
r
ader
out
eonZambezi
Ri
v
er
.
 Mut
ot
aconquer
edt
heTonga,
Tav
ar
aandKor
ekor
eoft
heDandeRegi
on
Page26of26
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 Wasgi
v
enpr
ai
sename‘
MweneMut
apa’
 Owneroft
heconquer
edl
andswhi
chbecameady
nast
i
ct
i
t
l
e
 Mut
ot
aest
abl
i
shedt
hecapi
t
al
atChi
t
akoChangony
anearMtFur
ai
nDande
 Mut
ot
adi
edi
n1450bef
or
ecompl
et
i
nghi
sexpansi
oni
stpol
i
cy
 Rel
i
gi
onenhanceduni
t
ye.
g.Dzi
v
agur
ucul
t
(
i
i
.
) Ny
anheweMat
ope,
Mut
ot
a’
ssoncont
i
nuedt
heexpansi
oni
stpol
i
cy
.
- Conquer
edandabsor
bedBar
we,
Many
i
ka,
Ut
ev
eandMadanda
- St
i
l
l
desi
r
edt
ocont
r
ol
t
r
ader
out
es,
t
r
i
but
e,
gol
dandi
v
or
yr
esour
ces.
- Mut
apaSt
at
ewasati
t
szeni
t
hdur
i
ngMat
ope’
sr
ei
gn.
I
nt
heeasti
twasboundedbyt
heI
ndi
anOcean,
i
nt
hewestbyt
heKal
ahar
i
Deser
t
,
i
nt
henor
t
hbyt
heZambezi
Ri
v
er
,
andi
nt
hesout
hbyt
heLi
mpopo
Ri
v
er
.Mut
ot
aandMat
opecr
eat
edav
er
yv
astempi
r
ehadt
oappoi
ntv
assal
chi
ef
st
ocont
r
ol
pr
ov
i
nces.
(
c.
) Di
dt
hepeopl
eoft
heMut
apaSt
at
ebenef
i
tf
r
om t
heexpansi
onoft
hest
at
e
dur
i
ngt
heper
i
od?Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
8]
(
i
.
)
BENEFI
TSFROM MUTAPASTATE
 Peaceandpr
ot
ect
i
onbyst
r
ongst
at
ear
my
 Wer
econduci
v
et
ot
r
adeandf
ar
mi
ng
 Accesst
of
or
ei
gngoodst
hr
ought
r
ade
 Rul
i
ngcl
assl
ev
i
edt
r
i
but
ef
r
om v
assal
chi
ef
s
 Accesst
omor
er
esour
ces–gol
d,
gameani
mal
s,
i
v
or
y
,
f
er
t
i
l
esoi
l
 Uni
t
yenhancedbyr
el
i
gi
one.
g.t
heDzi
v
agur
ucul
t
(
i
i
.
) NONBENEFI
TS
 Rebel
l
i
onsbyv
assal
chi
ef
s–causeddeat
hsanddest
r
uct
i
ons
 Successi
ondi
sput
esbyambi
t
i
ousmember
soft
her
oy
al
f
ami
l
y
 Cont
r
ol
ofv
astempi
r
ewasdi
f
f
i
cul
thi
nder
edbypoor
communi
cat
i
on
 Or
di
nar
ypeopl
eandv
assal
chi
ef
shadt
opayt
r
i
but
e
 Or
di
nar
ypeopl
ef
oughti
nKi
ng’
sar
mi
esandper
i
shed.
Page27of27
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[
Nov2009]
17(
a.
)
[
6]
Nam eanysi
xr
ul
er
soft
heMut
apaSt
at
eupt
ot
he18thcent
ur
y
.
 Ny
at
si
mbaMut
ot
a
 Ny
anheweMat
ope
 Chi
kuy
oChi
samar
engu
 Mav
ur
aMande(
Phi
l
l
i
p)
 Gat
si
Ruser
e
 NegomoMapunzagut
u(
Sebast
i
an)
 Ny
amboKapar
ar
i
dze
 Mukombwe
 Chi
v
her
eNy
asor
o
 Ny
ahuma
 Ny
akunembi
r
e/
Neshangwe
 Ny
amhi
t
aNehanda
(
b.
) Descr
i
bet
hepol
i
t
i
cal
andr
el
i
gi
ousor
gani
zat
i
onoft
heMut
apaSt
at
e.
[
11]
(
i
.
)
POLI
TI
CAL

Ther
ul
erwasov
er
al
l
i
nchar
ge,
chi
efadmi
ni
st
r
at
or
,
chi
efj
udge,
commanderi
nchi
efoft
hear
myanddi
st
r
i
but
orofl
and.[
maxof3
dut
i
es]
 Rul
erwascal
l
edbyt
i
t
l
eMunhumut
apa(
MweneMut
apa
 Ki
ngshi
pwasher
edi
t
ar
ypassi
ngont
ot
heel
destsonaf
t
ert
hedeat
h
oft
heKi
ng
 Theki
ngwashel
pedt
or
ul
ebypr
ov
i
nci
al
r
ul
er
si
nt
hepr
ov
i
nces
 Di
st
r
i
ctchi
ef
swer
ei
nchar
geofchi
ef
doms
 Ther
ul
erhadmanyof
f
i
ci
al
ssuchascour
tchamber
l
ai
n,
ar
my
commander
s,
cooks,
door
keeper
,
t
axcol
l
ect
or
s,
messenger
s,
ambassador
s.[
maxof2]
 Al
soi
mpor
t
antwast
hequeenmot
herandt
heki
ngsni
nepr
i
nci
pal
wi
v
es.
Page28of28
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 Lesserchi
ef
spai
dt
r
i
but
et
oMut
apaasasi
gnofl
oy
al
t
y
 TheMut
apaal
sor
equi
r
edl
esserchi
ef
st
ol
i
ghtt
hei
rf
i
r
esf
r
om t
he
Ki
ng’
sf
i
r
eannual
l
y(
r
oy
al
f
i
r
e)
 Ki
ngal
sohadanar
myt
omai
nt
ai
nl
awandor
der
.
(
i
i
.
) RELI
GI
OUS
 Thepeopl
eoft
heMut
apaSt
at
ebel
i
ev
edi
nt
hecr
eat
orGodMwar
i
,
Nat
i
onal
Spi
r
i
t
s(
Mhondor
os)andancest
r
al
spi
r
i
t
s.[
MAX3]
 Thesewer
ewor
shi
pedt
hr
ought
hespi
r
i
tmedi
ums(
masv
i
ki
r
o)
.Spi
r
i
t
s
pl
ay
edani
m por
t
antr
ol
ei
nt
hei
nst
al
l
at
i
onofki
ngs(
ki
ngschosenby
spi
r
i
tmedi
ums)
 TheMut
apasconsul
t
edspi
r
i
tmedi
umsi
nt
i
mesofcr
i
sessuchaswar
,
dr
ought
,
epi
demi
cs,
successi
ondi
sput
eset
c
 Rai
nmaki
ngcer
emoni
es
 Bel
i
efi
nl
i
f
eaf
t
erdeat
h
 Bel
i
ev
edi
nwi
t
chcr
af
t
(
c.
) Howf
ardi
dr
el
i
gi
oncont
r
i
but
et
ot
hest
abi
l
i
t
yoft
hest
at
e?
(
i
.
)
[
8]
i
mpor
t
anceofr
el
i
gi
on
 Hel
pedi
nchoosi
ngki
ngsandi
nt
hei
ri
nst
al
l
at
i
on
 Wer
econsul
t
edbyki
ngsandchi
ef
si
nt
i
mesofcr
i
sessuchaswarand
dr
ought
 Tr
eat
i
ngofi
l
l
peopl
e
 Rel
i
gi
ouscer
emoni
essuchasr
ai
nmaki
ng
 Al
l
i
ancewi
t
ht
heDzi
v
agur
ucul
t
(
i
i
.
) Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Thear
myf
ormai
nt
ai
ni
ngl
awandor
der
 Tr
i
but
epay
mentensur
edt
hel
oy
al
t
yofl
esserchi
ef
s
 Col
l
ect
i
onofr
oy
al
f
i
r
eal
soensur
edl
oy
al
t
yt
ol
esserchi
ef
s
 St
abl
eeconomymeantast
abl
egov
er
nment
 Tr
ade
 Rai
di
ng
 Mar
r
i
ageal
l
i
ances
Page29of29
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 Kur
onzer
a
[
Nov2011]
18[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xpr
ov
i
ncesoft
heMut
apast
at
e.
[
6]
 Chi
koy
a,
Madnda/
Sedanda
 Ut
ev
e/
Qui
t
ev
e,
Many
i
ka/
Mani
ca
 Bar
we,
DandeChi
di
ma.
 Mbi
r
e,
Gur
ur
swa/But
ua
 Fur
a,
Sango
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hemi
l
i
t
ar
yachi
ev
ement
sofMut
ot
aandt
hepol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em t
hathe
dev
el
opedi
nt
heMut
apast
at
e.
[
11]
Mi
l
i
t
ar
yachi
ev
ementofMut
ot
a
 I
n1420,
Mut
ot
abr
okeawayf
r
om Gr
eatZi
mbabweast
heheadoft
hear
my
 Heconquer
edt
heTonga,
Tav
ar
aandKor
ekor
eoft
heDande-Chi
di
maar
easof
t
heZambezi
Val
l
ey
.
 Hi
sname,
Mut
ot
ameantt
hathecont
r
ol
l
edconquer
edl
ands
 Heusedt
hear
myt
oest
abl
i
shal
ar
gest
at
e
 Heest
abl
i
shedhi
scapi
t
al
atChi
t
akoChangi
ny
aHi
l
l
nearMtFur
a
 Mut
ot
af
or
medt
heMut
apast
at
e
 Ti
t
t
l
e
Pol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em Dev
el
opedi
nt
heMut
apaSt
at
e
 Mut
apawast
heov
er
al
l
l
eaderwi
t
hpol
i
t
i
cal
,
r
el
i
gi
ousandadmi
ni
st
r
at
i
v
e
power
.
 Ki
ngdi
st
r
i
but
edl
and,
ar
mycommander
 Heappoi
nt
edl
esserchi
ef
st
ogov
er
npr
ov
i
nces
 Lesserchi
ef
spai
dt
r
i
but
easasi
gnofl
oy
al
i
t
y
 Lesserchi
ef
swer
eal
sor
equi
r
edt
or
el
i
ghtcour
tf
i
r
esannual
l
yf
r
om t
her
oy
al
f
i
r
e
 TheMut
apaal
sokeptanar
myt
oenf
or
cel
awandor
deri
nt
hest
at
e
 Al
l
i
ancewi
t
hDzi
v
agur
u
 Ther
ewasal
soal
ar
genumberofcour
tof
f
i
ci
al
ssuchast
hecour
t
Page30of30
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chamber
l
ai
n,
headdoorkeeper
,
ar
mycommander
,
spi
r
i
tmedi
ums,
wi
v
es
queenmot
heret
c
 Ki
ngshi
pwasher
edi
t
ar
y
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dMut
ot
a’
smi
l
i
t
ar
yachi
ev
ement
scont
r
i
but
et
ot
her
i
seoft
he
Mut
apaSt
at
e?
[
8]
Cont
r
i
but
i
onofmi
l
i
t
ar
yachi
ev
ement
s
 Conquestoft
heZambezi
v
al
l
ey
 Shi
f
t
i
ngoft
hecapi
t
al
t
ot
heNor
t
h
 Useofal
ar
gear
myt
ocr
eat
eal
ar
gest
at
e
 Ti
t
t
l
eMunhumut
apa
 Cr
eat
edast
r
ongst
sat
e
 Ot
herpoi
nt
si
nB1
Cont
r
i
but
i
onofot
herf
act
or
s
 Reasonsf
ort
hef
al
l
ofGr
eatZi
mbabweal
soqual
i
f
y
 Cont
r
ol
ofl
ongdi
st
ancet
r
ade
 Cont
r
ol
ofgol
dmi
ni
ng
 Sear
chf
orsal
t
 Fer
t
i
l
el
andf
orcul
t
i
v
at
i
onweal
t
hi
nf
or
m ofcat
t
l
eabsenceoft
set
sef
l
i
es
 Weaknessesofl
ocal
peopl
e
THEROZVISTATE
[
NOV.2003]
19.(
a.
)
Li
stt
hr
eedut
i
escar
r
i
edoutbymal
emember
sandt
hr
eedut
i
escar
r
i
ed
outby
Femal
emember
si
nt
heRozv
i
soci
et
y
.
(
i
.
)
[
8]
MALE
 Hunt
i
ng,
her
di
ngcat
t
l
e,
mi
ni
ng,
t
hat
chi
nghut
s,
al
socul
t
i
v
at
i
on,
smel
t
i
ng,
t
r
ade,
f
i
shi
ng. [
3]
(
i
i
.
) FEMALE
Page31of31
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 Cr
opcul
t
i
v
at
i
on,
gat
her
i
ng,
househol
dchor
es,
l
ooki
ngaf
t
erchi
l
dr
en.
[
3]
(
b.
) Out
l
i
net
heeconomi
candsoci
al
wayofl
i
f
ei
nt
heRozv
i
st
at
e.
[
11]
(
i
.
)
ECONOMI
C
 Cr
opcul
t
i
v
at
i
on–f
i
ngermi
l
l
et
,
bul
r
ushmi
l
l
et
,
sor
ghum,
cowpeas,
mai
ze,
r
apoko.
 Past
or
al
i
sm –cat
t
l
e,
af
or
m ofweal
t
h–i
mpor
t
antf
orweal
t
handt
i
mes
ofdr
ought
.
 Mi
ni
ng–gol
d,
i
r
on,
copper
.Pr
act
i
cedopencastmi
ni
ng.
 Hunt
i
ng–t
ogetmeat
,
enj
oy
edasaspor
tbymen;
i
v
or
y
,
ski
ns.
 Tr
ade–l
ocal
andext
er
nal
t
r
adewi
t
hPor
t
uguese.Useofv
ashambadzi
.
I
v
or
yandgol
di
mpor
t
antt
r
adei
t
emst
oobt
ai
ncl
ot
h,
beads,
seashel
l
s,
et
c.
 Bl
acksmi
t
hi
ng–ani
ndust
r
yt
opr
oducet
ool
sandweaponssuchas
kni
v
es,
r
azor
s,
spear
s,
ar
r
owheads.
 Weav
i
ng–cl
ot
h–cr
af
t
wor
k
 Pot
t
er
ybywomenandbasket
r
ybymen
 Tr
i
but
ecol
l
ect
edbyt
hear
myf
orChangami
r
e
 Di
v
i
si
onofl
abouraccor
di
ngt
osex,
ageandski
l
l
.
(
i
i
.
) SOCI
ALWAYOFLI
FE
 Rel
i
gi
on-bel
i
ev
edi
nMwar
iandt
hei
mpor
t
anceofancest
or
sand
spi
r
i
t
ual
bei
ngs.
 Shonapr
i
est
s–ani
mpor
t
antl
i
nki
nt
hesoci
et
y
 Bel
i
ev
edspi
r
i
tl
i
v
edi
nMount
ai
ns,
bi
gpool
sofwat
er
,
t
hi
ckf
or
est
s.
Wi
t
chcr
af
t
.
 Maf
i
sa–sy
st
em –asy
st
em ofkur
onzer
apeopl
ewhodi
dnotown
cat
t
l
el
ookedaf
t
erot
herpeopl
e’
scat
t
l
e,
andwoul
dbegi
v
ensome
ev
ent
ual
l
y
.
 Mar
r
i
age–r
oor
apai
d.Pol
y
gamypr
act
i
cedesp.byt
hosewhoowned
manycat
t
l
e,
andbl
acksmi
t
hs.
 Apat
r
i
l
i
neal
soci
et
yi
.
e.r
el
at
i
onst
r
acedt
hr
ought
hemascul
i
negender
Page32of32
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 Et
hni
cdancesoni
mpor
t
antoccasi
onsandasl
ei
sur
ee.
g.r
el
i
gi
ous
cer
emoni
es.
(
c.
) Expl
ai
nwhyt
hi
sst
at
edecl
i
ned.
[
8]
Reasonsf
ordecl
i
ne
(
i
.
)
I
nt
er
nal
f
act
or
s–ser
i
ousdr
ought
s,
ci
v
i
l
war
s,
economi
cdecl
i
ne,
successi
ondi
sput
es,
di
sput
eswi
t
hChi
kangaofMany
i
ka,
al
soBar
we
chi
ef
s
(
i
i
.
) Ext
er
nal
Fact
or
s–Nguni
i
ncur
si
onsandPor
t
uguesei
nv
asi
ons.Nguni
gr
oupswer
eZwangendaba’
sNgoni
;
Ny
amazana;
t
heNdebel
e;
Nxabaandt
heNgoni
al
sobr
i
ef
l
yi
nv
aded.
[
Nov2004]
20[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xeconomi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
heRozv
i
St
at
e.
 Cr
opcul
t
i
v
at
i
on–mi
l
l
et
,
sor
ghum
 Past
or
al
i
smcat
t
l
e,
goat
s
 Tr
adei
nt
er
nal
andext
er
nal
t
r
ade
 Hunt
i
ngf
ormeatandani
mal
ski
ns
 Cr
af
t
wor
kt
ool
maki
ng/
bl
acksmi
t
hi
ng
 Pay
mentoft
r
i
but
e
 Mi
ni
ng
 Fi
shi
ng/
gat
her
i
ng/
r
ai
di
ng
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hepol
i
t
i
cal
or
gani
zat
i
onoft
heRozv
i
St
at
e.
[
11]
.
 Rozv
i
r
ul
er
sknownasMamboorChangami
r
e
 Mambowasov
er
al
l
i
nchar
geoft
hemi
l
i
t
ar
y,
r
el
i
gi
ousandpol
i
t
i
cal
power
 Posi
t
i
onofMambowasher
edi
t
ar
y
 Thepoweroft
heki
ngr
est
edmai
nl
ywi
t
ht
hear
my
 Hadadv
i
sor
st
oassi
st–mai
nl
ypr
i
est
sandar
mycommander
s
 Pr
ov
i
nci
al
chi
ef
swer
ei
nchar
geofpr
ov
i
nces.
TheMambowasi
nchar
geof
t
hei
ri
nst
al
l
at
i
on.Al
sohadher
edi
t
ar
yposi
t
i
ons
 Chi
ef
s(
i
she)wer
ei
nchar
geofchi
ef
domsandwer
eappoi
nt
edbyt
heMambo
Page33of33
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 Undert
hechi
ef
swer
eheadmen(
sadunhu)
 Al
l
egi
ancet
ot
heMambowasdonet
hr
oughpay
mentoft
r
i
but
e.
Tr
i
but
ewas
col
l
ect
edbyt
hear
my
.
 Rel
i
gi
ousl
eader
si
nv
ol
v
edi
nt
hei
nst
al
l
at
i
onoft
heMambo.
 Tumbar
eact
edasr
egentaf
t
ert
hedeat
hofChangami
r
e.
NB:
Mambo(
ki
ng) I
she(
chi
ef
)
Sadunhu(
Headman)
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dpol
i
t
i
cal
pr
obl
emscont
r
i
but
et
ot
hecol
l
apseoft
heRozv
i
St
at
e?
[
i
]
.Cont
r
i
but
i
ont
ot
hef
al
l
:
 Rozv
i
st
at
et
oobi
g–hencepoorcommuni
cat
i
on
 Successi
ondi
sput
es
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
di
v
i
si
ons,
Ci
v
i
l
war
sf
ai
l
ur
et
of
ul
l
yi
ncor
por
at
esomechi
ef
domsl
i
ke
Kal
anga,
(
chi
ef
dom r
ebel
l
i
ons)
 Pr
act
i
ceofTumbar
eact
i
ngasar
egent
[
i
i
]
Ot
herf
act
or
sf
ort
hecol
l
apse
 Successi
v
edr
ought
s
 Decl
i
neofgol
dpr
oduct
i
on
 Di
sr
upt
i
onoft
r
ade,
especi
al
l
ybyPor
t
uguese
 I
nv
asi
onoft
heSt
at
ebyMf
ecanegr
oupse,
gNdebel
eandNgoni
 Depl
et
i
onofr
esour
ces
[
Nov2005]
21[
a]
.
Nameanyt
hr
eeRozv
i
t
ownsandanyt
hr
eeRozv
i
r
ul
er
supt
ot
he18thcent
ur
y
.
 Khami
(
Dl
odl
o)
;
Nal
et
al
e;
Danangombe;
Many
anga;
Nhav
aYaTumbar
e
 Changami
r
eDombo;
Changami
r
eRupangaManhanga;
Changami
r
e
Chi
r
i
samhur
ui
i
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hepol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em andr
el
i
gi
oussy
st
em oft
heRozv
i
St
at
eupt
ot
he
19 cent
ur
y
.
[
11]
t
h
 Rozv
i
pol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
emRozv
i
Mambo-washeadofst
at
e;
andcommander
i
nchi
ef.
Successi
ont
ot
het
hr
onewasher
edi
t
ar
yandcul
t
ur
al
Page34of34
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 Ondeat
hofmambo-Tumbar
e(
Rozv
i
gener
al
)act
edasr
egent–t
i
l
l
appoi
nt
mentofnewmambo.
 Pr
ov
i
nceswer
eunderv
assal
chi
ef
si
nst
al
l
edbyt
heMamboorhi
s
r
epr
esent
at
i
v
e
 Vassal
Chi
ef
spai
dt
r
i
but
et
oMamboassi
gnofl
oy
al
t
y
;
Tumbar
e(
Rozv
i
gener
al
)wasr
esponsi
bl
ef
orcol
l
ect
i
onoft
r
i
but
e.
 Sadunhu,
Mambo’
sseni
orwi
v
esandsonsi
nl
awwer
ei
mpor
t
antof
f
i
ci
al
sof
t
heki
ng’
scour
t
.
 Rozv
i
r
el
i
gi
ont
heRozv
i
wor
shi
pedt
hesky
-GodMwar
i
-Cr
eat
orofManki
nd
andal
l
cr
eat
i
on;
Rozv
i
al
sobel
i
ev
edi
nspi
r
i
t
sancest
r
al
spi
r
i
t
sr
egi
onal
and
nat
i
onal
spi
r
i
t
scal
l
edMondor
o
 Spi
r
i
tmedi
umswer
ego-bet
weenoft
hepeopl
eandMondor
o-consul
t
edi
n
cr
i
ses–f
ami
ne,
war
,
dr
ought
 Mambobel
i
ev
edt
obeadescendantofMwar
i
 Wasar
el
i
gi
ousl
eader
[
c]
.Howi
mpor
t
antwast
her
ol
eoft
hear
myi
nt
heRozv
i
pol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em?
[
8]
[
i
]
.
I
mpor
t
anceoft
heAr
my
 Usedt
oconquerorr
ai
dnei
ghbour
sf
orcat
t
l
e,
ext
endt
er
r
i
t
or
y
 Usedt
odef
endt
hest
at
e
 Ar
mywasal
sousedt
ocol
l
ectt
r
i
but
e–puni
shr
ebel
l
i
ouschi
ef
s-f
ai
l
i
ngt
opay
t
r
i
but
e
[
i
i
]
.
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Mosti
mpor
t
antel
ementi
nt
heRozv
i
st
at
ewasr
el
i
gi
onwhi
chuni
t
edpeopl
e
 Mambowasconf
i
r
medi
nof
f
i
cebyspi
r
i
tmedi
ums
 Mambor
egar
dedasdi
v
i
ner
ul
er
 Al
soi
mpor
t
antwast
hest
r
ongeconomyoft
hest
at
ebasedonagr
i
cul
t
ur
e,
past
or
al
i
sm,
t
r
ade
 Kur
onzer
auni
t
edpeopl
e
 Mar
r
i
ageal
l
i
ances
[
Nov2007]
Page35of35
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22[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xgov
er
nmentof
f
i
ci
al
soft
heRozv
i
St
at
e.
[
6]
 Ar
mycommander
s
 Pr
ov
i
nci
al
chi
ef
s
 Di
st
r
i
ctchi
ef
s
 Queenmot
her
 Ki
ng‘
ssons-i
nl
aw
 Spi
r
i
tmedi
ums
 Tumbar
e
 Vi
l
l
ageheads
 Ki
ng
 Sadunhu(
Headman)
 Cour
tcounsel
l
or
s
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hesoci
al
act
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
heRozv
i
St
at
e.
[
11]
 Rozv
i
soci
et
ywaspat
r
i
l
i
neal
 Successi
ont
ot
het
hr
onewast
hr
oughf
at
her
’
sl
i
ne(
pat
r
i
l
i
neal
)
 Owner
shi
pofcat
t
l
ewasast
at
ussy
mbol
andcat
t
l
ewer
eusedt
opayr
oor
a
 Weal
t
hi
ncat
t
l
ecoul
dbel
oanedsomebyt
heweal
t
hi
ert
hr
ought
hekur
onzer
a
sy
st
em orMaf
i
sasy
st
em
 Di
v
i
si
onofl
abourwasmai
nl
ybasedongender
 TheRozv
i
wor
shi
pedcr
eat
orGodcal
l
edMwar
i
,
Nat
i
onal
spi
r
i
t
s(
Mondor
os)
andf
ami
l
yancest
r
al
spi
r
i
tmedi
ums(
Masv
i
ki
r
o)
j
ustl
i
ket
heshonaofgr
eat
Zi
mbabwe.
 Consul
t
edancest
or
si
nt
i
mesofcr
i
si
s
 Rozv
i
Mambowaschosenbyspi
r
i
tmedi
umsandl
edatr
i
t
ual
cer
emoni
es
suchasr
ai
nmaki
ng
 TheRozv
i
bel
i
ev
edt
hatspi
r
i
t
sr
esi
dedi
nmount
ai
ns,
l
ar
gepool
sandt
hi
ck
f
or
est
s
 Ther
ewaswi
despr
eadbel
i
efi
nwi
t
chcr
af
t
Page36of36
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[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dsoci
al
act
i
v
i
t
i
esst
r
engt
henedt
heRozv
i
St
at
e?
[
8]
[
i
]
.
I
mpor
t
anceofsoci
al
act
i
v
i
t
i
es:
 Rel
i
gi
onwasuni
f
y
i
ngf
act
or
 TheMambowaschosenbyspi
r
i
tmedi
umsandl
edatr
i
t
ual
cer
emoni
es
 Kur
onzer
asy
st
em hel
pedt
or
educepov
er
t
yandmai
nt
ai
ni
nf
l
uenceov
er
i
mpor
t
antl
i
neagesandt
hepoor
 Pol
y
gamyhel
pedt
oest
abl
i
sht
i
esandi
nf
l
uence.I
twasal
soasour
ceof
l
abourandsol
di
er
s.Somemar
r
i
ageswer
ef
orpol
i
t
i
cal
al
l
i
ancet
omai
nt
ai
n
peace
 Si
ncet
heMambohadt
hehi
ghestnumberofcat
t
l
e,
hewast
heweal
t
hi
estand
washel
di
nhi
ghest
eem.
[
i
i
]
.
Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 St
r
ongeconomybasedonagr
i
cul
t
ur
ehel
pedt
omai
nt
ai
npeaceandst
abi
l
i
t
y
 Tr
adewasasour
ceoff
or
ei
gngoodsandhel
pedt
ost
r
engt
hent
heeconomy
andenr
i
cht
heMambosi
ncehecont
r
ol
l
edt
r
ade
 Al
sopay
mentoft
r
i
but
e–ensur
edl
oy
al
t
yt
ot
heMamboandensur
edt
hat
chi
ef
sdi
dnotbecomet
oor
i
chandpower
f
ul
.
 Ast
r
ongar
mywasal
soi
mpor
t
antf
ordef
enceoft
hest
at
eandput
t
i
ngdown
r
ebel
l
i
ons.
(
Nov2010)
23.
(
a)
.
Li
stanysi
xr
esponsi
bi
l
i
t
i
esoft
heRozv
i
r
ul
er
. (
6)
 Di
st
r
i
but
i
onofl
and,
Chi
efj
udge,
Rel
i
gi
ousl
eader
 Chi
efadmi
ni
st
r
at
or
,
Cust
odi
anofst
at
epr
oper
t
y
 I
nst
al
l
at
i
onofl
esserchi
ef
s,
commander
i
nchi
efoft
hear
my
 Recei
v
i
ngandshar
i
ngt
r
i
but
e
 Cont
r
ol
ofhunt
i
ngact
i
v
i
t
i
es,
Concl
udi
ngal
l
i
ances
 Decl
ar
i
ngwar
,
Cont
r
ol
l
i
ngt
r
ade,
pr
ot
ect
i
ngci
t
i
zens
 Cont
r
ol
l
i
ngmi
ni
ngact
i
v
i
t
i
es,
r
ecei
v
i
ngf
or
ei
gnv
i
si
t
or
s
 Pr
esi
di
ngov
ert
hecounci
l
.
Page37of37
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(
b)
.
Descr
i
bet
hesoci
al
or
gani
sat
i
onoft
heRozv
i
st
at
e.
(
11)
 Bui
l
tpol
eanddaggahut
s
 Li
v
edi
nHomest
eadsl
i
v
edaccor
di
ngt
ol
i
neages
 Bel
ongedt
ot
heMoy
ot
ot
em
 Rozv
i
mar
r
i
ageswer
eexogamous
 Pr
act
i
sedpol
y
gamyandpai
dl
obol
ai
nf
or
m ofcat
t
l
eandi
r
ont
ool
s
 Owner
shi
pofcat
t
l
ewasast
at
ussy
mbol
 Pr
act
i
sed‘
maf
i
sa\
kur
onzer
acat
t
l
el
oani
ngt
opeopl
ewi
t
houtcat
t
l
e
 Di
v
i
si
onofl
abour
 Pat
r
i
l
i
neal
soci
et
y
 Wor
shi
pped‘
Mwar
i
’
,
t
heSupr
emeBei
ngandCr
eat
orofev
er
y
t
hi
ngonear
t
h
 Bel
i
ev
edi
nnat
i
onal
orr
egi
onal
spi
r
i
t
s(
Mhondor
os)andf
ami
l
yancest
r
al
spi
r
i
t
medi
ums
 Theki
ngwast
her
el
i
gi
ousl
eaderandl
edt
r
adi
t
i
onal
cer
emoni
es
 Br
ewedbeerandsl
aught
er
edcat
t
l
eatcer
emoni
escal
l
ed‘
Bi
r
a’
andhel
dr
ai
n
maki
ngcer
emoni
es
 Bel
i
ev
edt
hatl
ar
gerpool
s,
f
or
est
sandmount
ai
nshar
bour
edspi
r
i
t
s
 Ki
ngcommuni
cat
edwi
t
hMwar
i
onbehal
fofpeopl
e
 Bel
i
ev
edi
nl
i
f
eaf
t
erdeat
handwi
t
chcr
af
tandny
angas.
(
c)
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwassoci
al
or
gani
sat
i
oni
nt
hepol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em oft
heRozv
i
St
at
e?
(
8)
 Rel
i
gi
onwasauni
f
y
i
ngf
or
ce
 Ki
ngwaschosenbyspi
r
i
tmedi
ums
 Ki
ngl
edt
r
adi
t
i
onal
cer
emoni
es
 Cat
t
l
el
oani
ngsy
st
em hel
pedt
omai
nt
ai
ni
nf
l
uenceandpeace
 Pol
y
gamyusedbyr
ul
i
ngcl
asst
omai
nt
ai
nal
l
i
ancesandi
mpor
t
antl
i
neages
Ot
herf
act
or
s
Page38of38
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 Tr
i
but
easasi
gnofl
oy
al
t
y
 Ar
myf
orl
awandor
der
,
andsuppr
essi
ngr
ebel
l
i
ons
 Ast
r
ongeconomyensur
edst
abi
l
i
t
y
[
June2011]
24[
a]
.
Nameanyt
hr
eeet
hni
cgr
oupsandt
hei
rr
espect
i
v
el
eader
swhof
oughtt
he
Rozv
i
bet
ween1800and1890
[
6]
 Khumal
o-Mzi
i
kazi
 Jer
e–Ngoni
-Zwangendaba
 Ngoni
-Ny
amazana
 Shangane-Soshangane
 MseneNgoni
-Nxaba
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hedut
i
esoft
heRozv
i
Mambo.
[
11]
 Cont
r
ol
l
edt
r
ade,
Reci
v
edv
i
si
t
or
s.
 Commanderi
nChi
efoft
heRozv
i
ar
my
 Mambowast
heheadofst
at
e,
di
st
r
i
but
edl
and
 Wast
hechi
efj
udge,
sel
ect
edpr
ov
i
nci
al
chi
ef
s,
di
st
r
i
ctchi
ef
sandsubchi
ef
s
 Recei
v
edandhandl
edr
epor
t
sf
r
om v
ar
i
ouspar
t
soft
heki
ngdom
 Appoi
nt
edt
heCounci
l
ofAdv
i
sor
s,
sanct
i
onedr
i
t
ual
cer
emoni
es
 Mambowast
her
el
i
gi
ousl
eader
,
sentt
hear
myf
orr
ai
di
ngexpedi
t
i
ons
 Recei
v
edt
r
i
but
ef
r
om t
hechi
ef
s,
appoi
nt
edar
mygener
al
s
 Wor
kedhandi
nhandwi
t
hr
el
i
gi
ousl
eader
s
 Hadpowert
or
el
i
ev
ehi
sappoi
nt
eesoft
hei
rdut
i
es
 Dut
yt
odef
endt
hest
at
ef
r
om enemyat
t
acks
 Hadcust
odyov
ercapt
i
v
es
 Di
st
r
i
but
edf
oodi
nt
i
mesofdr
ought
,
decl
ar
edwar
s,
si
gnedt
r
eat
i
es,
and
di
st
r
i
but
edl
oot
y
.
Page39of39
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[
c]
.
Wast
heMambo’
sl
eader
shi
pt
obl
amef
ort
hedecl
i
neoft
heRozv
i
ki
ngdom?
Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
8]
Mambo’
sweaknesses
 Ot
herl
eader
swer
el
esschar
i
smat
i
ct
hanDomboChangami
r
e
 Appoi
nt
edi
ncompet
entsubor
di
nat
es
 Appoi
nt
ment
sofof
f
i
ci
al
swer
eonaki
nshi
pbasi
s
 Fai
l
edt
or
ul
et
hev
astempi
r
e
 Fai
l
edt
opr
oper
l
ydecent
r
al
i
sehi
spol
i
t
i
cal
power
s
 Fai
l
edt
or
epel
Nguni
i
ncur
si
ons
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Successi
ondi
sput
es/
col
l
at
er
al
sy
st
em ofsuccessi
on
 Ser
i
ousdr
ought
s,
Ci
v
i
l
war
s
 Economi
cdecl
i
nee,
gmi
ni
ng,
t
r
ade
 Di
sput
eswi
t
hChi
kangaandBar
wechi
ef
s
 Nguni
i
ncur
si
onse,
gMzi
l
i
kazi
’
sNdebel
e,
Zwangendaba’
sNgoni
and
Ny
amazana’
sNgoni
.
 Cl
asheswi
t
ht
hePor
t
uguesel
ef
tt
heRozv
i
st
at
eweakened
 Br
eakaway
,
Tumbar
ebecamet
oopower
f
ul
,
Hi
y
aef
f
ect
s.
Mf
ecaneandt
heZul
uSt
at
e
[
Speci
men2003]
25.
[
a]
.
st
at
esi
xf
act
or
st
hatcausedt
heMf
ecanei
nNguni
l
and
[
6]
Gr
owt
hi
npopul
at
i
onandpr
essur
eonl
and
Desi
r
et
ocont
r
ol
t
r
ade,
especi
al
l
ywi
t
ht
hePor
t
ugueseatDel
agoaBay
I
mpor
t
anceofcat
t
l
ei
nsoci
et
yanddesi
r
et
oacqui
r
emor
e
Desi
r
et
ocont
r
ol
hunt
i
nggr
oundsespeci
al
l
ywher
ei
v
or
ywasconcer
ned
Desi
r
et
ocont
r
ol
t
hegr
azi
ngl
andsf
ort
hei
ncr
easi
ngnumberofcat
t
l
e
Dev
el
opmentofadv
ancedmi
l
i
t
ar
yt
act
i
cswhi
chpr
omot
edaggr
essi
on
Page40of40
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Emer
genceofambi
t
i
ousAf
r
i
canl
eader
swhodesi
r
edt
odomi
nat
eot
her
s
Fami
ne[
Madl
at
ul
eFami
ne]t
hatoccur
r
edcausedr
i
v
al
r
yasf
oodshor
t
agespr
ead
Cr
eat
i
onofl
ar
gepower
f
ul
ki
ngdomssuppor
t
edbysmal
l
erones,
egTheMt
het
hwa;
t
he
Ndwandwe;
t
heNgwane;
et
c,
t
hesmal
l
Zul
uet
hni
cgr
oupsi
dedwi
t
ht
heMt
het
hwa
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hef
i
ght
i
ngt
hatt
ookpl
acebet
weent
heet
hni
cgr
oupsi
nNguni
l
and
dur
i
ngMf
ecanef
r
om 1818t
o18123.
[
11]
1816r
i
v
al
r
yoft
heNdwandweandNgwanebeganov
erl
andt
hel
at
t
erwer
edef
eat
ed
andpushedawaynor
t
h
1818NdwandweunderZwi
deat
t
ackedMt
het
hwaofDi
ngi
sway
o
Di
ngi
sway
owascapt
ur
edandki
l
l
edandt
heMt
het
hwawer
edef
eat
edandscat
t
er
ed
Ndwandweat
t
ackedt
heot
hergr
oupsi
nt
hear
eaeastoft
heDr
ankensbur
g
Somer
emnant
soft
heMt
het
hwaf
l
edgi
v
i
ngZwi
def
r
eer
ei
gni
nt
hear
eaofNguni
l
and
Zwi
det
hendeci
dedt
of
i
ghtt
hesmal
l
Zul
ut
r
i
benowunderTshaka
Themi
l
i
t
ar
yt
act
i
cshedev
el
opedi
nt
heear
l
yst
agesoft
hemf
ecanegav
eTshakaa
deci
si
v
eadv
ant
ageov
ert
heNdwandwe
Tshakat
henr
eassembl
edt
heMt
het
hwaandt
heZul
usi
nt
oapower
f
ul
mi
l
i
t
ar
ymachi
ne
Weakert
r
i
beswhocoul
dnotf
l
eedeci
dedt
oseekr
ef
ugeunderTshakaandbecamepar
t
oft
heempi
r
e
Thr
eatoft
hewhi
t
esf
r
om t
hesout
hal
sohel
pedt
hepeopl
et
or
al
l
ybehi
ndt
hemost
power
f
ul
l
eader
,
t
husbecomi
ngpar
tofanenl
ar
gedst
at
e
Tshakaadopt
ednewf
i
ght
i
ngmet
hods,
l
i
ket
hecowhor
nf
or
mat
i
onandbegant
oat
t
ack
hi
snei
ghbour
s.Hi
ssmal
l
Zul
uki
ngdom begant
oex
pandandbeachal
l
enget
ot
he
Ndwandwe
1818Zwi
dedeci
dedt
ocr
usht
heemer
gi
ngZul
ust
at
e.I
nt
hef
i
r
stbat
t
l
et
heNdwandwe
wer
edef
eat
edanddr
i
v
enof
f
Endof1818hesentaf
ul
l
ar
myacr
osst
heMf
ol
ozi
Ri
v
er
.Tshakaatf
i
r
sthewi
t
hdr
ewhi
s
whol
epopul
at
i
onandweal
t
h.Zwi
def
ol
l
owedacr
ossdeser
t
edcount
r
ywi
t
hnof
ood.
Ndwandwear
mybecameweakenedandbegant
or
et
r
eat
.Tshakat
henat
t
ackedand
dr
ov
et
heNdwandwebackt
ot
hei
rcapi
t
al
whi
chher
ansacked.Ndwandwewer
e
def
eat
ed.
Tshakadr
ov
et
heNdwandwegener
al
sZwangendabaandSot
shanganaaway
.Theyf
l
ed
af
t
erZwi
dewasdef
eat
ed
Zwi
def
l
edt
ot
her
egi
onofupperNkomat
i
Ri
v
er
Soshanganal
ef
ti
n1821at
t
acki
ngt
r
i
best
ot
heNor
t
handendedupi
nGazal
and,
near
moder
ndayChi
pi
nge/
chi
r
i
nda.
Page41of41
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Ot
hersmal
l
ert
r
i
besf
l
edt
ot
hewesti
nt
ot
heSot
hoandTswanaar
eaIt
er
r
orandi
nt
ur
n
spr
eadt
het
er
r
oront
hei
rway
Tshakapr
oceededt
oat
t
ackt
r
i
besbet
ween1819and1822andsubduedt
hem and
i
ncor
por
at
edt
of
or
m al
ar
geZul
uki
ngdom
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dt
heMf
ecanel
eadt
ot
her
i
seoft
heZul
ust
at
e?
Mf
ecanewar
sal
l
owedTshakat
odev
el
opt
heZul
ust
at
e
.
Deser
t
i
onbyt
hekeyr
i
v
al
s,
e,
gMzi
l
i
kazi
oft
heKhumal
o.
[
JUNE2004]
26.
[
a]
.
St
at
eanyt
hr
eest
at
esandt
hei
rr
espect
i
v
el
eader
swhi
chemer
gedamongstt
he
t
h
Nor
t
her
nNguni
i
nt
heear
l
y19 cent
ur
y
.
[
11]
TheMt
het
hwaunderDi
ngi
sway
o
TheNdwandweunderZwi
de
TheNgwaneunderSobhuza
TheNgwaneunderMat
i
wane
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hemi
l
i
t
ar
yr
ef
or
msi
nt
r
oducedbyTshakai
nt
heZul
uKi
ngdom.
[
11]
Tshakagai
nedcont
r
ol
oft
heZul
ucl
anont
hedeat
hofSenzangakhonai
n1816.
Adopt
edandper
f
ect
edmi
l
i
t
ar
yi
nnov
at
i
onsbyDi
ngi
sway
osuchasbanni
ngof
ci
r
cumci
si
onanddr
af
t
i
ngboy
si
nt
oagesetr
egi
ment
s
Eachr
egi
menthaddi
st
i
nctdr
essandcol
or
Tshakabannedt
heuseofsandal
si
nt
hear
my
;
sol
di
er
swer
et
owal
kbar
ef
ootf
orspeed
Equi
ppedhi
ssol
di
er
swi
t
ht
heshor
tst
abbi
ngspear[
assegai
]f
orhandt
o-handf
i
ght
i
ng
andl
ar
gemansi
zeshi
el
ds
Sol
di
er
swer
epuni
shedbydeat
hf
orl
osi
ngweaponsespeci
al
l
yt
heassegai
Tshaka’
sar
mi
esempl
oy
edt
hecowhor
nbat
t
l
ef
or
mat
i
on
Adopt
edsur
pr
i
seat
t
ackonenemyasast
r
at
egy
Empl
oy
edspi
est
ogat
heri
nf
or
mat
i
onabouthi
senemi
es
Madeuseofsmokesi
gnal
sf
orcommuni
cat
i
on
Bannedmar
r
i
edofal
l
menbef
or
et
heageof40orbef
or
emi
l
i
t
ar
yser
v
i
ce
Empl
oy
edy
oungboy
sasbaggagecar
r
i
er
sf
orsol
di
er
s
I
sol
at
edsol
di
er
sf
r
om communi
t
yandf
edsol
di
er
sonbeef
Bel
i
ev
edi
nt
ot
al
dest
r
uct
i
onoft
heenemy
,
ki
l
l
i
ngt
her
ul
i
ngf
ami
l
yofdef
eat
edt
r
i
besand
Page42of42
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t
ot
al
l
yi
ncor
por
at
i
ngdef
eat
edt
r
i
bes.
[
c]
.
Expl
ai
nwhyShakawasassassi
nat
edi
n1828.
[
i
]
.
Reasonsf
orShaka’
sassassi
nat
i
on
Shakabecamedi
ct
at
or
i
al
.
Di
dnotconsul
tt
r
adi
t
i
onal
counci
l
ofadv
i
sor
sonnat
i
onal
i
ssues
Nordi
dheconsul
thi
si
ndunasf
r
equent
l
y
Mai
nt
ai
nedacr
uel
sy
st
em ev
enwheni
twasnol
ongerj
ust
i
f
i
ed
Shaka’
sst
r
i
ctdi
sci
pl
i
ne-andcr
uel
t
yki
l
l
i
ngofsubj
ect
sf
ormi
norof
f
ences
[
i
i
]
.
Shaka’
sal
sokepthi
ssol
di
er
sonceasel
esscampai
gns
Ar
mybecameexhaust
ed
Howev
er
,
Shakasuccessmadehi
sr
el
at
i
v
esuchashal
fbr
ot
her
s,
Di
nganeand
Mhl
angana,
auntMkabay
ij
eal
ousandambi
t
i
oust
or
ul
e.
Mkabay
i
suspect
edShakaofhav
i
ngki
l
l
edhi
sownmot
her
Subsequent
l
yki
l
l
edl
ar
genumber
sofpeopl
ef
orf
ai
l
i
ngt
omour
nhi
smot
herNandi
Shaka’
sbr
ot
her
swer
eal
soqui
t
eambi
t
i
ous.
[
NOV2004]
27.
[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xmi
l
i
t
ar
yr
ef
or
msi
nt
r
oducedbyTshaka.
[
6]
Useofl
ongshi
el
dscowar
di
cepuni
shedbydeat
h
Useofashor
t
st
abbi
ngspear[
assegai
]
Conscr
i
pt
i
onofal
l
menunder40y
ear
si
nt
ot
hear
my
r
unner
st
or
el
aymessages
Goi
ngt
owarbar
ef
oot
ed
Youngboy
st
ocar
r
ybaggagef
orsol
di
er
s
Cr
eat
i
onofast
andi
ngar
my
Tot
al
dest
r
uct
i
onofenemi
es
I
mpr
ov
ementoft
hecowhor
nf
or
mat
i
on
Useoff
emal
er
egi
ment
s
Bannedci
r
cumci
si
oncer
emoni
es
Usedspi
es,
ny
anga/
sangomast
ot
r
eatsol
di
er
s
Useofsmokesi
gnal
sf
orcommuni
cat
i
on
Usedmockbat
t
l
esast
r
ai
ni
ng
Page43of43
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[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hepr
obl
emsf
acedbyTshakaaski
ngoft
heZul
uSt
at
e
[
11]
.
Expansi
onpol
i
cychar
act
er
i
zedbyv
i
ol
entwar
f
ar
e,
pl
under
i
ngandr
ai
di
ngot
herst
at
es
t
huscr
eat
i
nghat
r
eds
Thedeat
hofNandi
,
hi
smot
her
,
cr
eat
edpr
obl
emsf
orhi
m asheki
l
l
edmanypeopl
e.Ev
en
hi
ssi
st
ersuspect
edt
hatTshakawasr
esponsi
bl
ef
orNandi
’
sdeat
h.Tshaka’
s
mot
herwashi
sadv
i
sor
.
Jeal
ousr
el
at
i
v
eswhoul
t
i
mat
el
yassassi
nat
edhi
m
Hi
ghr
at
eofexecut
i
onscr
eat
edenemi
esf
orTshakaamongt
hear
my
Mzi
l
i
kazi
’
sr
ebel
l
i
oni
n1822.
Thr
eatf
r
om t
heexpansi
oni
stBoer
sandBr
i
t
i
sh
Bat
t
l
edt
ocont
r
ol
t
heDel
agoat
r
ader
out
e
Shor
t
ageofr
esour
cesegl
and
Lackoft
r
ustbycommander
s
[
c]
.
I
si
tt
r
uet
hatTshakawasr
esponsi
bl
ef
orhi
sowndownf
al
l
?Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
i
]
.
Tshaka’
sownr
esponsi
bi
l
i
t
yf
ordownf
al
l
:
 Wasadi
ct
at
or
al
l
poweri
nhi
shands
 I
gnor
edt
r
adi
t
i
onal
chi
ef
s
 Fai
l
edt
owor
kwi
t
hbr
ot
her
sandsi
st
er
swhoshoul
dhav
eassi
st
edhi
m
 Fr
equentr
ai
dsexposedhi
mnotenoughpr
ot
ect
i
on
 Rat
hercr
uel
,
egi
ssai
dt
ohav
eki
l
l
edmanypeopl
ewhenhi
smot
herdi
ed
especi
al
l
yt
hosenotshowi
ngenoughsi
gnsofgr
i
ef
 Al
l
owedKhumal
ot
or
emai
naut
onomous
[
i
i
]
.
ot
herf
act
or
s
 Jeal
ousbr
ot
her
sandsi
st
er
senv
i
edTshaka’
ssuccess
 Ambi
t
i
ousl
eader
swhoal
sowant
edt
or
ul
e
 Sol
di
er
st
i
r
edofcont
i
nuousr
ai
ds
 Tshakawasani
l
l
egi
t
i
mat
echi
l
d
 Usur
pedpowerf
r
om br
ot
herSi
guj
ana
 Thr
eat
sofwhi
t
es
[
NOV2009]
28.
[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanyt
hr
eeNor
t
her
nNguni
l
eader
sandt
hei
rr
espect
i
v
echi
ef
domswhower
e
Page44of44
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i
nv
ol
v
edi
nt
heMf
ecanewar
s.
[
6]
 Di
ngi
sway
o–Mt
het
hwa
 SobhuzaNgwane
 Zwi
deNdwandwe
 TshakaZul
u
 Di
nganeZul
u
 Mzi
l
i
kazi
Ndebel
e
 NxabaNgoni
 SoshanganeShangane
 ZwangendabaNgoni
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hepol
i
t
i
cal
or
gani
zat
i
onoft
heZul
uSt
at
e
[
11]
 Ki
ngwast
hesupr
emer
ul
er
 Ki
ngwascommanderi
nchi
ef
 Cont
r
ol
l
erofl
abour
,
r
el
i
gi
on,
t
r
adeandl
and
 Ki
ngassi
st
edbychi
ef
sandcounci
l
l
or
smostofwhom wer
er
el
at
i
v
esandt
hose
het
r
ust
ed
Powerdi
st
r
i
but
edatt
hr
eel
ev
el
s,
t
heki
ngatt
het
op;
member
soft
her
ul
i
ngZul
ul
i
neage;
t
hei
ncor
por
at
edt
r
ust
edchi
ef
s
 Bel
owt
hem wer
eot
hersmal
l
erchi
ef
swhower
esupposedt
or
egar
dt
hemsel
v
es
asZul
uandwoul
dbeal
l
owedt
obecounci
l
l
or
s
 Ot
herchi
ef
swer
et
hosenotr
el
at
edt
ot
heZul
uhadpr
i
v
i
l
egesbuthadt
opay
t
r
i
but
e,
excl
udedf
r
om maki
ngi
mpor
t
antdeci
si
ons
 Ar
myusedbyt
heki
ngt
ocont
r
ol
t
hest
at
e.Hadast
andi
ngar
my
 Zul
uwast
heof
f
i
ci
al
l
anguage
 St
at
edi
v
i
dedi
nt
or
egi
ment
al
t
ownsunderi
zi
nduna
 Thei
nkat
hawasasy
mbol
ofuni
t
y
 Rel
i
gi
ousl
eader
si
nst
al
l
edchi
ef
s
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwast
hear
myi
nt
heZul
upol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em?
[
i
]
.
i
mpor
t
anceofar
myi
npol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em
 Usedt
oexpandt
hest
at
e
 Usedt
ocol
l
ectt
r
i
but
e
Page45of45
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 Usedt
or
ai
dot
herst
at
es
 Pr
ot
ect
edt
heki
ngandt
hest
at
e
 Usedt
opr
ot
ectt
r
ader
out
es/
hunt
i
nggr
ounds
 Usedt
opuni
shr
ebel
l
i
ouschi
ef
s
[
i
i
]
.
ot
her
sal
soi
mpor
t
ant
:
 Chi
ef
s,
counci
l
l
or
sandki
ng’
sr
el
at
i
v
eshel
pedt
oadmi
ni
st
ert
hest
at
e
 Tr
ader
swer
et
hesour
ceoff
or
ei
gngoods
 Tr
i
but
epay
mentbysubj
ect
s
 Rel
i
gi
onusedasauni
f
y
i
ngf
or
ceegI
nxwal
af
est
i
v
al
 I
nt
er
mar
r
i
ages
 Theki
ng’
sper
sonal
i
t
y
[
JUNE2006]
29.
[
a]
.
St
at
eanyt
hr
eel
eader
sandt
hei
rr
espect
i
v
egr
oupswhom Zwi
def
oughtdur
i
ngt
he
Mf
ecane
[
6]
.
 SobhuzaNgwane
 Di
ngi
sway
oMt
het
hwa
 Tshaka- Zul
u
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hecausesoft
heMf
ecanei
nNor
t
her
nNguni
l
and
[
11]
 Popul
at
i
onexpl
osi
oni
nNguni
l
and
 Compet
i
t
i
onf
orpast
ur
es,
f
er
t
i
l
esoi
l
s
 Cr
eat
i
onofl
ar
gerchi
ef
domsf
orpr
ot
ect
i
on
 Tr
adei
nski
nswi
t
hPor
t
ugueseatDel
agoaBay
t
ogetcl
ot
h,
beads,
guns
 Needt
ocont
r
ol
ar
easr
i
chi
ni
v
or
y
,
accesst
ot
r
ader
out
escausedconf
l
i
ct
s
 Cr
eat
i
onofagesetr
egi
ment
s
 Amabut
hof
orhunt
i
ng,
f
ar
mi
ng andr
ai
di
ngf
orcat
t
l
eandgr
ai
n
 TheMadl
at
ul
eandl
ongdr
oughtpr
eci
pi
t
at
edconf
l
i
ct
sov
erpast
ur
e,
gr
ai
nandcat
t
l
e
 Eur
opeanexpansi
oni
nt
oi
nt
er
i
or
 Demandf
orl
abourl
edt
or
ai
dsf
orsl
av
esbyBoer
s,
Kor
ans,
Por
t
uguese
 Expansi
onofZul
uki
ngdom underTshakacr
eat
edchai
nr
eact
i
onofconf
l
i
ct
si
n
Nguni
l
and
 Ci
v
i
l
war
sandambi
t
i
ousl
eader
s
Page46of46
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[
c]
.
I
si
tt
r
uet
hatt
heMf
ecanewascausedbyt
heEur
opeans?Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
i
]
.
Eur
opeani
nf
l
uenceonMf
ecane;
 Mf
ecanel
ar
gel
yat
t
r
i
but
abl
et
owhi
t
eexpansi
oni
nt
oi
nt
er
i
or
.
 Boerdemandf
orl
abouri
ni
nt
er
i
or
 Por
t
ugueseal
sor
ai
di
ngf
orsl
av
esf
orexpor
t
chi
ef
domsf
oughtt
ogetpeopl
et
o
sel
l
assl
av
es
[
i
i
]
.
ot
herf
act
or
s;
 Howev
er
,
Mf
ecaneal
sot
r
aceabl
et
opr
obl
emsl
i
kepopul
at
i
onexpl
osi
onwi
t
h
r
esul
t
antcompet
i
t
i
onf
orscar
cer
esour
cessuchaspast
ur
esf
er
t
i
l
el
and
 Mf
ecanepr
eci
pi
t
at
edcr
eat
i
onofager
egi
ment
sf
orr
ai
dsonnei
ghbour
s
 Madl
at
ul
e/
dr
ought
 Tshakaandt
her
i
seoft
heZul
unat
i
on
[
Nov2007]
.
30.
[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xr
easonsf
ort
her
i
seoft
heZul
uSt
at
e.
[
6]
.
Mai
nNguni
ki
ngdomsf
oughtanddest
r
oy
edeachot
hergi
v
i
ngachancet
ot
heZul
u
 I
nf
l
uenceofDi
ngi
sway
oonTshaka
 Shaka’
sabl
el
eader
shi
p
 Shaka’
sr
eor
gani
zat
i
onofdef
eat
edMt
het
hwaandhi
sZul
ust
at
ei
nt
oawar
machi
ne
 Thedef
eatoft
heNdwandwebyt
hecombi
nedMt
het
hwa/
Zul
uar
mi
es[
nowcal
l
ed
t
heZul
u]
.
 Conquestofal
l
sur
r
oundi
nget
hni
cgr
oupsandchi
ef
domsbyZul
uar
mi
es
 Newmi
l
i
t
ar
yi
nnov
at
i
onsi
nt
r
oducedbyTshaka
 Rol
eoft
r
ade
 Popul
at
i
onpr
essur
e,
 Madl
at
ul
e/
f
ami
ne
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hemi
l
i
t
ar
yr
ef
or
msi
nt
r
oducedbyTshaka.
[
11]
 Theuseofl
ongshi
el
ds
 Theuseofshor
tspear
s[
assegai
]
Page47of47
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 Conscr
i
pt
i
onunt
i
l
40y
ear
sofage
 St
andi
ngsar
mi
esi
ndi
f
f
er
enti
ndi
f
f
er
entar
easofki
ngdom awayf
r
om soci
et
y
 St
r
i
ctmi
l
i
t
ar
ydi
sci
pl
i
ne
 Useoft
hedeat
hpenal
t
yf
ormi
nor
/
maj
orof
f
ences
 Mockbat
t
l
esandmi
l
i
t
ar
ydr
i
l
l
s
 Useoft
hecowhor
nbat
t
l
et
act
i
cs
 Femal
er
egi
ment
s
 Yout
hscar
r
i
edf
orsol
di
er
s
 Useoft
ot
al
wari
nwhi
chenemyst
r
uct
ur
eswer
ecompl
et
el
ydest
r
oy
ed,
i
ncl
udi
ng
r
oy
al
f
ami
l
y
 Useofspi
esandsmokesi
gnal
sf
ori
nf
or
mat
i
on
 Mi
l
i
t
ar
ydemandsl
edt
obanni
ngofci
r
cumci
si
onbecausei
tt
ookl
ongt
oheal
 Theuseofspeedi
nwar
[
f
i
ght
i
ngbar
ef
oot
ed]
 Useoft
r
adi
t
i
onal
heal
er
s
 Warcr
y
 Fedsol
di
er
sonbeef
 Useofsur
pr
i
seat
t
acks
 Mf
asi
mba[
di
st
i
nctheaddr
ess]
 Per
enni
al
war
f
ar
e
[
c]
.
Howef
f
ect
i
v
ewasShakai
nhi
suseoft
heser
ef
or
ms?
[
i
]
Thet
act
i
csbr
oughtsuccesses:
Ef
f
ect
i
v
eness
 Succeededi
nbui
l
di
ngav
er
yst
r
ong/
power
f
ul
Zul
uki
ngdom –f
ear
edt
hr
oughout
Sout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
 Conquer
edandcont
r
ol
l
edmanyot
herst
at
esf
orhi
sownper
sonal
gl
or
y
 Managedt
obecomet
heki
ngoft
heZul
ust
at
ef
r
om t
hest
at
usofasmal
l
chi
ef
dom att
hebegi
nni
ngofMf
ecane
 Managedt
obui
l
dav
er
yst
r
ongeconomybasedoncat
t
l
e
 TheZul
ucul
t
ur
eandt
act
i
csofsur
v
i
v
al
wer
eadopt
edi
nt
hear
eaandot
her
r
egi
onsi
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
[
i
i
]
.
Ther
ef
or
mshadnegat
i
v
eef
f
ect
s;
 Cr
eat
edav
er
ybi
gst
at
ewhi
chhef
ai
l
edt
okeept
oget
her
Page48of48
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 Hi
sdi
ct
at
or
i
al
t
endenci
escr
eat
edmor
eenemi
es.Tshaka’
shal
f–br
ot
herand
si
st
erpl
ot
t
edhi
sdownf
al
l
 Themi
l
i
t
ar
yr
ef
or
msl
edt
omassi
v
eexodusofexper
i
encedandski
l
l
edper
sonnel
 Hemai
nt
ai
nedacr
uel
sy
st
em wheni
twasnol
ongernecessar
yasar
esul
toft
he
ef
f
ect
i
v
enessoft
her
ef
or
ms
 Depopul
at
i
on
 Thear
mynol
ongerenj
oy
edmi
l
i
t
ar
ycampai
gns
 Ledt
odeat
hofmanypeopl
eanddest
r
uct
i
onofpr
oper
t
y
[
NOV2006]
31.
[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanyt
hr
eepeopl
ewhopl
ot
t
edt
heassassi
nat
i
onofShakaandanyt
hr
eer
eason
f
or
hi
s
assassi
nat
i
on
[
6]
[
i
]
.
Di
ngane,
Mbopha,
Mhl
angana,Mkabay
i
[
i
i
]
.
Tshaka’
saut
ocr
at
i
cr
ul
e
j
eal
ous
Tshaka’
sendl
esswar
f
ar
e
St
r
i
ctdi
sci
pl
i
ne
I
ncr
easedexecut
i
onf
orpet
t
yof
f
ences
Execut
i
onofpeopl
ef
ornotmour
ni
ngTshaka’
smot
her
/
hi
scr
uel
t
y
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hepol
i
t
i
calandsoci
alor
gani
zat
i
onoft
heZul
ust
at
edur
i
ngTshaka’
sr
ei
gn.
[
11]
[
i
]Pol
i
t
i
cal
or
gani
zat
i
on
 Tshakacr
eat
edacent
r
al
i
z
edst
at
e
 Def
eat
edchi
ef
swer
eof
t
endeposedandr
epl
acedbyTshaka’
sappoi
nt
ees
 Ki
ngdom wasor
gani
zedonmi
l
i
t
ar
yl
i
nes
 Ager
egi
ment
saccommodat
edi
nr
egi
ment
al
t
owns
 Regi
ment
al
t
ownsadmi
ni
st
er
edbyani
ndunahel
pedbyaf
emal
ememberoft
he
r
oy
al
f
ami
l
y
 Regi
ment
al
t
ownsal
l
ocat
edr
oy
al
cat
t
l
et
ol
ookaf
t
er
 Ki
ngwast
hechi
efj
udge
 Counci
l
ofadv
i
sor
sr
ender
edi
r
r
el
ev
antasTshakabecameaut
ocr
at
i
c
 Ki
ngwasar
mycommander
Page49of49
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 Tr
adi
t
i
onal
chi
ef
sr
educedt
oadmi
ni
st
r
at
i
onofl
ocal
af
f
ai
r
s
 I
nkat
haasy
mbol
ofuni
t
y
[
i
i
]
Soci
al
or
gani
zat
i
on
 Mar
r
i
agewasonl
yal
l
owedt
omenaf
t
err
et
i
r
i
ngf
r
om ar
my
 Femal
esor
gani
zedi
nt
or
egi
ment
s
 Regi
ment
sofwomen–usedt
ocul
t
i
v
at
el
andandf
orcer
emoni
al
dancesand
di
spl
ay
s
 Di
v
i
si
onofl
abour
 Soci
et
ywaspat
r
i
l
i
neal
 Theki
ngof
f
i
ci
at
edatt
heI
nxwal
acer
emony
,Ki
ng’
sspi
r
i
t
ual
powerwasr
enewed
t
hr
ought
r
adi
t
i
onal
medi
ci
nes
 Set
t
l
ementsetup
[
c]
.
Di
dt
hepol
i
t
i
calor
gani
zat
i
onoft
heZul
ust
at
ebenef
i
tt
heZul
unat
i
on?Expl
ai
ny
our
answer
.
[
i
]
.
Benef
i
t
sofTshaka’
spol
i
t
i
cal
or
gani
zat
i
on;
 Or
gani
zat
i
ononmi
l
i
t
ar
yl
i
nesst
r
engt
henedst
at
eagai
nstext
er
nal
aggr
essi
on
dur
i
ngMf
ecane
 Mi
l
i
t
ar
ypoweral
sonecessar
yf
orr
ai
dsonnei
ghbour
s
 Fost
er
eduni
t
yamongsty
oungadul
t
sr
ecr
ui
t
s/
r
ai
dedpeopl
e
 I
ti
ncapaci
t
at
edv
assal
chi
ef
sf
r
om r
ebel
l
i
ngt
hwar
t
i
ngci
v
i
l
war
s
[
i
i
]
.
Di
sadv
ant
ages/
NonBenef
i
t
s;
 Regi
ment
al
/
i
but
hosy
st
em r
esent
edbyy
oungmenf
ordel
ay
i
ngmar
r
i
ageandf
or
per
enni
al
war
f
ar
e
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em madeki
nganaut
ocr
at
i
cr
ul
erwhoi
gnor
edi
ndunas,
t
r
adi
t
i
onal
chi
ef
s’
adv
i
ce
[
June2011]
32[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xet
hni
cgr
oupst
hatexi
st
edsout
hoft
heLi
mpopo.
[
6]
 Zul
u,
Khumal
o,
Qhwabe
 Ndwandwe,
Mt
het
hwa,
Swazi
 Hl
ubi
,
Ngwane,
Mpondo.
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heef
f
ect
soft
heMf
ecanesout
hoft
heLi
mpopo.[
11]
 Depopul
at
i
on-l
ar
gear
easofNATAL,
Or
angeFr
eest
at
eandTr
ansv
aal
wer
el
ef
t
depopul
at
edaspeopl
esoughtsecur
i
t
yel
sewher
e
Page50of50
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 Lossofl
i
v
es–manypeopl
el
ostt
hei
rl
i
v
esaswar
f
ar
ewast
heor
deroft
heday
 Hungerandst
ar
v
at
i
on–f
ar
mi
ngwasdi
sr
upt
edandpeopl
er
esor
t
edt
osur
v
i
v
al
t
echni
quessuchasf
eedi
ngongamemeatandwi
l
df
r
ui
t
s
 Dest
r
uct
i
onofpr
oper
t
y–mostoft
heaf
f
ect
edgr
oupsl
ostt
hei
rv
al
uabl
epr
oper
t
i
es
i
ncl
udi
ngl
i
v
est
ockasr
ai
di
ngt
ooki
t
st
ol
l
 Uni
nhabi
t
edl
ands-at
t
r
act
edBoert
r
ekker
sf
r
om t
heCapeCol
ony
 Canni
bal
i
sm-casesofcanni
bal
i
sm i
ncr
easedduet
oshor
t
ageoff
ood
 Dest
r
uct
i
onofst
at
es–newandol
dst
at
eswer
edest
r
oy
ed
 Empi
r
ebui
l
di
ng-et
hni
cgr
oupswhi
chf
l
edt
heMf
ecanebui
l
tnewempi
r
ese,
g
Sobhuza
 Emer
gencyofdef
ensi
v
eki
ngdomssuchasSwazi
,
Bapedi
andBasot
ho
 Spr
eadofNguni
r
el
i
gi
one,
gI
nxwal
a
 Di
sr
upt
i
onofDel
agoaBayt
r
adewi
t
ht
hePor
t
uguese
 Spr
eadofNNguni
war
f
ar
et
act
i
cs
 Spr
eadofNguni
l
anguage
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entwast
heMf
ecaner
esponsi
bl
ef
ort
hef
al
l
ofki
ngdomsi
nCent
r
al
Af
r
i
ca?
Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
8]
Ef
f
ect
sofMf
ecanewar
s
 Mov
ement
sofv
ar
i
ousgr
oupsi
nsear
chofl
and
 Bet
t
erf
i
ght
i
ngmet
hods,
bet
t
erl
eadesr
shi
pqual
i
t
i
es
 UseofAssegai
andl
ongshi
el
dspr
ead
 Est
abl
i
shmentofmi
l
i
t
ar
yt
owns,
bet
t
erl
eadesr
shi
pmet
hods
 Rai
di
ngandi
ncor
por
at
i
onofdef
eat
edpeopl
e
 Hungerandst
ar
v
at
i
on,
wi
despr
eaddeat
hsanddest
r
uct
i
onofpr
oper
t
y
 Const
antf
aerofr
ebel
l
i
ousel
ement
s,
bet
t
erf
i
ght
i
ngmet
hods
Ot
heref
f
ect
s
 Successi
ondi
sput
es,
Ci
v
i
l
war
s
 Weakl
eader
shi
p,
dr
ought
 Decl
i
nei
nt
r
ade,
col
oni
al
i
sm
 Di
suni
t
y
,
mi
l
i
t
ar
yweakness
Page51of51
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TheNdebel
e St
at
e
[
NOV2003]
33.
[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanyt
hr
eegr
oupsandt
hei
rr
espect
i
v
el
eader
st
hatf
l
edf
r
om Tshakadur
i
ngt
he
Mf
ecane[
6]
 Ndebel
eMzi
l
i
kazi
 Ngoni
ZwangendabaJer
eNgoni
 ShanganeSoshangane
 Ngoni
MseneNxaba
[
b]
.
Descr
i
beMzi
l
i
kazi
’
sj
our
neyf
r
om Zul
ul
andt
oZi
mbabwe.
[
11]
 Mzi
l
i
kazi
wasachi
efoft
heKhumal
oundert
hel
eader
shi
pofShaka,
t
heZul
u
 Hef
l
edZul
ul
andaf
t
erhewasat
t
ackedbyTshaka’
sar
myf
orf
ai
l
i
ngt
osur
r
ender
l
oot
yt
ot
heki
ng
 I
n1822Mzi
l
i
kazi
cr
ossedt
heDr
akensbur
gmount
ai
nswi
t
habout300menand
women
 Ont
hei
rwayt
heyest
abl
i
shedset
t
l
ement
sandf
oughtv
ar
i
ousgr
oups
;
i
ncor
por
at
i
ngsomeoft
hem
 Ekuphumul
eni
i
ncor
por
at
edandr
ai
dedl
ocal
peopl
e.Mov
edf
r
om t
hi
spl
ace
ar
ound1826becauseofat
t
acksbyt
hePedi
,
near
nesst
oZul
uanddr
ought
s
 Mhl
ahl
andl
el
ai
nt
hekwenal
andr
ai
dedSot
hof
orpeopl
eanddomest
i
cani
mal
s.
Al
sor
ai
dedt
heTswana.
MetR.
Mof
f
atoft
heLondonMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
et
yandt
he
t
wobecamef
r
i
ends
 Lef
tMhl
ahl
andl
el
abecauseofext
er
nal
t
hr
eat
sf
r
om Di
ngane,
Kor
aKhoi
san,
Gr
i
quaandRol
ong,
andset
t
l
edar
oundt
heMar
i
coRi
v
eri
nabout1832.
 I
n1837Mzi
l
i
kazi
‘
scapi
t
al
Mosegawasat
t
ackedbymanygr
oupssuchast
he
Gr
i
quas,
Kor
aandBoer
s.Thi
sf
or
cedt
heNdebel
et
omov
enor
t
hwar
dsacr
osst
he
Li
mpopo,
af
t
erdi
v
i
di
ngupi
nt
ot
wogr
oups.
 TheNdebel
emov
edi
nt
wogr
oups;
mai
ngr
oupl
edbyaseni
ori
ndunaGundwane
Ndi
wenit
oget
herwi
t
hMzi
l
i
kazi
’
ssonNkul
umane;
t
hesmal
l
ergr
oupl
edby
Mzi
l
i
kazi
t
r
av
el
l
edwest
war
dsv
i
at
heTswanal
and.Themai
ngr
oupcr
ossedt
he
Li
mpopoRi
v
erandset
t
l
edi
nt
heRozv
i
count
r
yatDanangombe[
Dl
odl
ot
oday
]
af
t
erl
i
t
t
l
er
esi
st
ance.
 I
n1840t
het
wogr
oupsr
ej
oi
nedwhent
hei
ndunasoft
hemai
ngr
ouphaddeci
ded
t
oi
nst
al
l
Nkul
umaneast
hei
rnewki
ng.Mzi
l
i
kazi
r
egar
dedt
hi
sasanactof
t
r
easonandki
l
l
edt
hosei
nv
ol
v
ed.Mzi
l
i
kazi
wasano–nonsensebl
oodyl
eader
 Mzi
l
i
kazi
est
abl
i
shedhi
snewcapi
t
al
atI
ny
at
hi
andabsor
bedt
heShonapeopl
e
[
c]
.
Expl
ai
nwhyMzi
l
i
kazi
wasabl
et
ol
eadt
heNdebel
ef
orsol
ong
Page52of52
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Fact
or
swhyMzi
l
i
kazi
wasabl
et
ol
eadf
orsol
ong:
[
i
]
.
Super
i
ormi
l
i
t
ar
yt
act
i
cs
Mi
l
i
t
ar
yl
eader
shi
pofMzi
l
i
kazi
Ast
r
ongmi
l
i
t
ar
ysetupt
hatemphasi
zedl
oy
al
t
yt
oMzi
l
i
kazi
Def
eat
edgr
oupswer
ei
ncor
por
at
edi
nt
oNdebel
esoci
et
y
Hadsuper
i
orweapons
Anononsensest
r
ongmanofunpar
al
l
el
edabi
l
i
t
i
es
[
I
I
]
.
Hadf
r
i
endl
yr
el
at
i
onswi
t
hRober
tMof
f
at
-Tr
ust
edbyhi
speopl
ewhom hel
edf
ormanyy
ear
sandexper
i
encedpr
obl
emst
oget
her
-Thr
eat
sf
r
om enemi
eskeptt
hem t
oget
her
[
NOV2003]
34.
[
a]
.
Li
stsi
xact
i
v
i
t
i
est
hatf
or
medt
hebasi
soft
heNdebel
eeconomy
.
[
6]
 Cr
opcul
t
i
v
at
i
on
 Rear
i
ngofcat
t
l
e
 Tr
ade
 Rai
di
ngt
henei
ghbour
i
ngar
eas
 Tr
i
but
epay
ment
 Mi
ni
ng
 Hunt
i
ng
 Cr
af
t
wor
k[
bl
acksmi
t
hi
ng,
pot
t
er
y
]
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
candsoci
al
st
r
uct
ur
eoft
heNdebel
est
at
e.
[
11]
[
i
]
Economi
c
 Cr
opcul
t
i
v
at
i
onpr
act
i
cedespeci
al
l
ybyf
or
merShonamember
soft
hesoci
et
y
 Gr
ewmi
l
l
et
,
r
apokoandl
at
t
ermai
ze.Eachv
i
l
l
agehadacommonf
i
el
df
ort
heki
ng
whosepr
oducewentst
r
ai
ghtt
ot
her
oy
al
gr
anar
y
 Rear
i
ngofcat
t
l
epl
ay
edamaj
orr
ol
ei
nt
heeconomy
.aper
son’
sweal
t
hwas
measur
edbyt
henumberofcat
t
l
et
heypossessed.Mostcat
t
l
ebel
ongedt
ot
heki
ng
 Tr
adei
v
or
y
,
gol
d,
cat
t
l
eandgr
ai
nexchangedf
orcl
ot
h,
beadsandguns
 Rai
dsofnei
ghbour
i
ngar
easy
i
el
dedweal
t
hsuchasgr
ai
nandcat
t
l
e
 Tr
i
but
epai
dbysubj
ect
sandsubduedst
at
eswhopai
dt
oav
oi
dbei
ngr
ai
ded
 Mi
ni
ngofgol
dandi
r
onal
soi
mpor
t
ant
/
bl
acksmi
t
hi
ng
Page53of53
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[
i
i
]
.
Soci
al
 Ndebel
esoci
et
yhad3cl
asses
 Zansi
pur
eNguni
 Enhl
aSot
ho,
Tswanawho wer
ei
ncor
por
at
edwhi
l
ei
nSout
hAf
r
i
ca
 Hol
eShonawhower
econquer
edandi
ncor
por
at
edi
nt
ot
heNdebel
esoci
et
y
 For
m ofcast
esy
st
em pr
act
i
cedl
owercl
assmenpr
ohi
bi
t
edt
omar
r
yuppercl
ass
women
 Rel
i
gi
oussy
st
em/
pol
y
gamy
/
ukul
agi
sa
 Zansi
pr
ov
i
dedt
her
ul
i
ngcl
ass
 I
nt
er
mar
r
i
agepr
act
i
ced,
l
anguageandi
nt
er
mar
r
i
agepr
omot
eduni
t
y
,
ageset
s
 Lowercl
asspeopl
ewer
enotal
l
owedt
or
i
sei
nt
hemi
l
i
t
ar
yr
anks
[
c]
.
Wast
hesoci
al
st
r
uct
ur
ebenef
i
ci
al
t
oal
l
t
hepeopl
ei
nt
heNdebel
est
at
e?Expl
ai
ny
our
answer
.
[
i
]
BENEFI
TS:
 Ukul
agi
sa–f
or
geduni
t
yandal
l
egi
ance
 Languageandi
nt
er
mar
r
i
agepr
omot
eduni
t
y
 Al
l
peopl
ei
nt
heexpect
edt
of
ol
l
owNdebel
ecust
omsandspeakNdebel
el
anguage
 Ndebel
eadopt
edShonar
el
i
gi
on
 Ageset
sal
sopr
omot
eduni
t
y
[
i
i
]
NONBENEFI
TS:
 Cast
esy
st
em wasdi
v
i
si
v
e
 Rai
di
ngwasdi
v
i
si
v
e
 Shona/
Hol
enotal
l
owedt
or
i
set
ohi
ghmi
l
i
t
ar
yr
anks
 Hol
epr
ohi
bi
t
edt
omar
r
ycl
asswomen
[
NOV2004]
35.
[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xgr
oupswhi
cht
heNdebel
ef
oughtont
hei
rwayt
owest
er
nZi
mbabwe.
[
6]
Zul
u,Kor
a,Gr
i
qua,Taung,Tswana,Boer
s,Kol
ol
o,Sot
ho.
[
b]
.
Gi
v
eanaccountoft
heNdebel
emi
gr
at
i
ont
owest
er
nZi
mbabwebet
ween1822and
1840.
[
11]
 Mzi
l
i
kaziwasl
eaderoft
heKhumal
owi
t
hi
nt
heZul
ust
at
e
Page54of54
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 I
n1821Mzi
l
i
kazi
r
ef
usedt
ohandhandov
erboot
yt
oTshakaasr
equi
r
ed.Tshakasent
anar
myt
opuni
shMzi
l
i
l
kazi
whi
chr
esul
t
edi
nawar
.Mzi
l
i
kazi
f
l
edi
nt
ot
hei
nt
er
i
or
cr
ossi
ngt
heDr
akensbur
gwi
t
haKhumal
ogr
oupofnotmor
et
han300peopl
e.
 Set
t
l
edatEkuphumul
eni
i
nabout1824,
r
ai
dedl
ocal
peopl
e,
capt
ur
i
ngwomenand
chi
l
dr
eni
nor
dert
oi
ncr
easehi
speopl
e
 Sot
hor
ef
er
r
edt
ot
hem asmat
abel
eor
i
gi
noft
hei
rname
 Bet
ween1825and1829Mzi
l
i
kazi
mov
edf
r
om ekuphumul
eni
t
oCent
r
al
Tr
ansv
aal
,
set
t
l
edatEmhl
ahl
andl
el
a
 Foughtwi
t
ht
heZul
usentbyDi
ngane,
Gr
i
qua,
Boer
sandot
hergr
oups
 MetRober
tMof
f
atatKur
uman
 Set
t
l
edatMosegabet
ween1833and1837.
For
cedt
of
l
eebecauseofat
t
acksby
Boer
s,
Tswana,
Gr
i
quasandZul
ui
n1838
 Bef
or
ecr
ossi
ngt
heLi
mpopoRi
v
er
,
t
heNdebel
espl
i
ti
nt
ot
wogr
oups,
onegr
oupl
ed
byMzi
l
i
kazi
whi
chwentv
i
at
heTswanacount
r
y
,
andt
hesecondgr
oupl
edbyan
i
ndunaNdi
weni
Gundwanewast
hebi
ggerwi
t
hNkul
umane,
hei
rappar
ent
 Thegr
oupl
edbyNdi
weni
ar
r
i
v
edi
nwest
er
nZi
mbabwei
n1840andsubduedt
he
l
ocal
peopl
eRozv
i
oft
heMoy
ot
ot
em
 Mzi
l
i
kazi
’
sgr
oupar
r
i
v
edl
at
eraf
t
eraboutay
earandr
euni
t
edwi
t
ht
heot
hergr
oup
af
t
erabi
t
t
erci
v
i
l
war
,
execut
i
onofr
ebel
s
 Est
abl
i
shednewcapi
t
al
atI
ny
at
hi
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entwer
et
heKhumal
oaf
f
ect
edbyt
hi
smi
gr
at
i
on?
 Mar
r
i
agewomenofot
hergr
oupsj
oi
nedt
hem
 Col
l
ect
i
v
enameoft
hest
at
ebecameNdebel
ef
r
om t
henamegi
v
ent
ot
hem bySot
ho.
Thi
sav
oi
deddi
v
i
si
onandf
ost
er
eduni
t
y
 War
swi
t
hmany–becameawar
eoft
heef
f
ect
sofguns
 Est
abl
i
shedf
r
i
endshi
pwi
t
hRober
tMof
f
at
aChr
i
st
i
anmi
ssi
onar
y
 Adapt
edt
ocul
t
ur
al
pat
t
er
nsofot
herpeopl
eespeci
al
l
yt
heshona
 Languagekepti
nt
act
,
wi
t
hmi
noraddi
t
i
ons
 Mai
nt
ai
nedt
hei
rsuper
i
or
i
t
y
t
heZansi
gr
oup,
butcr
eat
edt
woot
hergr
oups
 Ar
myt
act
i
csandt
y
peofweaponsst
i
l
l
usedwhent
heyar
r
i
v
edi
nwest
er
nZi
mbabwe
 Mzi
l
i
kazi
st
i
l
l
t
hel
eader
,
andr
emai
nedoneunt
i
l
1868
 Becamel
essandl
essdependentonr
ai
di
ngandset
t
l
eddownt
osubsi
st
encef
ar
mi
ng
 Tr
adedi
sr
upt
ed/
di
st
ur
bed
 Const
antf
earofr
ebel
l
i
onsf
r
om t
heabsor
bedgr
oups
Page55of55
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 Execut
i
onofr
ebel
s
[
NOV2005]
36.
[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xgr
oupst
hatMzi
l
i
kazi
f
oughtSout
hoft
heLi
mpopoRi
v
erupt
o1836.
[
6]
Dzudza,
Kwena,Pedi
,
Hur
ut
se,
Gr
i
qua,
Boer
,
Sot
ho,
Tswana,
Kor
a,
Tl
api
ni
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hef
act
or
swhi
chl
edMzi
l
i
kazi
t
oabandont
hev
ar
i
ousset
t
l
ement
ssout
hoft
he
Li
mpopo
Ri
v
er[
11]
 Ndebel
eset
t
l
ement
satekuphumul
eni
 Wasneart
heupperOl
i
f
ant
sRi
v
er
 I
nNdzundzaar
ea
 Ekuphumul
eni
wast
ooneart
heZul
uandt
hePedi
 Wasmeantasr
est
i
ngpl
ace
 Lackedenoughpast
ur
eespeci
al
l
yaf
t
erdr
oughtof1823
 Al
soabandonedbecausei
twast
oocl
oset
oZul
ul
and.Zul
uwar
r
i
or
sat
t
acked
Ndebel
ei
n1830
 Ot
herNdebel
eenemi
esi
ncl
udedKor
a,
Gr
i
qua,
andRol
ongwhohadguns
 Nex
tNdebel
eset
t
l
ement
swasMosegaar
oundt
heMar
i
coR,
Pl
acewascl
oset
o
Mzi
l
i
kazi
’
sf
r
i
endRober
tMof
f
at
 Wasgoodcat
t
l
ecount
r
y
,
her
eNdebel
ewer
eat
t
ackedbyGr
i
quaandKor
aaswel
l
as
t
r
ekBoer
sunderHedr
i
ckPot
gi
et
er
1837
 Fi
nal
l
yat
t
acksf
r
om Boer
s,
Gr
i
qua,
Tl
okwa,
Rol
ongf
or
cedMzi
l
i
kazi
andt
heNdebel
e
t
ocr
ossLi
mpopoi
nt
omoder
nZi
mbabwe.
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
heseset
t
l
ement
scont
r
i
but
et
ot
hebui
l
di
ngoft
heNdebel
enat
i
on?
[
i
]
.
I
mpor
t
antofset
t
l
ement
si
nbui
l
di
ngofNdebel
enat
i
on.
 Ar
oundt
heset
t
l
ement
sMzi
l
i
kazi
haddef
eat
edl
ocal
i
nhabi
t
ant
sHur
ut
se,
Kwena,
Sot
hoNdzundzaabsor
bedt
hem t
oswel
l
upnumber
sofhi
sgr
oup.
 Khumal
ogi
v
enNdebel
ebySot
hoTswana
 Rai
dsonnei
ghbour
sy
i
el
dedcat
t
l
e,
gr
ai
nf
orNdebel
eeconomy
 Boy
sofmi
l
i
t
ar
yagef
orhi
sager
egi
ment
s
[
i
i
]
.
Ot
herf
act
or
s;
 Mzi
l
i
kaziwasageni
usasami
l
i
t
ar
yl
eader
 Al
sohadpol
i
t
i
cal
wi
sdom
 Weaknessesofot
hergr
oupi
ncor
por
at
ed
Page56of56
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 Mar
r
i
ageal
l
i
ances,
l
anguageuni
t
edt
hepeopl
e
 Cont
i
nuoushar
dshi
pshel
pedt
hem t
obui
l
duni
t
y
 Hi
sf
r
i
endshi
pwi
t
hR.Mof
f
at
[
JUNE2006]
37.
[
a]
.
Namet
het
hr
eeNdebel
esoci
al
cl
assesandt
hegr
oupsofpeopl
ewhi
chbel
onged
t
oeachoft
hem.
[
6]
 Zansi
or
i
gi
nal
Nguni
orKhumal
of
r
om Zul
ul
and
 Enhl
aSot
ho–Tswanaabsor
bedsout
hofLi
mpopoRi
v
er
 Hol
eKal
anga/
Shona/
Rozv
i
absor
bedi
nZi
mbabwe
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heShonaNdebel
er
el
at
i
onsbet
ween1840and1868.
[
11]
.
 Tr
i
but
ar
yr
el
at
i
onsShonachi
ef
doms–semi
i
ndependentpai
dt
r
i
but
eassecur
i
t
yt
o
pr
ev
entr
ai
ds
 War
sofconquest
sNdebel
eexpl
oi
t
edShonadi
v
i
si
onsbutal
sot
r
adedwi
t
hShonat
o
getgr
ai
n
 Shonei
nNdebel
ecent
r
al
st
at
ei
dent
i
f
i
edwi
t
hNdebel
e,
wer
er
egar
dedasl
owcl
ass
ser
v
ant
sofNdebel
e
 Cat
t
l
eal
l
i
ancesNdebel
eki
ngl
oanedcat
t
l
et
oShonachi
ef
st
omai
nt
ai
npeace/
ensur
e
accesst
ot
r
ader
out
esi
nZambezi
Val
l
ey
 Tr
i
but
ar
ychi
ef
domsal
sosuppl
i
edNdebel
ewi
t
hl
abourandboy
sofmi
l
i
t
ar
yageas
wel
l
asbeaut
i
f
ul
women
 Ndebel
egov
er
nor
sputi
nchar
geoft
r
i
but
ar
ychi
ef
doms
 I
nr
ar
ecasest
r
ust
edt
r
i
but
ar
ychi
ef
sr
ecogni
z
edasi
ndunas
 I
nt
er
mar
r
i
age
Rai
di
ngar
eaShonachi
ef
s;
 Rai
dedi
nar
easofMangwende,
Mashay
amombe,
Chi
namor
a,
Masv
i
ngoet
cf
orboot
y
suchasgr
ai
n,
cat
t
l
e,
women
 1850Mut
i
nhi
maRozv
i
hei
rr
al
l
i
edShonat
or
esi
stNdebel
edemandsf
orl
abour
 1868Mzi
l
i
kazi
f
i
nal
l
ysubduedRozv
i
capt
ur
i
ngSi
bambamu,
t
hel
astRozv
i
hei
r
 Ndebel
eadopt
edShonar
el
i
gi
on
[
c]
.
Howf
ar
wer
et
her
el
at
i
onsbet
weent
heShonaandt
heNdebel
edet
er
mi
nedbyNdebel
e
economi
cneeds?
Ndebel
eShonar
el
at
i
onsandNdebel
eeconomy
Page57of57
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 Ndebel
eShonar
el
at
i
onsl
ar
gel
ydi
ct
at
edbyNdebel
eeconomi
cneedse,
gt
r
i
but
ar
y
chi
ef
domspai
dt
r
i
but
e,
suppl
i
edl
abourt
oNdebel
e,
boy
sofmi
l
i
t
ar
yage
 Cat
t
l
eal
l
i
ancesensur
edpast
ur
esf
orNdebel
ecat
t
l
e
 Annual
r
ai
dsonShonaf
orboot
y
,
cat
t
l
e,
women,
gr
ai
n
 Accesst
ot
r
ader
out
es
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Cat
t
l
eal
l
i
ancesser
v
edt
opr
ev
entconf
l
i
ct
/
peacef
ul
coexi
st
ence
 Tr
i
but
ar
ychi
ef
domsspar
edr
ai
ds
 Rai
dsonShonaal
someantt
or
emov
et
hr
eat
sofat
t
ack
 Shoneeconomi
cneedsal
sonecessi
t
edr
ai
dsofNdebel
e
 Cat
t
l
e–r
el
i
gi
ousneeds,
Ndebel
eadopt
edShonar
el
i
gi
on,
egr
ai
nmaki
ngcer
emoni
es
[
NOV2006]
38.(
a)Li
stanysi
xi
t
emst
hatt
heNdebel
eKi
ngr
ecei
v
edast
r
i
but
ef
r
om nei
ghbour
i
ng
chi
ef
doms.(
6)
 Gr
ai
n,
gol
d,
ski
ns,
cat
t
l
e,
goat
s,
i
r
ont
ool
s,
guns,
cl
ot
h,
l
abour
,
ost
r
i
chf
eat
her
s,
beads,
women,
boy
s,
chi
nawar
e,
i
v
or
y
(
b)Descr
i
bet
hesoci
al
andr
el
i
gi
ouspr
act
i
cesoft
heNdebel
eupt
o1893.
(
11)
Soci
al
 Mar
r
i
age-pol
y
gamypr
act
i
ced.Menal
l
owedt
omar
r
yaf
t
erbei
ngsuccessf
ul
i
nwar
.
Cat
t
l
eusedi
nmar
r
i
age
 I
nxwal
a-a0t
hanksgi
v
i
ngcer
emonyf
orgoodcr
opst
obeobser
v
edbyev
er
y
onei
nt
he
st
at
e
 Soci
et
ydi
v
i
dedi
nt
ocl
asses-Zansi
Enhl
aandAmahol
e
 Peopl
ei
nt
hest
at
eencour
agedt
ospeakt
heNdebel
el
anguage
 Mar
r
i
agebet
weent
heZansi
andot
hercl
assesnotal
l
owed,
buti
npr
act
i
cepeopl
e
mar
r
i
edacr
osscl
asses
 Ukusi
sa
 Set
t
l
ementpat
t
er
n
 Pat
r
i
l
i
nealsoci
et
y
[
l
i
neage]
,
ex
t
endedf
ami
l
y
 Di
v
i
si
onofl
abour
Rel
i
gi
ous
 Bel
i
ev
edi
nancest
r
al
spi
r
i
t
s(
amadl
ozi
)whi
cht
heybel
i
ev
edl
ookedaf
t
ert
hem and
Page58of58
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br
oughtr
ai
n
 Bel
i
ev
edi
nt
heGr
eatGod,
Ml
i
moorMwar
i
 Seni
ormember
soft
heKhumal
obel
i
ev
edt
obei
mpor
t
antr
ai
nmaker
s
 Ndebel
er
espect
edmedi
umsoft
hegr
eatShonaspi
r
i
t
spai
dt
r
i
but
et
ot
hem
 I
nxwal
acer
emoni
es
 Ki
ngasar
el
i
gi
ousl
eader
 Khumal
oadopt
edandmadeuseoft
heShonar
ai
nmaki
ng
 Tr
adi
t
i
onal
woul
df
or
t
i
f
yt
hear
mybef
or
egoi
ngt
owar
(
c)
Howf
ardi
dt
heNdebel
er
el
i
gi
ouspr
act
i
cescont
r
i
but
et
ot
heUni
t
yoft
hest
at
e?
Expl
ai
ny
our Answer
.
(
8)
(
i
)Rel
i
gi
ouspr
act
i
cescont
r
i
but
i
ont
ouni
t
y
 I
nxwal
acer
emoni
esbr
oughtpeopl
e
 Abl
et
or
enewt
hepoweroft
heki
ngwi
t
ht
r
adi
t
i
onal
medi
ums
 Commonbel
i
ef
si
nMl
i
mobr
oughtpeopl
et
oget
her
 Ndebel
eandShonawor
kedt
oget
herasar
esul
tofcommonbel
i
efandr
espectf
or
gr
eatShonaspi
r
i
t
s
(
i
i
)Ot
herf
act
or
sal
socont
r
i
but
ed
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
or
gani
zat
i
on
 Ukusi
sa
 Local
t
r
ade
 i
nt
er
mar
r
i
ages
 Agesetr
egi
ment
s
 Speaki
ngofNdebel
el
anguage
 Di
st
r
i
but
i
onoft
r
i
but
eandr
ai
dedi
t
ems[
boot
y
]
[
NOV2009]
39(
a)I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xgr
oupswhi
chcl
ashedwi
t
ht
heNdebel
edur
i
ngt
hei
rmov
ementf
r
om
Zul
ul
and.
(
6)
(
a)Zul
u,
Hur
ut
she,
Sot
ho,
Khoi
san,
Boer
s,
Kor
a,
Tswana,
Thl
api
n,
Gr
i
guas,
Kwena,
Pedi
,
TLokwa,
Rol
ong,
Ndzundza
(
b)Descr
i
bet
heNdebel
emov
ementf
r
om Mosegat
owest
er
nZi
mbabwe
(
11)
Page59of59
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(
b)Mov
ement
 Ndebel
eatMosegaadv
i
sedbyMof
f
att
omov
eNor
t
h
 Ndebel
ewer
eat
t
ackedbyacombi
nedf
or
ceofBoer
s,
Gr
i
guasandSot
ho,
Zul
u
 Topr
ot
ecthi
speopl
e,
Mzi
l
i
kazi
mov
edaway
 Ndebel
espl
i
ti
nt
ot
wo;
onegr
oupl
edbyMzi
l
i
kazi
wentv
i
apr
esentdayBot
swana
 Thesecondgr
oupl
edbyGundwanet
r
av
el
l
edN/
Ecr
ossi
ngt
heLi
mpopo(
1838)
 Mzi
l
i
kazi
andhi
speopl
ewentasf
arasZambezi
 Gr
oupdeci
dednott
opr
oceed:
di
f
f
i
cul
tt
ocr
osst
heZambezi
;
f
earoft
hekol
ol
oand
at
t
acksbyt
set
sef
l
y
 Gundwane’
sgr
oupset
t
l
edi
nWest
er
nZi
mbabweamongt
heShonawhodi
dnotr
esi
st
much
 Af
t
ermor
et
hant
woy
ear
sofsepar
at
i
on,
Gundwane’
sgr
oupt
houghtMzi
l
i
kazi
woul
d
notcomebacksoi
twasdeci
dedt
ochooseanot
herki
ng.Nkul
umane,
Mzi
l
i
kazi
’
s
el
destsonbecame
 WhenMzi
l
i
kazi
r
ej
oi
nedt
hegr
oupi
n1840,
her
egar
dedt
hi
sactast
r
eason.Heki
l
l
ed
t
hoser
esponsi
bl
e
 Mzi
l
i
kazi
set
t
l
edatI
ny
at
hi
(
c)
Whydi
dt
heNdebel
eset
t
l
ei
nWest
er
nZi
mbabwe?
(
8)
(
c)i
.Pul
l
f
act
or
s
 Tset
sef
r
eear
ea
 Weakshone
 Goodpast
ur
es
 I
nt
er
nal
t
r
ade
 Av
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yofr
esour
cese.
gwi
l
dl
i
f
e
I
iPushf
act
or
s
 Dr
i
v
enawaybyenemi
ese.
gBoer
s,
Kor
ana,
Gr
i
guas,
Zul
uet
c
 Exhaust
i
onf
r
om pr
ev
i
ouswar
s
 Adv
i
sedbyRober
tMof
f
at
[
NOV2007]
40.
[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xi
t
emsusedbyt
heShonat
opayt
r
i
but
et
ot
heNdebel
eKi
ng.
[
6]
Li
v
est
ock[
cat
t
l
e,
goat
s]
,
gr
ai
n,
ani
mal
ski
ns,
i
r
ont
ool
s,
t
obacco,f
i
r
ewood,l
abour
,
gol
d,
i
v
or
y
,
pot
t
er
y
,copper
,
y
oungboy
sandgi
r
l
scl
ot
h,
seashel
l
s
Page60of60
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[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hepol
i
t
i
cal
andsoci
al
sy
st
emsoft
heNdebel
eSt
at
e
[
11]
[
i
]
.
Pol
i
t
i
cal
sy
st
em;
 Ndebel
est
at
ehi
ghl
ycent
r
al
i
zed,
l
essv
asti
nar
ea
 Theki
ngwasanabsol
ut
er
ul
er
,
hi
ghestj
udge,
commander–i
nchi
efoft
hear
my
,
r
el
i
gi
ousl
eaderanddi
st
r
i
but
orofl
and
 Ki
ngr
ul
edwi
t
hhel
poft
woadv
i
sor
ycounci
l
st
heMphakat
hiofsel
ect
edchi
ef
sand
r
oy
al
f
ami
l
ymember
sandt
hei
zi
khul
uconsi
st
i
ngofal
l
chi
ef
s
 St
at
edi
v
i
dedi
nt
or
egi
ment
al
set
t
l
ement
sordi
st
r
i
ct
seachunderani
nduna.Di
st
r
i
ct
sf
el
l
undercont
r
ol
ofoneoft
hef
ourpr
ov
i
nci
al
i
ndunaenkul
u
 Regi
onal
gov
er
nor
si
nf
or
medki
ngonaf
f
ai
r
sofpr
ov
i
nces
 Conquer
edShonagr
oupspai
dt
r
i
but
e
 Ther
ewasast
andi
ngar
my,
200wi
v
es,
el
ect
edashi
sey
esear
s
[
i
i
]
.
Ndebel
eSoci
al
sy
st
em
 Ndebel
esoci
et
ywasdi
v
i
dedi
nt
ot
hr
eecl
asses/
cast
s:
TheZansi
t
hehi
ghestcl
ass–t
heor
i
gi
nal
Nguni
f
r
om Nguni
l
and;
t
heEnhl
aconsi
st
i
ng
oft
heSot
hoandTswanaf
r
om t
heTr
ansv
aal
andt
hel
owestcl
asst
heHol
ecapt
ur
ed
i
nZi
mbabwe[
Shona/
Rozv
i
]
 Mar
r
i
ageacr
osscast
el
i
nedi
scour
agedbutmar
r
i
aget
ookpl
ace
 Ndebel
ebel
i
ev
edi
nHi
ghGodNkul
unkul
u
 Al
sobegant
owor
shi
pSot
hogodMl
i
moandt
hei
rancest
or
sMadl
ozi
 Adopt
edShonaMhondor
or
ai
nmaki
ngr
el
i
gi
ouspr
act
i
ces
 Pr
act
i
cedI
nxwal
a-f
i
r
stf
r
ui
t
scer
emony
 Ukusi
sa
 Owner
shi
pofcat
t
l
ewasast
at
ussy
mbol
,
pay
mentofl
obol
a,
earpi
er
ci
ng
 Ndebel
er
ecogni
zedast
heof
f
i
ci
al
l
anguage
 Di
v
i
si
onofl
abour
 Pat
r
i
l
i
neal
soci
et
y
 Pol
y
gamy
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
heNdebel
esoci
al
sy
st
em cont
r
i
but
est
ot
heuni
t
yoft
hest
at
e?
[
i
]
.
Cont
r
i
but
i
onofsoci
al
sy
st
em t
ouni
t
y
 I
nxwal
acer
emony
at
t
endedbyr
epr
esent
at
i
v
esf
r
om al
l
gr
oups,
wasauni
f
y
i
ng
cer
emony
Page61of61
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 Maf
i
ascat
t
l
eensur
edl
oy
al
t
yofdef
eat
edShonachi
ef
st
oNdebel
eki
ng
 Adopt
i
ngofShonaMhondor
ocul
tsy
st
em al
souni
t
edNdebel
eandShona
 I
nt
er
mar
r
i
ages
 UseofNdebel
el
anguage
[
i
i
]
.
Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 Agesetr
egi
ment
suni
t
edal
l
boy
sofmi
l
i
t
ar
yageassol
di
er
soft
heki
ng
 Tr
i
but
epay
ment
 Speaki
ngofNdebel
el
anguagemadeal
l
peopl
et
or
egar
dt
hemsel
v
esasNdebel
e
 Tr
ade
(
Nov2010)
41.
(
a)
.
Nameanysi
xgr
oupst
hatt
heNdebel
ef
oughtsout
hoft
heLi
mpopoRi
v
er
.(
6)
 Zul
u,
Pedi
,
Boer
s,
Gr
i
qua,
Hur
ut
se
 Taung,
Kor
a,
Sot
ho,
Tl
okwa
 Tswana,
Rol
ong,
Khoi
san,
 Kwena,
Tl
api
n,
Gwaket
se.
(
b)
.
Descr
i
bet
heNdebel
emi
gr
at
i
onf
r
om t
heTr
ansv
aal
andt
hei
rset
t
l
ementi
n
West
er
nZi
mbabwebet
ween1837and1840.
(
11)
 Ndebel
edef
eat
edbyacombi
nedf
or
ceofBoer
s,
Gr
i
qua,
Kor
aandTl
okwa.
 Rai
dedbyDi
ngane’
sZul
u
 Mzi
l
i
kazi
di
v
i
dedhi
speopl
ei
nt
ot
wogr
oups;
mai
ngr
oupl
edbyI
nduna
GundwaneNdi
weni
,
i
ncl
udedol
dpeopl
e,
chi
l
dr
en,
Mzi
l
i
kazi
’
swi
v
esand
l
i
v
est
ock.I
tal
soi
ncl
udedMzi
l
i
kazi
’
ssonsNkul
umane,
t
hehei
rappar
entand
Lobengul
a.Thegr
oupf
ol
l
owedashor
t
err
out
e,
cr
ossi
ngt
heMacl
out
si
Ri
v
er
,
andShasheRi
v
er
,
andf
ol
l
owedMzi
ngwaneRi
v
erv
al
l
ey
.Set
t
l
edatGi
bi
xhegu
nearMat
oposHi
l
l
s.Hav
i
ngdespai
r
edoff
i
ndi
ngMzi
l
i
kazi
t
hegr
oupi
nst
al
l
ed
Nkul
umaneaski
ng.
 Thesmal
l
ergr
oupwasl
edbyMzi
l
i
kazi
andMaqhekeni
St
hol
eandot
her
chi
ef
s.Tr
av
el
l
edwest
war
dst
hr
oughNgwat
ot
er
r
i
t
or
y
.Theyt
ur
ned
nor
t
hwar
dst
ot
heZambezi
i
npur
sui
toft
heKol
ol
o.Fai
l
edt
odef
eatt
heKol
ol
o.
Tur
nedsout
hwar
dsi
nor
dert
omeett
hemai
ngr
oup.Mzi
l
i
kazi
hear
dof
i
nst
al
l
at
i
onofNkul
umaneaski
ng.Her
ushedt
oGi
bi
xhegu.Ndi
weni
andot
her
chi
ef
sr
esponsi
bl
ef
ori
nst
al
l
i
ngwer
eexecut
edf
ort
r
eason.Nkul
umane’
sf
at
e
i
suncl
earbutsomesayhewasexi
l
ed.
 Mzi
l
i
kazi
est
abl
i
shedhi
scapi
t
al
atI
ny
at
hi
nearmoder
nBul
away
o.
Page62of62
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 Mzi
l
i
kazi
mar
r
i
edNy
amazana,
aNgoni
l
eaderwhohadbr
okenawayf
r
om
Zwangendaba.
 Bl
owt
oRozv
i
,
t
hel
ocal
Shonapeopl
eof
f
er
edl
essr
esi
st
anceandf
el
l
under
Mzi
l
i
kazi
’
scont
r
ol
.
(
c)
.
Di
dt
heNdebel
eset
t
l
ementi
nwest
er
nZi
mbabwebr
i
ngsecur
i
t
yt
ot
heNdebel
est
at
e?
Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.(
8)
Secur
i
t
y
 Set
t
l
edi
nt
heRozv
i
count
r
ywher
et
her
ewasl
i
t
t
l
er
esi
st
ance
 Mar
r
i
edNy
amazana,
aNgoni
l
eaderwhohadki
l
l
edt
heRozv
i
ki
ng,
Chi
r
i
samur
ui
i
 Abl
et
ocr
ushi
nt
er
nal
r
ebel
l
i
ons
 Nei
ghbour
i
ngTswanawer
eweak
 Tr
adewi
t
ht
hel
ocal
peopl
e
 Farawayf
r
om Boer
s,
Gr
i
quaorZul
us.
 Av
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yofr
esour
ces,
past
ur
es,
f
av
our
abl
ecl
i
mat
e,
f
er
t
i
l
esoi
l
s.
 Fr
eef
r
om t
set
sef
l
i
es
I
nsecur
i
t
y
 Rozv
i
r
esi
st
edNdebel
ei
nt
r
usi
on-somemov
edaway
.
 I
ndependentShonachi
ef
domst
ot
heeastr
esi
st
edNdebel
er
ai
ds.
 Conf
l
i
ct
swi
t
ht
heNgwat
oov
erpast
ur
es.
 Ndebel
ewer
er
ai
dedbyt
heBoer
sf
r
om Tr
ansv
aal
 Ar
eawaspr
onet
odr
ought
 I
nf
i
l
t
r
at
i
onoft
r
ader
s,
hunt
er
s,
expl
or
er
sandconcessi
onseeker
s.
 I
nv
asi
onbyBSAC.
[
Nov2011]
42.
[
a]
.
Namet
hr
eeset
t
l
ement
sest
abl
i
shedbyt
heNdebel
esout
hoft
heLi
mpopor
i
v
er
,
and
anyonegr
oupofpeopl
et
heyf
oughtateachoft
heseset
t
l
ement
s.
[
6]
 Ekuphumul
eni
—Ndzudza,
Pedi
 Mhl
ahl
andl
el
a—Sot
ho,
Tswana,
Kor
a,
Kwena,
Gr
i
qua,
Rol
ong,
Zul
u
 MosegaHur
ut
se,
Boer
s,
Gr
i
qua,
Zul
u,
Khoi
san
 Enqugwi
ni
Zul
u,
Hur
ut
se,
Gr
i
qua,
Boer
s
 Eni
naneni
Zul
u,
Hur
ut
se,
Gr
i
qua,
Boer
s
Page63of63
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 Egabeni
—Kkor
a,
Sot
ho,
Tswana,
Zul
u.
 Tsweny
ane—Hur
ut
se,
Boer
s,
Gr
i
qua,
Zul
u,
Kor
a,
Khoi
san.
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hepr
obl
emsf
acedbyt
heNdebel
edur
i
ngt
hei
rmi
gr
at
i
onf
r
om Nguni
l
andt
o
west
er
nZi
mbabwe.
[
11]
 Lackofgr
azi
ngar
eas
 Lackoff
ood
 Dr
ought
s
 War
swi
t
ht
hePedi
,
Zul
u,
Gr
i
qua,
Rol
ong,
Boer
set
c
 Lossofl
i
v
est
ockegCat
t
l
e
 Lossofl
i
v
es.Manypeopl
ewer
eki
l
l
eddur
i
ngwar
s
 Ndebel
ehomeswer
ebur
nt
 Rebel
l
i
ons
 Di
seseasese,
gMal
ar
i
a
 Tset
sef
l
ypr
obl
em
 At
t
acksf
r
om wi
l
dani
mal
s
 Di
st
r
upt
i
onoft
r
adeandf
ar
mi
ngact
i
v
i
t
i
es
 Dr
i
nki
ngwat
er
 Li
v
edi
nconst
antf
earofat
t
acks
 Popul
at
i
onr
educed
 Longdi
st
ancesl
edt
of
at
i
gue
 Cr
ossi
ngmount
ai
nse,
gDr
akensbur
gwasapr
obl
em
 Capt
ur
eofwomen,
Chi
l
dr
enbyot
hergr
oups
 Langugepr
obl
emsduet
oi
ncor
por
at
i
onofmanygr
oups
 I
nf
er
i
or
i
t
yofweaponst
oot
hergr
oupsegBoer
s.
 Pr
obl
emscr
ossi
ngl
ar
ger
i
v
er
s
 Cul
t
ur
al
di
l
ut
i
on-l
anguagepr
obl
emsonmi
xi
ngwi
t
hot
her
s.
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dwar
swi
t
hot
hergr
oupsuni
t
et
heNdebel
e? [
8]
Uni
t
yasar
esul
tofwar
 Cr
eat
eaf
or
mi
dabl
edef
ence
 Pr
ot
ectt
hei
rpr
oper
t
y
Page64of64
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 Cr
eat
east
r
ongr
ai
di
ngar
my
 Fearofat
t
acksf
r
om t
heZul
u
 Est
abl
i
shast
r
ongnat
i
on
Uni
t
ycausedbyot
herf
act
or
s
 Fewi
nnumber
s/numer
i
cal
i
nf
er
i
or
i
t
ybr
oughtuni
t
y
 I
nxwal
af
est
i
v
al
 FearofMzi
l
i
kazi
 Language
 Abl
el
eader
shi
pofMzi
l
i
kazi
 Weaknessofconquer
edl
ocal
gr
oups
 I
nt
er
mar
r
i
ages
 Tr
i
but
e
 Har
dshi
pst
hatt
heyf
aced
 Tr
ademaf
i
assy
st
em
PORTUGUESEI
NZI
MBABWE
[
Speci
men]
43.
[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
ysi
xt
r
adecent
r
esest
abl
i
shedbyt
hePor
t
ugueseont
heMozambi
can
coast
andi
nt
hei
nt
er
i
oroft
heMut
apaSt
at
e.
[
6]
.
 Sof
al
a
 Bei
r
a
 Quel
i
mane
 Luanze
 Bukut
u
 Sena
 Tet
e
[
b]
.Descr
i
bet
het
r
adebet
weent
hePor
t
ugueseandt
heZi
mbabweansoci
et
i
esi
n
t
h
t
he16 and17t
hcent
ur
i
es.
[
11]
.
 Por
t
ugueset
r
ader
smadecont
actwi
t
hMut
apast
at
ei
n1505whent
heybui
l
t
f
or
tSof
al
a.
Page65of65
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 Atf
i
r
stt
r
adewast
hr
ought
heSwahi
l
i
ort
hei
ragent
s,
t
hev
ashambadzi
.
 Gol
dwasmai
nex
por
tf
r
om Mut
apaki
ngdom
 Por
t
uguesedev
el
opedi
nt
er
estt
oent
ert
hei
nt
er
i
ort
ocont
r
ol
t
hesour
cesof
t
hegol
dt
r
ade
 Por
t
ugueset
r
adedwi
t
ht
heki
ngofMut
apacont
r
ol
l
edt
r
ade.
 Por
t
uguesebr
oughtcl
ot
h,
beadsandcer
ami
cs,
whi
chwer
edesi
r
edi
nt
he
i
nt
er
i
or
.
 Por
t
ugueset
henwenti
nt
ot
hei
nt
er
i
ort
oest
abl
i
sht
heownt
r
adecent
r
esl
i
ke
SenaandTet
ei
nt
he1830s.
 Lat
ert
r
adegoodswer
eexpandedt
oi
ncl
udesal
t
,
copperi
r
on,
mai
zeseed.
 Tr
adebazaar
swer
eest
abl
i
shedwer
esomet
i
mespr
i
v
at
et
r
adet
ookpl
ace
behi
ndt
heMut
apa’
sback.
 Lat
erPor
t
uguesebegant
oof
f
ergunst
osubchi
ef
swhol
at
ert
ur
nedagai
nst
t
heMut
apa
 I
nt
he17thcent
ur
yt
heMut
apaswer
ebegi
nni
ngt
ober
el
uct
antwi
t
ht
hei
r
goodsespeci
al
l
ygol
d,
andt
hePor
t
uguesehadt
or
esor
tt
ousef
or
ce.
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entwast
hepol
i
t
i
cal
st
abi
l
i
t
yoft
heZi
mbabweansoci
et
i
es
af
f
ect
edbyt
hi
st
r
ade?
 Por
t
ugueseact
i
v
i
t
i
esl
edsomesubchi
eft
obedi
sl
oy
al
t
ot
heMut
apa
 I
nt
r
oduct
i
onofgunsgav
epowert
ot
hewr
ongpeopl
ewhobegant
or
ebel
agai
nstt
heki
ng
 Compet
i
t
i
onf
orf
or
ei
gngoodsal
socausedet
hni
cwar
sasAf
r
i
cansf
oughtf
or
t
hel
i
on’
sshar
eoft
het
r
ade
 Por
t
ugueseal
socr
eat
edsomepuppetchi
ef
se,
gMamv
ur
awhi
chl
edt
ot
he
decl
i
neoft
hest
at
e.
 Por
t
uguesewar
l
or
dsemer
gedwhocr
eat
edst
at
eswi
t
hi
nt
hest
at
eusi
ng
Achi
kundas
 Br
eakawayal
sooccur
r
edasar
esul
tofPor
t
uguesei
nt
er
f
er
encei
nt
hei
nt
er
i
or
 Theambi
t
i
onofcer
t
ai
ngr
oupsegt
heRozv
i
al
socr
eat
edi
nst
abi
l
i
t
yast
heyl
ed
r
ebel
l
i
onandat
t
ackont
heMut
apast
at
e.
 Cal
i
br
eofl
eader
swhor
ul
edt
hest
at
ei
nt
he17thcent
ur
ywaspoorandt
hey
l
ackedchar
act
ert
ohol
dt
hest
at
et
oget
her
.
[
Nov2003]
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44.
[
a]
.
Li
stt
henamesoft
hr
eePor
t
uguesepeopl
ewhov
i
si
t
edt
heMut
apaki
ngdom
andt
hr
eet
r
adecommodi
t
i
est
hatt
hePor
t
uguesebr
oughti
nt
ot
heMut
apaKi
ngdom
t
h
i
nt
he16 cent
ur
y
.
 Ant
oni
oFer
nadez
,
Gonzal
odaSi
l
v
ei
r
a,
Fr
anci
scoBar
r
et
o,
VascoHomen.Dona
Kat
ar
i
no,
Ant
oni
oCai
do,
Di
ogoMadei
r
a,
Per
ei
r
a,
GasperBocar
r
o.
 Guns,
cl
ot
h,
beads,
j
ewel
l
er
y
,
kni
v
es,
mai
zeseed,
al
cohol
/
spi
r
i
t
s,
f
r
ui
tt
r
ees,
r
i
ce.
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
hePor
t
uguesei
nt
heMut
apaki
ngdom dur
i
ng
t
he16thand17cent
ur
i
es.
[
11]
.
 Tr
ade-br
oughtguns,
cl
ot
h,
beads,
j
ewel
l
er
y
,
kni
v
es,
cer
ami
csi
nexchangef
or
gol
di
v
or
y
,
cat
t
l
e,
goat
s,
sheep,
gr
ai
n,
et
c
 Usedpai
dAf
r
i
canl
abouri
nmi
ni
ngandagr
i
cul
t
ur
e
 Por
t
uguesei
nt
r
oducedt
hepr
azosy
st
em,
newcr
opswer
ei
nt
r
oducedsuchas
mai
ze/
f
r
ui
t
s
 For
cedAf
r
i
canst
opayt
r
i
but
et
ot
hem andi
nt
r
oducedf
or
cedl
abour
 I
ni
t
i
al
l
yPor
t
uguesepai
dt
r
i
but
ecur
v
at
ot
heMut
apa
 Mi
ni
nggol
d,
hunt
i
ngf
ori
v
or
y
.
 Sl
av
er
y
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
hepeopl
eoft
heMut
apaki
ngdom benef
i
tf
r
om Por
t
uguese
act
i
v
i
t
i
esi
nt
hi
sper
i
od?
[
8]
.
[
i
]
.
Benef
i
t
s:
 Newcr
ops
 Newweapons
 Newgoods,
cl
ot
hes
 Newf
ar
mi
ngandmi
ni
ngmet
hods
[
i
i
]
.
Demer
i
t
s:
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
i
nt
er
f
er
ence
 Af
r
i
canswer
eexpl
oi
t
eddur
i
ngt
r
ade
 Depl
et
i
onofAf
r
i
canr
esour
ces
 Af
r
i
cancul
t
ur
edi
st
ur
bed
 Lossofl
and
 For
cedl
abour
Page67of67
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 AbuseofAf
r
i
canwomen
 Sl
av
er
y
[
June2004]
45.
[
a]
.
Gi
v
esi
xai
msoft
hePor
t
uguesei
nt
heMut
apaSt
at
e.
[
6]
.
 Tocheckt
hespr
eadofI
sl
am.
 Toest
abl
i
sht
r
adi
ngcent
r
es/
mar
ket
s/
f
ei
r
as
 Tor
epl
aceSwahi
l
i
ast
r
adi
ngpar
t
ner
soft
heShona
 Tospr
eadChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Tocol
oni
set
heMut
apaSt
at
e
 Tomi
negol
d
 Tomakecont
actwi
t
hl
egendar
yChr
i
st
i
anr
ul
erPr
est
erJohn
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hepol
i
t
i
cal
andsoci
al
act
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
hePor
t
uguesei
nt
heMut
apaSt
at
e
upt
ot
he17t
hcent
ur
y
.
[
11]
.
[
i
]Pol
i
t
i
cal
 I
ncr
easeofPor
t
uguesei
nv
ol
v
ementi
nt
heMut
apaSt
at
e’
saf
f
ai
r
sespeci
al
l
y
f
ol
l
owi
ngdeat
hofFat
herGonsal
odaSi
l
v
ei
r
a1561
 Puni
t
i
v
eexpedi
t
i
onsent1569—1572underFr
ansi
scoBar
r
et
o
 Set
t
l
edi
nMut
apaaf
t
erbei
nggr
ant
edpr
azos
 I
nt
er
v
enedi
nsuccessi
ondi
sput
esi
nMut
apaSt
at
e
 1628f
oughtanddef
eat
edMut
apaKapar
ar
i
dze
 I
nst
al
l
edpuppetr
ul
er
sl
i
keMamv
ur
aont
het
hr
one–pr
ov
oki
ngopposi
t
i
on
f
r
om t
heRozv
i
 Ref
usedt
opayt
r
i
but
easMut
apal
ostpol
i
t
i
cal
power
 Hadi
ncr
easedpowert
hr
ought
r
ai
ni
ngpr
i
v
at
ear
mi
eswi
t
hgunse,
gwar
l
or
ds
l
i
keGouv
ei
awi
t
hbi
gchi
kundaar
my
[
i
i
]
.
Soci
al
:
 I
nt
r
oduct
i
onofChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
Si
l
v
ei
r
abapt
i
sedMut
apaMapuzugut
aandsome
f
ol
l
ower
sbutt
hi
sdi
dnotl
astl
ong
 Por
t
uguesepr
act
i
sedsl
av
er
yt
oobt
ai
nl
abourf
ort
hei
rpr
azos
 Pr
act
i
sedf
or
cedl
abour
Page68of68
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 I
nt
er
mar
r
i
agesbet
weenPor
t
uguesemenandAf
r
i
canwomenpr
oduci
ng
peopl
ecal
l
edMul
at
os[
i
nShonav
anaSi
ny
or
o]
 AbuseofAf
r
i
canwomenbyPor
t
uguesemen
[
c]
.
Wer
et
hePor
t
ugueset
obl
amef
ort
hedecl
i
neoft
heMut
apaSt
at
e?
Expl
ai
ny
our
answer
.
[
8]
[
i
]
.
Por
t
uguesel
ar
gel
yt
obl
amef
ort
hedecl
i
neoft
heMut
apaEmpi
r
e
 I
nt
er
f
er
edi
nl
ocal
pol
i
t
i
cssuppor
t
i
ngr
i
v
al
cl
ai
mant
st
ot
het
hr
one
 Thi
scauseddi
sput
esandci
v
i
l
war
se,
gGat
si
Ruser
e,
Kapar
ar
i
dze
 Cr
eat
edpuppetr
ul
er
sl
i
keMamv
ur
a
 Ref
usedt
opayt
r
i
but
e-f
or
cedt
heMut
apat
opayt
r
i
but
et
ot
hem
 Rai
dedAf
r
i
canv
i
l
l
agesf
orsl
av
es
 Under
mi
ni
ngAf
r
i
cansel
f
r
espect
 Av
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yofgunsbr
oughtbyt
hePor
t
uguesegr
eat
l
yweakenedMut
apaSt
at
e
[
i
i
]
.
Howev
er
,
t
heMut
apast
at
e’
sdecl
i
ne
 Wasal
soengender
edbyi
t
sv
astsi
zewhi
chmadecommuni
cat
i
ondi
f
f
i
cul
t
.
 Successi
ondi
sput
esi
nher
enti
nt
her
ul
i
ngf
ami
l
y
 Ri
seofnewandpower
f
ul
Rozv
i
St
at
e
 Al
sosuccessi
ont
ot
hr
onebyweakl
eader
s
 Nat
ur
al
di
sast
er
se,
gser
i
esofdr
oughtl
eadi
ngt
opoorhar
v
est
s,
at
t
acksf
r
om
nei
ghbour
ssuchast
heSot
ho–Tswana.
 Swahi
l
i
i
nf
l
uencewasal
sodet
r
i
ment
al
t
ouni
t
yi
nt
heEmpi
r
e.
[
Nov2004]
46.
[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xr
easonsf
orPor
t
uguesepenet
r
at
i
onoft
heZambezi
v
al
l
ey
.
[
6]
 Cont
r
ol
mi
ni
ngofgol
d
 Cont
r
ol
t
r
ader
out
esi
nt
ot
hei
nt
er
i
or
 Est
abl
i
sht
r
adi
ngpost
s
 Tospr
eadChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Tocont
r
ol
l
andi
nt
heZambezi
v
al
l
eyf
oragr
i
cul
t
ur
al
pur
poses
 Tocont
r
ol
t
heMut
apast
at
e
Page69of69
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 Tosear
chf
ort
hel
egendr
yPr
est
erJohn
 Toav
enget
hedeat
hofGoncal
odaSi
l
v
ei
r
a
 Todi
sl
odgeMosl
emsf
r
om t
hei
nt
er
i
or
 I
nv
i
t
at
i
onbyGat
si
Ruser
e
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hepr
azosy
st
em i
nt
r
oducedbyt
hePor
t
uguesei
nt
heZambezi
v
al
l
ey
.
[
11]
.
 Landt
akenbyPor
t
ugueseusi
ngt
r
eat
i
eswi
t
ht
heMut
apa,
andbyf
or
ce
 Af
r
i
cansusedasl
abour
er
sont
hepr
azos
 ThePor
t
uguesel
i
v
i
ngi
nl
uxur
y
 Sl
av
el
abourcommonont
hepr
azos
 ThePor
t
uguesecohabi
t
at
i
onwi
t
hAf
r
i
canswascommonont
hef
ar
mswhi
ch
r
esul
t
edi
nacol
our
edpopul
at
i
on–t
hemul
at
os
 Por
t
ugueseont
hepr
azosal
socont
r
ol
l
edt
r
ade—useofpr
of
essi
onal
t
r
ader
sv
ashambadzi
.
 Por
t
ugueseont
hepr
azosusedpr
i
v
at
ear
mi
esknownaschi
kunda
 Pr
azosal
soasour
ceofsl
av
esdur
i
ngt
hesl
av
et
r
ade
 Pr
azer
ost
aki
ngov
err
ol
esoft
r
adi
t
i
onal
l
eader
s
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
hepr
azosy
st
em assi
stt
hePor
t
ugueset
ocont
r
ol
t
hear
ea?
[
8]
[
i
]Pr
azosy
st
em usedt
ocont
r
ol
t
heMut
apast
at
e:
 Reducedl
andscont
r
ol
l
edbyMut
apast
at
e
 Manypeopl
enowowedal
l
egi
ancet
ot
hepr
azer
os,
soweakenedt
heMut
apa
st
at
e
 Pr
azer
oscont
r
ol
l
edgol
dpr
oduct
i
onandt
r
ade–sour
cesofweal
t
hi
nt
he
Mut
apa
 Pr
i
v
at
ear
mi
esAchi
kundasnowpower
f
ul
i
nt
heZambezi
v
al
l
eysor
educed
poweroft
heMut
apa
 Sl
av
et
r
adeweakenedt
heMut
apast
at
e
[
i
i
]
.
Ot
herf
act
or
sal
soi
mpor
t
anti
nt
hecont
r
ol
oft
heMut
apast
at
e:
 Di
r
ectpol
i
t
i
cal
i
nt
er
f
er
encebyPor
t
uguesei
nt
heMut
apast
at
e
 Thei
nt
r
oduct
i
onofChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
Page70of70
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 Weakpol
i
t
i
cal
l
eader
si
nt
heMut
apast
at
e
 Successi
ondi
sput
es
 TheMut
apast
at
enowt
oobi
gt
obecont
r
ol
l
edbyt
heMut
apa
 I
nf
l
uenceofSwahi
l
i
/
Ar
abs
[
Nov2005]
47.
[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xcr
opst
hatwer
egr
owni
nt
hepr
azosi
nt
heZambezi
v
al
l
eyf
r
om t
he
t
h
16 cent
ur
y
.
[
6]
 Sor
ghum,
Mi
l
l
et
,
Mai
ze,
Beans,
Squash,
Mel
ons,
Pepper
,
Cassav
a,
Ri
ce,
Sugar
cane,
Cof
f
ee
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hedev
el
opmentoft
hepr
azosy
st
em i
nt
heZambezi
v
al
l
eyi
nt
he16th
and17thcent
ur
y
.
[
11]
Pr
azosy
st
em:
 Pr
azohol
der
scal
l
edpr
azer
os/
senhor
s
 SomePor
t
uguesegotl
andf
r
om weakMut
apasasr
ewar
df
orhel
pi
ngt
hem i
n
successi
ondi
sput
esandci
v
i
l
war
s.
 Mut
apaNogomogav
ePor
t
uguesecapt
ai
nl
andont
heZambezi
v
al
l
eybef
or
e
deat
hi
n1589
 Gat
si
Ruser
egav
el
andt
oTet
et
r
aderDi
ogoMadei
r
ai
n1607.
Becamea
power
f
ul
set
t
l
erwi
t
h4000Achi
kundas
 Mamv
ur
awasaPor
t
uguesepuppetandwasf
or
cedt
ogi
v
ehi
swhol
e
ki
ngdom t
oPor
t
uguesecr
owni
n1629aspr
i
zef
orPor
t
uguesehel
p.
 Rul
erofUt
ev
egav
el
ar
gear
east
oDi
asBay
aoar
east
r
et
chedf
r
om Pungwet
o
Zambezi
 Por
t
ugueseconf
i
r
medpr
azosy
st
em bygi
v
i
ngof
f
i
ci
al
l
andt
i
t
l
est
oi
ndi
v
i
dual
pr
azer
os.Por
t
uguesewant
edpr
azer
ost
obecent
r
esofPor
t
uguese
ci
v
i
l
i
sat
i
onandcommer
ci
al
agr
i
cul
t
ur
e
 Tr
adi
t
i
onal
pat
t
er
nofshi
f
t
i
ngagr
i
cul
t
ur
ewaspr
act
i
sed
 Ther
ewasl
i
mi
t
eduseofl
andandl
owout
put
 Theycul
t
i
v
at
edsor
ghum,
mi
l
l
etmai
ze,
et
c
 Cof
f
eegr
ewwi
l
di
nf
or
est
sandwasusedt
opayt
r
i
but
ebyt
heAf
r
i
can
popul
at
i
on
 Gol
d,
copperandi
r
onmi
nedandexpor
t
edbypr
azer
os
 Sl
av
esal
soexpor
t
edt
oBr
azi
l
Page71of71
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 Por
t
uguesef
ai
l
edt
oest
abl
i
shat
hr
i
v
i
ngeconomy
 Af
r
i
cani
sat
i
onoft
heEur
opeani
nst
i
t
ut
i
ons
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
heShonapeopl
ebenef
i
tf
r
om t
hePr
azosy
st
em? [
8]
[
i
]
Benef
i
t
s:
 I
nt
r
oduct
i
onofnewcr
opsmai
zeet
c
 Newmat
er
i
al
se,
gcl
ot
h,
beads,
et
c
 Many
i
kacopi
edPor
t
uguesewor
dsl
i
ke“
Wada’
’
 Ver
yf
ewAf
r
i
cansbecameChr
i
st
i
ans
[
i
i
]
.
Negat
i
v
eef
f
ect
s:
 Chr
i
st
i
ani
t
ybr
oughtdi
v
i
si
onsamongShona
 Pr
azer
osusedAchi
kundast
or
ai
dAf
r
i
canki
ngdomsf
orsl
av
es
 Pr
azer
ospar
t
i
ci
pat
edi
nci
v
i
l
war
sandsuccessi
ondi
sput
esi
nt
heMut
apaand
causedi
nst
abi
l
i
t
y
 Lossofl
and
 Lossofpol
i
t
i
cal
power
 Dest
r
uct
i
onofAf
r
i
cancul
t
ur
e
 AbuseofAf
r
i
canwomen
[
June2006]
48[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xr
easonsf
ort
hePor
t
uguesepenet
r
at
i
oni
nt
ot
hear
eabet
weent
he
Zambezi
andLi
mpopor
i
v
er
sdur
i
ngt
he16thcent
ur
i
es.
[
6]
 Cont
r
ol
t
r
adei
ngol
dandi
v
or
ywi
t
hAf
r
i
canChi
ef
s
 Tov
er
i
f
yr
umour
sofki
ngSol
omon’
smi
nes.
 Tospr
eadChr
i
st
i
ani
t
yanddi
spl
aceI
sl
ami
cr
el
i
gi
on
 Tol
ookf
ort
hel
egendar
y[
Pr
est
erJohn]
 Tor
ev
engemur
derofGoncal
odaSi
l
v
ei
r
a
 Tocr
eat
epr
azos
 Tocol
oni
set
hei
nt
er
i
or
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
nePor
t
uguesepenet
r
at
i
oni
nt
ot
hear
eabet
weent
heZambezi
andLi
mpopo
r
i
v
er
sdur
i
ngt
he16thand17thcent
ur
i
es.
[
11]
.
Page72of72
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 Mi
ssi
onar
yGoncal
odaSi
l
v
ei
r
ar
eachedChi
t
akoChangony
o[
mtFur
a]dur
i
ng
Mut
apaNogomo’
sr
ei
gn.Conv
er
t
edNogomo,
wi
f
eand500Shona.
Ki
l
l
edand
t
hr
owni
nt
oMsengezi
r
i
v
er
 Mi
l
i
t
ar
yexpedi
t
i
onsdespat
chedt
or
ev
engeSi
l
v
ei
r
a’
sdeat
h
 Fr
anci
scoBar
r
et
o’
sexpedi
t
i
onof1569f
ai
l
edduet
onaganaf
ev
er
.
Li
t
t
l
ef
ood
suppl
i
es
 Expedi
t
i
onofVascoFer
nadezHomen1574al
sof
ai
l
ed
 Por
t
uguesesentf
or
cest
ohel
pGat
si
Ruser
ei
nsuccessi
ondi
sput
es
 Bocar
r
o’
sj
our
ney
[
1616]i
nsear
chofsi
l
v
ermi
nesdi
dnotf
i
ndv
al
uabl
esi
l
v
er
deposi
t
s
 JoaodosSant
osaDomi
ni
canpr
i
estcameaf
t
erdaSi
l
v
ei
r
at
oZambezi
Val
l
ey
.
Spent10y
ear
s
 Jesui
t
scamei
n1607-expandedbey
ondZambezi
Val
l
eyi
nt
ot
hei
nt
er
i
or
 Al
l
i
ancesy
st
em wi
t
hRuser
eandMamv
ur
a
 Penet
r
at
i
onofFer
nadez
 Bui
l
tFei
r
asatDambar
ar
e,
Masapa,
LuanzeandMasequesewher
ePor
t
uguese
t
r
ader
sset
t
l
ed
 Por
t
uguesepr
i
est
sv
i
si
t
edi
sol
at
edchur
chesofMashonal
andandMani
cal
and
t
omi
ni
st
ert
of
ol
l
ower
sandf
oundedsmal
l
school
s
 Mi
d17th–aPor
t
uguesedel
egat
i
ont
ot
heKi
ngdom ofBut
ua/
Rozv
i
St
at
e
 Rozv
i
Mambochoset
odeal
wi
t
hPor
t
uguesev
i
aVashambadzi
 Pr
azosy
st
em
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dPor
t
uguesei
nf
l
uencecont
r
i
but
et
ot
hedecl
i
neoft
heRozv
i
St
at
e?
 Li
t
t
l
ei
m pactmi
l
i
t
ar
i
l
y
.Rozv
i
act
ual
l
ydr
ov
et
hePor
t
uguesef
r
om pl
at
eau.
Rozv
i
i
ndi
r
ect
l
yt
r
adedwi
t
hPor
t
uguese
 Rozv
i
decl
i
nedmai
nl
yduet
oi
nt
er
nal
pr
obl
emsandext
er
nal
f
act
or
s.I
nt
er
nal
dr
ought
,
successi
ondi
sput
es,
decl
i
nei
ngol
dmi
ni
ng
 Ext
er
nal
f
act
or
sdecl
i
nei
nt
r
adewi
t
hPor
t
ugueseasgol
dmi
ni
ngdecl
i
ned.
goodst
oRozv
i
wer
eofl
owerv
al
ue
 At
t
ackbyMf
ecanegr
oupsegNgoni
,
Ndebel
e,
et
c
 Por
t
uguesei
nci
t
edv
assal
Chi
ef
st
or
ebel
[
Nov2006]
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49[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xPor
t
uguesenat
i
onal
swhopenet
r
at
edt
heZi
mbabweanpl
at
eau
t
h
t
h
bet
weent
he16 and17 cent
ur
i
es.
[
6]
.
 Ant
oni
oFer
nadez
,
Goncal
odaSi
l
v
ei
r
a,
Fr
anci
scoBar
r
et
o,
VascoHomen,
Di
ogoMadei
r
a,
Mi
guel
Fer
nandez
,
Ant
oni
oCai
ada,
GasperBocar
r
o,
Joaodos
Sant
os,
Di
agodeMenesi
s,
DonaKat
ar
i
na
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hePol
i
t
i
cal
andsoci
al
act
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
hePor
t
uguesei
nt
heZi
mbabwean
Pl
at
eaudur
i
ngt
he16thand17thcent
ur
i
es.
[
11]
[
i
]Soci
al
 TheJesui
t
sFat
herGoncal
odaSi
l
v
ei
r
av
i
si
t
edMut
apaNegomoconv
er
t
edhi
m,
hi
swi
f
eand500ot
her
s.Mur
der
edatt
hei
nst
i
gat
i
onofMosl
ems
 ADomi
ni
canpr
i
estcal
l
edJoaodosSant
osspent10y
ear
si
nZambezi
Regi
on
af
t
erSi
l
v
ei
r
a’
sdeat
h
 Mi
ssi
onar
ywor
kspr
eadwi
del
yaf
t
er1627whenPor
t
ugueseassi
st
eda
conv
er
toft
her
oy
al
f
ami
l
ycal
l
edMamv
ur
at
obecomeMut
apa
 Heencour
agedMi
ssi
onar
ywor
k
 Af
ewpr
i
est
scamet
oi
sol
at
edchur
chesofMashonal
andandMani
cal
and,
pr
eachi
ngandr
unni
ngsmal
l
school
s.
SonsofMut
apaandSeni
orChi
ef
ssent
t
ol
ar
gerschool
satSenaandTet
eorTheol
ogi
cal
Col
l
egeatMozambi
que
I
sl
and
 Abuseofwomen
 Pr
act
i
sedsl
av
er
y
 Degr
adadosegAnt
oni
oFer
nandezmar
r
i
edAf
r
i
canwi
v
es
[
i
i
]Pol
i
t
i
cal
 Deat
hofSi
l
v
ei
r
apr
ov
okedmi
l
i
t
ar
yexpedi
t
i
ons
 Par
t
i
ci
pat
edi
nci
v
i
l
war
s
 1569expedi
t
i
onunderFr
anci
scoBar
r
et
o
 Rai
sedpr
i
v
at
ear
mi
es
 1574expedi
t
i
onunderVascoFer
nandezHomen
 Ref
usedt
opayt
r
i
but
e
 I
nt
er
f
er
edi
nsuccessi
ondi
sput
es.
e,
gAssi
st
edGat
si
Ruser
et
opoweri
n1596
 Pr
azosbecamei
ndependentchi
ef
sanddi
dpayt
r
i
but
ebutr
ef
usedl
at
t
er
 Al
sohel
pedMamv
ur
at
opoweri
n1628
Page74of74
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 Chi
ef
sbecamepuppet
sofPor
t
uguese
[
c]
.
Di
dt
hePol
i
t
i
cal
act
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
hePor
t
uguesecont
r
i
but
et
ot
hedecl
i
neoft
hei
r
i
nf
l
uencei
nt
her
egi
on?Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
8]
 Par
t
i
ci
pat
i
oni
nci
v
i
l
war
s
 Successi
ondi
sput
es
 Sl
av
er
yandsl
av
et
r
ade
 Ref
usedt
opaycur
v
a
 AbuseofAf
r
i
canwomen
 Pr
azosy
st
em
 Pr
azer
osr
ebel
l
edagai
nstpor
taut
hor
i
t
y
 Ledt
oi
ncr
easeofi
nf
l
uenceofPor
t
uguesei
nt
heMut
apaSt
at
east
hey
i
nt
er
f
er
edi
nsuccessi
ondi
sput
esandi
nst
al
l
edpuppetMut
apas.
Thi
sl
edt
o
t
hem unpopul
arandl
edt
ot
hei
rul
t
i
mat
eexpul
si
on
 Tookl
and
 Gotl
andconcessi
ont
ocr
eat
epr
azos
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
def
eat
si
nRozv
i
St
at
e
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
act
i
v
i
t
i
espar
t
l
ycont
r
i
but
edt
ot
hedecl
i
neofPor
t
uguesei
nf
l
uenceas
Rozv
i
dr
ov
et
hem away
Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 Ri
seofst
r
ongandpower
f
ul
l
eader
soft
heMut
apaegMukumbi
r
e
 Rev
i
v
al
ofMut
apaaut
hor
i
t
y
 Decl
i
nei
ngol
dt
r
ade
[
Nov2007]
50[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xr
ul
er
soft
heMut
apaSt
at
ewhohadcont
actwi
t
ht
hePor
t
uguese
[
6]
 Chi
kuy
oChi
samar
engu[
a.
k.
aKakuy
okoMuny
aka]
 NenshangweMunembi
r
e[
nephewofChi
kuy
o]
 Chi
v
her
eNy
asor
o[
sonofChi
kuy
o]
 NegondoMapunz
agut
u[
a.
k.
aChi
r
i
samhur
uorSebast
i
an]
[
15431589]
 Ny
amboKapar
ar
i
dze[
sonofGat
si
Ruser
e]
[
162329]
Page75of75
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 Gat
si
Ruser
e[
succeededNegomo]
 Mamv
ur
a[
a.
k.
aFel
i
peorMav
ur
aMhande]
[
1580s1652]
 Mukombwe[
Kamhar
apasuMukobwe{
Al
f
onso}
]
 Ny
akunembi
r
e
 Chi
oko
 Dambamut
upe
 Mut
apaMukombo
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heat
t
empt
sbyt
hePor
t
ugueset
ogai
ncont
r
ol
oft
hegol
dt
r
adewi
t
ht
he
t
h
t
h
Mut
apaSt
at
edur
i
ngt
he16 and17 cent
ur
i
es.
[
11]
 1505Por
t
uguesecapt
ur
edcoast
al
t
ownofSof
al
awhi
chwast
heout
l
etf
or
Shonaexpor
t
s.Thi
ssev
er
edt
hegol
dt
r
ade
 1507Por
t
ugueset
ookcont
r
ol
ofMozambi
queI
sl
andasgat
ewayt
ot
he
i
nt
er
i
or
 151115Por
t
uguesesentAnt
oni
oFer
nandez–t
oBar
we,
Many
i
ka,
Dande,
Gur
uuswa,
Mbi
r
e,
Har
ar
e,
Chegut
ut
ol
ocat
et
hesour
ceofgol
d
 1530Por
t
ugueseest
abl
i
shedt
r
adi
ngFei
r
asatTet
eandSenaont
heZambezi
r
i
v
er
.al
soopenedsomeatDambar
ar
e,
Masekesa,
Massapa,
Luanze,
Baccut
o
 Dr
i
v
i
ngawayoft
heSwahi
l
i
 156061Por
t
ugueseCat
hol
i
cpr
i
estGoncal
odaSi
l
v
ei
r
aconv
er
t
edt
heMut
apa
[
Negomo]andcour
tof
f
i
ci
al
s
 156971Por
t
uguesear
mi
esunderBar
r
et
osentt
oav
engeSi
l
v
ei
r
a’
sdeat
hand
t
ot
akecont
r
ol
ofgol
dt
r
ade.
Expedi
t
i
onf
ai
l
edduet
oMal
ar
i
a,
Shona
r
esi
st
anceandnaganaaswel
l
asBar
r
et
o’
sdeat
hatSena
 Anot
herpuni
t
i
v
emi
ssi
onunderVascoFer
nandezHomen-conquer
edMany
i
ka
andUt
ev
ebutf
oundl
i
t
t
l
egol
d
 Por
t
uguesesi
gnedat
r
eat
ywi
t
hGat
si
Ruser
ei
n1607,
gi
v
enl
andandmi
ni
ng
r
i
ght
s,
t
r
adeconcessi
ons
 Por
t
uguesedef
eat
edKapar
ar
i
dzei
n1628,
concl
udedt
r
eat
ywi
t
hMav
ur
a1632
gi
v
ent
r
adi
ngandmi
ni
ngconcessi
ons
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entwer
et
her
ul
er
soft
heMut
apaSt
at
eabl
et
or
esi
stt
heseat
t
empt
s
i
nt
heper
i
od?
[
8]
[
i
]Resi
st
ancet
oPor
t
ugueseat
t
empt
s/
Success:
Page76of76
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 Mur
derofSi
l
v
ei
r
ai
n1561pr
eci
pi
t
at
edr
epudi
at
i
onofChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Lackofcooper
at
i
onl
edt
of
ai
l
ur
eofBar
r
et
o’
sexpedi
t
i
on
 Homenaf
t
erconquer
i
ngMany
i
kaandUt
ev
ewasshownonl
ywor
kedout
mi
nes
[
i
i
]
Fai
l
ur
et
or
esi
stPor
t
uguese:
 1607Por
t
ugueset
r
eat
ywi
t
hGat
si
Ruser
egr
ant
edt
hem l
and,
t
r
adi
ngr
i
ght
s,
r
i
ght
st
omi
negol
d
 Al
soat
t
empt
st
odr
i
v
eoutt
hePor
t
uguesebyMut
apaKapar
ar
i
dzel
edt
ot
he
def
eatofKapar
ar
i
dzei
n1628
 1632Tr
eat
ywi
t
hMav
ur
aMhandemadeMut
apa–v
assal
ofPor
t
ugal
 Tr
eat
ygav
ePor
t
uguesecompl
et
ef
r
eedom t
omi
ne,
pr
eachandt
r
ade
[
Nov2008]
51[
a]
.
Nameanyt
hr
eePor
t
uguesepr
azer
osandanyt
hr
eet
r
adi
ngpost
si
nt
he
Zambezi
Val
l
ey
.
[
6]
[
i
]Pr
azer
os
Vi
ncent
eJoseRi
ber
o,
Manuel
Ant
oni
odesouse,kuv
hey
a,
Di
ogoSi
moes
Madei
r
a,
Si
snandoDi
asBay
ao,
Rodr
i
goLobo,
Mat
akeny
a,
DonaKat
ar
i
na
[
i
i
]Post
s
Luanze,
Tet
e,
Sena,
Dambar
ar
e,
Massapa,
Zumbo,
Many
i
ka,
Mat
ekeny
a,
Mukut
o
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hePr
azosy
st
em i
nt
heZambezi
Val
l
ey
.
[
11]
 Or
i
gi
nal
pr
azosPor
t
uguesemen[
someofI
ndi
anor
i
gi
n]gi
v
enl
andasr
ewar
ds
ofmi
l
i
t
ar
yser
v
i
ce
 Gai
nedcont
r
ol
ofl
owerZambezi
t
hr
ought
r
eat
i
esorf
or
ce
 ‘
Owned’
gol
dmi
nesnearZambezi
r
i
v
erandl
andal
ongsout
hbankf
r
om Tet
e
downt
her
i
v
er
 Por
t
uguesedi
v
i
dedl
andi
nt
opr
azos[
est
at
es]sanhos/
mazungu/
l
or
ds
 Pr
azosgi
v
ent
oset
t
l
erowner
scal
l
edpr
azer
osPor
t
uguesegr
ewdagga,
t
obacco,
r
i
ceonpr
azos
 Sl
av
er
ybeganonpr
azosandmi
nes
 Tr
ust
edsl
av
esr
ecr
ui
t
edi
nt
oper
sonal
ar
mi
esofpr
azer
os[
Achi
kundas]
 Ar
mi
esusedt
or
ai
dchi
ef
st
ocapt
ur
el
andswi
t
hmi
ner
al
s
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 Tr
adedwi
t
handr
ai
dedAf
r
i
cannei
ghbour
s
 Mal
esl
av
esusedassol
di
er
sandf
emal
esl
av
esascul
t
i
v
at
or
s/
concubi
nes
 Pr
azer
osbecameAf
r
i
canchi
ef
sdemandi
ngt
r
i
but
ef
r
om peopl
eont
hei
rl
ands
 Or
i
gi
nal
Eur
opeans/
Asi
anpr
azer
os
 Suppl
ant
edbyMul
l
at
os/
Eur
af
r
i
canchi
l
dr
enaspr
azochi
ef
s
 MostEur
af
r
i
canpr
azer
oswer
ewomencal
l
ed“
bl
ackdonnas”
 Por
t
ugueseusedol
df
eudal
l
awst
ogov
er
npr
azos
 Por
t
ugueseper
f
or
medr
i
t
ual
sandwer
econsul
t
edbyAf
r
i
cans
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
hepr
azosy
st
em cont
r
i
but
et
ot
hegr
owt
hofsl
av
er
yi
nt
he
Zambezi
Val
l
ey
?
[
i
]
.
Cont
r
i
but
i
onofPr
azosy
st
em i
ngr
owt
hofsl
av
er
y
 Gr
owt
hofpl
ant
at
i
onssuchasZambezi
pr
azos[
r
i
ce,
dagga,
t
obaccoet
c]
whi
chdemandedi
ncr
easi
ngnumber
ssl
av
el
abour
er
s
 Mi
ni
ngact
i
v
i
t
i
esofgol
di
npr
azosr
equi
r
edsl
av
el
abour
 Needf
orsl
av
ear
mi
es[
Achi
kundas]
 Por
t
uguesesuper
i
or
i
t
ycompl
exl
edt
ot
hegr
owt
hofsl
av
es
[
i
i
]
.
Ot
herFact
or
s:
 Thei
nst
i
t
ut
i
onofdomest
i
csl
av
er
yal
soexi
st
edi
npr
ecol
oni
al
sout
her
n
Af
r
i
canSt
at
ese,
gMut
apaSt
at
e
 Warcapt
i
v
esbecamedomest
i
csl
av
es
 Cr
i
mi
nal
sandwi
t
chesal
sot
r
eat
edasdomest
i
csl
av
esbef
or
epr
azosy
st
em
 I
v
or
yt
r
ader
equi
r
edsl
av
el
abourt
of
er
r
yi
v
or
yt
ot
het
r
adepost
sandcoast
[
Nov2009]
52[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xt
r
adi
ngt
ownsest
abl
i
shedbyt
hePor
t
uguesei
nt
heZambezi
t
h
Val
l
eyupt
ot
he18 cent
ur
y
.
[
6]
 Tet
e,
Massapa
 Sena,
Luanze
 Masekesa,
Dambar
ar
e
 Chi
coa,
Buccut
o/
Bukut
o,
Zumbo
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
her
el
at
i
onsbet
weent
heMut
apaSt
at
eandt
hePor
t
ugueseupt
ot
he
Page78of78
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18thcent
ur
y
.
[
11]
Mut
apaPor
t
ugueser
el
at
i
ons:
 Tr
ade–exchangegoodsegcl
ot
h,
guns,
al
cohol
,
t
obaccof
orgol
d,
i
v
or
y
,
ani
mal
ski
ns
 Est
abl
i
shmentoft
r
adi
ngcent
r
es
 Por
t
uguesepai
dcur
v
at
ot
heMut
apa
 Chr
i
st
i
ani
t
y–G.
daSi
l
v
ei
r
acamei
n1560t
ospr
eadt
hewor
dofGod,
some
l
ocal
sbapt
i
sedi
ncl
udi
ngt
hebutt
hi
sendedwi
t
ht
heki
l
l
i
ngofSi
l
v
ei
r
ai
n1561
 Mar
r
y
i
ngandr
api
ngofAf
r
i
canwomen
 War
;
Por
t
uguesesentanar
myunderF.
Bar
r
et
oandV.
Homent
oav
enget
he
ki
l
l
i
ngofSi
l
v
ei
r
a-Thei
nv
asi
onwasunsuccessf
ul
[
Fer
nandezexpedi
t
i
ons]
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
i
nt
er
f
er
ence:
t
hePor
t
ugueset
ookadv
ant
ageofsuccessi
ondi
sput
es
t
oal
i
gnt
hemsel
v
eswi
t
hsomel
eader
s.Foregt
heyhel
pedGat
si
Ruser
eand
Mav
ur
at
obecomeki
ngs.Thi
scausedt
hesel
eader
st
odependentont
he
Por
t
uguese.
ThePor
t
uguesei
nr
et
ur
nwer
egi
v
enl
andandmi
nes
 Por
t
uguesecont
r
ol
l
edmostt
r
adi
ngact
i
v
i
t
i
es
 Demandf
ort
r
i
but
ebyt
hePor
t
uguese
 Por
t
uguesenol
ongerr
espect
edt
heMut
apa
 Or
di
nar
ypeopl
ef
or
cedt
owor
kf
orPor
t
uguesei
nt
hei
rpr
azos.
 Achi
kundasusedf
orr
ai
di
ngsl
av
es
 I
n1663Mukombwemadeanef
f
or
tt
or
ev
i
v
et
hepoweroft
heMut
apawi
t
h
t
hehel
poft
heRozv
i
.
TheMut
apawasabl
et
odr
i
v
et
hePor
t
uguesef
r
om t
he
Hi
ghv
el
d.
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entwasmi
l
i
t
ar
ypoweri
mpor
t
anti
nPor
t
uguesecont
r
ol
oft
he
Mut
apaSt
at
e?
[
8]
[
i
]
.
I
mpor
t
anceofmi
l
i
t
ar
ypower
.
 Por
t
ugueseusedgunst
oi
nst
i
l
f
ear
 Mi
l
i
t
ar
ypowerweakenedt
heMut
apast
at
ei
nt
he1570S
 Abl
et
ocont
r
ol
chi
ef
si
nt
heZambezi
v
al
l
ey
 Usedt
or
ai
df
ormanpower
/
sl
av
es
 Usedf
orpr
ot
ect
i
onf
r
om at
t
acks
Page79of79
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[
i
i
]
.
Ot
heri
mpor
t
antf
act
or
s:
 Chr
i
st
i
ani
t
yusedt
ogai
ni
nf
l
uenceont
heMut
apa
 Weakl
eader
swhoaskedf
orPor
t
uguesehel
pdur
i
ngsuccessi
ondi
sput
esand
becamepuppet
s
 St
at
ewast
oobi
g,
soPor
t
uguesewer
eabl
et
ocont
r
ol
di
st
antchi
ef
doms
 Por
t
uguesemonopol
i
sedt
r
ade
 Pr
azosy
st
em wher
eChi
kundawer
ekept
 Por
t
uguesenowgott
r
i
but
e[
cur
v
a]
(
Nov2010)
53.
(
a)
.
Nameanysi
xPor
t
ugueset
r
adi
ngpost
s(
f
ei
r
as)i
nt
heMut
apast
at
e.(
6)
 Massapa,
Bukut
u,
Dambar
ar
e.
 Zumbo,
Mar
amuca\
Remuka
 Chi
r
ambor
uwi
zi
,
Luaze,
Masekesa,
 Sena,
Tet
e,
(
b)
.
Out
l
i
net
het
er
msoft
heal
l
i
ancesbet
weent
hePor
t
ugueseand
(
i
)Mut
apaGat
si
Ruser
e,
(
i
i
)Mut
apaMmv
ur
a.
(
11)
(
i
)
.
 Por
t
uguesehel
pedRuser
et
oachi
ev
et
het
hr
onei
n1596
 Banni
ngofMusl
i
m
 Por
t
ugueset
oRuser
eagai
nstat
t
acksf
r
om t
heMar
av
i
ki
ngdom andt
o
suppr
essr
ebel
l
i
onswi
t
hi
nt
hest
at
e.
 Ruser
ei
nr
et
ur
n,
gav
et
hePor
t
ugueset
her
i
ghtt
omi
negol
dandt
ot
akel
and
 Por
t
ugueset
ot
aket
hehei
randf
ol
l
ower
sf
ort
r
ai
ni
ngi
nI
ndi
a
 Por
t
ugueset
ot
r
adef
r
eel
y
(
i
i
)
 Por
t
uguesehel
pedMamv
ur
at
ot
het
hr
onei
n1629af
t
erdef
eat
i
nghi
sr
i
v
al
Kapar
ar
i
dzei
n1628
 Mamv
ur
amadel
andgr
ant
st
ot
hePor
t
uguese
Page80of80
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 Por
t
ugueseal
l
owedt
ot
r
adef
r
eel
yi
nt
heMut
apast
at
e
 Por
t
uguesemi
ssi
onar
i
eswer
eal
l
owedt
obui
l
tchur
chesandt
opr
each
wher
ev
ert
heyl
i
ked
 TheCapt
ai
nofMassapawasgi
v
enaut
hor
i
t
yov
erev
er
y
onei
nt
hear
eabl
ack
andwhi
t
e
 ThePor
t
uguesewoul
dmai
nt
ai
nMamv
ur
aont
het
hr
one
 Openi
ngofschool
s,
Por
t
uguesedemandedt
r
i
but
ef
r
om Mamv
ur
a.
(
c)
.
Di
dt
heal
l
i
ancesbenef
i
tt
hepeopl
eoft
heMut
apast
at
e?(
8)
Benef
i
t
s
 Pr
ot
ect
i
onf
r
om ext
er
nal
at
t
acks
 Tempor
ar
ypeace
 Por
t
uguesegoodsf
r
om t
r
ade
 Pr
ot
ect
i
onf
r
om i
nt
er
nal
at
t
acks
 Li
t
er
acy
 Spr
eadofChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
NonBenef
i
t
s
 Lossofcat
t
l
e
 Lossofl
and
 Er
osi
onofcul
t
ur
ee,
gspr
eadofChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
.
 For
cedl
abourandsl
av
er
y
 For
cedpay
mentoft
r
i
but
et
ot
hePor
t
uguese
 Lossofi
dent
i
t
y
 Lossofr
esour
cesl
i
keGol
d
 Lossofpol
i
t
i
cal
i
ndependence
[
June2011]
54[
a]Li
stanysi
xt
r
adei
t
emsbr
oughtbyt
hePor
t
uguesei
nt
ot
heMut
apaSt
at
edur
i
ng
t
h
t
h
t
he16 and17 cent
ur
i
es.
 Guns,
Cl
ot
h,
Gl
assbeads
 Kni
v
es,
Mai
zeseed,
Al
cohol
Page81of81
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 Cowr
i
eshel
l
s,
Sugar
,
Chi
nawar
e
 Tobacco,
Jewel
l
er
y
,
Fr
ui
t
se,
gmangoes,
guav
as
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
candsoci
al
act
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
hePor
t
uguesei
nt
heMut
apa
St
at
edur
i
ngt
hi
sper
i
od.
[
11]
Economi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
es
 Cr
edi
tsy
st
em,
cr
eat
i
onoft
hepr
azoes
 Keepi
ngl
i
v
est
ock,
gr
ewcr
ops,
e,
gmai
zeandpr
act
i
sedcr
opr
ot
at
i
on
 Col
l
ect
edt
r
i
but
ef
r
om t
heMut
apaandhi
speopl
e
 Mi
ni
ng,
especi
al
l
ygol
d
 Pr
act
i
sedf
or
cedl
abour
,
hunt
i
ngel
ephant
sf
ori
v
or
y
 Tr
adewi
t
ht
hel
ocal
st
hr
ought
heVashambadzi
agent
s
 Pr
act
i
sedsl
av
er
yandsl
av
et
r
ade
 Fi
shi
ng,
est
abl
i
shedf
ei
r
as
Soci
al
act
i
v
i
t
i
es
 Spr
eadofChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
,
AbuseofAf
r
i
canwomenr
esul
t
i
ngi
nt
hebi
r
t
hof
Mul
at
oes(
Por
t
uguesecol
our
eds)
 Pr
i
v
at
ef
ar
msi
nwhi
cht
heyi
l
l
t
r
eat
edAf
r
i
cans
 Di
sr
upt
i
onofAf
r
i
cancul
t
ur
e,
Por
t
ugueseper
f
or
medAf
r
i
canr
i
t
ual
se,
gr
ai
n
maki
ngcer
emoni
es
 Openedsmal
l
school
sf
orchi
l
dr
enofRoy
al
f
ami
l
i
es
 Mar
r
i
edAf
r
i
canwomen,
e,
gAnt
oni
oFer
nades
 Pr
act
i
sedsl
av
er
y
,
of
er
r
edmedi
cal
ser
v
i
ces
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
hepeopl
eoft
heMut
apaSt
at
ebenef
i
tf
r
om t
hePor
t
uguese
act
i
v
i
t
i
esdur
i
ngt
hi
sper
i
od?
Posi
t
i
v
eef
f
ect
s
 I
nt
r
oducednewf
ar
mi
ngandmi
ni
ngmet
hods
 Newcr
opswer
eal
soi
nt
r
oducede,
gmai
zer
i
ce
 Recei
v
edgunst
hr
ought
r
ade,
someAf
r
i
cansbecameChr
i
st
i
ans
 Af
r
i
cansbenef
i
t
edi
nf
or
m ofnewgoodssuchascl
ot
hes,
j
ewel
l
er
y
,
cer
emi
cs
et
cf
r
om t
r
ade
Page82of82
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 Chi
ef
sandmi
ddl
emenbenef
i
t
edf
r
om sl
av
et
r
ade,
educat
i
on,
heal
t
hser
v
i
ces,
empl
oy
ment
Negat
i
v
eef
f
ect
s
 Af
r
i
cancul
t
ur
ewasdi
sr
upt
ed/
di
st
or
t
edt
hr
oughChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Af
r
i
cansl
ostt
hei
rl
and,
Por
t
uguesei
nf
l
uencedci
v
i
l
war
s,
t
heyal
sor
ef
usedt
o
paycur
v
a
 Por
t
ugueseunder
mi
nedAf
r
i
canaut
hor
i
t
i
esandobt
ai
nedl
andbyf
or
ce
 Tr
adebet
weenPor
t
ugueseandAf
r
i
canswasunf
ai
r
 Af
r
i
canr
esur
cesdepl
et
ed,
abuseofAf
r
i
canwomen
 Af
r
i
canswer
eengagedi
nf
or
cedl
abour
,
i
mpr
i
soned,
i
l
l
t
r
eat
ed
[
Nov2011]
55[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xdut
i
esoft
heCapt
ai
noft
heGat
esi
nt
heMut
apast
at
e.[
6]
 Ensur
edt
hatt
hePor
t
ugueseobey
edt
heMut
apaKi
ngbyensur
i
ngt
hatt
he
Por
t
uguesepai
dt
r
i
but
e
 Super
v
i
sedpay
i
ngoft
axesonPor
t
uguesegoods
 Adv
i
sedt
heMut
apaki
ngonmat
t
er
sconcer
ni
ngt
hePor
t
uguese
 I
nf
or
medt
hePor
t
uguesegov
er
nmentonact
i
v
i
t
esi
nt
heMut
apaSt
at
e
 Cont
r
ol
l
edt
r
adebet
weent
hePor
t
ugueseandt
heMut
apaSt
at
e
 Li
nkedt
hePor
t
ugueseandt
heMut
apa
 Ser
v
edasani
nt
er
pr
et
er
 Repr
esent
edt
hePor
t
ugueseGov
er
nmenti
nt
heMut
apa
 Set
t
l
eddi
sput
esbet
weenPor
t
ugueseandAf
r
i
cans
 Handi
ngov
ergi
f
t
sf
r
om Por
t
uguesegov
er
nmentt
ot
heMut
apa
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hemet
hodsusedbyt
hePor
t
ugueset
ogai
ncont
r
ol
oft
heMut
apa
st
at
e[
11]
 Di
spl
acedAr
abt
r
ader
s
 For
cedt
heki
ngt
oexpel
t
heSwahi
l
i
 Est
abl
i
shedt
r
adepost
si
nt
heMut
apaSt
at
e
Page83of83
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 Tookcont
r
ol
oft
r
adei
nt
heMut
apaSt
at
e
 Cont
r
ol
l
edmi
ni
ngusi
ngf
or
cedl
abour
 I
nt
r
t
oducedcr
edi
tsy
st
em
 Conv
er
t
edMut
apaGat
si
Ruser
eandsomeofhi
ssubj
ect
s
 Encour
agedandi
nt
er
v
enedi
nci
v
i
l
war
s
 Mut
apasonssentt
oGoai
nI
ndi
a
 Useofbr
ut
al
i
t
y
 Hel
pedRuser
et
of
i
ghtMar
av
a
 I
nv
ol
v
edi
nsl
av
et
r
adeandsl
av
er
y
 Adopt
i
onofMut
apar
el
i
gi
on
 Tookov
ert
her
ol
eofr
el
i
gi
ousl
eader
s
 Hel
pedt
oi
nst
al
v
assal
chi
ef
s
 Si
gnedt
r
eat
i
esandconcessi
ons
 Cr
eat
edpr
i
v
at
ear
mi
esi
,
eChi
kundasy
st
em
 Est
abl
i
shedpr
i
v
at
epr
i
sons
 Tookl
ar
gear
easofl
andf
r
om Af
r
i
cans
 Tookov
eradmi
ni
st
r
at
i
v
edut
i
esi
nt
heMut
apast
at
e
 Lat
t
err
ef
usedt
opayt
axes
 UseofPor
t
uguesenames
 Mar
r
i
edMut
apawomen
 For
cedMut
apat
opayt
r
i
but
e
 For
cedl
abour
.
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dt
hesemet
hodscont
r
i
but
et
ot
hef
al
l
oft
heMut
apaSt
at
e?[
8]
Cont
r
i
but
i
onofPor
t
uguesmet
hods
 Lef
tShonawi
t
houtenoughl
and
 Causeddecl
i
nei
ngol
dt
r
ade
 Mut
apa’
sweal
t
hdecl
i
ned
 Encour
agedci
v
i
l
war
swhi
chcauseddi
v
i
si
onsanddeat
hs
Page84of84
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 Cr
eat
edpuppetl
eader
swhower
enotr
espect
edbymostoft
hei
rsubj
ect
s
 Sl
av
er
ypr
ohi
bi
t
edAf
r
i
cansf
r
om engagi
ngi
nt
hei
rowneconomi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
est
o
cr
eat
eweal
t
h
 Chr
i
st
i
ani
t
ycauseddi
v
i
si
onsi
nt
hest
at
e
Cont
r
i
but
i
onofot
herf
act
or
s
 I
nf
l
uenceofI
sl
am
 Ri
seoft
heRozv
i
 Depl
et
i
onofnat
ur
al
r
esour
ces
 Successi
ondi
sput
esi
nt
heMut
apaSt
at
e
 Nguni
i
ncur
si
ons
 Di
suni
t
yamongMut
apapeopl
e
 Lossoft
r
adi
t
i
onal
aut
hor
i
t
y
 WeaknessofMut
apal
eader
s
 Dr
ought
s
 Di
seases
 Zi
mbaandMar
av
i
at
t
acks
 Vast
nessoft
heSt
at
emi
l
i
t
at
edagai
nstef
f
ect
i
v
econt
r
ol
 Ci
v
i
l
war
s
Mi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nZi
mbabwe
[
Speci
men]
56[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xpr
obl
emsf
acedbymi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nZi
mbabwebet
ween1850and
1900.[
6]
 Di
seases
 Poort
r
anspor
tandcommuni
cat
i
on
 Opposi
t
i
onofAf
r
i
canl
eader
s
 Opposi
t
i
onofMosl
ems/
Swahi
l
i
 Languagebar
r
i
er
 Tr
adi
t
i
onal
r
el
i
gi
on
 Foodsuppl
i
eswer
escar
ce
Page85of85
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[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hewor
kofmi
ssi
onar
yor
gani
sat
i
onswhi
choper
at
edi
nZi
mbabwe1850
and1900.
[
11]
 Londonmi
ssi
onar
ysoci
et
ycamet
oMat
abel
el
andaf
t
ersomeear
l
i
ercont
act
s
sout
hofLi
mpopo
 1859J.
S.
Mof
f
atest
abl
i
shedami
ssi
onatI
ny
at
hi
 Openedachur
chandaschool
t
oconv
er
tandt
eacht
heNdebel
eSoci
et
y
 1870LMSopenedanot
herst
at
i
onatHopeFount
ai
nf
ort
hesamepur
poses
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nv
ol
v
edbesi
desMof
f
atwer
eThompson,
Sy
kes,
Char
l
esHel
m
andDav
i
dCar
negi
e
 1882t
heRomanCat
hol
i
cscamet
oMat
abel
el
andwhent
heJesui
t
sopened
Empandeni
underf
at
herBar
t
hol
omewknoot
 1879acat
hol
i
cmi
ssi
onwasest
abl
i
shedbyFrLawatMzi
l
abuti
tl
at
erf
ai
l
ed
 1891t
heAngl
i
canChur
chl
edbyKni
ghtBr
ucecamet
oMashonal
and.Thei
r
f
i
r
stmi
ssi
onst
at
i
onatStAugust
i
nes
 Lat
ert
heJesui
t
sest
abl
i
shedami
ssi
onatChi
shawasha
 TheAmer
i
canBoar
doft
hechur
chofChr
i
stcamet
oEast
er
nZi
mbabweand
openedami
ssi
onst
at
i
onatMtSel
i
nda[
Chi
r
i
nda]
 Ot
hermi
ssi
onar
ygr
oupswhocamewer
et
heMet
hodi
st
s,
whoseear
l
i
est
mi
ssi
onwasOl
dMut
ar
e.
 Bet
ween1860and1890mi
ssi
onar
i
esr
epr
esent
i
ngt
heDRC,
Par
i
sEv
angel
i
cal
Mi
ssi
onandt
heBer
l
i
nMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
et
yt
owor
k,
e,
gt
heDRCwaswel
l
r
epr
esent
edi
nt
heMasv
i
ngoar
ea.
 Mai
nact
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
hemi
ssi
onar
i
esi
ncl
udedconv
er
si
ont
oChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
,
educat
i
on[
3Rs]
,
t
r
ansl
at
i
ons,
medi
ci
ne,
t
echni
cal
wor
k,
medi
at
i
ngbet
ween
Af
r
i
cansandot
herEur
opeans.
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
hemi
ssi
onar
i
essucceedi
nt
hei
rwor
ki
nt
hi
sper
i
od?
[
8]
 Educat
i
ondev
el
opedi
nar
easwher
et
heAf
r
i
cansoci
et
ywasnott
i
ght
l
y
cont
r
ol
l
ed
 I
nMat
abel
el
andmi
ssi
onar
i
esonl
ymadi
nr
oadsaf
t
erLobengul
awascr
ushed
i
nt
he1893Angl
oNdebel
ewar
 Ast
echni
ci
anst
heydi
dmuchev
eni
nMat
abel
el
and,
e,
gr
epai
rguns.
 Atf
i
r
stf
ewAf
r
i
cansaccept
edChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y,
bet
t
err
ecept
i
oni
nMashonal
and
 Manyhospi
t
al
swer
eopenedandser
v
edAf
r
i
canswhower
et
hensi
del
i
nedby
t
heGov
er
nmentaf
t
er1890.
Page86of86
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 ManyAf
r
i
cansr
emai
nedscept
i
cal
oft
hemi
ssi
onar
i
esandi
nsomear
east
hey
madenopr
ogr
ess.
 I
nMat
abel
el
andt
heyt
ookt
hei
rr
ol
easl
i
nkpeopl
ewi
t
hot
herEur
opeanst
oan
ext
r
eme.Theybecamemai
nagent
si
nt
hepl
ot
st
odi
sl
odget
heNdebel
eand
occupyZi
mbabwe.
[
Nov2003]
57.[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xai
msofmi
ssi
onar
i
eswhocamei
nt
oZi
mbabwebet
ween1850and
1900.[
6]
 Tospr
eadChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Topr
omot
el
egi
t
i
mat
et
r
ade
 Toendsl
av
er
y
,
endci
v
i
l
war
s
 Toci
v
i
l
i
set
hel
ocal
peopl
e
 Tot
eachpeopl
et
or
eadandwr
i
t
e
Topr
omot
eEur
opeanr
ul
e
 Tot
eachnewf
ar
mi
ngmet
hods,
newski
l
l
se,
gcar
pent
r
y
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heact
i
v
i
t
i
esoft
hemi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nachi
ev
i
ngt
hei
rai
ms? [
11]
 TheLondonMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
et
yest
abl
i
shedI
ny
at
hi
Mi
ssi
oni
n1859l
edbyJ.
s
Mof
f
at
 I
n1870LMSopenedanot
hermi
ssi
onatHopeFount
ai
n
 Att
hemi
ssi
onst
hemi
ssi
onar
i
est
aughtandpr
eachedt
hegospel
 Booksi
nNdebel
ewer
epr
i
nt
ed
 Theygr
ewf
oodcr
ops
 TheRomanCat
hol
i
cChur
chal
soopenedmi
ssi
onsatEmpandeni
near
Bul
away
o
 Af
r
i
canev
angel
i
st
sandcat
echi
st
sf
r
om Tr
ansv
aal
andLesot
hosent
mi
ssi
onar
i
est
oMashonal
ande,
gt
heDut
chRef
or
medChur
ch,
Ber
l
i
n
Mi
ssi
onar
ySoci
et
yandt
hePar
i
sEv
angel
i
cal
Mi
ssi
on.Someper
manent
mi
ssi
onst
at
i
onswer
eest
abl
i
shede,
gatChi
v
i
,
Mat
i
be,
Mposi
.AtChi
v
i
i
twas
shor
tl
i
v
ed.
 Angl
i
canchur
chest
abl
i
shedt
heDi
oceseofMashonal
andi
n1882l
edby
Kni
ghtBr
uce
 Af
t
er1890somest
at
i
onswer
eest
abl
i
shedal
ongt
heeast
er
nbor
der
s:
Mt
Page87of87
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Chi
r
i
ndaMut
ambar
aMi
ssi
on,
Mar
yMount
,
StAugust
i
nes,
Ny
anga[
Mar
i
st
Br
ot
her
s]Mi
ssi
ons,
Regi
naCoel
Mi
ssi
on.
[
c]
.
Howsuccessf
ul
wer
et
hesemi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nachi
ev
i
ngt
hei
rai
ms?
[
8]
[
i
]Fai
l
ur
es:
 Suspect
edconv
er
t
swer
epuni
shed
 Year
nedf
ordest
r
uct
i
onofNdebel
est
at
ewhi
chr
esi
st
edChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Af
r
i
cansunwi
l
l
i
ngt
oabandont
r
adi
t
i
onal
r
el
i
gi
on
[
i
i
]
.
Successes
 J.
S.Mof
f
atandC.Hel
m hel
pedC.
J.Rhodest
ocol
oni
seMashonal
andand
Mat
abel
el
and
 Pr
omot
edt
r
adebet
weenWhi
t
esandAf
r
i
cans
 Bet
ween1890and1900conv
er
t
sst
ar
t
edt
oi
ncr
easei
nnumber
s
 Est
abl
i
shedf
ewmi
ssi
ons
 Taughtf
ewpeopl
et
or
eadandwr
i
t
e
 Conv
er
t
edf
ewt
oChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
[
June2004]
58.Namet
hr
eemi
ssi
onar
yor
gani
sat
i
onsandt
hei
rr
espect
i
v
emi
ssi
onsst
at
i
onsi
n
Zi
mbabwei
nt
he19thcent
ur
y
.
[
6]
 LondonMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
et
y–I
ny
at
hi
,
HopeFount
ai
n.
 RomanCat
hol
i
cChur
chEmpandeni
 TheDut
chRef
or
medChur
chMor
genst
erMi
ssi
on
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hewor
koft
hr
eemi
ssi
onar
yor
gani
sat
i
onsi
nZi
mbabwei
nt
hi
s
per
i
od.
[
11]
 1859J.
SMof
f
at
,
sonofMzi
l
i
kazi
’
sf
r
i
endRober
tMof
f
at
,
al
l
owedt
oopen
Mi
ssi
onst
at
i
onatI
ny
at
hi
nearBul
away
o.Lobengul
al
at
eral
l
owedt
heLondon
Mi
ssi
onar
ySoci
et
yt
of
ur
t
heropenanot
hermi
ssi
onatHopeFount
ai
n.
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
esoft
heLMSengagedi
nt
eachi
ng,
pr
eachi
ngandl
i
t
er
ar
ywor
k
 i
si
Ndebel
ebookswer
epr
i
nt
ed
 mor
eLMSmi
ssi
onar
i
esl
i
keThompson,
Sy
kes,
Hel
m andCar
negi
ear
r
i
v
ed
 LMSmi
ssi
onar
i
eswer
egi
v
enl
andt
ogr
owcr
opsandt
or
epai
rguns,
i
nocul
at
e
cat
t
l
e,
t
r
eatt
hesi
ckwr
i
t
eLobengul
a’
sl
et
t
er
s
Page88of88
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 I
nt
ur
nmi
ssi
onar
i
eswer
eal
l
owedt
opr
eachamongt
heNdebel
e
 TheRomanCat
hol
i
cChur
ch‘
sJesui
t
smi
ssi
onar
i
esf
oundedami
ssi
onat
Empandeni
un1887nearpr
esentdayPl
umt
r
ee.Undert
hel
eader
shi
pofPet
er
Pr
est
i
geandAndr
eHar
t
mann,
t
hei
rmi
ssi
onst
r
uggl
edwi
t
hv
er
yl
i
mi
t
ed
success.Thi
sf
or
cedi
tt
ocl
osei
n1889,
onl
yt
or
eopent
hemi
ssi
oni
n1895
af
t
erdef
eatandconquestoft
heNdebel
eki
ngdom
 Thi
sf
ol
l
owedFrBKr
oot
’
sv
i
si
tt
oLobengul
ai
n1882
 TheJesui
t
ssubsequent
l
yest
abl
i
shedanot
hermi
ssi
onst
at
i
onnearBul
away
o
 TheJesui
t
sal
soengagedi
nt
eachi
ng,
pr
eachi
ngandl
i
t
er
ar
ywor
k
 TheDut
chRef
or
medChur
chofSout
hAf
r
i
canev
angel
i
st
s-t
ot
heEast
er
npar
t
ofMashonal
andbet
ween1860and1890
 Af
r
i
canev
angel
i
st
swer
eusedbecauseoff
ear
st
hatLobengul
awoul
dnot
wel
comewhi
t
es
 DRCev
angel
i
st
swer
eMi
chael
Buy
s–appr
oachedt
heGov
er
aChi
ef
,
Zi
mut
o
[
t
hesecond]
.
 Subsequent
l
yest
abl
i
shedmi
ssi
onatMor
genst
erMi
ssi
onnearMasv
i
ngo
[
c]
.
Howf
arwer
et
hemi
ssi
onar
i
essuccessf
ul
i
nt
hei
rwor
k?
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
eswer
el
ar
gel
yunsuccessf
ul
i
nespeci
al
l
yconv
er
t
i
ngpeopl
et
o
Chr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 LMSmi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nMat
abel
el
andmadel
i
t
t
l
eheadwaybecauseChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
wasi
ncompat
i
bl
ewi
t
hNdebel
ecul
t
ur
eandNdebel
er
el
i
gi
onwasi
nt
er
wov
en
wi
t
hpol
i
t
i
csandmi
l
i
t
ar
yr
egi
ment
s
 Ndebel
eeconomy–par
t
l
ysust
ai
nedbyr
ai
di
ngwhi
chal
sowasi
ncompat
i
bl
e
wi
t
hChr
i
st
i
ani
t
ypr
eachedbymi
ssi
ons.
 Henceconv
er
t
swer
esuspect
edandof
t
enpuni
shed
 Ndebel
esoci
et
ywasor
gani
sedoncast
ebasi
swhi
chmi
l
i
t
at
edagai
nst
Chr
i
st
i
anpr
i
nci
pl
eofequal
i
t
y
,
maki
ngt
heChr
i
st
i
ani
t
yunaccept
abl
e
 Al
soi
nMashonal
andmi
ssi
onar
i
eswer
enotv
er
ysuccessf
ul
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
eswer
ewel
comei
nMashonal
andar
oundMasv
i
ngobutl
at
er
ar
r
est
edbyLobengul
a
 Howev
er
,
mi
ssi
onar
i
esmadesomeheadwayi
nl
i
t
er
ar
ywor
kandt
eachi
ng
,
r
eadi
ngandwr
i
t
i
ng
 Mi
ssi
onar
ywor
kbegant
omakeheadwayaf
t
ercol
oni
sat
i
on.
[
Nov2004]
Page89of89
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59[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xmi
ssi
onar
i
eswhowor
kedi
nZi
mbabwebet
ween1850and
1900.
[
6]
 Rober
tMof
f
at
,
J.
S.Mof
f
at
,
Char
l
esHel
m,
Fr
ancoi
sCoi
l
l
ar
d,
Wi
l
l
i
am Sy
kes,
ThomasM Thomas,
FrRober
tLaws,
Kni
ghtBr
uce,
FrLaw,
FrKr
oot
.
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
her
ol
epl
ay
edbymi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofZi
mbabwe.
[
11]
 1836Mzi
l
i
kazi
si
gnedat
r
eat
ywi
t
hRober
tMof
f
at
-est
abl
i
shi
ngal
ongt
er
m
f
r
i
endshi
pt
hathel
pedt
heBr
i
t
i
shi
nt
he1880s
 TheMof
f
atAgr
eementi
n1888-i
nwhi
chLobengul
awasper
suadedt
odr
op
t
heGr
obl
erTr
eat
y–Lobengul
aagr
eedt
obeaf
r
i
endoft
heBr
i
t
i
shQueenand
nott
oent
eri
nt
oanyagr
eementwi
t
houtt
heknowl
edgeoft
heBr
i
t
i
sh.
Lobengul
at
houghtJ.
S.Mof
f
atwast
r
ust
wor
t
hy
.Thi
st
r
eat
ysi
gnedbya
mi
ssi
onar
yl
edt
ot
hesi
gni
ngoft
heRuddConcessi
on.
 Dur
i
ngnegot
i
at
i
ons,
l
eadi
ngt
ot
heRuddConcessi
on,
RevChar
l
esHel
m
pl
ay
edal
eadi
ngr
ol
ei
nper
suadi
ngLobengul
at
osi
gnt
heconcessi
on
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
esusual
l
ypl
ay
edani
mpor
t
antr
ol
ei
nt
hel
i
nkbet
weenconcessi
on
seeker
sast
heyspokel
ocal
l
anguages.
 Theest
abl
i
shmentofmi
ssi
ons,
e,
gI
ny
at
hi
andEmpandeni
,
hel
pedt
hosewho
v
i
si
t
edZi
mbabwet
of
i
ndapl
acet
ost
ay
[
f
l
agf
ol
l
owedcr
oss]
 Thef
ai
l
ur
eofMi
ssi
onar
i
est
oconv
er
tmanyl
ocal
peopl
et
oChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
r
esul
t
edi
nsomeMi
ssi
onar
i
ese,
gJ.
S.Mof
f
at
,
t
ohat
et
heNdebel
eSt
at
e.
.
.
.
”
i
t
wi
l
l
beabl
essi
ngt
ot
hewor
l
dwhent
heyar
ebr
okenup”
.Soi
naway
encour
agedt
heBSACt
ousewart
odest
r
oyt
heNdebel
eSt
at
ei
nor
dert
o
l
oosengr
i
ponpot
ent
i
al
conv
er
t
s
 Mi
ssi
onar
yr
oadt
ot
henor
t
hf
r
om Sout
husedbywhi
t
es,
t
r
ade–encour
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t
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act
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t
es.
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwast
her
ol
epl
ay
edbyMi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onof
Zi
mbabwe?[
8]
[
i
]I
mpor
t
anceofMi
ssi
onar
i
es
 Hel
pedi
nt
hesi
gni
ngoft
r
eat
i
es
 Pl
ay
edasal
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ssi
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at
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oughtl
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ur
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ocal
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eAf
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[
i
i
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heri
mpor
t
antFact
or
s:
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eoft
r
ader
s,
hunt
er
sandexpl
or
er
s
Page90of90
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 Rhodesandhi
sBSACr
egar
dedt
heNdebel
eSt
at
easofst
r
at
egi
ci
mpor
t
ance
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r
i
cai
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easedcompet
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i
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chi
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t
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hest
at
e[
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ocal
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i
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ar
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l
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t
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[
Nov
2005]
60[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xai
msofChr
i
st
i
anmi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nMat
abel
el
andi
nt
he19th
cent
ur
y
.[
6]
 Toconv
er
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hen/
spr
eadChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Toci
v
i
l
i
set
heAf
r
i
cans
 Tot
ur
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st
encecul
t
i
v
at
or
si
nt
oi
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ci
al
pr
oducer
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cr
af
t
smen
 Todev
el
opani
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genousmi
ddl
ecl
asst
omai
nt
ai
nandst
af
fchur
ches
 Topr
omot
el
egi
t
i
mat
et
r
ade
 Todecampai
gnsl
av
et
r
ade
 Topr
omot
eequal
i
t
y
/
uni
t
y
 Tocol
oni
se/
pav
ewayf
orcol
oni
sat
i
on
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hewor
kofChr
i
st
i
anMi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nMat
abel
el
andi
nt
he19th
cent
ur
y
.
[
11]
 Mzi
l
i
kazi
al
l
owedJ.
S.Mof
f
att
oest
abl
i
shami
ssi
onatI
ny
at
hi
near
Bul
away
o[
1859]
 Lobengul
aal
l
owedL.
MSt
oopenHopeFount
ai
nMi
ssi
on[
1870]
 I
ny
at
hi
andHopeFount
ai
nmi
ssi
onar
i
est
aught,
pr
eachedandwr
ot
e
I
si
Ndebel
ebooks
 Cul
t
i
v
at
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andgi
v
enbyLobengul
ar
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i
v
el
y
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
eshel
pedMzi
l
i
kazi
andLobengul
at
o:
Repai
rguns
I
nocul
at
ecat
t
l
e
Tr
eatt
hesi
ck
Wr
i
t
eki
ng’
sdi
pl
omat
i
cl
et
t
er
s
Page91of91
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 OpenedEmpandeni
nearBul
away
o
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
esact
edasi
nt
er
pr
et
er
sandadv
i
sor
s
 Pav
edt
hewayt
ocol
oni
sat
i
one,
gChar
l
esHel
m
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
hemi
ssi
onar
i
essucceedi
nt
hei
rwor
kdur
i
ngt
hi
sper
i
od?
[
i
]
Successes[
l
i
mi
t
ed]
:
 Setupmi
ssi
onst
at
i
ons
 I
nt
r
oducedl
i
t
er
acy
 I
nt
r
oducedbet
t
erf
ar
mi
ngmet
hods
 Thosewhoshowedi
nt
er
esti
nmessagesentt
odi
st
antpl
acesorpuni
shed
[
i
i
]Fai
l
ur
es:
 Ti
l
l
1894whenMat
abel
el
andwascol
oni
sedbyB.
S.
AC,
mi
ssi
onar
i
es
pr
oducednof
ol
l
owi
ngamongNdebel
eaf
t
er30y
ear
sef
f
or
t
.
 Ndebel
ehadownr
el
i
gi
on
 Ndebel
eeconomybasedonr
ai
di
ngy
etChr
i
st
i
ani
t
ypr
omot
edpeace
 Ndebel
esoci
et
yhadcast
esy
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ssi
onar
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eachedequal
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t
y
 Pot
ent
i
al
conv
er
t
spuni
shed/
sentt
or
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ear
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t
hosewhoshowedi
nt
er
est
i
nChr
i
st
i
anmessagewer
esentt
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antpl
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shed
 LMSandJesui
t
st
hencampai
gnedf
ordest
r
uct
i
onofNdebel
eSt
at
e
[
Nov2007]
61[
a]
.
Namesi
xear
l
ymi
ssi
onar
yor
gani
sat
i
onsi
nZi
mbabwedur
i
ngt
he19thcent
ur
y
[
6]
 LondonMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
et
y
 RomanCat
hol
i
cChur
ch
 Dut
chRef
or
medChur
ch
 TheAngl
i
canChur
ch
 ThePar
i
sEv
angel
i
cal
Chur
ch
 TheBer
l
i
nMi
ssi
onar
yChur
ch
 Amer
i
canBoar
dofFor
ei
gnMi
ssi
onar
y
 Met
hodi
stChur
chofZi
mbabwe
Page92of92
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[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hewor
koft
hemi
ssi
onar
yor
gani
sat
i
oni
nMashonal
andbet
ween1850
and1900.
[
11]
Dut
chRef
or
medChur
ch
 Af
r
i
canev
angel
i
st
swer
et
r
ai
ned
 Fr
ancoi
sCoi
l
l
ar
doft
heP.
E.
M.wi
t
hev
angel
i
stSehahabane/
setupa
per
manentst
at
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onatChi
v
i
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l
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onar
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et
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i
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st
at
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ons-setupbyev
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st
sMadzi
maandSamuel
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di
dt
hegr
oundwor
k
 I
n1886/
7Ger
manmi
ssi
onar
i
eswer
eKnot
heandSchel
l
nusl
at
ercameand
enj
oy
edsomesuccesses,
pr
eachi
ng,
t
eachi
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l
l
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i
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i
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i
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t
ur
e,
car
pent
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y
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l
di
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t
al
s
 Tr
ansl
at
i
ngt
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bl
ei
nt
ol
ocal
l
anguages
 I
nocul
at
i
ngcat
t
l
e,
r
epai
r
i
ngguns,
cr
oppr
oduct
i
on,
t
r
adi
ng,
l
et
t
erwr
i
t
i
ng
 Publ
i
shi
ngbooks
 Pav
edwayf
orcol
oni
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i
on
 Di
scour
agi
ngt
r
adi
t
i
onal
pr
act
i
ces
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hol
i
cChur
ch
 I
n1879,
FrLaw,
t
r
i
edt
oest
abl
i
shami
ssi
onst
at
i
oni
nChi
efMzi
l
a‘
sl
andi
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t
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egi
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mbabweandMozambi
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t
hesewer
easkedt
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conv
er
tot
herAf
r
i
cans
 Mi
chael
Buy
sopenedast
at
i
onatZi
mut
onearMasv
i
ngounderChi
efMugabe
[
Mor
genst
er
]
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herst
at
i
onwasopenedatChi
efChi
v
i
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scapi
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dentmi
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onar
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nt
ed
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opr
each,
t
eachanddi
dl
i
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er
ar
ywor
k
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i
sEv
angel
i
cal
Mi
ssi
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 Af
r
i
canev
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echi
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sf
r
om Lesot
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dmuchoft
hewor
k
,
becausei
twasf
ear
edLobengul
awoul
dnotal
l
owwhi
t
emi
ssi
onar
i
est
oent
er
Mashonal
and
 Ev
angel
i
stexpedi
t
i
onsr
eachedMat
i
be,
Mposi
,
Mudav
anhu,
Chi
ngoma,
Ny
amhondo,
Chi
v
i
,
Mugabe,
Chi
l
i
manzi
andDzi
kei
nsout
heast
er
n
Page93of93
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Mashonal
andst
at
i
onswer
eopenedatt
hesepl
acesandpr
eachi
ngwasdone
Angl
i
canChur
ch
 Kni
ghtBr
ucel
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or
at
or
yexpedi
t
i
ont
ot
heZambezi
i
n1888.
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i
si
t
ed
manyShonachi
ef
s.
I
n1891est
abl
i
shedt
heDi
oceseofMashonal
and;
a
st
at
i
onwasopenedatStAugust
i
nes.
Chur
chofChr
i
st
 Est
abl
i
shedami
ssi
onst
at
i
onatChi
kor
eandMtSel
i
nda[
Chi
r
i
nda]i
nt
he
east
er
npr
ov
i
nceofMani
cal
and[
Chi
pi
nge]
[
C]
.Wer
eMi
ssi
onar
i
essuccessf
ul
i
nt
hei
rwor
kdur
i
ngt
hi
sper
i
od?Expl
ai
ny
our
answer
.
[
8]
[
i
]Successes
 Managedt
oconv
er
tsomeAf
r
i
canst
hought
oal
i
mi
t
edext
ent
 Pr
i
nt
edbooks
 Taughtpeopl
et
or
eadandwr
i
t
e,
t
echni
cal
ski
l
l
swer
ei
mpor
t
ede,
gMposi
,
Mor
genst
er
,
Mzi
l
a,
StAugust
i
ne
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adi
t
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onal
pr
act
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kepol
y
gamyet
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edi
scour
aged
 I
nt
r
oduct
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onofnewcr
opswi
denedt
heeconomy
 Medi
cal
ser
v
i
ceswer
emadeav
ai
l
abl
e
[
i
i
]
.
Fai
l
ur
es
 Somemi
ssi
onar
i
eswer
eat
t
ackedandl
ef
tt
hear
ea
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er
t
edv
er
yf
ewAf
r
i
cans
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t
ackedAf
r
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cant
r
adi
t
i
onsanddi
v
i
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r
i
cans-Chr
i
st
i
ansandnonChr
i
st
i
ans
 Powerofchi
ef
sunder
mi
nedbecausechi
ef
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scour
agedconv
er
si
ont
o
Chr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Fami
ne
 di
seases
[
Nov2008]
62[
a]
.Nameanysi
xmi
ssi
onst
at
i
onsest
abl
i
shedbyear
l
yEur
opeanmi
ssi
onar
i
esi
n
Zi
mbabwebef
or
e1900.
[
6]
Mi
ssi
onSt
at
i
on
Page94of94
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I
ny
at
hi
,
Empandeni
,
Mzi
l
a,
HopeFount
ai
n,
Mashay
amombe,
Chi
shawasha,
St
August
i
nes,
MtSel
i
nda,
Ol
dMut
ar
e,
Pendamat
enka,
Rusi
t
u,
Hol
yCr
oss,
Zi
mut
o,
Gokomer
e,
Mposi
,
Chi
v
i
,
Ber
nar
dMi
zeki
,
Mor
genst
er
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hewor
kofCat
hol
i
cmi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nZi
mbabweupt
o1900.
 Jesui
t
sl
edbyFrBar
t
hol
omewKr
ootopenedMi
ssi
onatEmpandeniand
Bul
away
o
 UsedbyNdebel
et
or
epai
rguns,
t
r
eatt
hesi
ckandwr
i
t
et
heki
ng’
sl
et
t
er
s
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
espr
eachedt
ot
hepeopl
e
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
esal
sot
aughtandcar
r
i
edoutl
i
t
er
ar
ywor
kegSi
ndebel
ebooks
wer
epr
i
nt
edf
orNdebel
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l
dr
ent
or
ead
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chi
nl
edJesui
t
st
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Val
l
eyandsetupast
at
i
onat
Pandamat
enka,
hebui
l
tt
he“
Resi
denceoft
heHol
yCr
oss”
 Chi
washawashawasf
oundednearSal
i
sbur
yi
n1892
 Onl
yi
nt
he1895whenmanymor
emi
ssi
onsopenedwer
emanyconv
er
t
s
made,
af
t
ercol
oni
sat
i
on
 Bui
l
tnumer
ouschur
chesandmanyconv
er
t
smade,
bui
l
tnumer
ouschur
ches
andmanyconv
er
t
saccept
edChr
i
st
i
anst
andar
ds
 Bui
l
tschool
st
hatt
aughtr
eadi
ngandwr
i
t
i
ng
 Theypr
oducedgr
ammarbooks,
t
r
ansl
at
edr
el
i
gi
ousandeducat
i
onal
books
i
nt
ov
er
nacul
ar
s
 Newcr
opsandv
eget
abl
eswer
ei
nt
r
oducedandnewcr
af
t
sandski
l
l
s
pr
act
i
sede,
gcar
pent
r
yatChi
washawashaet
c
 Tr
adedwi
t
hl
ocal
peopl
e
 Pav
edwayf
orcol
oni
sat
i
on
 CondemnedAf
r
i
canr
el
i
gi
on
 Newf
ar
mi
ngmet
hods
 I
nt
r
oducedl
i
v
est
ockbr
eedi
ng
 FrPr
est
i
gesuppor
t
eddest
r
uct
i
onoft
heNdebel
est
at
e
[
c]
.
Howsuccessf
ul
wast
hewor
kofCat
hol
i
cMi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nZi
mbabwei
nt
hi
s
per
i
od?
[
8]
Successes:
 Est
abl
i
shedmi
ssi
onst
at
i
ons
Page95of95
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 I
nocul
at
i
onofcat
t
l
et
r
ansf
or
medAf
r
i
canl
anguaget
owr
i
t
t
enf
r
om [
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ndebel
e
andShona]
 Tr
ansl
at
edr
el
i
gi
onsandeducat
i
onal
books
 I
nt
r
oducednewcr
opsv
eget
abl
es
 Newcr
af
t
sandski
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spr
act
i
sed
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edget
ousenewi
mpl
ement
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nt
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oughs
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abl
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s
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t
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s,
t
r
eat
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nt
r
oducedl
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v
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ockbr
eedi
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s
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st
edi
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Fai
l
ur
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or
ecol
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oni
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i
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l
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mpactt
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er
tNdebel
eShona
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av
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ai
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ngandcl
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st
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ei
nf
l
uencedNdebel
eki
ngst
o
di
scour
ageconv
er
si
on
 Pr
obl
emsofdi
seasesandpoorcommuni
cat
i
on
 Opposi
t
i
onf
r
om Musl
i
ms
[
Nov2009]
63[
a]
.
Nameanyt
hr
eemi
ssi
onar
ysoci
et
i
esandt
hei
rr
espect
i
v
el
eader
swhocame
i
nt
oZi
mbabwebet
ween1850and1900.
[
6]
 LondonMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
et
y
J.
S.Mof
f
at
,
CHel
m,
Pr
i
ce,Sy
kes,
Thomas
 Angl
i
canKni
ghtBr
uce
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l
i
nMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
et
y
Madzi
maandSamuel
 RomanCat
hol
i
cChur
ch—FrBar
t
hol
omewKr
oot
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FrLaw,
Depel
chi
n
 Dut
chRef
or
medChur
chMi
chael
Buy
s
 Par
i
sEv
angel
i
cal
Mi
ssi
onCoi
l
l
ar
dandSehahabane
[
b]Out
l
i
net
hepr
obl
emsexper
i
encedbymi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nZi
mbabwebet
ween1850
and1900.
[
11]
 Tr
opi
cal
di
seases
 Languagepr
obl
emsast
heyt
r
i
edt
ocommuni
cat
ewi
t
hl
ocal
s/
wi
t
ht
hei
rhome
Page96of96
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count
r
i
es
 At
t
acksbyani
mal
s
 Local
sr
esi
st
edChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Tr
anspor
tpr
obl
ems
 Shor
t
ageoff
oodt
heywer
eusedt
o
 Pr
essur
ef
r
om pol
i
t
i
cal
l
eader
st
obei
nv
ol
v
edi
ncol
oni
sat
i
on
 Caughtupi
nt
hecompet
i
t
i
onamongt
heEur
opeancount
r
i
es
 Shor
t
ageofmedi
ci
nes
 Opposi
t
i
onf
r
om Af
r
i
canr
ul
er
s
 Humanr
esour
ceshor
t
age[
manpower
]
 Accommodat
i
onpr
obl
ems/
shel
t
er
[
c]
.
Towhatext
enthadmi
ssi
onar
i
essol
v
edt
hesepr
obl
emsby1900?
[
8]
Met
hodst
osol
v
epr
obl
ems
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
esbr
oughtmedi
ci
ne
 Useofsi
gnl
anguage,
i
nt
er
pr
et
erf
r
om Sout
hAf
r
i
ca
 Setupschool
s
 Assi
st
edi
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onsot
hatt
hei
rwor
kt
ospr
eadChr
i
st
i
ani
t
ywas
madeeasy
 Cr
eat
edr
oads
 Gr
ewt
hei
rowncr
ops
 Bui
l
tmi
ssi
onst
at
i
ons
 UsedAf
r
i
cancat
echi
st
sandev
angel
i
st
s
 Fr
i
endshi
pwi
t
hAf
r
i
canchi
ef
s
 Cheat
edsomechi
ef
s
[
I
]Successes
 Hadassi
st
edi
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofZi
mbabwe
 St
at
i
onsbui
l
tandcl
i
ni
csbui
l
t
 Wer
egr
owi
ngowncr
ops
 Rapi
dsuccessaf
t
erNdebel
ehadf
al
l
en
Page97of97
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 Appoi
nt
edsomeAf
r
i
cancat
echi
st
satsomeChi
ef
s’
cour
t
[
i
i
]Fai
l
ur
es
 Fewpeopl
econv
er
t
edt
oChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Notmanyr
oadscr
eat
ed
 Shor
t
ageofdr
ugs
 Somechasedoutoft
hecount
r
y
Coi
l
l
ar
d
 Somemi
ssi
onsabandonede,
gPandamat
enka
 Somemi
ssi
onar
i
eski
l
l
edeg,
Ber
nar
dMi
zeki
 Af
r
i
canr
el
i
gi
onr
emai
nedst
r
ong
(
Nov2010)
64.
(
a)
Nameanyt
hr
eepi
oneermi
ssi
onar
i
esandanyt
hr
eepi
oneermi
ssi
onst
at
i
ons
t
h
i
nZi
mbabwedur
i
ngt
he19 cent
ur
y
.
(
6)
Pi
oneerMi
ssi
onar
i
es:
 JohnSmi
t
hMof
f
at
,
M.
ThomasMor
gan,
Fat
herBar
t
hol
omewKr
oot
 Char
l
esHel
m,
Ber
nar
dMi
zeki
,
Madzi
maSamuel
Pi
oneerMi
ssi
onSt
at
i
ons:
 I
ny
at
hi
,
HopeFount
ai
n
 Mor
genst
erMi
ssi
on,
Empandeni
 chi
shawasha
(
b)
.
Whatpr
obl
emswer
ef
acedbypi
oneermi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nt
hei
rwor
ki
nZi
mbabwe
dur
i
ngt
he19thCent
ur
y
?
(
11)
 Cul
t
ur
al
di
f
f
er
ences–e,
gChr
i
st
i
ani
t
yhaddi
f
f
i
cul
t
i
esi
nconv
er
t
i
ngpeopl
e
 Di
st
r
ust
edast
heypr
eachedagai
nstcust
omssuchaski
l
l
i
ngt
wi
ns,
pol
y
gamy
,
cast
esy
st
em andr
ai
di
ngsy
st
em
 Communi
cat
i
onpr
obl
emsdi
f
f
er
encesi
nl
anguage
 Lackofsuppl
i
esofEur
opeangoodsf
ood,
medi
ci
ne,
t
ool
s,
cl
ot
hes
 Tr
opi
cal
di
seasessuchasmal
ar
i
a
 Host
i
l
i
t
yofl
ocal
peopl
e
 Ki
l
l
i
ngofconv
er
t
sorexi
l
i
ngt
hem,
egi
nt
heNdebel
eKi
ngdom
Page98of98
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 War
f
ar
eandr
ai
di
ngcr
eat
edf
earamongt
hemi
ssi
onar
i
es
 Lackofr
oadst
r
anspor
tdi
f
f
i
cul
t
i
es
 Bei
ngembr
oi
l
edi
nl
ocal
pol
i
t
i
cse,
gsuccessi
ondi
sput
es
 Manpowershor
t
ages
 Associ
at
edwi
t
hcol
oni
ser
s
 Cl
i
mat
i
ccondi
t
i
ons
 Li
t
er
acy
 Compet
i
t
i
onwi
t
hot
herr
el
i
gi
ons
 At
t
ackf
r
om wi
l
dani
mal
s
 Communi
cat
i
onwi
t
hmot
hercount
r
i
es
 Ki
l
l
i
ngofmi
ssi
onar
i
es
(
c)
.
Towhatext
entwer
et
hemi
ssi
onar
i
esabl
et
osol
v
et
hesepr
obl
emsatt
hatt
i
me?
(
8)
 Teachi
ngnat
i
v
echi
l
dr
ent
or
eadandwr
i
t
e,
l
ear
ni
ngnat
i
v
el
anguagesai
ded
communi
cat
i
onandpr
eachi
ng
 Cl
ear
i
ngr
oads
 Fr
i
endshi
pwi
t
hl
ocal
chi
ef
s
 Bui
l
di
ngcl
i
ni
csf
orcur
i
ngt
r
opi
cal
di
seases
 Gr
owi
ngcr
opsf
orf
ood
 Tr
ai
ni
ngofAf
r
i
cancat
echi
st
s
 Tr
ansl
at
i
ngofbooksi
nt
ov
er
nacul
ar
 Pr
omot
i
ngcol
oni
sat
i
on
Unsol
v
ed
 Af
r
i
cansst
i
l
l
at
t
achedt
ot
hei
rt
r
adi
t
i
onal
r
el
i
gi
onandcul
t
ur
e
 Ndebel
et
i
l
l
cher
i
shedcast
eandr
ai
di
ngsy
st
ems
 Roadsandt
el
ephonesst
i
l
l
r
ar
e
 Af
r
i
canssuspi
ci
ousofEur
opeansorMi
ssi
onar
i
es.
[
June2011]
65[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xmi
ssi
onst
at
i
onsest
abl
i
shedi
nZi
mbabwebet
ween1850and
Page99of99
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1900.[
6]
 Empandeni
,
HopeFount
ai
n,
I
ny
at
hi
,
Chi
shawasha,
Mor
genst
er
 Chi
v
i
,
Mat
i
bi
,
Mposi
,
Zi
mut
o,
Har
t
zel
,
Howar
d,
MountSel
i
nda
 StAugust
i
ne,
StDomi
ni
cs,
Mut
ambar
a,
Nhowe,
Ber
nadMi
zeki
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hewor
koft
heLondonMi
ssi
onar
ySoci
et
y(
LMS)i
nMat
abel
el
andi
nt
he
t
h
19 Cent
ur
y
.
[
11]
 I
n1859JSMof
f
atest
abl
i
shedI
ny
at
hi
mi
ssi
on
 LMSopenedHopeFount
ai
ni
n1870,
att
hemi
ssi
onst
hemi
ssi
onar
i
est
aught
andpr
eached,
gr
ewt
hei
rownf
ood
 JSMof
f
atsi
gnedt
heMof
f
atTr
eat
ywi
t
hLobengul
ai
nFeb1888
 RevCHel
m per
suadedLobengul
at
osi
gnt
heRuddConcessi
oni
nOct1888
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nMat
abel
el
andencour
agedt
r
adebet
weenNdebel
eandwhi
t
es
 Est
abl
i
shedschool
s,
hospi
t
al
sandchur
ches
 Conv
er
t
edNdebel
ei
nt
oChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Repai
r
edt
heki
ng’
sguns,
wr
ot
eki
ng’
sl
et
t
er
s,
t
r
eat
edt
hesi
ck
 Di
scour
agedandunder
mi
nedAf
r
i
canr
el
i
gi
onandt
r
adi
t
i
on
 TaughtNdebel
esnewski
l
sssuchascar
pent
r
y
,woodwor
k,
met
al
wor
ket
c
 Act
easi
nt
er
pr
et
er
s(
t
r
ansl
at
or
s)
 Pr
omot
edl
i
t
er
acy(
Ndebel
ewer
et
aughthowt
or
eadandwr
i
t
e)
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwast
her
ol
epl
ay
edbyt
heLMSi
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onof
Zi
mbabwe?
Rol
epl
ay
edbyLMSi
ncol
oni
sat
i
onofZi
mbabwe.
 I
nFeb188,
JSMof
f
atsi
gnedt
heMof
f
atTr
eat
yonbehal
fofRhodes.
Lobengul
aagr
eedt
ocancel
t
heGr
obl
ert
r
eat
y
 Oct1888RevCHel
mi
nf
l
uencedLobengul
ai
nt
osi
gni
ngt
heRuddConcessi
on
 CHel
mr
ecommendet
hedest
r
uct
i
onoft
heNdebel
est
at
e
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
eshost
edur
opeanv
i
si
t
or
sf
r
om Eur
ope
 Mi
ssi
onar
yr
oadbecamegat
ewayi
nt
ot
hei
nt
er
i
orofSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 I
nf
l
uenceofexpl
or
er
s,
hunt
er
s,
t
r
ader
sandot
herambi
t
i
ouspeopl
e
Page100of100
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 Rhodes’
Capet
oCai
r
odr
eam
 Toexpl
oi
tmi
ner
al
r
esour
ces(
secondr
andexpect
edi
nzi
m)
 Pr
est
i
ge,
needsf
ormar
ket
sandr
awmat
er
i
al
s
 Needt
oi
nv
estsur
pl
uscapi
t
al
,
newt
echnol
ogyenabl
edt
heBr
i
t
i
sht
ocont
r
ol
f
or
ei
gnl
ands
 Compet
i
t
i
onamongt
heBoer
s,
Por
t
ugueseandGer
mans
 Av
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yofcheapl
abouri
nZi
mbabwe
 Fer
t
i
l
el
andsandf
av
our
abl
ecl
i
mat
i
ccondi
t
i
onsf
orEur
opeanset
t
l
ement
[
Nov2011]
66.
[
a]
.St
at
eanysi
xr
easonswhyt
hel
ocal
peopl
er
esi
st
edmi
ssi
onar
yi
nf
l
uencei
n
Zi
mbabwebet
ween1850and1900.
[
6]
 Mi
ssi
onar
yf
or
mal
educat
i
onwasmeani
ngl
esst
oAf
r
i
canwayofl
i
f
e
 Lackofmat
er
i
al
gai
ns
 Di
dnotwantt
oabandont
hei
rt
r
adi
t
i
onal
r
el
i
gi
on
 Fear
edt
hei
rt
r
adewoul
dbedi
st
ur
bed
 Di
dnotwantt
ol
ear
nanewl
anguge
 Chr
i
st
i
ani
t
ydenouncedaspect
ssuchasr
ai
di
ng
 At
t
ackedAf
r
i
canadmi
ni
st
r
at
i
v
esy
st
ems
 Suspect
edmi
ssi
onar
i
esofhav
i
ngcol
oni
al
ai
ms
 I
nf
l
uencef
r
om t
r
adi
t
i
onal
l
eader
s/r
el
i
gi
ousl
eader
s
 I
nf
l
uenceofi
sl
am
 Whi
t
esbl
amedf
ornat
ur
al
cal
ami
t
i
esegDr
ought
,
di
seases,
f
ev
er
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
heway
si
sedbyl
ocal
peopl
et
or
esi
stmi
ssi
onar
yi
nf
l
uencei
n
Zi
mbabwebet
ween1850and1900.
[
11]
 Mov
edf
arawayf
r
om mi
ssi
onar
yset
t
l
ement
s
 Cont
i
nuedt
opr
act
i
set
r
adi
t
i
onal
r
el
i
gi
on
 Rai
dscont
i
nued
Page101of101
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 Ref
usedt
oat
t
endschool
s
 Ki
l
l
edsomemi
ssi
onar
i
es
 Ref
usedt
ogi
v
ef
oodt
omi
ssi
onar
i
es
 Accusedsomemi
ssi
onar
i
esofspi
es
 Puni
shedorki
l
l
edpot
ent
i
al
conv
er
t
s
 Accusedmi
ssi
onar
i
esofusi
ngf
or
bi
ddenr
out
es
 Expul
si
onofmi
ssi
onar
i
es
 SomeAf
r
i
canscont
i
nuedt
of
ol
l
owi
sl
am
 Somecont
i
nuedt
ot
r
adewi
t
hMusl
i
ms
 Mov
ementofmi
ssi
onar
i
eswasr
est
r
i
ct
ed.
 Ref
usedt
owor
kf
ort
hemi
ssi
onar
i
es
 Af
r
i
canl
eader
sdi
scour
agedpeopl
ef
r
om at
t
endi
ngchur
ches.
[
c]
.
Wer
et
hesepeopl
esuccessf
ul
i
nr
esi
st
i
ngmi
ssi
onar
yi
nf
l
uenceatt
hatt
i
me?
Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
8]
.
Successes
 Manypeopl
enotconv
er
t
ed
 Fewpeopl
eat
t
endedschool
s
 Ki
l
l
edsomemi
ssi
onar
i
es
 Someconv
er
t
swer
eki
l
l
ed
 Ref
usedt
ol
ear
nt
henewl
anguage
 Expul
si
onofmi
ssi
onar
i
es
 Somepoi
ntsi
nBappl
i
es.
Fai
l
ur
es
 Hospi
t
al
swer
ebui
l
t
 Somepeopl
ewer
econv
er
t
ed
 Ot
herpeopl
ewer
eeducat
ed
 Mi
ssi
onst
at
i
onswer
eest
abl
i
shed
 School
swer
ebui
l
t
 Al
l
mi
ssi
onar
ysuccesseswer
ef
ai
l
ur
esbyAf
r
i
canst
or
esi
st
.
Page102of102
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I
NDUSTRI
ALREVOLUTI
ONI
NBRI
TAI
N
[
Nov2003]
67[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xf
act
or
st
hatmadeBr
i
t
ai
nt
obet
hef
i
r
stcount
r
yi
nt
hewor
l
dt
o
i
ndust
r
i
al
i
se.
[
6]
 Encl
osur
eofl
and
 Ani
ncr
easei
npopul
at
i
on
 Cont
r
ol
ofi
nt
er
nat
i
onal
t
r
ade
 Theeconomywasst
r
ong
 Theemer
gencyoft
hemi
ddl
ecl
asswhi
chhadmoneyt
oi
nv
est
 Thegov
er
nmentwasst
abl
eandcount
r
yenj
oy
edpeace
 Av
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yofi
r
onandcoal
i
nt
hecount
r
y
 Possessi
onofcol
oni
esf
orr
awmat
er
i
al
se,
gcot
t
onf
ort
ext
i
l
es
[
b]
.Whatwer
et
her
esul
t
sofi
ndust
r
i
al
i
sat
i
oni
nBr
i
t
ai
n?
[
11]
 Useofmachi
nes/
acci
dent
s
 Goodswer
epl
ent
yandcheapert
hanbef
or
e
 Manypeopl
ebegant
ol
i
v
ei
nur
banar
eas
 Wor
ki
ngcl
assandcapi
t
al
i
st
sbecamet
hemai
ncl
asses
 Manyi
nv
ent
i
onsmadet
el
ephone,
mot
orcar
s,
gr
amophones,
r
adi
os,
 Wor
ki
ngandl
i
v
i
ngcondi
t
i
onswer
egener
al
l
ybad
 I
mpr
ov
ementoft
r
anspor
t
t
ar
r
edr
oadsandr
ai
l
way
s.Useofst
eam engi
nes
 Needf
orcol
oni
esassour
cesofr
awmat
er
i
al
sandmar
ket
s
 Al
abourbasedpol
i
t
i
cal
par
t
ywasf
or
med
 Bet
t
ersci
ent
i
f
i
cknowl
edgewasused
 Unempl
oy
ment
,
Chi
l
dl
abour
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwast
hi
si
ndust
r
i
al
i
sat
i
oni
nt
hescr
ambl
ef
orSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca?[
8]
[
i
]I
mpor
t
anceofi
ndust
r
i
al
i
sat
i
ont
ot
hescr
ambl
ei
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
 Needf
orr
awmat
er
i
al
sandmar
ket
s
 Newt
echnol
ogyenabl
edt
hem t
oconquermor
el
ands
 Av
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yoff
undst
oi
nv
esti
nnewl
ands
Page103of103
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 Tocont
r
ol
st
r
at
egi
car
easf
ort
r
adeatt
heCape
 Thei
nv
ent
i
onofst
r
eam shi
pmademov
ementeasi
er
 Tor
eset
t
l
et
r
oubl
esomewor
ker
sorci
t
i
zens
[
i
i
]Ot
herf
act
or
sf
orscr
ambl
e
 Spr
eadofChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Pr
est
i
ge
 Tost
opsl
av
er
yandsl
av
et
r
ade
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
cont
r
ol
ofnewl
andsassuper
i
orr
ace
 Pr
eci
ousmi
ner
al
sl
i
kegol
danddi
amonds
 Hunt
i
ngexpedi
t
i
ons
 I
nf
l
uenceofexpl
or
er
sandambi
t
i
ouspeopl
e
 Goodcl
i
mat
i
ccondi
t
i
ons,
f
er
t
i
l
esoi
l
s
[
June2004]
68[
a]
.
Ment
i
onanysi
xi
nv
ent
i
onsmadedur
i
ngt
heI
ndust
r
i
al
r
ev
ol
ut
i
oni
nBr
i
t
ai
n.[
6]
 Seeddr
i
l
l
,
Rai
l
way
s,
Spi
nni
ngmachi
nes[
f
l
y
i
ngshut
t
l
e,
spi
nni
ngj
enny
]
 St
eam engi
ne,
t
el
egr
aph.
 Mot
or
car
s
 Weav
i
ngmachi
nes
[
b]
.Descr
i
bet
hemet
hodsusedbyt
hewor
ki
ngcl
assi
nBr
i
t
ai
nt
or
esi
stcapi
t
al
i
st
expl
oi
t
at
i
onupt
o1870.
 Wor
ker
sst
agedst
r
i
kesanddemonst
r
at
i
ons
 Wor
ker
sbr
okemachi
nesf
ort
aki
ngawayt
hei
rwor
k,
e,
gLUddt
es1813br
oke
machi
nesunderl
eader
shi
pofNedLuddsuchaskni
t
t
i
ngf
r
amesshear
i
ng
machi
nesandweav
i
ngmachi
nes.
Pol
i
t
i
cal
pr
ot
est
 Af
t
erf
ai
l
ur
eofmachi
nebr
eaki
ngbecauseofgov
er
nmentr
epr
essi
on,
 Wor
ker
susedmor
epower
f
ul
met
hodsofpr
ot
estsuchast
hepeopl
e’
sChar
t
er
 Pet
i
t
i
onedgov
er
nmentt
hr
oughcol
l
ect
i
onofmi
l
l
i
onsofsi
gnat
ur
esofpeopl
e
want
i
ngchangei
n1839,
1842and1848
 Pet
i
t
i
onswer
er
ej
ect
ed
Page104of104
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 Bet
ween1850and1860ski
l
l
edwor
ker
sbegant
oor
gani
set
r
adeuni
ons–t
o
f
i
ghtf
ori
mpr
ov
edcondi
t
i
ons,
def
endt
hei
rr
i
ght
sf
ori
mpr
ov
edwages
 Br
i
t
i
sht
r
adeuni
onswer
eaggr
essi
v
et
ocapi
t
al
i
sm
[
c]
.
Whywer
et
hewor
ker
sl
ar
gel
yunsuccessf
ul
i
nachi
ev
i
ngt
hei
rai
ms?
[
8]
Wor
ker
swer
el
ar
gel
yunsuccessf
ul
i
nr
eal
i
si
ngt
hei
rai
msmai
nl
ybecause:
 Thegov
er
nmentwhi
chi
ncl
udedcapi
t
al
i
st
susedf
or
ceagai
nstwor
ker
swho
br
okemachi
nest
opr
ot
ectcapi
t
al
i
stf
act
or
i
es
 Ar
r
est
ed,
i
mpr
i
sonedandexecut
edmachi
nebr
eaker
s
 Gov
er
nmentr
ej
ect
eddemandsofChar
t
i
st
sbecausesomeoft
hegov
er
nment
wer
ef
act
or
yowner
s
 Al
sogov
er
nmentf
or
badef
or
mat
i
onoft
r
adeuni
onsf
orsomer
easons
[
i
]Al
soi
ni
t
i
al
l
ywor
ker
swer
euneducat
edandnotuni
t
ed
 Lackedi
deasandpr
ogr
ammesf
orchange
 Wor
ker
sl
ackedpol
i
t
i
cal
powert
of
or
cet
hegov
er
nmentt
omakechanges
 Hencegov
er
nmentusedr
epr
essi
onagai
nstmachi
nebr
eaker
s
 Wor
ker
swer
enotr
epr
esent
edi
npar
l
i
ament
[
Nov2005]
69[
a]
.
Gi
v
eanysi
xf
act
or
st
hatmadeBr
i
t
ai
nt
hef
i
r
stcount
r
yi
nt
hewor
l
dt
o
i
ndust
r
i
al
i
se.
[
6]
 Theencl
osur
esy
st
em
 Ani
ncr
easei
npopul
at
i
on
 Cont
r
ol
ofi
nt
er
nat
i
onal
t
r
ade
 Asoundeconomy
 emer
genceofami
ddl
ecl
asswi
t
hsur
pl
usofr
awmat
er
i
al
s
 Adev
el
opedbanki
ngsect
or
[
l
oans]
 I
mpor
t
antt
echnol
ogi
cal
i
nv
ent
i
ons
 Tr
anspor
tr
ev
ol
ut
i
on
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
cef
f
ect
sofi
ndust
r
i
al
i
sat
i
ononBr
i
t
ai
nwhi
chl
edt
ot
he
scr
ambl
ef
orSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.
 Needf
orr
awmat
er
i
al
s
Page105of105
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 Needf
ormar
ket
s
 Needf
orcol
oni
est
oi
nv
estsur
pl
uscapi
t
al
 Toexpor
tt
r
oubl
esomewor
ker
s
 I
mpor
t
antt
echnol
ogi
cal
i
nnov
at
i
onsf
aci
l
i
t
at
edcol
oni
sat
i
on
 Fast
erst
eam shi
ps
 Needt
opr
ot
ectst
r
at
egi
car
eas
 Cheapl
abour
 Sear
chi
ngf
orl
and
 Popul
at
i
oni
ncr
ease
 Maxi
m gun
 Medi
cal
adv
ances[
Qui
ni
ne]
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dt
heef
f
ect
sofi
ndust
r
i
al
i
sat
i
oni
nBr
i
t
ai
ncont
r
i
but
et
ot
heScr
ambl
e
f
orSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca?
Abov
eeconomi
cf
act
or
sl
edt
o/
cont
r
i
but
et
ot
hescr
ambl
ef
orSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Tospr
eadr
el
i
gi
on
 St
r
at
egi
cr
easons
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
r
i
v
al
r
y
 Humani
t
ar
i
anr
eason
 Pr
est
i
gi
ousr
easons
 WeaknessesofAf
r
i
cans
 Needt
ocont
r
ol
gol
danddi
amondsi
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
caet
c
(
Nov2010)
70(
a)
.
St
at
eanyt
hr
eecl
assesandt
hei
rdut
i
esdur
i
ngt
heI
ndust
r
i
al
Rev
ol
ut
i
oni
n
Br
i
t
ai
n.
(
6)
 Wor
ker
s\
Pr
ol
et
ar
i
at
wor
ki
ngi
nf
act
or
i
es
 Peasant
swor
ki
ngi
nf
i
el
ds
 Landl
or
dsownedl
and
 Capi
t
al
i
st
sowner
soff
act
or
i
es
Page106of106
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 Ar
i
st
ocr
acy
-Rul
i
ngcl
ass.
(
b)
.
Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
candsoci
al
pr
obl
emscausedbyheI
ndust
r
i
al
Rev
ol
ut
i
oni
n
Br
i
t
ai
n.
(
11)
Economi
c:
 Shor
t
ageofr
awmat
er
i
al
s
 Peasant
s–wer
el
andl
essandpoor
\
pov
er
t
y
 Longwor
ki
nghour
s
 Lowwages
 St
r
i
kes,
demonst
r
at
i
onsandr
i
ot
sbywor
ker
sr
esi
st
i
ngcapi
t
al
expl
oi
t
at
i
on
 Pr
oduct
i
oni
nf
act
or
i
esdi
sr
upt
ed
 Chi
l
dl
abour
-exposedt
ounpr
ot
ect
edmachi
nesandunv
ent
i
l
at
edf
act
or
i
es
 Womenal
sowor
kedi
nt
hehar
shcondi
t
i
ons
 Wi
despr
eadunempl
oy
mentandpov
er
t
y
 Shor
t
agesoff
ood,
mar
ket
,
sur
pl
uscapi
t
al
,
l
ackofi
nv
est
mentoppor
t
uni
t
i
es
Soci
al
Pr
obl
ems:
 Wor
ker
swer
eaccommodat
edi
npoor
l
yl
i
tanduni
nv
ent
i
l
at
eddor
mi
t
or
i
es
 Cr
owdedcondi
t
i
onsout
br
eakofdi
seases,
pr
ost
i
t
ut
i
onandcr
i
me
 I
nsani
t
ar
ycondi
t
i
ons-l
ackofpi
pedwat
er
,
commont
oi
l
et
s
 Pol
l
ut
i
onwashi
gh
 Unempl
oy
ment
 Soci
al
i
nequal
i
t
i
esbet
weenr
i
chandpoor
 Cl
assst
r
uggl
es
 Lackofeducat
i
onandheal
t
hf
aci
l
i
t
i
es
 Poor
l
yl
i
tst
r
eet
s
 I
ncr
easei
npopul
at
i
on
 Hi
ghdeat
hr
at
es
(
c)
.
Towhatext
entdi
deconomi
cpr
obl
emscont
r
i
but
et
ot
heScr
ambl
ef
or
Sout
her
nAf
r
i
ca?(
8)
 Needf
orr
awmat
er
i
al
sbyi
ndust
r
i
al
i
st
s
Page107of107
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 Needf
ormor
el
andneedf
orcheapl
abour
 Needf
ornewar
easf
ori
nv
est
ment
 Needf
ormar
ket
s,
f
er
t
i
l
esoi
l
s
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 St
r
at
egi
cr
easons
 Humani
t
ar
i
anr
easons
 Pr
est
i
ger
easons
 Expl
or
er
sencour
agedcol
oni
sat
i
on
 Publ
i
copi
ni
onandpr
essur
e
 Whi
t
er
egar
dedt
hemsel
v
esassuper
i
orwhoshoul
dr
ul
eAf
r
i
ca
 Sur
pl
uspopul
at
i
oni
nEur
ope
 Spr
eadofChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 WeaknessesofAf
r
i
cans
 Cl
i
mat
i
ccondi
t
i
ons
[
June2011]
71[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xpr
obl
emswhi
chaf
f
ect
edf
act
or
ywor
ker
si
nBr
i
t
ai
ndur
i
ngt
he
I
ndust
r
i
al
Rev
ol
ut
i
on.
[
6]
 Deat
hs,
ov
er
cr
owdi
ng,
dust
 Lowwages,
l
oudnoi
se,
hi
ght
emper
at
ur
es
 Longwor
ki
nghour
s,
l
ackofv
ent
i
l
at
i
on,
Chi
mneysmokes
 Nopr
ot
ect
i
v
ecl
ot
hi
ng,
oper
at
i
ngdanger
ousmachi
nesl
eadi
ngt
oi
nj
ur
i
es
 Chi
l
dl
abour
,
womenl
abour
,
poorl
i
ght
i
ng
 Noi
nsur
ancecov
eragai
nstacci
dent
s,
l
ackofeducat
i
on
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
cef
f
ect
soft
heI
ndust
r
i
al
Rev
ol
ut
i
oni
nBr
i
t
ai
n[
11]
 Ledt
ot
hescr
ambl
ef
orsout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
 Pr
oduct
i
onofpl
ent
yandcheapergoods
 Useofnewi
nv
ent
edmachi
nes
 Hi
ghr
at
eofunempl
oy
ment
 Needf
orcol
ni
esassour
cesofr
awmat
er
i
al
s,
mar
ket
s,
newi
nv
est
mentar
eas
Page108of108
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 Tr
anspor
ti
mpr
ov
ement
s-r
oads,
r
ai
l
way
,
canal
s
 PoorWor
ki
ngcondi
t
i
ons
 Useofsci
ent
i
f
i
cmet
hodse,
gcr
opr
ot
at
i
on
 Newi
nv
ent
i
onsr
adi
os,
car
s,
t
el
ephones
 Capi
t
al
i
stcl
assandwor
ki
ngcl
assemr
gedasmaj
orcl
asses
 Col
l
apseofcot
t
agei
ndust
r
i
es
[
c]
.
Howf
arwast
heI
ndusr
t
i
al
RRev
ol
ut
i
onr
esponsi
bl
ef
ort
hecol
oni
zat
i
onof
Sout
her
nAf
r
i
ca?
[
8]
I
nf
l
uenceofI
ndust
r
i
al
Rev
ol
ut
i
on
 Needf
ormar
ket
s,
r
awmat
er
i
al
s
 Easi
ert
r
av
el
l
i
ngduet
ot
heuseofst
eamshi
p
 Newt
echnol
ogyl
edt
ot
heconquestofnewl
ands
 Di
scov
er
yofqui
ni
neenabl
edEur
opeanst
oset
t
l
ei
nmal
ar
i
ai
nf
est
edar
eas
 Needf
orl
andst
oi
nv
estsur
pl
uscapi
t
al
Ot
her
tf
act
or
s
 Spr
eadofChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Goodcl
i
mat
i
ccondi
t
i
ons,
pr
est
i
ger
easons
 St
opsl
av
et
r
adeandsl
av
er
y
,
i
nf
l
uenceofi
ndi
v
i
dual
se,
gRhodes
 St
r
at
egi
cr
easons,
l
ocal
weaknesses
[
Nov2011]
72[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xeconomi
cbenef
i
t
st
hatt
heBr
i
t
i
shgotf
r
om t
heI
ndust
r
i
al
Rev
ol
ut
i
on.
[
6]
 Empl
oy
menti
nt
heI
ndust
r
y
 Foodbecamecheaper
 St
andar
dofl
i
v
i
ngi
mpr
ov
ed
 Wor
kbecameeasi
erandf
ast
er
 Ther
ewasdev
el
opmentofbet
t
ert
r
anspor
tsy
st
em,
egr
oads,
r
ai
l
way
s
Page109of109
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 Cl
ot
hi
ngbecamecheaper
 Ther
ewasmasspr
oduct
i
onofgoods
 Goodswer
er
eadi
l
yav
ai
l
abl
e
 Technol
ogi
cal
i
mpr
ov
ement
 Mar
ket
s
 I
ncr
easedexpor
t
s
[
b]
.Descr
i
bet
hesoci
al
ef
f
ect
soft
hei
ndust
r
i
al
r
ev
ol
ut
i
oni
nBr
i
t
ai
n.
[
11]
 Wor
ker
swer
eov
er
cr
owdedatwor
kandi
nt
hei
rhomes
 Di
seasesl
i
keT.
B.wer
ecommonpl
aceandwoul
deasi
l
yspr
eadamong
wor
ker
s
 Wor
ker
sl
i
v
edi
nshant
i
esandsl
ums
 Sani
t
ar
ycondi
t
i
onswer
epoor
,
egt
hebucketsy
st
em
 Fact
or
i
eswer
epoor
l
yv
ent
i
l
at
ed
 Chi
l
dl
abourwasr
ampant
 Ther
ewashi
ghcr
i
mer
at
e
 Ther
ewasi
mmor
al
i
t
y–decayi
nmor
al
saswor
ker
swoul
dengagei
nact
i
v
i
t
i
es
l
i
kepr
ost
i
t
ut
i
on,
t
hef
t
,
gambl
i
ng,
andal
cohol
i
sm.
 Popul
at
i
oni
ncr
eased
 Ther
ewasi
mpr
ov
ementi
nmedi
cal
f
aci
l
i
t
i
esandmedi
cat
i
on
 Ther
ewasr
educt
i
onofi
nf
anti
nf
antmor
t
al
i
t
y
 I
mpr
ov
ementi
neducat
i
on
 Womenl
abourwasr
ampant
 Dev
el
opmentofsoci
al
i
nequal
i
t
y
 Ur
bani
sat
i
on/
gr
owt
hofci
t
i
esandt
owns
 Peopl
es’
l
i
f
eexpect
ancywassi
mpr
ov
ed
 Poormedi
cat
i
onf
orpoorsoci
et
y
 Unempl
oy
ment
 Pov
er
tanddest
i
t
ut
i
on
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dt
heseef
f
ect
scont
r
i
but
et
ot
hescr
ambl
ef
orSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca?[
8]
Page110of110
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Cont
r
i
but
i
onofSoci
al
Ef
f
ect
st
oScr
ambl
ef
orSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.
 Cr
eat
i
oofr
i
f
f
-r
af
f(
soci
al
mi
sf
i
t
s)
,
egMozambi
que
 Needt
of
i
ndset
t
l
ementar
easf
orexcesspopul
at
i
on
 Di
scov
er
yofqui
ni
neenabl
edpeopl
et
ol
i
v
ei
nmal
ar
i
ai
nf
est
edar
easof
sout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
 Medi
cal
r
ecommendat
i
onsf
ort
hei
l
l
t
ol
i
v
ei
nwar
m ar
easofSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
t
hant
hewetar
easofEur
ope
Cont
r
i
but
i
onofot
herf
act
or
s
 Mi
ssi
onar
yr
equest
 Needf
orr
awmat
er
i
al
s
 Sear
chf
ori
nv
est
mentoppor
t
uni
t
i
es
 Seasr
chf
ormar
ket
s
 Ambi
t
i
ousi
ndi
v
i
dual
sl
i
keRhodes
 Fer
t
i
l
el
ands/
soi
l
s
 Cheapl
abour
,
Pr
est
i
ge,
St
r
at
egi
cr
easons
 Whi
t
esupr
emacy
 Ci
v
i
l
i
sat
i
on
 Sl
av
et
r
ade,
Sui
t
abl
ecl
i
mat
e,
r
ol
eofhunt
er
sandt
r
ader
s
 Technol
ogi
cal
gap,
weaknessesofl
ocal
s
Col
oni
sat
i
onofSou
t
her
nAf
r
i
ca
[
Speci
men]
73(
a)Li
stt
hr
eepol
i
t
i
cal
andt
hr
eeeconomi
cr
easonswhyEur
opeancount
r
i
es
scr
ambl
edf
ort
er
r
i
t
or
yi
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.
[
6]
 St
r
at
egi
cr
easons
 Needf
orr
awmat
er
i
al
s
 Needf
ormar
ket
s
 Needf
ori
nv
est
mentar
eas
 Powert
oi
nf
l
uenceev
ent
si
nEur
ope
 I
nf
l
uenceofpol
i
t
i
cal
andi
mper
i
al
i
st
speopl
el
i
keRhodes
Page111of111
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(
b)Descr
i
bet
hepar
tpl
ay
edbyCeci
l
JohnRhodesi
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofSout
her
n
Af
r
i
ca.
[
11]
 Rhodesspear
headedt
heBr
i
t
i
sht
hr
ustt
oacqui
r
et
er
r
i
t
or
y
 Heusedhi
sweal
t
hf
r
om hi
sDi
amond/
Gol
dadv
ent
ur
ei
nSout
hAf
r
i
ca
 Hewant
edt
heCapet
odomi
nat
eauni
t
edSout
hAf
r
i
cawhi
chl
edt
oacl
ash
wi
t
ht
heBoerst
at
es
 1881heent
er
edt
heCapePar
l
i
ament
 Usedhi
st
i
met
her
et
ocal
l
f
orBr
i
t
i
shexpansi
onnor
t
hwar
ds
 Real
i
sedt
hebar
r
i
ercausedbyt
heexi
st
enceoft
he2Boerr
epubl
i
csnor
t
h
oft
heVaal
 Af
t
erf
ai
l
i
ngt
ogetr
eadycooper
at
i
onf
r
om t
heBoerst
at
eshel
eda
campai
gnt
oest
abl
i
shBr
i
t
i
shi
nf
l
uencei
nt
oBechuanal
and.
 I
deawast
ost
opBoernor
t
hwar
dexpansi
on
 1886t
heBechuanal
andPr
ot
ect
or
at
ewasest
abl
i
shedwi
t
hRhodes’
hel
p.
 Rhodesal
soadv
ancedt
heCapet
oCai
r
ot
heme.Campai
gnedf
orBr
i
t
i
sh
expansi
onNor
t
hoft
heLi
mpopo.
 Sentenv
oy
st
omakenegot
i
at
i
onswi
t
ht
heAf
r
i
cansnor
t
hoft
heLi
mpopo.
 1888gott
heRuddconcessi
onf
r
om Lobengul
aki
ngoft
heNdebel
e.
 1889gotaRoy
al
Char
t
erf
r
om t
heBr
i
t
i
shQueengi
v
i
ngt
her
i
ghtt
ooccupy
t
hear
eaofZi
mbabwe.
 1890t
hepi
oneercol
umnwassentf
r
om Bechuanal
andandt
hear
eawas
occupi
edi
nSept
ember1890.
 Thuskeptcor
r
i
dorf
orBr
i
t
i
shexpansi
onopen,
i
.
e.cl
osedf
r
om Por
t
uguese
West
war
dexpansi
on,
Ger
manEast
war
dexpansi
onandBoerNor
t
hwar
d
expansi
on
 18901900Br
i
t
i
shi
ncr
easedt
hei
ri
nt
ent
i
ont
ocont
r
ol
al
l
Sout
hAf
r
i
cawi
t
h
somepushf
r
om RhodeswhoseB.
S.
A.
Cowasnowr
unni
ngRhodesi
a.
 18991901t
hesecondBoerl
edt
ot
heuni
onofS.
A.i
n1910underBr
i
t
i
sh
r
ul
e,
whi
chhadbeenRhodes’
ambi
t
i
on
(
c)Howsuccessf
ul
washei
ngai
ni
ngt
er
r
i
t
or
yi
nt
hi
sr
egi
on?[
8]
 Hei
ncr
easedt
heBr
i
t
i
sht
er
r
i
t
or
i
al
i
nt
er
esti
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
 GotBechuanal
andaheadoft
heGer
mansandt
heBoer
s.
 Secur
edRhodesi
aaheadoft
heGer
mans,
Por
t
ugueseandBoer
s
Page112of112
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 Usedt
actt
ooutmanoeuv
r
er
i
v
al
s,
i
.
e.t
r
i
ckedl
ocal
l
eader
sand
under
mi
nedr
epr
esent
at
i
v
esofot
hernat
i
onal
i
t
i
es.
 St
r
at
egyofencl
osi
ngt
heBoer
swor
kedwhenl
at
ert
hesewer
e
di
spossessed.
 Hi
sef
f
or
tl
edBr
i
t
i
sht
er
r
i
t
or
yt
oexpandev
enNor
t
hoft
heZambezi
 Ger
mansendedupgai
ni
ngGer
manSout
hWestAf
r
i
caonl
y
 ThePor
t
uguesest
i
l
l
managedt
ogai
nt
wol
ar
get
er
r
i
t
or
i
esi
n
Por
t
ugueseeastAf
r
i
caandPor
t
ugueseWestAf
r
i
ca
 Thesesuccesseswer
eani
ndi
r
ectr
esul
tofRhodes’
campai
gnson
behal
foft
heBr
i
t
i
sh
[
Speci
men]
74[
a]
.Namesi
xdi
f
f
er
entpr
of
essi
onsoft
heear
l
yEur
opeanset
t
l
er
swhocamet
o
sout
her
nAf
r
i
ca [
6]
.
 Doct
or
s
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
es
 Engi
neer
s
 Educat
or
s
 Tr
ader
s
 Mi
ner
s
 Far
mer
s
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hepol
i
t
i
cal
,
soci
al
andeconomi
cchangesbr
oughtuponAf
r
i
cansi
n
Sout
her
nAf
r
i
cabycol
oni
sat
i
on. [
11]
 Af
r
i
cansl
ostt
er
r
i
t
or
i
esegGr
i
qual
andWestwasannexed;
Ger
manyW.
A.
westcol
oni
sat
i
on,
andRhodesi
awasoccupi
ed.
 Af
r
i
canchi
ef
swer
edet
hr
oned,
ei
t
hert
hr
ought
r
eat
i
esort
hr
ough
conquest
[
KhamaandLobengul
ar
espect
i
v
el
y
]
 Af
r
i
canpeopl
el
ostf
r
eedom becausecol
oni
al
r
ul
ewasnotasl
ooseast
he
r
ul
ebyt
heAf
r
i
canchi
ef
s
 Af
r
i
canswer
et
osomeext
entmadei
nt
osomeki
ndofuni
t
yespeci
al
l
y
wher
et
heysoughtt
or
esi
stt
hepushofcol
oni
sat
i
on.
 Af
r
i
cansi
ncol
oni
sedar
easl
osteconomi
cal
l
ye,
gl
ostcat
t
l
e,
l
ostl
and,
l
ost
t
r
adef
r
eedom,
l
ostt
hei
rmi
nes.
 Theywer
edi
spl
acedandf
ami
l
i
essepar
at
edduet
ol
abourneedsby
Page113of113
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col
oni
ser
s
 Theyof
t
enr
ecei
v
edpoort
r
eat
ment
,
e,
gl
owwages,
badl
i
v
i
ngcondi
t
i
ons,
hav
i
ngt
owor
kf
orl
onghour
s
 Undercol
oni
al
gov
er
nment
st
heAf
r
i
canssuf
f
er
edr
aci
al
di
scr
i
mi
nat
i
on
 Manyf
acet
sofEur
opeancul
t
ur
ewer
ei
nt
r
oduced,
e,
gl
anguage,
dr
ess,
educat
i
onandr
el
i
gi
on
 Col
oni
sat
i
onal
socr
eat
edt
hecasheconomyamongt
heAf
r
i
canswhi
ch
camewi
t
ht
hecul
t
ur
eofhav
i
ngt
opayt
axes
 Af
r
i
canswer
ei
nt
r
oducedt
onewway
sofsust
enancee,
gnewt
y
peof
heal
t
hser
v
i
ces
[
c]
.
Wer
et
hesechangesbenef
i
ci
al
t
ot
heAf
r
i
cans?Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.[
8]
Mostchangeswer
enotbenef
i
ci
al
t
ot
heAf
r
i
cansast
hechangesbr
oughtmanynew
pr
obl
emsanddi
sadv
ant
ages.
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
l
yhandi
cappede,
gnopar
l
i
ament
ar
yr
epr
esent
at
i
on,
nov
ot
e,
noci
v
i
l
r
i
ght
s
 Casheconomycausedl
abourmi
gr
at
i
onsandbr
eakdownoff
ami
l
yuni
t
,
l
edt
o
mor
al
decadence
 Unf
ai
rl
abourpr
act
i
cesaf
f
ect
edt
hem adv
er
sel
y
.
 Cul
t
ur
al
changeswer
et
osomeext
entbenef
i
ci
al
e,
gnewheal
t
hf
aci
l
i
t
i
es,
bet
t
erdr
ess,
bet
t
erf
ood,
bet
t
ereducat
i
onsy
st
em t
houghl
i
mi
t
ed
 Moder
ndev
el
opmentt
hr
ought
hewor
kofpeopl
el
i
keengi
neer
sbr
oughtsome
i
mpr
ov
ementf
ort
heAf
r
i
cans,
e,
gt
r
anspor
t
,
houses.
 Far
mi
ngmet
hodswer
ei
mpr
ov
edandl
at
erl
edt
oi
ncr
easedf
oodsuppl
y
 Theemphasi
soft
heSout
hAf
r
i
canGov
er
nmentofapol
i
cyofdi
scr
i
mi
nat
i
on
causedwhat
ev
erbenef
i
t
st
heAf
r
i
cansmi
ghthav
est
oodt
ogai
nt
or
emai
n
mostl
i
mi
t
ed
[
Nov2005]
75[
a]
Li
stanysi
xwar
sofAf
r
i
canr
esi
st
ancet
ocol
oni
al
i
sm i
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
bet
ween1870and1890.
 Angl
oZul
uwarof1879;
Bambat
ar
ebel
l
i
on;
Her
er
oRi
si
ng;
NamaRi
si
ng;
 Angl
oNdebel
ewar
;
Ndebel
eShona;
Sot
hoRi
si
ng;
Thegunwar
;
Gr
i
quaTl
hapi
ngr
i
si
ng;
Br
i
t
i
shPedi
war
;
Por
t
uGazawar1895
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
negi
v
i
ngexampl
es,
t
hemet
hodsusedbycol
oni
al
power
st
opar
t
i
t
i
on
Sout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.
[
11]
Page114of114
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 War
sofconqueste,
gt
heAngl
oNdebel
ewarof1893andt
heAngl
oZul
uwar
of1879
 Tr
eat
i
ese,
gRuddconcessi
on[
1888]
 Of
f
er
edpr
ot
ect
i
one,
gSot
ho,
Tswana,
Swazi
 Decept
i
onv
er
bal
andwr
i
t
t
ent
er
msoft
heRuddconcessi
on
 Theuseofconf
er
encesegt
heBer
l
i
nconf
er
ences
 Useofmi
ssi
onar
i
es,
hunt
er
s,
t
r
ader
s,
expl
or
er
s
 Buy
i
ngofconcessi
onsegLi
pper
tt
r
eat
y
 Useofambi
t
i
ousandpower
f
ul
l
eader
se,
gRhodes
 Useofchar
t
er
edcompani
es
 Useofof
f
i
ci
al
agent
s
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dt
heef
f
ect
sofi
ndust
r
i
al
i
sat
i
ononBr
i
t
ai
ncont
r
i
but
et
ot
hescr
ambl
e
f
orSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca?
Af
r
i
canf
ai
l
ur
et
or
esi
stpar
t
i
t
i
on
Whi
t
est
r
engt
hs
 Whi
t
ei
nv
ader
shadsuper
i
orweaponsegMaxi
m gun
 Bet
t
ercommuni
cat
i
onegt
el
egr
aphwi
r
es;
hor
ses
 Bet
t
erdef
encese,
gl
aager
s
 At
r
ai
nedar
my
 Whi
t
er
ei
nf
or
cement
s
 Manyr
esour
ces
Af
r
i
canweaknesses:
 Di
suni
t
ed,
Somej
oi
nedt
hei
nv
aderanddi
dnotpar
t
i
ci
pat
ei
nf
i
ght
i
ngoft
he
enemye,
gShonadi
dnotsuppor
tNdebel
ei
n1893war
.SomeShonaf
oughton
si
deofwhi
t
esegMut
asa/
Khamas/
Ngwat
o
 Poorweapons
 Poorcommuni
cat
i
onsy
st
em e,
gf
oot
i
ng
 Mi
sl
edbyr
el
i
gi
ousl
eader
s
 Poorst
r
at
egi
es
[
June2006]
Page115of115
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76[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
y
:
[
i
]t
hef
ourcol
oni
al
power
si
nv
ol
v
edi
nt
hescr
ambl
ef
orSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca,
and[
4]
[
2]
[
i
i
]anyt
wol
ocal
agent
sofcol
oni
al
i
sm i
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.
 Br
i
t
ai
nCeci
l
JohnRhodes,
JohnMof
f
at
 Ger
many
 Por
t
ugal
Paul
Kr
uger
,
Li
pper
t
Shi
ppar
dLaunder
et
t
es
N.
B.AcceptHunt
er
sMi
ssi
onar
i
esandTr
ader
s.
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
heBr
i
t
i
shef
f
or
t
st
oacqui
r
ecol
oni
esi
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
cabet
ween1870
and1890
Br
i
t
ai
nusedt
hecl
ai
mt
odi
amondar
eaofKi
mber
l
yt
of
oundt
hei
rGr
i
qual
and
WestCol
ony
.
 Br
i
t
ai
ni
ncor
por
at
edBasut
ol
andi
nt
oCapeCol
onyi
n1871.
Basut
ol
andsought
pr
ot
ect
i
onduet
omi
ssi
onar
yi
nf
l
uence.
 Swazi
l
andal
sosoughtBr
i
t
i
shpr
ot
ect
i
onf
r
om Boer
sexpansi
oneast
war
ds
f
r
om Tr
ansv
aal
 Nat
al
annexedbyBr
i
t
i
sht
opr
ot
ecti
tf
r
om Boert
r
ekker
s
 Def
eatoft
heZul
usandi
ncor
por
at
edi
nt
oNat
al
(
l
abourf
ormi
nesand
pl
ant
at
i
ons)
 Br
i
t
i
shsecur
edr
oadt
oCent
r
al
Af
r
i
ca(
187786)bysecur
i
ngpr
ot
ect
or
at
eov
er
Bechuanal
andt
ost
opBoer
sf
r
om Tr
ansv
aal
l
i
nki
ngupwi
t
hGer
mansf
r
om t
he
west
(
Rol
eofRhodesandMi
ssi
onar
i
es)
 UseofMof
f
at
,
Rudd,
Char
t
erandMi
ssi
onar
i
es
 Pi
oneerCol
umn
 Br
i
t
i
shconquestanddi
sar
mamentofAf
r
i
canSt
at
es187786,
Angl
oBoerwar
,
 Angl
oPedi
war
 Zul
uunderCet
shway
o(
187284)
[
c]
.
Howf
arwer
et
heBr
i
t
i
shef
f
or
t
si
nf
l
uencedbyt
hedi
scov
er
yofmi
ner
al
si
nSout
h
Af
r
i
ca[
8]
 Col
oni
sat
i
onofGr
i
qual
andWest
,
t
hesecondAngl
o-Boerf
eder
at
i
onand
occupat
i
onofMashonal
andal
l
i
nf
l
uencedbydesi
r
et
ocont
r
ol
gol
dand
di
amondr
esour
ces.
Page116of116
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 Cr
ushi
ngoft
heZul
ust
at
e,
Pedi
,
et
ci
nt
endedt
oenf
or
cef
or
cedl
abourt
o
mi
nesi
nSout
hAf
r
i
cabycr
eat
i
ngr
eser
v
es
Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 Needt
of
i
ndr
awmat
er
i
al
sandmar
ket
s
 Pr
est
i
geegRhodesCapet
oCai
r
ov
i
si
on
 Tosecur
et
hemi
ssi
onar
yr
oadt
ot
henor
t
h
 St
r
at
egi
cr
easonsegRhodeswant
edt
oenci
r
cl
et
heBoer
s
 Mi
ssi
onar
yi
nf
l
uence
 Fer
t
i
l
esoi
l
sandpast
ur
es
[
Nov2006]
77[
a]
.
Name:
[
i
]
.Thef
i
v
et
er
r
i
t
or
i
est
hatf
el
l
underBr
i
t
i
shi
nf
l
uenceand,
[
5]
[
i
i
]
.
onet
er
r
i
t
or
yt
hatf
el
l
underGer
mani
nf
l
uence,
dur
i
ngt
hescr
ambl
ef
or
Sout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
Br
i
t
ai
n
[
1]
:
Lesot
ho,
Swazi
l
and;
Sout
hAf
r
i
ca;
Bot
swana;
Zi
mbabwe;
Zambi
a;
Mal
awi
Ger
many :
Nami
bi
a/
S.
W.
A
[
B]
.
Out
l
i
net
her
easonsf
ort
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofSout
her
nAf
r
i
cabet
ween1870and
1890.
 Desi
r
ef
ormar
ket
s
 Demandf
orr
awmat
er
i
al
s
 Toi
nv
estsur
pl
uscapi
t
al
 Needf
orl
and
 Needf
orcheapl
abour
 Ger
manyandI
t
al
ywant
edcol
oni
esf
orpr
est
i
ge
 Needf
ormi
l
i
t
ar
ybases
 Topr
ot
ectr
out
ese,
gmi
ssi
onar
yr
oad
 Bet
t
ercommuni
cat
i
on;
medi
ci
ne;
f
i
r
ear
ms
 Ber
l
i
nconf
er
encepr
eci
pi
t
at
edt
hescr
ambl
e
 Boernat
i
onal
i
sm i
nS.
A
Page117of117
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 Desi
r
et
ost
opsl
av
et
r
adeandsl
av
er
y,
Chr
i
st
i
ani
t
yandwest
er
nci
v
i
l
i
sat
i
on
 Af
r
i
cansmi
l
i
t
ar
i
l
yweakanddi
suni
t
ed
 Rol
eofl
ocal
agent
s
 Ger
many
’
spar
t
i
ci
pat
i
onf
ordi
pl
omat
i
cr
easons
 Room f
orsur
pl
uspopul
at
i
on
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entwer
et
heAf
r
i
canst
obl
amef
ort
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca?
[
8]
[
i
]
.
Af
r
i
canbl
amewor
t
hi
ness:
 Di
suni
t
y
 Mi
l
i
t
ar
yweaknessi
nv
i
t
edEur
opeans
 Tr
i
bal
war
s,
e,
gTswanaandKor
ana[
bot
husedBoermer
cenar
i
esagai
nsteach
ot
her
.Boer
sf
i
nal
l
ygai
nedSt
el
l
al
andt
oGoshen.
 Someaskedf
orcol
oni
al
powerpr
ot
ect
i
onf
r
om r
ai
dsbynei
ghbour
s,
e,
g
Ngwat
ogotBr
i
t
i
shpr
ot
ect
i
onf
r
om Ndebel
er
ai
ds
 I
l
l
i
t
er
acymadeAf
r
i
cansv
ul
ner
abl
edur
i
ngt
r
eat
ynegot
i
at
i
ons
[
i
i
]Ot
herf
act
or
s
 For
cesofi
ndust
r
i
al
capi
t
al
i
sm t
oost
r
onge,
gBr
i
t
ai
nandGer
many
 Eur
opeandet
er
mi
nat
i
ont
ocol
oni
sehel
pl
essAf
r
i
cans
 Cheat
i
ngdur
i
ngt
r
eat
ynegot
i
at
i
ons
 I
l
l
i
t
er
acymadeAf
r
i
cansv
ul
ner
abl
edur
i
ngnegot
i
at
i
ons
 Rol
eofmi
ssi
onar
i
es,
hunt
er
s,
expl
or
er
sandt
r
ader
s
[
Nov2007]
78[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
y
[
i
]any
f
ourar
eascol
oni
sedbyBr
i
t
ai
nand
[
i
i
]t
het
woar
eascol
oni
sedbyPor
t
ugal
i
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
[
6]
 Bot
swana,
Zi
mbabwe,
Lesot
ho,
Swazi
l
and,
Sout
hAf
r
i
ca,
Zambi
a,
Mal
awi
,
 Angol
a,
Mozambi
que
[
b]
Out
l
i
net
hel
ocal
f
act
or
st
hatcausedEur
opeanpower
st
oscr
ambl
ef
ort
er
r
i
t
or
yi
n
Sout
her
nAf
r
i
cabet
ween1870and1890.
 WeaknessesamongstAf
r
i
cansl
edt
of
ai
l
ur
eofr
esi
st
ancet
ocol
oni
sat
i
on
Page118of118
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 Di
suni
t
y
 Poorweapons
 Poorst
r
at
egi
es
 Di
scov
er
yofmi
ner
al
ssuchasdi
amondsandgol
di
nSout
hAf
r
i
capr
eci
pi
t
at
ed
scr
ambl
ef
orZi
mbabwebet
weenBoer
sandBr
i
t
ai
n
 Pr
esenceofEur
opeanChr
i
st
i
anmi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nAf
r
i
canst
at
esper
suaded
Af
r
i
canst
at
est
oacceptpr
ot
ect
i
onorsi
gnt
r
eat
i
eswi
t
hEur
opeangr
oups
 Si
gni
ngoft
r
eat
i
es
 Bansl
av
er
y
 St
r
at
egi
cr
easonsBr
i
t
ai
ndecl
ar
ed“
Pr
ot
ect
or
at
e”ov
erBot
swanai
n1885t
o
keepmi
ssi
onar
yr
oadt
ot
henor
t
hsecur
e-asgat
ewayi
nt
oCent
r
al
Af
r
i
ca
 Exi
st
enceofpeopl
eont
hespotsuchasRhodes,
andHar
r
yJohnsonwho
usedt
hei
rener
gi
esandweal
t
hf
orcol
oni
sat
i
onofAf
r
i
canst
at
es.
 Local
r
i
v
al
r
i
esbet
weenEur
opeanpower
s
 Goodcl
i
mat
e,
past
ur
es,
cat
t
l
e,
cheapl
abour
,
mar
ket
s,
mi
ner
al
s
[
c]
.
Howf
arwer
eAf
r
i
canst
at
est
obl
amef
ort
hecol
oni
sat
i
on?[
8]
Bl
amewor
t
hi
nessofAf
r
i
cans
 Di
suni
t
ywhi
chpr
ev
ent
edcol
l
ect
i
v
eact
i
onagai
nstEur
opeani
mper
i
al
i
sm
 Accept
anceofChr
i
st
i
anmi
ssi
onar
i
esi
nt
hei
rt
er
r
i
t
or
i
eswhol
at
eract
edas
agent
sofEur
opeancol
oni
sat
i
on
 Accept
anceoft
r
ader
swhoal
soper
suadedt
hem t
osi
gnt
r
eat
i
esandknewt
he
geogr
aphyoft
hel
andt
obecol
oni
sed
 War
sbet
weenAf
r
i
canst
at
esweakenedt
hei
rcapaci
t
yt
or
esi
st
 I
l
l
i
t
er
acy,
accept
anceofbr
i
bes
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Af
r
i
canst
at
esnotast
echnol
ogi
cal
l
yadv
ancedasEur
opeansi
nt
er
msof
weapons
 Eur
opeanf
or
ceswer
emobi
l
east
heyusedhor
sesandchar
i
ot
st
ocar
r
y
weapons
 Af
r
i
cal
eader
swer
enoteducat
edandwer
eeasi
l
ydecei
v
edbyEur
opean
agent
s
 Decei
t
sbyEur
opeanagent
s
Page119of119
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 Needf
orf
or
ei
gngoodssuchascl
ot
handj
ewel
l
er
yf
or
cedAf
r
i
canst
at
est
o
acceptt
r
ader
sandal
l
owexpl
oi
t
at
i
onoft
hei
rmi
ner
al
weal
t
hbyEur
opeans
 Fat
eofAf
r
i
canst
at
eswasdeci
dedatt
heBer
l
i
nWestAf
r
i
caConf
er
ence188485
[
Nov2008]
79[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xEur
opeanagent
swhopar
t
i
ci
pat
edi
nt
hescr
ambl
ef
orSout
her
n
Af
r
i
ca[
6]
 Rhodes;
Her
rLuder
i
t
z
;
JohnSmi
t
hMof
f
at
;
Char
l
esRudd;
Pi
etGr
obl
er
,
Fr
anci
sThompson;
Rochf
or
dMagui
r
e,
Sy
dneyShi
ppar
d.
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
her
easonsf
orEur
opeanscr
ambl
ef
orSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.[
11]
 Rawmat
er
i
al
sneededt
osust
ai
nt
heexpansi
onofEur
opeanI
ndust
r
y
accel
er
at
edbyt
hei
ndust
r
i
al
r
ev
ol
ut
i
on
 Toensur
econt
i
nuedsuppl
y
,
col
oni
ser
sscr
ambl
edf
ori
nSout
her
n
Af
r
i
ca
 Needf
ormar
ket
sf
orpr
ocessedgoods.Sout
her
nAf
r
i
caapot
ent
i
al
mar
ket
 Needt
oi
nv
estsur
pl
uscapi
t
al
i
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
 Di
scov
er
yofgol
danddi
amondsspar
kedscr
ambl
ef
ort
er
r
i
t
or
i
esnor
t
h
oft
heLi
mpopo[
sear
chedf
orsecondr
and]
 Pr
ot
ect
i
oni
stt
endenci
esi
nEur
opei
n1885madepower
sscr
ambl
ef
or
t
er
r
i
t
or
i
esbef
or
er
i
v
al
sgr
abbedt
hem andexcl
udet
hei
rt
r
ader
s
 Fer
t
i
l
esoi
l
s
 Cheapl
abour
 Fav
our
abl
ecl
i
mat
i
ccondi
t
i
ons
 Ger
manswant
edapl
acei
nt
hesun
 Rhodeshadt
heCapet
oCai
r
odr
eam,
al
l
t
obepai
nt
edRed
 Boer
ssoughtt
oext
endt
hei
rt
er
r
i
t
or
ybey
ondt
heLi
mpopor
i
v
ert
oav
oi
d
bei
ngenci
r
cl
edbyt
heBr
i
t
i
sh
 Br
i
t
i
sh,
whoal
way
st
r
i
edt
ocont
r
ol
t
hem,
at
t
empt
edt
ost
opt
hem f
r
om
doi
ngso
 Por
t
ugueseexpansi
oni
stpol
i
cyt
ot
hewest
 Br
i
t
i
sh/
Rhodeswant
edt
okeept
he“
mi
ssi
onar
yr
oad’
 Por
t
uguesewant
edt
ol
i
nkPor
t
ugueseEastAf
r
i
cawi
t
hAngol
a.
Page120of120
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Ger
manst
ol
i
nkSout
hWestAf
r
i
cawi
t
hTanzani
a/
Tangany
i
ka.
 Cont
r
ol
oft
heCapeofgoodHope
 Tobr
i
ngwest
er
nci
v
i
l
i
sat
i
ont
oSout
her
nAf
r
i
caanddi
scour
ageev
i
l
pr
act
i
cessuchasr
ai
di
ng
 SomeChr
i
st
i
ansbecameagent
sofi
mper
i
al
i
sm e,
gChar
l
esHel
m and
JohnSmi
t
hMof
f
at
 Raci
sm
 Tospr
eadChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Tospr
ead3Rs
 Toendsl
av
er
y
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwasi
ndust
r
i
al
i
sat
i
oni
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca?[
8]
I
mpor
t
anceofi
ndust
r
i
al
i
sat
i
on
 I
ndust
r
i
al
i
sat
i
oni
nEur
opel
edt
odemandf
orr
awmat
er
i
al
sandmar
ket
si
n
Sout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.Col
oni
eswoul
dsuppl
yr
awmat
er
i
al
se,
gcot
t
on,
t
obaccoet
c
 Excesscapi
t
al
woul
dbei
nv
est
edi
nmi
ni
ngact
i
v
i
t
i
esi
nSout
hAf
r
i
ca
 Technol
ogi
cal
adv
ancement
 Empl
oy
ment
 Di
scov
er
yofmedi
ci
nes
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
r
easonsf
ort
hescr
ambl
e
 Di
suni
t
yamongstAf
r
i
cans
 Humani
t
ar
i
anf
act
or
s
 Poorweaponsf
ordef
ence
[
Nov2008]
80[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xAf
r
i
canchi
ef
domscol
oni
sedbyt
he
Af
r
i
ca.
[
6]
Eur
opeansi
nSout
her
n
 Ndebel
e,
Makoni
,
Mashay
amombe,
Chi
namhor
a,
Chi
hot
a,
Mangwende,
Zv
i
mba,
Mugabe,
Mut
asa,
Zul
u,
Xhosa,
Ngwat
o,
Swazi
,
Gaza,
Pedi
,
Sot
ho,
Lozi
.
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hemet
hodsusedbyEur
opeanpower
st
ocol
oni
sechi
ef
domsi
n
Sout
her
nAf
r
i
cadur
i
ngt
hescr
ambl
e
[
11]
Page121of121
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 War
f
ar
ee,
g1893Angl
oNdebel
eWar
,
1896/
7Ndebel
e–Shonaupr
i
si
ngs,
Angl
oZul
uwar
,
t
hewarofgunbet
weenBr
i
t
i
shandSot
ho18845,
t
heBoer
Pedi
war
.
 Tr
eat
y
maki
ng/
Di
pl
omacy
-e,
gMof
f
atTr
eat
yFebr
uar
y1888,
RuddConcessi
on
Oct
ober1888,
Li
pper
tConcessi
on1890.
Mut
asaTr
eat
y
 Gr
ant
i
ngofChar
t
er
egRhodesgr
ant
edChar
t
erbyQueent
oaut
hor
i
se
col
oni
sat
i
onofZi
mbabwe,
Zambi
aandMal
awi
 UseofChar
t
er
edcompani
ese,
gZambezi
company
,
B.
A.
S.
C
 Tr
i
cker
y
Lobengul
agi
v
env
er
bal
pr
omi
sesi
nt
heRuddConcessi
ont
hatwer
e
nev
erf
ul
f
i
l
l
ed
 Thepr
ot
ect
or
at
esy
st
em i
nBar
ot
sel
andBasut
ol
and,
Bechuanal
andand
Swazi
l
and.
 Br
i
ber
y
Lot
shewasbr
i
bedt
oi
nf
l
uenceLobengul
at
osi
gnt
heRudd
Concessi
on.
 Theuseoft
r
ader
se,
gBai
nes
 Theuseofhunt
er
se,
gSel
ous
[
c]
.
Whywer
et
heEur
opeanssuccessf
ul
i
ncol
oni
si
ngt
heAf
r
i
canchi
ef
domsdur
i
ng
t
hi
sper
i
od? [
8]
.
Adv
ant
agesofEur
opeans/
Eur
opeanst
r
engt
hs
 Super
i
orweapons,
bet
t
ercommuni
cat
i
oni
nwar
 Usedt
r
i
cks
 Usedbr
i
ber
y
 Useddy
nami
t
e
 Useofagent
s
 Useofmi
ssi
onar
i
es
 Useoft
r
ader
s
 Useofhunt
er
s
Di
sadv
ant
agesofAf
r
i
cans/
Weaknesses
 Desi
r
ef
orf
or
ei
gngoods
 I
nf
er
i
orweapons
 Poorwarst
r
at
egi
es
Page122of122
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 Poorcommuni
cat
i
on
 I
l
l
i
t
er
acy
[
coul
dnoti
nt
er
pr
ett
r
eat
i
es]
 Di
suni
t
ye,
gamongt
heShona
[
Nov2009]
81[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xwhi
t
est
hathel
pedi
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.[
6]
 Rhodes,
Kr
uger
 Gr
obl
er
,
DukeofAber
cor
n
 J.
S.Mof
f
at
,
QueenVi
ct
or
i
a
 Sel
ous,
Lor
dSal
i
sbur
y
.
 Hel
m,
Pennef
at
her
,
Bi
smar
ck,
Jameson
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hecompet
i
t
i
onf
ort
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofsout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.
 Br
i
t
i
shandBoer
scompet
edf
orcont
r
ol
oft
heNdebel
easshownbyt
he
si
gni
ngoft
heGr
obl
erandMof
f
atTr
eat
y
.Br
i
t
ai
nendedupast
hewi
nner
saf
t
er
t
hesi
gni
ngoft
heRuddConcessi
on
 Br
i
t
ai
nandBoer
scompet
edf
ort
hecont
r
ol
oft
hedi
amondweal
t
hi
nKi
mber
l
y
.
Thi
sl
edt
oBr
i
t
i
shannexat
i
onofOr
angeFr
eeSt
at
e.
 Br
i
t
i
shdesi
r
et
oaccessNguni
l
abourf
or
ceandt
oenci
r
cl
et
heBoer
sl
edt
o
annexat
i
onofNat
al
andt
odecl
ar
eapr
ot
ect
or
at
eov
erBechuanal
andsoast
o
pr
eser
v
et
he‘
mi
ssi
onar
yr
oad’
andt
hwar
tBoerexpansi
onwest
war
ds.Boer
s
haddecl
ar
edt
wor
epubl
i
csofSt
el
l
al
andandGoshen.
 ThesecondAngl
oBoerwarwaspar
toft
hest
r
uggl
et
ocont
r
ol
t
hegol
dweal
t
h
att
heWi
t
wat
er
sr
and.
 Br
i
t
ai
nandPor
t
ugal
compet
edf
ort
hecont
r
ol
ofMashonal
andwhi
chNdebel
e
cl
ai
medt
ocont
r
ol
 Por
t
uguesei
nt
endedt
oj
oi
nPor
t
ugueseEastAf
r
i
ca[
P.
E.
A]wi
t
hAngol
awhi
l
st
RhodeshadCapet
oCai
r
odr
eam
 Expedi
t
i
onst
oMut
asaandGazaSt
at
e
 Angl
oPor
t
ugueseTr
eat
yof1891r
esol
v
edboundar
i
esbet
weenRhodesi
aand
P.
E.
A.
 Ger
manyandBr
i
t
ai
nBr
i
t
i
shi
nf
l
uencewasspr
eadi
ngf
r
om t
heSout
ht
ot
he
Nor
t
hwhi
l
stGer
manywasexpandi
ngeast
war
dsf
r
om t
hear
eashehadi
,
e
S.
W.
A.Br
i
t
ai
ndecl
ar
edapr
ot
ect
or
at
ei
nBechuanal
andi
n1885t
ot
hwar
t
Ger
manexpansi
onandpr
eser
v
emi
ssi
onar
yr
oad.
Page123of123
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[
c]
.
Towhatext
entwer
et
hepeopl
eofSout
her
nAf
r
i
caaf
f
ect
edbyt
hi
scompet
i
t
i
on
upt
o1900?
[
8]
Posi
t
i
v
eEf
f
ect
s
 Somest
at
esgai
nedpr
ot
ect
i
onandr
emai
nedi
nt
acte,
gLozi
ofLewani
ka;
Khama’
sNgwat
o;
Sot
hoofMoshoeshoe
 Somechi
ef
sr
et
ai
nedt
hei
rpowere,
gLewani
ka
 Manymi
ssi
onar
i
esv
i
si
t
edt
hest
at
et
oconv
er
tpeopl
et
oChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Tr
adewi
t
hf
or
ei
gner
si
ncr
eased
 Endofet
hni
cwar
s(
Ndebel
ev
sShonaorNgwat
o;
Zul
uPedi
cl
ashes,
et
c)
 Ndebel
est
at
er
emai
nedi
nt
actupt
o1893
Di
sadv
ant
ages
 Lossofi
ndependence
 Er
osi
onofAf
r
i
cancul
t
ur
e
 Lossofweal
t
he,
gr
awmat
er
i
al
s
 Col
oni
al
war
sandwar
sofdi
spossessi
ons
 Hi
ghdeat
hr
at
e(
Maxi
m gunusage)
 Cheat
edi
nt
r
eat
i
es
 Ndebel
eki
ngspentt
i
medeal
i
ngwi
t
hconcessi
onseeker
s
 Taxat
i
on
 For
cedl
abour
 Causesofupr
i
si
ngs
[
Nov2003]
82[
a]
Namet
hr
eeEur
opeancount
r
i
est
hatwer
ei
nv
ol
v
edi
nt
hescr
ambl
ef
orSout
her
n
Af
r
i
caandt
hear
east
heyoccupi
ed.[
6]
[
i
]
Ger
many
Nami
bi
a.
[
i
i
]
Br
i
t
ai
n—Zi
mbabwe,
Zambi
a,
Bot
swana,
Lesot
ho,
Swazi
l
and,
Sout
hAf
r
i
ca,
Mal
awi
.
[
i
i
i
]
Por
t
ugal
—Mozambi
que,
Angol
a
[
b]
Descr
i
bet
hecompet
i
t
i
onf
ort
hecont
r
ol
ofSout
her
nAf
r
i
cabyt
heEur
opean
power
sbet
ween1870and1890.
[
11]
Page124of124
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 Br
i
t
ai
nandGer
many
Br
i
t
ai
ni
nSout
hAf
r
i
caandGer
manyi
nSout
hWestAf
r
i
ca
(
Nami
bi
a)want
edcont
r
ol
ofBot
swanaandNdebel
ecount
r
y
.Ger
many
’
s
ef
f
or
t
sf
r
ust
r
at
edwhenBr
i
t
ai
noccupi
edBot
swana-pr
ot
ect
or
at
est
at
us.
Br
i
t
ai
noccupi
edMashonal
andandMat
abel
el
andaf
t
ert
heRuddConcessi
on
andt
heAngl
oNdebel
eWar
.
 Br
i
t
ai
nandPor
t
ugal
compet
edf
ort
hecont
r
ol
ofMashonal
andand
Mani
cal
and.Por
t
ugal
hadoccupi
edMozambi
queandwant
edt
ouseherl
ong
est
abl
i
shedr
el
at
i
onshi
pwi
t
ht
heShonat
ocont
r
ol
t
hesear
eas.Br
i
t
ai
nf
r
om
Sout
hAf
r
i
cawant
edt
or
eal
i
zeherdr
eamsofCapet
oCai
r
or
out
e
 Br
i
t
ai
nandt
heBoer
scompet
edf
orcont
r
ol
i
nSout
hAf
r
i
ca.TheBoer
shad
occupi
edTr
ansv
aal
sowant
edt
oexpandnor
t
hwar
ds,
Br
i
t
ai
nwasatt
heCape,
want
edZi
mbabwe,
t
or
eal
i
seCapet
oCai
r
odr
eam.Compet
i
t
i
onshownby
si
gni
ngoft
heGr
obl
erTr
eat
yi
n1887Boer
s,
Lobengul
aandt
heMof
f
atTr
eat
y
i
n1888bet
weent
heBr
i
t
i
shandLobengul
a,
Boer
sf
ai
l
edt
oexpandwest
war
ds
becauseofBechuanal
andPr
ot
ect
or
at
eandt
heRuddConcessi
on.
[
c]
.
WasCeci
l
JohnRhodesani
mpor
t
antf
act
ori
nt
hescr
ambl
ef
orSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca?
Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
8]
Hi
si
mpor
t
ance
 Rhodes–anambi
t
i
ousandr
i
chi
ndi
v
i
dual
whowant
edt
opr
omot
eBr
i
t
i
sh
i
mper
i
al
i
sm
 Thehopet
of
i
ndt
hesecondr
and(
gol
d)t
ot
henor
t
hoft
heLi
mpopo
 St
r
at
egi
ci
mpor
t
anceoft
heCape
 Togetr
awmat
er
i
al
sandhav
emar
ket
s
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
cont
r
ol
oft
her
egi
on
 Rhodesi
mpor
t
anti
nt
hatheper
sonal
l
yf
i
nancedandencour
agedt
he
occupat
i
onofar
easnor
t
hoft
heLi
mpopo.
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Rol
eofmi
ssi
onar
i
es
 Por
t
uguese
 Boer
s/
Ger
mans
[
Nov2004]
83[
a]Nameanysi
xAf
r
i
canki
ngdomscol
oni
sedbyEur
opeansi
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
dur
i
ngt
he19thcent
ur
y
.
 Ndebel
e,
Zul
u,
Sot
ho.
 Swazi
,
Ngwat
o,
Kol
ol
o
Page125of125
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 Tswana,
Gaza,
Xhosa,
Pedi
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hev
ar
i
ousmet
hodsusedbyt
heEur
opeanst
ocol
oni
seSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.
[
11]
 Tr
eat
i
esandagr
eement
se,
gRuddConcessi
on,
Mof
f
atTr
eat
y
 Useoff
or
ceandwar
s–Angl
oZul
uwar1879,
Angl
oNdebel
ewar1893
 Useofmi
ssi
onar
i
es,
t
r
ader
sandexpl
or
er
s-RevHel
m,
L.
M.
S.
i
nt
heZambezi
v
al
l
ey
 Pr
ot
ect
or
at
est
at
esBot
swana,
Lesot
ho,
Swazi
l
and
 Ambi
t
i
ousi
ndi
v
i
dual
s-C.
J.Rhodes
 Useofcompani
esB.
S.
S.
C.
 UseofConcessi
on–seeker
sandhunt
er
sandbuy
i
ngagr
eement
s.
 Br
i
ber
yofAf
r
i
canchi
ef
s
 Tr
i
cker
y
[
c]
.
Howef
f
ect
i
v
ewer
et
hemet
hodsusedbyEur
opeansi
ncol
oni
sat
i
onofSout
her
n
Af
r
i
ca?[
8]
[
i
]
Ef
f
ect
i
v
easshownbyt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onoft
hef
ol
l
owi
ngki
ngdoms
 Tr
eat
i
esMof
f
at
,
RuddConcessi
on
 War
sAngl
oZul
uwar1897,
Angl
oNdebel
ewar1893
 Pr
ot
ect
or
at
esBot
swana,
Lesot
hoandSwazi
l
and
 Useofchar
t
er
edcompani
es
[
i
i
]
Ef
f
ect
i
v
et
oal
i
mi
t
edext
ent
 RuddConcessi
onwhi
chdi
dnotr
esul
ti
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onoft
heNdebel
est
at
e,
warhadt
obef
oughtt
obr
eakupt
hest
at
e
 Pr
ot
ect
or
at
est
at
usgav
et
hecount
r
i
essomemeasur
eofaut
onomy
[
Nov2004]
84[
a]Li
stanysi
xpr
obl
emsf
acedbyAf
r
i
cansdur
i
ngt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofSout
her
n
Af
r
i
ca.[
6]
 War
swhi
chr
esul
t
edi
nt
hedeat
hofmanypeopl
e
 Shor
t
ageoff
oodaspr
oduct
i
onoff
oodwasnegat
i
v
el
yaf
f
ect
ed
 Heal
t
hdel
i
v
er
yser
v
i
cesdi
sr
upt
ed/di
sr
upt
i
onofAf
r
i
cancul
t
ur
e
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 Di
sr
upt
i
onoft
r
ade
 Fami
l
i
eswer
edi
sor
gani
sed
 Lossofl
and
 Lossofcat
t
l
e
 Humi
l
i
at
i
onbywhi
t
es
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hemet
hodsusedbyAf
r
i
canst
at
esi
nSout
her
nAf
r
i
cat
or
esi
st
col
oni
sat
i
onupt
o1900.
[
11]
 Resi
st
edbyf
i
ght
i
ngcol
oni
ser
s,
e,
gZul
u,
Ndebel
e
 Si
gnedagr
eement
swi
t
hsomecount
r
i
esagai
nstot
herpossi
bl
ecol
oni
ser
s,
e,
g
t
heMof
f
atAgr
eement
,
Li
pper
tConcessi
on
 Soughtpr
ot
ect
or
at
est
at
usf
ort
hei
rst
at
es,
e,
gBechuanal
and
 Ki
l
l
edwhi
t
esi
ni
sol
at
edpl
aces,
f
ar
msandmi
nes
 At
t
empt
edt
ocancel
Tr
eat
i
ese,
gLobengul
a
 Resi
st
edChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 MosheshoeneededChr
i
st
i
ani
t
yt
or
esi
stBoer
s
[
c]
.
Howsuccessf
ul
wer
et
heAf
r
i
cansi
nr
esi
st
i
ngcol
oni
sat
i
oni
nt
hi
sper
i
od? [
8]
Successf
ul
 Pr
ot
ect
or
at
est
at
usassomeAf
r
i
canst
at
eshadsomeaut
onomy
 Tr
eat
i
es/Agr
eement
sdel
ay
edt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofsomeAf
r
i
canst
at
ese,
gt
he
Mof
f
atAgr
eement
Notsuccessf
ul
 War
s–t
heAf
r
i
canst
at
eswer
edef
eat
edr
esul
t
i
ngi
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onoft
he
st
at
ee,
gt
heZul
ust
at
e,
t
heNdebel
est
at
e
 Pr
ot
ect
or
at
el
osti
ndependence
85.
(
a)
St
at
eanysi
xAf
r
i
canKi
ngdomscol
oni
sedbyt
hewhi
t
esdur
i
ngt
heScr
ambl
e
f
orSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca.
(
6)
 Sot
ho,
Swazi
,
Gaza.
 Zul
u,
Ndebel
e,
Pedi
(
b)
.
Descr
i
bet
het
er
msoft
heBer
l
i
nConf
er
enceof1884t
o1885. (
11)
 Ai
nf
or
m ot
hercount
r
i
esofi
t
sspher
eofi
nf
l
uencet
opr
ev
entcount
ercl
ashes
Page127of127
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 Fr
eedom ofnav
i
gat
i
ononmaj
orr
i
v
er
ssuchast
heNi
ger
,
Ni
l
e,
Congoand
Zambezi
 Recogni
t
i
onofexi
st
i
ngspher
esofi
nf
l
uencebyEur
opeancount
r
i
es,
e,
gCongoandNi
gerdel
t
a.
 Af
r
i
cadi
v
i
dedi
nt
o20t
er
r
i
t
or
i
al
uni
t
s
 Si
gni
ngoft
r
eat
i
est
ol
egi
t
i
mi
seoccupat
i
on
 I
fany2count
r
i
esquar
r
el
l
ed,
si
gnat
r
eat
yt
osol
v
et
hepr
obl
em
 Hoi
st
i
ngoff
l
agoft
hecol
oni
ser
 Agr
eedt
obansl
av
er
y
 I
ndependentwi
t
ness,
Def
i
ni
ngofboundar
i
esorspher
esofi
nf
l
uence
 Doct
r
i
neofef
f
ect
i
v
eoccupat
i
on
(
c)
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
heBer
l
i
nConf
er
encecont
r
i
but
et
ot
hescr
ambl
ef
orSout
her
n
Af
r
i
ca?
(
8)
Asacat
al
y
stt
oScr
ambl
e:
 Eur
opeancount
r
i
escompet
edf
orunoccupi
edar
easofSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
 Conf
er
encel
egi
t
i
mi
sedoccupat
i
onofSout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
 Ther
ewasal
soscr
ambl
et
odef
i
neandext
endboundar
i
esofexi
st
i
ngspher
e
ofi
nf
l
uencebyt
heBr
i
t
i
sh,
Por
t
uguese,
Boer
sandGer
mans.
Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 Needf
orr
awmat
er
i
al
s\
mar
ket
s\
i
nv
est
ment
s
 St
r
at
egi
cr
easons
 Humani
t
ar
i
anr
easonsspr
eadofChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
.
 Raci
al
andpr
est
i
ger
easons
 Wor
kofexpl
or
er
swhodr
ewmapsofAf
r
i
ca,
r
ev
eal
edar
easwi
t
hv
al
uabl
e
r
esour
ces.
 Wor
kofhunt
er
s,
mi
ssi
onar
i
es,
Concessi
onseeker
s.
[
June2011]
86[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xar
eascol
oni
zedbyBr
i
t
ai
ndur
i
ngt
heScr
ambl
ef
orSout
her
n
Af
r
i
ca.[
6]
 Mal
awi
,
Zi
mbabwe,
Zambi
a
Page128of128
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 Swazi
l
and,
Lesot
ho,
Sout
hAf
r
i
ca.
Bot
swana.
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
heeconomi
cf
act
or
swhi
chi
nf
l
uencedt
hescr
ambl
ef
orout
her
nAf
r
i
ca
bet
ween1870and1900.
[
11]
 Needf
orcheapl
abour
,
needf
ormar
ket
s
 Di
scov
er
yofmi
ner
al
ssuchasgol
d,
di
amonds
 Needf
orr
awmat
er
i
al
s,
needt
oacqui
r
epr
ot
ect
or
at
ef
ort
r
ade
 Needf
orwi
l
dl
i
f
e,
desi
r
ef
orf
er
t
i
l
esoi
l
s
 Toi
nv
estsur
pl
uscapi
t
al
,
goodcl
i
mat
i
ccondi
t
i
onsf
orsomecr
ops
 St
r
at
egi
cr
easonse,
gcont
r
ol
oft
heCapeofGoodHope
 Desi
r
ef
orcat
t
l
e
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entwer
et
heAf
r
i
canst
obl
amef
ort
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofSout
her
n
Af
r
i
ca?
[
8]
Af
r
i
canbl
amewor
t
hi
ness
 I
nf
er
i
ormi
l
i
t
ar
yequi
pment
,
Di
suni
t
y
 Someagr
eedt
ocol
oni
al
pr
ot
ect
i
ont
oav
oi
dr
ai
dsf
r
om nei
ghbour
se,
gNgwat
o.
 Tr
i
bal
war
s,
accept
anceofmi
ssi
onar
i
eswhol
at
t
erf
aci
l
i
t
at
edcol
oni
sat
i
on
 I
l
l
i
t
er
acy
-di
dnotunder
st
andt
er
msoft
r
eat
i
ese,
gLobengul
a
 Somechi
ef
domscol
l
abor
at
edwi
t
hcol
oni
al
agent
s
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Whi
t
eshadsuper
i
orweapons
 I
ndust
r
i
al
capi
t
al
i
sm hadst
r
ongneeds
 Eur
opeanst
r
i
ckedAf
r
i
cansdur
i
ngt
r
eat
ynegot
i
at
i
ons
 Ber
l
i
nconf
er
enceof188485
 I
nf
l
uenceofmi
ssi
onar
i
es,
t
r
ader
sandhunt
er
s
COLONI
SATI
ONOFZI
MBABWE
[
Speci
men]
87[
a]
.Namesi
xt
r
eat
i
est
hatwer
esi
gnedbet
weenLobengul
aandt
heConcessi
on
seeker
sbef
or
e1893.
[
6]
 Tat
i
Concessi
on
Page129of129
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 Bai
nest
r
eat
y
 Gr
obl
ert
r
eat
y
 Mof
f
att
r
eat
y
 RuddConcessi
on
 Li
pper
tConcessi
on
[
b]
.
Whatpr
obl
emsdi
dLobengul
af
acei
ndeal
i
ngwi
t
hConcessi
onseeker
s
[
11]
 Opposi
t
i
onf
r
om hi
sar
mywhowant
edal
l
f
or
ei
gner
ski
ckedout
 Languagepr
obl
em i
ncommuni
cat
i
on
 Pooradv
i
cef
r
om hi
scounci
l
l
or
s
 Di
shonestadv
i
cef
r
om whi
t
eacquai
nt
ancese,
gMi
ssi
onar
i
esandhunt
er
s
 Thedi
f
f
i
cul
t
yofj
udgi
ngwhi
chwast
hebestEur
opeangr
oupt
odeal
wi
t
h
 Pooreducat
i
onl
ev
el
pr
ev
ent
i
nghi
mf
r
om f
ul
l
yunder
st
andi
ngt
hei
mpl
i
cat
i
on
ofwhathewasr
equi
r
edt
osi
gn
 Hewasaf
r
ai
dofwhatmi
ghthappeni
fhedi
dnotsi
gn
 Concessi
onseeker
sal
socheat
edwhensomet
i
mest
heypr
et
endedt
obe
wor
ki
ngeachot
hert
oi
nf
l
uencehi
sdeci
si
on,
e,
gLi
pper
tsol
dhi
sconcessi
on
t
oRhodes.
 Heal
sohadweaknessesf
orl
uxur
ygoodsandwaseasi
l
yi
nf
l
uencedby
r
ecei
v
i
nggi
f
t
sofnol
ast
i
ngv
al
ue
 I
nRuddConcessi
ont
hei
mper
i
al
i
st
sf
ool
edhi
m byst
r
essi
ngonl
yt
hev
er
bal
wor
dwhi
cht
heyknewAf
r
i
cansv
al
uedmost
,
andwr
ot
esomet
hi
ngel
sedown
f
orLobengul
at
osi
gn.
[
c]
.
Howf
arwasLobengul
asuccessf
ul
i
ndeal
i
ngwi
t
ht
heConcessi
onseeker
s?[
8]
 I
mper
i
al
i
st
susedbr
i
ber
yt
ogethi
sof
f
i
cer
st
oactont
hei
rsi
dee,
gLot
she
whowasl
at
erexecut
edbyt
heNdebel
e
 Fearoft
hehar
mt
hatmi
ghtbef
al
l
hi
ski
ngdom madehi
m maker
ush
deci
si
onst
osi
gn
 Concessi
onseeker
sshowedsuchdet
er
mi
nat
i
ont
hatunner
v
edLobengul
a,
oncet
heycamet
heydi
dnota‘
no’
f
orananswer
.
 Usedt
hedel
ay
i
ngt
act
i
cbymaki
ngt
hem wai
tf
orl
ongper
i
ods
 Madet
hem per
f
or
mt
asksbef
or
edeal
i
ngwi
t
ht
hem
 Thoughal
way
sadv
i
sedt
ot
hecont
r
ar
yheal
way
smetnextgr
oupof
Page130of130
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concessi
onseeker
s
 I
deawast
opl
ayt
hem oneagai
nstt
heot
her
 Hef
ai
l
edt
owar
dt
hem of
fandwasal
way
spushedi
nt
ogi
v
i
ngi
nmor
et
o
eachnewgr
oupi
nhopei
twoul
dst
opt
her
e
 Heal
sof
ai
l
edt
oseekt
hewhi
t
eman’
sgameofpsy
chol
ogi
cal
waronhi
m,
wher
et
heyexagger
at
edt
hedangerofhi
snotcomi
ngt
ot
er
mswi
t
ht
hem
t
husmaki
nghi
m si
gnt
r
eat
i
esear
l
i
ert
hanheshoul
dhav
e
 Thedet
er
mi
nat
i
onoft
heEur
opeansmeantt
hatLobengul
ahadnochance
ofsucceedi
ngagai
nstt
heconcessi
onseeker
s.Col
oni
al
i
sm/
I
mper
i
al
i
sm
wasunst
oppabl
eandei
t
herway
,
hewasgoi
ngt
obeabsor
bed.
[
Nov2003]
88[
a]St
at
esi
xt
er
msoft
heRuddConcessi
on.
[
6]
 TheNdebel
eki
ngt
or
ecei
v
eamont
hl
ysal
ar
yof100pounds.
 Ndebel
er
ul
ert
or
ecei
v
e1000r
i
f
l
esand100000r
oundsofammuni
t
i
on
 Agunboatt
opat
r
ol
t
heZambezi
r
i
v
eror€500i
nst
ead
 Met
al
sandmi
ner
al
r
i
ght
sgr
ant
edt
oRhodesandhi
sgr
oup
 Powergi
v
ent
ot
heBr
i
t
i
sht
odowhatt
heydeem necessar
yt
opr
ot
ectt
hei
r
i
nt
er
est
s
 Nott
ogr
antl
andormi
ner
al
r
i
ght
swi
t
houtBr
i
t
i
shconcur
r
ence
 Ver
bal
t
er
ms:
 Notmor
et
han10unar
medmen
 Not
i
cest
oputi
nS.Af
r
i
canpaper
s
 Sur
r
ender
i
ngoff
i
r
ear
ms
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heor
gani
sat
i
onandmov
ementoft
hePi
oneercol
umni
nt
ot
hear
ea
bet
weent
heZambezi
andLi
mpopoRi
v
er
s.
[
11]
[
i
]
Or
gani
sat
i
on:
 Af
t
erobt
ai
ni
ngt
her
oy
al
char
t
er,
Rhodesr
ecr
ui
t
edpi
oneer
st
ooccupy
Zi
mbabwe
 200r
ecr
ui
t
ed,
whor
epr
esent
edv
ar
i
oust
r
ades.Mostwer
ebel
l
ow30y
ear
s
;
Sout
hAf
r
i
canex
per
i
ence
 Theywer
epr
omi
sed300acr
esofl
andand15gol
dcl
ai
mseach
Page131of131
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 ThePi
oneer
swer
eaccompani
edbyapol
i
cef
or
cef
orpr
ot
ect
i
onandt
ocr
ush
anyr
esi
st
ance.Commanderoft
hepol
i
cewasCol
onel
Edwar
dGr
aham Penne
f
at
her
 Thegui
deoft
hepi
oneer
swasF.
C.Sel
ous
 Goodswer
ecar
r
i
edbyoxwagons
 For
mat
i
onofBASCwhi
chr
ai
sedcapi
t
al
i
nLondon
[
i
i
]
Mov
ement
:
 ThePi
oneer
sgr
oupedi
nBot
swanat
ost
ar
tt
hei
rj
our
neyatt
hebegi
nni
ngof
1890.
Gothel
pf
r
om Khama,
est
abl
i
shedal
aagerl
ef
tpol
i
cet
oguar
dt
hem
 ThePi
oneerCol
umncr
ossedMat
l
out
si
eRi
v
eri
nJune1890andShashi
Ri
v
er
i
nJul
y1890.
 ThePi
oneer
sav
oi
dedt
heNdebel
est
at
ewher
et
heNdebel
er
egi
ment
swant
ed
t
oat
t
ackt
hem
 Lobengul
adi
dnotal
l
owt
her
egi
ment
st
oat
t
ackt
hePi
oneer
s
 Ont
hewayt
hePi
oneer
sest
abl
i
shedf
or
t
s:
For
tTul
i
(
nearLi
mpopo)
,
For
t
Vi
ct
or
i
a,
For
tChar
t
erandFor
tSal
i
sbur
y
.Ar
r
i
v
edatFor
tSal
i
sbur
yon12
Sept
ember1890.
 Rai
si
ngt
heUni
onJack
[
c]
.
Wast
heBr
i
t
i
shSout
hAf
r
i
caCompanyr
esponsi
bl
ef
ort
heAngl
oNdebel
ewarof
1893?Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
8]
 BASCAct
i
ons:
 Aboundar
ymade;
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
cont
r
ol
oft
heShonabyt
hecompany
 Compet
i
t
i
onbet
weent
heNdebel
eandCompany
 Desi
r
ef
or2ndRand
 Fal
l
ofcompanyshar
es
 Ot
herReasons:
 Someshonel
eader
sst
oppedpay
i
ngt
r
i
but
et
oLobengul
a
 Vi
ct
or
i
ai
nci
dent
 Ndebel
er
ai
dsdi
st
ur
bedl
abouronset
t
l
erf
ar
ms
 Set
t
l
er
swant
edt
odest
r
oyt
heNdebel
est
at
e
Page132of132
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[
Jne2004]
89[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xf
or
t
sbui
l
tbyt
heBr
i
t
i
shSout
hAf
r
i
caCompanyi
nZi
mbabwe,
18901896.
[
6]
 For
tTul
i
 For
tVi
ct
or
i
a
 For
tChar
t
er
 For
tSal
i
sbur
y
 For
tMar
t
i
n
 For
tUsher
 For
tRi
xon
 For
tMel
set
t
er
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hecomposi
t
i
on,
or
gani
sat
i
onandmov
ementoft
hePi
oneerCol
umn.
[
11]
 ThePi
oneercol
umnconsi
st
edofbot
hAf
r
i
kanerandEngl
i
shel
ement
s
 Peopl
ewi
t
hSout
hAf
r
i
canexper
i
ence
 Thegr
oupconsi
st
edof200set
t
l
er
ssuppor
t
edby500pol
i
cemen
 Ther
ewer
eal
so1000auxi
l
i
ar
i
essuppl
i
edbyKhamat
heNgwat
oki
ng
 ThePi
oneerset
t
l
er
swer
eal
sot
oconsi
stofdi
f
f
er
entt
r
adesbaker
s,
mi
ner
s,
bui
l
der
s,
f
ar
mer
set
c
 AnumberofAf
r
i
canser
v
ant
saccompani
edPi
oneercol
umn
 Fr
ankJohnson[
Maj
or
]wast
hel
eaderoft
hePi
oneercor
pswhi
l
stCol
onel
Pennef
at
herwast
hel
eaderoft
hemount
edpol
i
ce
 Fr
eder
i
ckCour
t
neySel
ousact
edast
hegui
def
ort
hePi
oneerCol
umn
 Theset
t
l
er
swer
epr
omi
sedgener
ousgr
ant
sofl
andandgol
dcl
ai
ms
 Thegr
oupwer
eequi
ppedwi
t
h117wagonswi
t
hher
dsofl
i
v
est
ockbei
ng
dr
i
v
enal
ongsi
de
 Expedi
t
i
onsetof
ff
r
om Mat
l
out
seRi
v
er
-June1890
 Cr
ossedt
heShashi
Ri
v
eri
nJul
y
 Bui
l
tFor
tTul
i
f
ordef
enceagai
nstNdebel
eat
t
ack
 Av
oi
dedMat
abel
el
andf
orf
earofwarwi
t
ht
heNdebel
e
Page133of133
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 ByAugustt
heexpedi
t
i
onhadr
eachedFor
tVi
ct
or
i
a(
Masv
i
ngo)
pr
oceededt
oFor
tChar
t
er(
Chi
v
i
)
 12thSept
ember1890t
hePi
oneer
sr
eachedFor
tSal
i
sbur
y
hoi
st
edUni
on
Jack.
 NB:
Themi
l
i
t
ar
yi
nv
asi
onofMashonal
andasev
i
dencedbyFor
t
s,
guns
andmi
l
i
t
ar
yl
eader
se,
gMaj
orF.JohnsonandCol
onel
Pennef
at
her
[
c]
.
I
si
tt
r
uet
heBr
i
t
i
shSout
hAf
r
i
caCompanydi
dnotwantwarwi
t
ht
heNdebel
e?
Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
8]
[
i
]
.
BSACav
oi
di
ngwarwi
t
ht
heNdebel
e.
 ThePi
oneercol
umndi
dnotwantwarwi
t
hNdebel
eAv
oi
dedNdebel
e
t
er
r
i
t
or
yonr
out
et
oset
t
l
ementar
ea
 Theset
t
l
er
shopedt
oi
ncor
por
at
eMat
abel
el
andpeacef
ul
l
yl
at
er
[
i
i
]
.
Pi
oneerset
t
l
er
showev
er
,
pr
epar
edf
orwar
,
 br
oughtl
ar
gear
medf
or
ce
 v
i
ol
at
edt
er
msoft
heRuddConcessi
on
 Mat
abel
el
andwaspar
tofar
eacov
er
edbyRhodes’
Char
t
erof1889
 Mat
abel
el
andal
sopar
toft
hear
eacov
er
edbyRhodes’
dr
eam ofCapet
oCai
r
o
 Pr
oposedr
ai
l
wayf
r
om Sout
hAf
r
i
cat
opasst
hr
oughMat
abel
el
and
 Pi
oneer
shadmor
epeopl
et
hanal
l
owedbyt
heRuddconcessi
on
 Fai
l
ur
et
of
i
ndgol
di
nMashonal
and
[
Nov2004]
90[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xBr
i
t
i
shnat
i
onal
s,ot
hert
hanRhodes,
whoassi
st
edi
nt
he
col
oni
sat
i
onofZi
mbabwe.
 L.
S.Jameson;
C.Rudd;
J.
S.Mof
f
at
;
J.Thomson.R.Magui
r
e.C.Hel
m;
F.
Thompson;
Maj
orF.
Johnson;
F.
C.Sel
ous;
Col
onelPennef
at
her
;
Al
l
an
Wi
l
son
[
b]
.
Whatst
epswer
et
akenbyRhodest
ocol
oni
seZi
mbabwe?
[
11]
 TheMof
f
atAgr
eementi
nFebr
uar
y1888i
ni
t
i
at
edbyRhodesasawayof
r
ev
er
si
ngt
heGr
obl
erTr
eat
y
 TheRuddConcessi
on,
Oct
ober1888ami
ner
al
concessi
onwhi
ch
i
nt
endedt
ost
r
engt
hent
heMof
f
atAgr
eement
 TheRoy
al
char
t
ergr
ant
edi
nOct
ober1889whi
chgav
eRhodes
Page134of134
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per
mi
ssi
ont
ocol
oni
seandadmi
ni
st
erZi
mbabweonbehal
fofBr
i
t
ai
n
 TheBr
i
t
i
shSout
hAf
r
i
caCompany(
1890)
t
ocol
oni
seandadmi
ni
st
er
Zi
mbabweonbehal
fofBr
i
t
ai
n
 Rhodessentapar
t
y,
l
edbyL.
S.Jameson,
t
oaskLobengul
at
oal
l
owt
he
BSACt
ogoi
nt
oMashonal
and
 Recr
ui
t
mentoft
hepi
oneer
st
ocol
oni
seZi
mbabwet
ocomef
r
om al
l
ov
er
t
hewor
l
d–madeupof200
 ThePi
oneerCol
umnconsi
st
edofPi
oneer
s,
sol
di
er
s/
pol
i
cemen,
Af
r
i
can
auxi
l
i
ar
i
es,
mar
chedi
nt
oMashonal
anddespi
t
ev
er
bal
r
esi
st
ancef
r
om t
he
Ndebel
e.Rai
si
ngoft
heUni
onJackFor
tSal
i
sbur
y
 Angl
oNdebel
ewar1893Tot
akeov
erMat
abel
el
and
 Ndebel
eandShonaupr
i
si
ngs18967cr
ushi
ngofr
esi
st
ance
[
c]
.I
si
tt
r
uet
hatRhodescont
r
i
but
et
hemostt
ot
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofZi
mbabwe?
Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
8]
[
i
]Rhodes’
cont
r
i
but
i
ont
ocol
oni
sat
i
on:
 Fi
nanci
ngoft
hecol
oni
sat
i
onpr
ocessf
r
om t
heMof
f
atAgr
eementr
i
ghtupt
o
t
he18961897upr
i
si
ngs
 Or
gani
sat
i
onoft
hecol
oni
sat
i
onpr
ocessi
,
eB.
S.
A.
C,
r
ecr
ui
t
mentofpi
oneer
s,
obt
ai
ni
ngt
heRoy
al
Char
t
erandwar
.
[
i
i
]Ot
her
sal
socont
r
i
but
ed
 Br
i
t
i
shal
sogav
esuppor
tandhel
pedt
opr
ov
i
demanpowerf
orwar
s;
Roy
al
Char
t
er
 Ot
herpeopl
eal
sopl
ay
edi
mpor
t
antr
ol
es–mi
ssi
onar
i
esl
i
keC.Hel
m,
J.
S
Mof
f
at
,
i
ndi
v
i
dual
sl
i
keRudd,
Thompson
 Lobengul
aandal
sol
ocal
Ndebel
el
eader
sal
soi
ndi
r
ect
l
yassi
st
ede,
gLot
she
andSi
khombo.
 Br
i
t
i
shf
i
nancer
sl
i
keDukeofFi
f
e,
Lor
dSal
i
sbur
y
,
andAber
cor
n.
[
Nov2005]
91[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xl
eader
soft
hePi
oneercol
umnt
hatmov
edt
oMashonal
andi
n
1890[
6]
 Col
onel
Edwar
dGr
aham Pennef
at
her
;
F.
C.Sel
ous;
Maj
orFr
ankJohnson;
Heany
;
Bor
r
ow,
DrLeanderSt
arJameson;
Col
l
oqui
um
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
her
ecr
ui
t
mentofmember
soft
hePi
oneerCol
umnbyCeci
l
John
Page135of135
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Rhodes.[
11]
 BSACadv
er
t
i
sedf
orf
i
tadv
ent
ur
ousy
oungmeni
nEngl
i
shspeaki
ngwor
l
d
wi
t
hSout
hAf
r
i
canexper
i
ence.
 Ov
er2000appl
i
cat
i
ons
 Onl
y200y
oungmenchosen
 Anot
her500y
oungmenr
ecr
ui
t
edi
nt
oBSAC
 Member
si
ncl
udedbl
acksmi
t
hs,
Car
pent
er
s,
Bui
l
der
s,
Pr
i
nt
er
s,
Baker
s,
Mi
ner
s,
Far
mer
sandTr
ader
s
 Wer
epr
omi
sed300acr
esofl
andand1500gol
dcl
ai
ms
 Eacht
r
oopi
nt
heBSACpol
i
cet
or
ecei
v
esev
enshi
l
l
i
ngsandsi
xpencef
or
eachdayspentwi
t
ht
hepi
oneerpol
i
ce
 Eachpi
oneerwasar
med
 Col
oni
si
ngpar
t
yl
edbyMaj
orFr
ankJohnsonandt
wodeput
i
es(
Heanyand
Bor
r
ow)
 Eachof12of
f
i
cer
si
nPi
oneerCol
umnpr
omi
sed20gol
dcl
ai
ms
[
b]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
hePi
oneer
scont
r
i
but
et
ot
hesuccessf
ul
occupat
i
onof
Mashonal
and?
[
8]
Pi
oneer
s/
Pi
oneerCor
ps:
 Sel
ect
edt
omeett
hebasi
cser
v
i
cesi
nanewcommuni
t
y,
i
ncl
uded
Bl
acksmi
t
hs,
Car
pent
er
s,
Bui
l
der
s,
baker
s,
mi
ner
s,
f
ar
mer
sandt
r
ader
s
 Theyconst
i
t
ut
edasel
f
-suf
f
i
ci
entcommuni
t
y
 Pi
oneer
st
r
ai
nedf
orwar
,
Par
t
i
ci
pat
edi
nt
he1893Angl
oNdebel
ewarand
suppr
essi
onof18967upr
i
si
ngs
Ot
her
s
 Rhodesf
i
nanci
al
assi
st
ance
 Bsacpol
i
ce
 Di
suni
t
yofShona/
l
ackofr
esi
st
ance
 Af
r
i
canauxi
l
i
ar
i
esf
r
om S.
Aar
medwi
t
haxesandspear
s
 Khama’
smen
 Suppor
toft
hequeen.
[
June2006]
Page136of136
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92[
a]
.
Namet
hef
i
v
eNdebel
eof
f
i
ci
al
swhower
ei
nv
ol
v
edi
nnegot
i
at
i
onsf
ort
heRudd
Concessi
onwi
t
ht
heBr
i
t
i
shagent
s.
[
6]
 Lobengul
a,
Lot
she,
Si
khombo,
Babi
y
aneandMt
shede
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hev
er
bal
andwr
i
t
t
ent
er
msoft
heRuddConcessi
onofOct
ober1888.
Ver
bal
Ter
ms:
 Rhodest
opr
ot
ectMat
abel
el
andf
r
om Eur
opeancol
oni
sat
i
on
 Toputnot
i
cesi
nSout
hAf
r
i
cannewspaper
swar
ni
ngwhi
t
epeopl
et
okeepout
ofMat
abel
el
and
 Whi
t
esi
nMat
abel
el
andt
oobeyNdebel
el
aws
 Tosur
r
enderf
i
r
ear
mst
oNdebel
eKi
ngonar
r
i
v
al
 Todi
gonehol
e
 Br
i
ngnotmor
et
enmen
Wr
i
t
t
enTer
ms:
 Ndebel
eKi
ngt
oget€100mont
hl
y
 100r
i
f
l
esand100000r
oundsofammuni
t
i
on
 Agunboatt
opat
r
ol
t
heZambezi
or€500
I
nr
et
ur
nLobengul
aagr
eedt
ogi
v
et
hecompany
 Compl
et
eandexcl
usi
v
echar
geov
eral
l
met
al
sandmi
ner
al
si
nhi
ski
ngdom
andi
t
spr
i
nci
pal
sanddomi
ni
ons
 Ful
l
power
st
odoal
l
t
hi
ngst
heymaydeem necessar
yt
ogett
hemet
al
sand
mi
ner
al
s
 Togi
v
enoconcessi
onofl
andormi
ni
ngr
i
ght
swi
t
houtconsul
t
i
ngRhodes.
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dLobengul
aandhi
speopl
ebenef
i
tf
r
om t
heRudd
Concessi
onupt
o1893?
[
8]
Benef
i
t
s
Ndebel
ehadshor
t
t
er
m benef
i
t
s:
 Eur
opeansuppor
thel
pedLobengul
at
ogetst
abi
l
i
t
yandsecur
i
t
yofhi
st
hr
one
andl
eader
shi
p
 Gai
nedmoneyandweaponspr
omi
sed/
r
ecei
v
ed
 Gai
nedpr
ot
ect
i
onagai
nstot
herext
er
nal
danger
se,
gBoer
/
Por
t
uguese
Page137of137
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Pr
obl
ems
 Tr
eat
yusedt
oj
ust
i
f
ycol
oni
sat
i
onofZi
mbabwe
 Mostv
er
bal
t
er
msl
ef
toutf
r
om wr
i
t
t
ent
r
eat
y
 Landandmi
ner
al
sev
ent
ual
l
yt
akenbyBr
i
t
i
shSout
hAf
r
i
caCompany
 Rest
r
i
ct
i
onofLobengul
apower
si
nf
or
ei
gnpol
i
cy
 Ledt
ot
hei
nv
asi
onbyPi
oneerCol
umn
 Lot
sheexecut
ed
 1893warofdi
spossessi
on
[
Nov2006]
93[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xconcessi
onseeker
swhov
i
si
t
edMat
abel
el
andbet
ween1870and
1890[
6]
 Bai
nes;
Pi
etGr
obl
er
;J.
S.Mof
f
at
;
Char
l
esRudd;
Fr
anci
sThompson;
Rochf
or
t
Magui
r
e;
Li
pper
t
;
E.
S.Maud.
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
het
er
msoft
heGr
obl
erTr
eat
y(
1887)andt
heMof
f
atTr
eat
y(
1888)
.
Gr
obl
erTr
eat
y
:
At
r
eat
yoff
r
i
endshi
pbet
weenLobengul
aandBoer
s
Ter
ms:
 Ev
er
l
ast
i
ngpeacebet
weenNdebel
eandTr
ansv
aal
Republ
i
c
 I
tr
ecogni
sedLobengul
aaspar
amountchi
ef
 Lobengul
at
opr
ov
i
deassi
st
ancet
ot
heBoer
swhenev
err
equi
r
ed
 Toext
r
adi
t
eal
l
cr
i
mi
nal
swhoescapedf
r
om Tr
ansv
aal
 Toal
l
owt
hosewi
t
hapassi
nt
ohi
scount
r
y
 Hunt
er
sandt
r
ader
sf
r
om Tr
ansv
aal
t
obeal
l
owedt
ooper
at
ei
nLobengul
a’
s
Ki
ngdom
 TheTr
ansv
aal
t
oappoi
ntaconsul
t
oset
t
l
ei
nLobengul
a’
sKi
ngdom
 Theconsul
t
oadmi
ni
st
erj
ust
i
cet
oci
t
i
zensoft
heBoerRepubl
i
c
TheMof
f
atTr
eat
y
:
 Lobengul
aagr
eedt
obeaf
r
i
endoft
heBr
i
t
i
shQueen
 Pr
omi
sednott
oent
eri
nt
oanyagr
eementwi
t
hanyot
hercount
r
yorgr
oups
Page138of138
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wi
t
houtt
heknowl
edgeandappr
ov
al
oft
heBr
i
t
i
shHi
ghCommi
ssi
oner
.
 Ev
er
l
ast
i
ngpeace
 Cancel
l
at
i
onoft
heGr
obl
erTr
eat
y
 Lobengul
anott
osel
l
orcedeanypar
tofhi
ski
ngdom t
of
or
ei
gner
s
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dt
heGr
obl
erTr
eat
ypr
ot
ectt
heNdebel
eSt
at
ef
r
om col
oni
sat
i
on?[
8]
Successes:
 Lobengul
aal
l
i
ancewi
t
ht
heBoer
sst
r
engt
henedhi
sposi
t
i
onagai
nsti
nt
er
nal
el
ement
se,
ghehadf
r
i
endswi
t
hgunshencehewasf
ear
ed
 I
ni
t
i
al
l
ydel
ay
edcol
oni
st
sonoccupat
i
onoft
heNdebel
eSt
at
e
 Lobengul
asucceededi
ngai
ni
ngsecur
i
t
yf
r
om Boerat
t
acksbysi
gni
ngt
he
Gr
obl
erTr
eat
y
 Tr
eat
ymaki
ngusedasdi
pl
omacy
 Lobengul
a’
sf
r
i
endshi
pwi
t
ht
heBoer
susedt
odet
erat
t
acksi
nt
heNdebel
e
st
at
ebyot
hergr
oups
Li
mi
t
at
i
ons:
 Hedi
dnotgai
nabsol
ut
esecur
i
t
ybecauset
her
ewer
eot
herext
er
nal
danger
s
f
r
om Por
t
ugueseorBr
i
t
i
shr
epr
esent
edbyRhodes,
et
c
 Gr
obl
erTr
eat
yspeededupt
hecompet
i
t
i
onort
hescr
ambl
e
 Lobengul
ahadt
of
i
ghtaci
v
i
l
awar
[
Nov2007]
94[
a]
.
St
at
eanyt
hr
eeeconomi
candt
hr
eepol
i
t
i
cal
f
act
or
st
hatl
edt
ot
hecol
oni
sat
i
on
of
Zi
mbabwe. [
6]
 Economi
c:
 Needf
ormar
ket
s
 Needf
orr
awmat
er
i
al
s
 Rhodesbel
i
ev
edt
hatt
hegol
dbel
tf
r
om Tr
ansv
aal
st
r
et
chedi
nt
o
Zi
mbabwe(
SecondRand)
 Want
edt
oi
nv
estsur
pl
uscapi
t
al
 Past
ur
es,
cheapl
abour
,
l
i
v
est
ock,
Fer
t
i
l
esoi
l
s,
goodcl
i
mat
e,
 Pol
i
t
i
cal
:
Page139of139
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 Rhodeswant
edt
opr
omot
eBr
i
t
ai
ni
mper
i
al
i
sm
 Needt
ospr
eadci
v
i
l
i
sat
i
on

Agent
ssi
gnedf
r
i
endshi
pt
r
eat
i
eswi
t
hl
ocal
r
ul
er
s
 Topr
ev
entot
hercount
r
i
esf
r
om col
oni
si
ngZi
mbabwee,
g
Por
t
uguese,
Ger
mansandBoer
s
 Toenci
r
cl
et
heBoer
s
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hest
epst
akenbyC.
J.Rhodest
ocol
oni
seZi
mbabwe.[
11]
 Febr
uar
y1888Mof
f
atTr
eat
y–t
or
ev
er
set
heGr
obl
erTr
eat
y
 Oct
ober1888RuddConcessi
on,
Rudd,
Hel
m et
ct
r
i
ckedLobengul
at
o
si
gnt
r
eat
y
.Tr
eat
yst
r
engt
henedMof
f
atAgr
eement
 Rhodessoughtf
orBr
i
t
i
shi
nf
l
uent
i
al
busi
nesspeopl
e
 Rhodessoughtandwasgr
ant
edt
heRoy
al
char
t
erbyt
heQueenandhad
per
mi
ssi
ont
ocol
oni
seandadmi
ni
st
erZi
mbabweonbehal
fofBr
i
t
ai
n
 Usedhi
sper
sonal
f
or
t
unet
of
i
nancet
heoccupat
i
ons
 For
medB.
S.
A.
C1890t
ocol
oni
seandadmi
ni
st
erZi
mbabweonbehal
fof
Br
i
t
ai
n
 Recr
ui
t
edpi
oneer
sf
r
om al
l
ov
ert
hewor
l
di
,
e200peopl
e
 Mov
ementoft
hepi
oneercol
umn(
NBFor
t
s)
 Rai
sedt
heuni
onj
acki
nSept
ember1890atFor
tSal
i
sbur
y
 Boughtt
heLi
pper
tConcessi
on1891
 Def
eat
edNdebel
ei
nt
heAngl
oNdebel
ewar(
1893)
andt
ookov
er
Mat
abel
el
and
 Publ
i
ci
sedt
heRuddconcessi
oni
nSout
hAf
r
i
cannewspaper
s
 HeboughtMaud’
scompany
 HesentDrLeanderSt
arJamesont
ot
r
eatLobengul
aofgout
 Br
i
ber
yofLot
sheandSi
khombo
 Rhodesdel
ay
edLobengul
a’
sdel
egat
est
ot
heQueenandt
heChar
t
erwas
gr
ant
ed
 Rhodesper
suadedt
heBr
i
t
i
shHi
ghCommi
ssi
onerov
erBechuanal
and
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwasRhodes‘
r
ol
ei
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofZi
mbabwe?[
8]
.
Rhodes’
cont
r
i
but
i
on
Page140of140
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 Sentr
epr
esent
at
i
v
est
ot
r
i
ckLobengul
ai
nt
osi
gni
ngt
heRuddConcessi
on
 Boughtt
heLi
pper
tConcessi
on
 Of
f
er
edper
sonal
f
or
t
unet
of
i
nancecol
oni
sat
i
onPr
ocess
 Obt
ai
nedr
oy
al
char
t
er
 For
medt
heB.
S.
A.
Candr
ecr
ui
t
edt
hepi
oneer
s
Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 Br
i
t
i
shsuppor
t
edmov
ebyRhodesi
,
eRoy
al
Char
t
er
 HadBr
i
t
i
shf
i
nancer
segDi
keofAber
cor
nandDukeoff
i
f
e
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
eshel
pede,
gRevC.Hel
m andJ.
S.Mof
f
at
 I
ni
t
i
al
l
ackofr
esi
st
ancebyShona
 Ndebel
ei
ndunasl
i
keLot
shel
obbi
edonbehal
fofwhi
t
es
 Rol
eoft
r
ader
s
 Rol
eofhunt
er
s
[
Nov
2008]
95[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xr
easonswhyZi
mbabwewascol
oni
sedbyt
heBr
i
t
i
shi
n1890.[
6]
 Secondr
and,
r
awmat
er
i
al
s,
mar
ket
s,
Capet
oCai
r
odr
eam,
 Toenci
r
cl
et
heBoer
s,
cheapl
abour
,
t
oi
nv
estsur
pl
uscapi
t
al
 Fav
our
abl
ecl
i
mat
e,
f
er
t
i
l
esoi
l
,
r
i
chi
nwi
l
dl
i
f
e,
t
ospr
eadChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
 Ci
v
i
l
i
sat
i
on,
Pr
est
i
ge,
t
obr
eedl
i
v
est
ock,
r
aci
al
super
i
or
i
t
y
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hest
epst
akenbyt
heBr
i
t
i
sht
ocol
oni
seZi
mbabweupt
o1890.[
11]
 Rhodesact
edasl
ocal
agentofBr
i
t
i
shi
mper
i
al
i
sm
 Br
i
t
i
shdecl
ar
edpr
ot
ect
or
at
eov
erBot
swanat
okeept
he‘
mi
ssi
onar
yr
oad
‘
open(
1885)
 Wi
t
hdr
awalofGr
obl
erTr
eat
ybyLobengul
adoneunderpr
essur
ef
r
om t
he
Br
i
t
i
sh,
r
i
v
al
soft
heBoerRepubl
i
c
 Mof
f
atTr
eat
ypr
of
essedev
er
l
ast
i
ngpeaceandf
r
i
endshi
pbet
weenLobengul
a
andt
heBr
i
t
i
shwhoser
eal
ai
m wast
ocol
oni
seNdebel
eki
ngdom
 Lobengul
aur
gedt
odesi
stf
r
om ent
er
i
nganyt
r
eat
ywi
t
hanyf
or
ei
gnpoweror
t
osel
l
orcedeanypar
tofhi
ski
ngdom
 Br
i
t
i
shagent
sl
i
keChar
l
esHel
m,
Char
l
esRudd,
Rochf
or
tMagui
r
eandFr
anci
s
Page141of141
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Thompsonper
suadedLobengul
at
osi
gnRuddConcessi
on,
pr
omi
si
ngf
i
ct
i
ous
benef
i
t
s
 RuddConcessi
ongav
eexcl
usi
v
emi
ner
al
r
i
ght
st
oBr
i
t
i
sh
 Gr
ant
edBr
i
t
i
shpowert
odoal
l
t
hi
ngst
heydeem necessar
yt
opr
omot
emi
ni
ng
act
i
v
i
t
i
es
 Br
i
t
i
shGov
er
nmentgr
ant
edChar
t
ert
oaut
hor
i
secol
oni
sat
i
onofZi
mbabwe
 Br
i
t
i
shar
i
st
ocr
acydi
r
ect
or
sofBSACt
hator
gani
sedcol
oni
sat
i
onandt
he
pi
oneercol
umn’
smov
ement
 Ther
ai
si
ngoft
heuni
onj
ack
 TheBr
i
t
i
shdel
ay
edLobengul
a’
si
ndunast
omeett
hequeen
 Recr
ui
t
edofpi
oneercol
umn
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwast
hepar
tpl
ay
edbyt
heBr
i
t
i
shgov
er
nmenti
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
on
of
Zi
mbabwe?
[
8]
Br
i
t
i
shr
ol
e:
 Br
i
t
ai
nwasi
nt
er
est
edpar
t
ywhoser
i
v
al
swer
eBoer
s,
Por
t
ugueseand
Ger
mans
 Repr
esent
edt
hemi
ght
ypowert
hatbackedl
ocal
agent
sagai
nstot
her
Eur
opeans
 Br
i
t
i
shusedt
r
eat
i
est
ogr
antChar
t
ert
oaut
hor
i
secol
oni
sat
i
on
 Est
abl
i
shmentofapr
ot
ect
or
at
eov
erBechuanal
and
 Br
i
t
ai
ngav
ef
i
nanci
al
andmi
l
i
t
ar
ysuppor
tont
heAngl
oNdebel
eand1st
Chi
mur
enga
Ot
her
s:
 Rhodesf
i
nancedcol
oni
sat
i
onusi
ngweal
t
hf
r
om Debeer
sandConsol
i
dat
ed
Gol
df
i
el
dscompani
es
 Putt
oget
herPi
oneerCol
umn
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
es‘
r
ol
ee,
gJ.
S.Mof
f
atandChar
l
esHel
m
 Col
l
abor
at
or
se,
gLot
she
 Af
r
i
candi
suni
t
y
 Af
r
i
cani
l
l
i
t
er
acy
Page142of142
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 Suppor
tf
r
om t
heNgwat
o
 Rol
eoft
r
ader
sandhunt
er
s.
[
Nov
2008]
96[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanyt
hr
eel
eadi
ngBr
i
t
i
shci
t
i
zensandanyt
hr
eecompani
est
hat
suppor
t
edt
heBr
i
t
i
shSout
hAf
r
i
caCompanyf
i
nanci
al
l
y
.
[
6]
l
eadi
ngBr
i
t
i
shci
t
i
zens
 Dukeoff
i
f
e,
DukeofAber
cor
n,
Lor
dGr
ey
,
Pr
i
nceofWal
es
Sponsor
i
ngcompani
es
 Rot
hschi
l
dCompany
,
DeBeer
sandConsol
i
dat
edGol
df
i
el
ds
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
her
ecr
ui
t
mentandt
hemov
ementoft
hePi
oneerCol
umnt
o
Mashonal
and.
[
11]
Ther
ecr
ui
t
mentpr
ocess
 Recr
ui
t
mentandequi
ppi
ngofPi
oneercor
psdel
egat
edt
oFr
ankJohnson
assi
st
edbyMaur
i
ceandHeanyBar
r
ow
 Adv
er
t
i
sementf
orpeopl
ebel
l
ow30y
ear
st
oappl
y
 Pi
oneer
st
oi
ncl
udeEngl
i
shandAf
r
i
kanerel
ement
sandt
ohav
eSout
hAf
r
i
ca
exper
i
ence
 Car
ef
ul
l
ychosenf
r
om sev
er
al
t
housandappl
i
cant
s(
2000appl
i
cat
i
ons)
 Onl
y200sel
ect
ed
 Pi
oneer
scamef
r
om manyoccupat
i
onse,
gBl
acksmi
t
hs,
car
pent
er
s,
bui
l
der
s,
Pai
nt
er
s,
mi
ner
s,f
ar
mer
sandt
r
ader
s.
 Eachpr
omi
sed3000acr
esofl
andand15gol
dcl
ai
ms
 1000Ngwat
oauxi
l
i
ar
i
esal
sohi
r
ed
 500mount
edpol
i
cemen
Mov
ement
:
 Cr
ossedMat
l
out
ser
i
v
eron27.
061890.
,
Shashi
r
i
v
eron11Jul
y
 Cov
er
ed12mi
l
esaday
1820km
 Av
oi
dedNdebel
et
er
r
i
t
or
y
 LedbyPennef
at
her
Page143of143
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 Sel
ousgui
dedt
hem
 Dai
l
yal
l
owancesof5shi
l
l
i
ngand6pence
 Suppl
i
escar
r
i
edby117wagons
 Jamesonaccompani
edt
hePi
oneer
s
 Usedl
aager
sf
orsecur
i
t
yr
easons
 Pol
i
cel
ef
tt
oguar
dt
heFor
t
s
 Est
abl
i
shedFor
t
s,
e,
gFor
tTul
i
,
For
tVi
ct
or
i
a,
For
tChar
t
er
,
andFor
tSal
i
sbur
y
 Rai
sedt
heUni
onj
ack
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dt
her
ecr
ui
t
mentoft
hePi
oneerCol
umncont
r
i
but
et
ot
he
successof
t
hei
rset
t
l
ementi
nMashonal
and?
[
8]
[
i
]
.
Recr
ui
t
mentpol
i
cyhel
pedt
ocr
eat
et
henucl
eusofacompl
et
esoci
et
y
 Economi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
eswer
epr
omot
edbypr
esenceofski
l
l
edPer
sonnel
e,
g
mi
ner
s,
f
ar
mer
s,
bl
acksmi
t
hs,
car
pent
er
s,
baker
s,
t
r
ader
set
c
 Pi
oneer
swi
t
hSout
hAf
r
i
canexper
i
encecoul
dwi
t
hst
andhar
dshi
ps
exper
i
encedi
ni
nt
er
i
or
 Ar
myandpol
i
cepr
ov
i
dedsecur
i
t
yt
oFor
t
s
 Pr
omi
sedi
ncent
i
v
esmot
i
v
at
edpi
oneer
s.
 400Ngwat
ohel
pedmaker
oadsandt
oher
dhor
sesandcat
t
l
e
 BASCpol
i
ceof
f
er
edpr
ot
ect
i
on
[
i
i
]
.
Ot
herFact
or
s
 Lobengul
ar
est
r
ai
nedamaj
ahaf
r
om at
t
acki
ng
 Shonadi
dnotr
esi
st
expect
edPi
oneer
swhi
t
et
ogobackf
i
r
stl
i
kePor
t
uguese
whohadcameear
l
i
er
 Wel
comedwhi
t
esf
orpr
ot
ect
i
on
 Pr
esenceofmi
ssi
onar
i
escr
eat
edf
al
sesenseofsecur
i
t
y
.
[
Nov
2009]
97[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yt
het
hr
eet
r
eat
i
esandt
hei
rr
espect
i
v
ey
ear
swhi
chwer
esi
gned
bet
weenLobengul
aandt
hef
or
ei
gner
sbet
ween1887and1890.
[
6]
 Gr
obl
erTr
eat
y
—1887
 Mof
f
atTr
eat
-1888
Page144of144
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 RuddConcessi
on1888.
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
het
er
msofanyt
wooft
heset
r
eat
i
es.
Gr
obl
erTr
eat
y1887.
 At
r
eat
ybet
weent
heBoer
sandNdebel
e
 Tr
ansv
aal
andNdebel
eSt
at
est
obef
r
i
ends
 Ndebel
ewer
ecommi
t
t
edt
opr
ov
i
di
ngmi
l
i
t
ar
yassi
st
ancet
oTr
ansv
aal
i
fand
whenaskedt
odoso
 Ther
ewast
obeaper
manentr
epr
esent
at
i
v
eoft
heTr
ansv
aal
i
nBul
away
o
 Lobengul
at
opr
ot
ectTr
ansv
aal
ci
t
i
zenswhov
i
si
t
edhi
scount
r
y
 Ev
er
l
ast
i
ngpeacebet
weenBoer
sandNdebel
e
 Lobengul
at
ober
ecogni
sedasapar
amountchi
ef
Mof
f
atTr
eat
y
1888
 Br
i
t
i
shandt
heNdebel
eorJ.
S.Mof
f
atv
sLobengul
a
 Lobengul
anott
oent
eranyt
r
eat
ywi
t
hot
hercount
r
i
eswi
t
houtt
heknowl
edge
oft
heBr
i
t
i
sh
 Ndebel
eandBr
i
t
i
sht
obef
r
i
ends
 Lobengul
anott
ogi
v
eanypar
toft
heCount
r
yt
oanyot
hercount
r
ywi
t
hout
per
mi
ssi
onf
r
om t
heBr
i
t
i
sh
 Tocancel
t
heGr
obl
erTr
eat
y
RuddConcessi
on—1888
 Bet
weenBr
i
t
i
shandt
heNdebel
e.
 Wr
i
t
t
enTer
ms:
 Al
l
mi
ner
al
sgr
ant
edt
ot
heBr
i
t
i
sh
 Powergi
v
ent
ot
heBr
i
t
i
sht
odowhatt
heydeemednecessar
yt
opr
ot
ectt
hei
r
i
nt
er
est
s
 Lobengul
anott
ogr
antl
andr
i
ght
swi
t
houtBr
i
t
i
shoccur
r
ence
 Ndebel
er
ul
ert
or
ecei
v
e1000r
i
f
l
esand100000r
oundsofammuni
t
i
on
 Agunboatt
opat
r
ol
Zambezi
r
i
v
eror€500
 Hewasal
sot
or
ecei
v
e€100permont
h/hi
ssuccessor
swer
et
or
ecei
v
e€100
permont
h
Page145of145
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 Ver
bal
Ter
ms:
 Notmor
et
han10Br
i
t
i
shment
ocome
 Thef
ewwhi
t
eswoul
dnotmi
neneart
owns
 Nomachi
ner
yandempl
oy
eeswer
et
obr
oughti
nt
ot
hecount
r
ybef
or
e
pay
mentoft
hef
i
r
sti
nst
al
mentoft
her
i
f
l
es
 Not
i
cesi
nSout
hAf
r
i
cannewspaper
st
owar
not
hercount
r
i
est
okeepoutof
Ndebel
ecount
r
y
 Br
i
t
i
shv
i
si
t
or
st
osur
r
enderar
msandobeyNdebel
el
aws
 Todi
gonehol
e/Nott
odi
gneart
owns
 Whi
t
espr
omi
sedt
hatt
heyhadnotcomef
orset
t
l
ement
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dt
heNdebel
ebenef
i
tf
r
om t
het
er
msoft
het
wot
r
eat
i
es? [
8]
[
i
]Benef
i
t
s:
 Lobengul
aandNdebel
enol
ongerbot
her
edbyot
herwhi
t
epeopl
ewho
want
edcont
r
ol
oft
hear
ea
 Tr
eat
ycont
r
ol
l
edt
hei
nf
l
uxofwhi
t
esi
nt
ot
heNdebel
eSt
at
e
 Recei
v
edt
r
eat
mentf
r
om Jameson
 Under
st
oodwhi
t
epeopl
eascr
ookswhocheat
edt
oachi
ev
et
hei
rai
ms
 Est
abl
i
shedf
r
i
endshi
p
 Somemat
er
i
al
gai
ns
 Peacef
orsomet
i
me
 Del
ay
edcol
oni
sat
i
on
[
i
i
]
.
NonBenef
i
t
s:
 Lostcont
r
ol
ofl
andandmi
ner
al
s
 Lossofi
ndependenceandpower
 Ledt
oexecut
i
onofLot
she
 Lobengul
ast
oppedt
r
ust
i
nghi
si
ndunasandmi
ssi
onar
i
es
 Lobengul
anev
err
ecei
v
edt
hegunboat
 Ver
bal
t
er
msnotf
ul
f
i
l
l
ed
 Ndebel
ewer
echeat
edbyconcessi
onseeker
s
Page146of146
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 Br
i
t
i
shdi
dnothonourpar
toft
het
er
ms
 Ter
msl
edt
oconf
l
i
ct
 Lobengul
al
ostcont
r
ol
off
or
ei
gnpol
i
cy
 Ledt
ocol
oni
sat
i
onoft
heNdebel
est
at
e
(
Nov2010)
98.
(
a)
.
St
at
eanysi
xpeopl
ewhoassi
st
edRhodest
ogett
heBr
i
t
i
shSout
hAf
r
i
caRoy
al
Char
t
eri
n1889.
(
6)
 DukeofFi
f
e,
DukeofAber
con
 Lor
dGr
ey
,
Lor
dSal
i
sbur
y
 Bar
onessBur
det
t
eCout
t
s,
Pr
i
nceofWal
es
 QueenVi
ct
or
i
a.
(
b)
.
Descr
i
bet
hePi
oneerCol
umn’
smar
chi
nt
oZi
mbabwei
n1890.(
11)
 Pi
oneerCol
umnsetoutf
r
om Macl
out
si
eRi
v
eri
nBot
swanaon27June,
1890.
 Sel
ousl
edt
hePi
oneer
sandwasassi
st
edbyBar
r
owHeany
.
 Thef
i
r
stst
opwasatShasheRi
v
erwher
et
heybui
l
tFor
tTul
i
 Pi
oneer
sav
oi
dedt
heNdebel
est
at
ef
orf
earofat
t
acks
 Suppl
i
eswer
ecar
r
i
edi
n117wagons
 Scout
spat
r
ol
l
edt
hear
eaahead
 Theyt
r
av
el
l
ed12mi
l
esperdayandbui
l
tal
aageratt
hepl
aceofr
estdur
i
ng
t
heni
ght
 Lobengul
apr
ot
est
edatt
hePi
oneeri
nv
asi
on
 Pi
oneer
sof
t
enmetsmal
l
gr
oupofNdebel
ewar
r
i
or
s
 Cr
ossi
ngofr
i
v
er
s
 Domi
ni
cansi
st
er
sr
anamobi
l
ecl
i
ni
c
 Pennef
at
herwast
hecommander
 1000auxi
l
i
ar
i
esf
r
om Khama
 ByAugust1890t
hePi
oneerCol
umnwasi
nMasv
i
ngowher
et
heybui
l
tFor
t
Vi
ct
or
i
a
 Par
toft
hePi
oneer
sbr
anchedt
oMel
set
t
erwhi
l
et
heot
hercont
i
nued
nor
t
hwar
dsandbui
l
tFor
tChar
t
er
.
Page147of147
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 ReachedFor
tSal
i
sbur
yon12Sept
ember1890wher
et
heyhoi
st
edt
heUni
on
j
ack.
(
c)
.
Di
dt
hePi
oneer
sf
i
ndi
teasyt
or
eacht
hei
rdest
i
nat
i
on?Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.(
8)
Yes,
t
heyf
oundi
teasyt
or
eacht
hei
rdest
i
nat
i
onbecauset
heywer
e:
 LedbyF.
Sel
ouswhoknewt
hear
ea/
count
r
y
 Wel
l
equi
ppedwi
t
hpr
ov
i
si
ons
 Accompani
edbypol
i
ce
 Rel
i
abl
emeansoft
r
anspor
t
 Auxi
l
i
ar
yhel
p
 Nor
esi
st
ancef
r
om Ndebel
eandShona
 Shonawer
edi
suni
t
ed
 Shonaweakenedbyy
ear
sofNdebeel
r
ai
ds
Pr
obl
emsencount
er
ed:
 Longr
out
est
oav
oi
dt
heNdebel
e
 At
t
ackedbydi
seases
 Cr
ossedl
ar
ger
i
v
er
s
 I
nsect
ur
i
t
yf
r
om t
heNdebel
e
 Landcl
ear
i
ng
 Di
dnotset
t
l
eati
nt
endeddest
i
nat
i
ons
[
June2011]
99[
a]I
dent
i
f
y(
i
)t
hr
eei
ndi
v
i
dual
swhower
et
askedt
or
ecr
ui
tandequi
pt
hePi
oneer
Col
umnand(
I
i
)t
hr
eepr
omi
sesmadet
ot
hepi
oneer
s. [
6]
(
i
)
F.
Johnst
on,
Heany
,
Bor
r
ow
(
i
i
)
Cash,
gol
d,
l
and
[
b]Descr
i
bet
hesecur
i
t
yar
r
angement
smadebyt
hePi
oneerCol
umndur
i
ngi
t
s
mov
ementi
nt
oMashonal
andi
n1890.
[
11]
Page148of148
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 Pi
onner
sgi
v
enmi
l
i
t
ar
yt
r
ai
ni
ng
 Eachpi
oneermemberwasar
med
 500pol
i
cemenaccompani
edt
hecol
umn
 Al
otofammuni
t
i
onwaspr
ov
i
ded,
est
abl
i
shedf
or
t
sont
hei
rwaye,
gmax3
 Lef
tpol
i
cement
oguar
df
or
t
s
 Heav
yguns-maxi
ms,
t
wosev
enpounder
s
 I
seofl
aager
swhent
heycampedf
ort
heni
ght
 Keptabi
gl
ampbur
ni
ngwhent
heycampedf
ort
heni
ght
 Mai
nt
ai
nedpat
r
ol
sonhor
seback
 Col
onel
Pennf
at
herwasCommander
 Sout
i
ngpar
t
i
es(
adv
ance)
 Av
oi
dedMat
ebel
el
and
 Accompani
edbyNgwat
oauxi
l
l
ar
i
es
 Useofpeopl
ewhoknewt
het
er
r
ai
nt
oav
oi
dbei
ngl
ost
[
c]
.
Howi
mpor
t
antwast
hepi
oneerCol
umni
nt
hecol
oni
sat
i
onofZi
mbabwe?[
8]
I
mpor
t
anceofpi
oneer
s
 Pi
oneer
si
ncl
udedal
l
t
r
adessuchasf
ar
mer
s,
banker
s
 Wel
l
equi
ppedandsel
f
-suf
f
i
ci
ent
 Pi
oneer
st
r
ai
nedf
orwar
-f
oughti
nt
he189394Angl
oNdebel
eWarand1896
upr
i
si
ngs
 Hadenoughl
abour
er
s,
y
oungandadv
ent
ur
er
speopl
e
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Fav
our
abl
ecl
i
mat
i
ccondi
t
i
ons
 Shonawer
enotuni
t
ed–l
ackedr
esi
st
ance
 Shonar
egar
dedPi
oneer
sast
r
adepar
t
ner
sandpr
ot
ect
edt
hem f
r
om t
he
Ndebel
e
 Shonat
houghtPi
oneer
sst
aywoul
dbeshor
t
l
i
v
ed
 Whi
t
eshadout
si
dehel
p-Ngwat
o,
S.
A
 BSACsuppor
t
,
Rhodeswhof
i
nancedt
hewhol
eoper
at
i
on
Page149of149
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 Queenandf
i
nancer
s,
mi
ssi
onar
i
es,
hunt
er
s,
t
r
ader
s
 Poorweapons/mi
l
i
t
ar
yweakness
[
Nov2011]
100[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xwhi
t
eswhower
ei
nv
ol
v
edi
nsi
gni
ngt
r
eat
i
esandconcessi
ons
i
nZi
mbabwebet
ween1850and1891.
[
6]
 ThomasBai
nes,
Sy
dneyShi
pphar
d,
Pi
etGr
obl
er
 RevChar
l
esHel
m,Rochf
or
tMagui
r
e,
W.Gr
aham
 C.Dr
ey
er
,
F.Thompson,
C.
DRudd,
J.
S.Mof
f
at
 E.Li
pper
t
,
VanWy
k.
C.
Rhodes,
E.
A.Maud,
Paul
Gr
uger
,
JohnSwi
nebour
ne
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hewr
i
t
t
enandVer
bal
t
er
msoft
heRuddConcessi
onof1888.[
11]
Responsessi
mi
l
art
oQuest
i
on84[
b]
.
[
c]
.
Di
dt
heNdebel
eki
ngbenef
i
tf
r
om t
heRuddConcessi
on?
[
8]
Responsessi
mi
l
art
oQuest
i
on84[
c]
.
Resi
st
ancet
ocol
oni
al
i
sat
i
oni
nZi
mbabwe.
[
Nov2003]
101.
[
a]
.
Namesi
xAf
r
i
canl
eader
si
nv
ol
v
edi
nt
heShonaRi
si
ngof1896t
o1897.[
6]
 Nehanda,
Chi
hot
a,
Mangwende,
 Kaguv
i
,
Zv
i
mba,
Chi
namor
a,
Seke
 Mashay
amombe,
Hwat
a,
Chi
weshe,
Ny
amwenda
 Makoni
 Zhanda
 Maponder
a,
Kunzwi
Ny
andor
o
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
her
easonswhyt
heShonawentt
owarwi
t
ht
heBr
i
t
i
shset
t
l
er
si
n1896.
[
11]
 Lossofl
and
 Lossofcat
t
l
e
 I
l
l
t
r
eat
mentofShonawor
ker
s
 Br
ut
al
i
t
yofpol
i
ceman
 For
cedl
abour
Page150of150
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 Pay
mentofhutt
ax
 Nat
ur
al
di
sast
er
sr
i
nder
pest
,
dr
oughtandl
ocust
s
 Aut
hor
i
t
yofAf
r
i
canchi
ef
swasundermi
ned/
l
ossofi
ndependence
 Theset
t
l
er
sdi
dnotal
l
owt
heShonat
ot
r
adewi
t
ht
hePor
t
uguese
 AbuseofShonawomenbywhi
t
emen
 Rol
eofspi
r
i
tmedi
ums
[
c]
.
Expl
ai
nwhyt
heShonawer
edef
eat
edi
nt
hi
swar
.
[
8]
Weaknessesoft
heShona:
 I
nf
er
i
orweaponsoft
heShona,
capt
ur
eofShonal
eader
s
 Shonenotwer
euni
t
ed
 Di
dnothav
easi
ngl
ear
myandl
eadert
ocoor
di
nat
eal
l
t
heshone
Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 Super
i
orweaponsoft
hewhi
t
es
 Whi
t
esusedal
otofbr
ut
al
i
t
yt
hatf
r
i
ght
enedt
heShonae,
gdy
nami
t
e
 Whi
t
esgothel
pf
r
om out
si
dee,
gSAandBr
i
t
ai
n
 Hungerandst
ar
v
at
i
on,
 Ndebel
esur
r
ender
[
Nov2005]
102.
[
a]
.St
at
eanysi
xcausesoft
heNdebel
eupr
i
si
ngof1896[
6]
 Lossofi
ndependence/
I
ndunasl
ostpower
 Lossofl
and[
Gwaai
&Shangani
Reser
v
es]
 LossofCat
t
l
e
 For
cedl
abour
 Har
sh/
oppr
essi
v
eadmi
ni
st
r
at
i
on
 Ndebel
enotdi
sar
med
 Thosewhohadnott
akenpar
tnotdef
eat
ed
 Hat
r
edofShonapol
i
ce
 Abuseofwomen
Page151of151
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 Notal
l
owedt
ochooseanot
herki
ng
 I
nf
l
uenceofSpi
r
i
tmedi
ums[
Mkwat
i
]
 Lossofcul
t
ur
e
 Nat
ur
al
di
sast
er
s[
Dr
ought
,
l
ocust
s,
r
i
nder
pest
]
 Taxat
i
on
 Jamesonr
ai
d
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
heev
ent
soft
heNdebel
eupr
i
si
ng.
[
11]
 Begani
nMar
ch1896
 I
ndunasact
edasl
eader
s
 Massacr
edwhi
t
esi
ni
sol
at
edf
ar
ms,
mi
nesandst
or
es
 Ot
her
sescapedt
ot
owncent
r
eswher
et
heyf
or
medl
aager
s,
e,
g
Bul
away
o,
Gwer
uMber
engwa
 Pat
r
ol
sdi
spat
chedt
oi
sol
at
edar
east
or
escuesur
v
i
v
or
sandbur
ycor
pses
 150ofRhodesi
anhor
seunderCol
onel
Beal
l
ef
tSal
i
sbur
yt
odef
endBul
away
o
 I
nS.
A500Eur
opeanv
ol
unt
eer
sassembl
edatMaf
eki
ngt
omar
cht
oRhodesi
a
 Anot
her600Af
r
i
cant
r
oopsr
ai
sedf
r
om Bechuanal
andandJohannesbur
g
 Br
i
t
i
shgov
er
nmentchoseFr
edr
i
ckCar
r
i
ngt
ont
obecommanderofal
l
mi
l
i
t
ar
y
f
or
ces
 Whi
t
esst
ar
t
edonNdebel
enotj
ustdef
endt
ownswhenCar
r
i
ngt
onar
r
i
v
ed
 Ndebel
ebypr
i
est
sofuml
i
mot
ol
eav
er
out
et
oS.
Aopenasescaper
out
ef
or
whi
t
es
 Maj
orPl
umer
sf
or
cesusedopenr
out
et
obr
i
ngr
ei
nf
or
cement
s
 Ndebel
el
ar
gear
mydef
eat
edatUmgusaRi
v
er
.
 Remai
ni
ngf
or
cesr
et
r
eat
edi
nt
oMat
opohi
l
l
sandst
ar
t
edguer
r
i
l
l
awar
f
ar
e
 Rhodesar
r
angedf
orI
ndabai
nMat
opos
[
c]
.
Di
dt
heMl
i
mocul
tpr
i
est
scont
r
i
but
et
ot
hedef
eatoft
heNdebel
e?Expl
ai
n
y
ouranswer
.[
8]
Posi
t
i
v
ei
nf
l
uence:
[
Mkwat
i
,
Uml
ugul
uet
c]
 I
nf
l
uencedNdebel
et
or
ebel
agai
nstwhi
t
esasauni
t
edf
or
ce
 Gav
easpi
r
i
t
ual
i
nt
er
pr
et
at
i
ont
odi
sast
er
s
Page152of152
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 Boost
edmor
al
eoff
or
cesbyi
nf
l
uenci
ngt
heShonat
oj
oi
nr
i
si
ngs
 Ur
gedNdebel
ef
or
cest
ocont
i
nuewi
t
hguer
r
i
l
l
awar
f
ar
eusi
ngMat
opoHi
l
l
sas
hi
deout
 St
ubbor
nnessofNdebel
eRhodesgr
antconcessi
onst
oNdebel
et
oendwar
Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 Poorst
r
at
egy
/
weapons
 Whi
t
epower
/
di
suni
t
y
Negat
i
v
ei
nf
l
uence:
 Decei
v
edNdebel
et
ol
eav
er
out
et
oS.
Aopen–usedt
obr
i
ngwhi
t
es
r
ei
nf
or
cement
s.Ledt
oMaj
ordef
eatatUmgusaRi
v
er
[
Nov2006]
103.
[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xcausesoft
heAngl
oNdebel
eWar1893t
o1894.
[
6]
 Boundar
ybet
weenMat
abel
el
andandMashonal
andkeptonshi
f
t
i
ng
 Lobengul
awasst
oppedf
r
om r
ai
di
ngt
heShona
 Bel
i
efi
nt
heexi
st
enceofgol
di
nMat
abel
el
and
 Togr
abLobengul
a,
sCat
t
l
eandl
andt
osav
et
heB.
S.
A.
Cof
r
om bankr
upt
cy
 Wart
or
educet
r
anspor
tcost
sandi
mpor
tcost
s[
Rai
l
wayl
i
ne]
 Vi
ct
or
i
ai
nci
dent
[
i
mmedi
at
ecause]
 Fai
l
ur
eofconv
er
t
si
nt
heNdebel
est
at
e
 Capet
oCai
r
odr
eam
 JamesonsawNdebel
easami
l
i
t
ar
yt
hr
eat
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heev
ent
soft
heAngl
oNdebel
eWarof1893t
o1894.[
11]
 Ther
ewer
e18000Ndebel
esol
di
er
sv
er
sus3500[
1100whi
t
esand2000
auxi
l
i
ar
i
esandabout400ShonaandCapeauxi
l
i
ar
i
es]
.
 Company.
t
r
oopsor
gani
zedi
nt
oSal
i
sbur
y
,
Vi
ct
or
i
aandTul
i
col
umns
 Col
umnsmetatI
r
onHi
l
l
Mi
ne
 Lal
apanzi
bat
t
l
e[
Sept
.
1893]
 Shangani
Bat
t
l
e[
1stmaj
orbat
t
l
e]
 Companysuf
f
er
edf
ewcasual
t
i
es
Page153of153
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 ManyAf
r
i
canr
ef
ugeessl
eepi
ngoutoft
hel
aagerki
l
l
ed
 About500Ndebel
eki
l
l
ed
 Bat
t
l
eofBembesi
Ri
v
er31Oct
ober1893
 Ndebel
er
epul
sedwi
t
hl
osses
 Ndebel
er
egi
mentI
ngubo,
I
mbi
zoandNsukami
ni
cl
ashedwi
t
hcompany
sol
di
er
s
 7poundergunscostmanyNdebel
el
i
v
es
 On3Nov
embert
heSout
her
ncol
umnl
aager
edatSi
nguesi
Ri
v
ernear
Empandeni
.Ndebel
eunderGumboat
t
ackedbutr
epul
sedbyheav
ygunf
i
r
e
 Khama’
smenr
et
ur
nedt
oBot
swanaduet
oout
br
eakofsmal
l
pox
 Lobengul
abur
ntdowncapi
t
al
ci
t
yandf
l
ednor
t
hwar
ds.
 2ndShangani
Bat
t
l
e
 Wi
l
son’
spat
r
ol
 2bagsofhi
ddenbynear
byt
r
oops
 Wi
l
son’
st
r
oopswer
eal
l
ki
l
l
ed
 Lobengul
adi
edonescapet
ot
henor
t
h
 Companyf
or
cest
ookov
erbur
ni
ngci
t
yandr
ai
sedUni
onJack
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dt
hel
ossoft
heMbembesi
Ri
v
erBat
t
l
econt
r
i
but
et
ot
hedef
eatoft
he
Ndebel
e?
[
8]
Mbembesi
bat
t
l
e’
scont
r
i
but
i
ont
ot
hedef
eatoft
heNdebel
e:
 Shangani
Bat
t
l
ewast
hef
i
r
stmaj
orbat
t
l
ewher
e500Ndebel
ewer
eki
l
l
ed
Asecondmaj
orbat
t
l
ewasf
oughtatMbembesi
wi
t
hsi
mi
l
arr
esul
t
s
 ManyNdebel
enowt
ookt
hei
rownl
i
v
est
hanr
et
ur
ndef
eat
ed
 Newsofdi
sast
ercausedconst
er
nat
i
oni
nBul
away
o
 I
mpi
sentt
oguar
dr
out
ef
r
om Bechuanal
andwaswi
t
hdr
awnandt
heKi
ng’
s
capi
t
al
setonf
i
r
e
Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 Useoft
r
adi
t
i
onal
weapons
 Useofpoormi
l
i
t
ar
yst
r
at
egi
es
 Useofgunsbyt
hewhi
t
es
Page154of154
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 Ther
ewasdi
suni
t
yamongt
heNdebel
ee,
gNy
eny
ezi
gui
dedt
hecol
umn
 Suppor
tf
r
om i
mper
i
al
gov
er
nment
 Super
i
orwarst
r
at
egi
esofwhi
t
es
[
Nov2007]
104[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xAf
r
i
canspi
r
i
tmedi
umswhot
ookpar
ti
nt
heFi
r
stChi
mur
enga
189697[
6]
 Nehanda/
Chagwe,
Kaguv
i
/
Gumbor
eshumba,
Mukwat
i
,
Uml
ugul
u,
 Si
gi
ny
amat
she,
Mponga,
Mpot
shwane,
 Bonda,
Tenger
a,
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hepar
tpl
ay
edbyspi
r
i
tmedi
umsi
nt
heShonaupr
i
si
ng189697[
11]
 Nehandai
nf
l
uencedt
heShonai
nMazoeChi
weshear
eat
or
i
se
 Ri
si
ngspr
eadt
oCent
r
al
andWest
er
nMashonal
and
 I
nst
r
uct
edt
heki
l
l
i
ngofDi
st
r
i
ctAdmi
ni
st
r
at
orPol
l
ar
d
 Medi
umskeptt
heShonaf
i
ght
i
ng
 Shoneconsul
t
edspi
r
i
tmedi
umsbef
or
egoi
ngt
obat
t
l
e
 Kaguv
i
andMkwat
i
coor
di
nat
edmov
ement
sofmessenger
se,
g
Bonda,
Tshi
v
aandZhanda
 Spi
r
i
tmedi
umsi
nf
l
uencedShonachi
ef
se,
gHwat
a,
Ny
amwenda,
Makoni
,
Ny
achur
uandChi
weshet
oj
oi
nt
her
i
si
ngs
 Kaguv
i
l
edchi
mur
engai
nMashay
amombei
nJune1896
 Coor
di
nat
edt
her
i
si
ngs
 I
nt
er
pr
et
at
i
onoft
henat
ur
al
di
sast
er
swasdonebyspi
r
i
tmedi
ums
 Gav
econf
i
dencet
hr
oughwarmedi
ci
ne
 I
nst
i
l
l
eddi
sci
pl
i
nei
nt
hef
i
ght
i
ngt
hr
oughi
nst
r
uct
i
on/
pr
opaganda
[
c]
.
Wast
heext
ensi
onoft
her
i
si
ngt
o1897ar
esul
toft
heef
f
ect
i
v
enessofShona
t
act
i
cs?Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
8]
Ef
f
ect
i
v
eness
 Shoneusedguer
r
i
l
l
awar
f
ar
e
 Foughti
nsmal
l
gr
oups,
i
twasaser
i
esof“
Zv
i
mur
enga”anddi
f
f
i
cul
tt
odef
eat
acr
osst
hecount
r
y
,
coor
di
nat
edbyspi
r
i
tmedi
ums
Page155of155
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 Shonamobi
l
i
zedf
ast
ert
hant
hewhi
t
es,
hadgunsobt
ai
nedf
r
om t
he
Por
t
uguese
 I
nf
l
uenceofMkwat
i
 Fami
l
i
arwi
t
ht
er
r
ai
n
 Theyusednoct
ur
nal
at
t
acks
 Fi
ght
er
sdi
sgui
sedasor
di
nar
yhunt
er
s
 Usedsur
pr
i
seat
t
acks,
warnotl
i
mi
t
edt
opr
of
essi
onal
sol
di
er
s
 Shonast
or
edgr
ai
naspar
tofpr
epar
at
i
on
Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 Whi
t
esunder
est
i
mat
edt
heShona
 I
ni
t
i
al
l
yhadf
ewert
r
oops
 Wer
eeasi
l
ymi
sl
edbyspi
r
i
tmedi
ums
 BSAChadf
i
nanci
al
pr
obl
ems
 Whi
t
eswer
enotpr
epar
ed
 Thewhi
t
esasenemywer
eeasi
l
yi
ndent
i
f
i
edbyski
ncol
our
 Whi
t
eswer
eunf
ami
l
i
art
ot
het
er
r
ai
n
 Whi
t
eswer
eov
er
st
r
et
chedi
nt
er
msofr
esour
cesbywari
nMat
abel
el
and
[
Nov2009]
105[
a]St
at
eanysi
xcausesoft
heShonaUpr
i
si
ngof1896.
 Lossofl
and
 Lossofcat
t
l
e
 I
l
l
t
r
eat
mentofShonawor
ker
s
 Br
ut
al
i
t
yofpol
i
cemen
 For
cedl
abour
 Pay
mentofhutt
ax
 Nat
ur
al
di
sast
er
s[
r
i
nder
pest
,
dr
ought
,
l
ocusti
nv
asi
on]
 Lossofi
ndependence
 AbuseofShonawomen
 EndofShonaPor
t
ugueset
r
adel
i
nks
Page156of156
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 Fearoft
heNdebel
epuni
shmenti
ft
heydi
dnotr
i
seagai
nstt
hewhi
t
es
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
heev
ent
soft
heShonaUpr
i
si
ng. [
11]
 Warst
at
edi
nJune1896wi
t
hki
l
l
i
ngofwhi
t
esi
nMashay
amombear
ea
 ByendofJuneov
er100whi
t
eshadbeenki
l
l
ed
 Thewhi
t
est
akenbysur
pr
i
se.Respondedbyset
t
i
ngupl
aager
si
nbi
gand
cent
r
esaspr
ot
ect
i
on
 TheShonaf
i
ght
er
sbl
ockedr
oadsusi
ngt
r
ees
 Usedguer
r
i
l
l
awar
f
ar
et
act
i
cs
 TheShonachi
ef
sf
oughtt
hewhi
t
esassepar
at
eent
i
t
i
es;
somedi
dnotj
oi
nt
he
war
;
whi
l
eot
her
sf
oughtont
hesi
deoft
hewhi
t
es
 TheShonahi
di
nCav
es
 Spr
eadofchi
mur
engat
oot
herar
east
hr
oughspi
r
i
tmedi
umsandf
i
r
esi
gnal
s
 Thewhi
t
esuseddy
nami
t
e
 NehandaandKaguv
i
wer
ei
mpor
t
antspi
r
i
tmedi
umswhoencour
agedt
he
shonet
of
i
ghtespeci
al
l
yi
nt
heMazoear
ea
 Theset
t
l
er
swer
eassi
st
edbyr
ei
nf
or
cement
ssentf
r
om Sout
hAf
r
i
ca
 Warbet
weenMakoni
andt
heBSACf
or
ces–Gwi
ndi
gwi
andwasdef
eat
ed
 Def
eat
edShonal
eader
swer
eexecut
ede,
gMakoni
 Capt
ur
eandsubsequentexecut
i
onofNehandaandKaguv
i
br
oughtt
hewart
o
anend
 Maponder
acont
i
nuedt
o1903
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dl
ackofuni
t
ycont
r
i
but
est
ot
hee\
def
eatoft
heShona?[
8]
LackofUni
t
y
:
 Nocoor
di
nat
i
onamongt
heShonachi
ef
s
 Somechi
ef
swer
eneut
r
al
e,
gMut
asa
 Somechi
ef
sassi
st
edt
hewhi
t
es.
 Nocommonmi
l
i
t
ar
yst
r
at
egyorcommand
Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 I
nf
er
i
orweaponsoft
heShona
 Super
i
orweaponsoft
hewhi
t
es
Page157of157
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 Whi
t
ewer
ebet
t
eror
gani
sed
 Whi
t
eshadf
astt
r
anspor
t
 Whi
t
eset
t
l
er
sr
ecei
v
edassi
st
ancef
r
om out
si
de
 Sur
r
enderoft
heNdebel
e
[
June2011]
106[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xeconomi
ccausesoft
heAngl
o-Ndebel
ewarof189394[
6]
 Needt
oest
abl
i
shr
ai
l
l
i
nkf
r
om Maf
i
kengt
oSal
i
sbur
y
 Fal
l
i
nv
al
ueofBSACshar
es
 Bel
i
efi
nt
heexi
st
enceoft
heSecondr
andi
nMat
abel
el
and
 BSACenv
i
edNdebel
el
and
 Cov
et
edNdebel
ecat
t
l
e
 Fai
l
ur
ebyShonachi
ef
st
opayt
r
i
but
et
oLobengul
a
 BSACf
or
badeNdebel
er
ai
dsi
nMashonal
and
 BSACwant
edcheapl
abour
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
her
esul
t
soft
heAngl
o-Ndebel
eWar
.
[
11]
 Ndebel
esur
r
ender
ed,
agr
eedt
opeacenegot
i
at
i
ons
 Mat
abel
el
andt
obeadmi
ni
st
er
edbyJameson
 Landcommi
ssi
onsetupt
odi
v
i
del
andbet
weent
heBSACandt
heNdebel
e
 Ledt
oanot
herwar(
1896)
,
Taxat
i
on2ore,
gs
 Di
sbandi
ngofager
egi
ment
s
 Lossofl
i
v
es,
f
er
t
i
l
el
andst
akenbyt
hewhi
t
esandt
wor
eser
v
es,
Gwaai
and
Shangani
cr
eat
edf
ort
heNdebel
e
 Ov
er200000Ndebel
ecat
l
esei
zed,
Ndebel
ement
opr
ov
i
del
abouri
nwhi
t
e
f
ar
msandmi
nes,
i
nt
r
oduct
i
onoff
or
cedl
abour
 Whi
t
eset
t
l
ermi
l
i
t
ar
yr
ewar
dedwi
t
hLobengul
a’
scat
l
eandl
and
 1895,
Mat
abel
el
andpl
acedunderBr
i
t
i
shr
ul
e
 Mat
abel
el
andandMashonal
andwer
enamedRhodesi
a
 Ndebel
enotal
l
owedt
ochooseanot
herki
ng
 Deat
hofLobengul
a
Page158of158
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[
c]
.
Whywer
et
heNdebel
edef
eat
edi
nt
hi
swar
?
[
8]
Ndebel
eweaknesses
 I
nf
er
i
orweapons,
di
suni
t
yamongNdebel
echi
ef
s
 MostNdebel
eamabut
hower
er
ai
di
ngacr
osst
heZambezi
 Ndebel
echar
geddi
r
ect
l
yt
owar
dsgunsl
eadi
ngt
omanydeat
hs
 Poorcommuni
cat
i
onnet
wor
k
 Lobengul
a’
sf
l
i
ghtandhi
ssubsequentdeat
h
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 Di
suni
t
yamongstAf
r
i
cansoci
et
i
es
 Whi
t
eshadsuper
i
orweapons
 Whi
t
eshadbet
t
erf
i
ght
i
ngmet
hods,
hadext
er
nal
suppor
tf
r
om Sout
hAf
r
i
ca
andNgwat
o
 Bet
t
ermeansofcommuni
cat
i
on,
cont
i
noussuppl
yofr
esour
ces
 Mobi
l
i
t
yoft
hewhi
t
es
[
Nov2011]
107[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xmi
l
i
t
ar
yl
eader
soft
heBr
i
t
i
shSout
hAf
r
i
caCompany(
B.
S.
A.
C)
f
or
cesdur
i
ngt
heAngl
oNdebel
eWarof18931894.
[
6]
 Maj
orFor
bes,
Ca[
t
ai
nLendy
,
LtCol
onel
Gool
d-Adams
 Capt
ai
nBor
r
ow,
Capt
ai
nRaaf
,
Maj
orHeany
,
Al
l
anWi
l
son
[
b]
.
Gi
v
eanaccountoft
hepur
sui
tofLobengul
abyt
heB.
S.
A.
C.f
or
cesaf
t
ert
he
f
al
l
ofBul
away
o.
[
11]
 3Nov1893Bul
away
of
el
l
t
ocompanyf
or
cesandKi
ngLobengul
af
l
ed
Nor
t
hwar
ds
 Jamesonassi
gnedMaj
orFor
besandCapt
ai
nRaaft
opur
seandcapt
ur
eKi
ng
Lobengual
a
 For
besandhi
sf
or
cesr
eachedLobengul
a’
sdShangani
campon3December
 Theyf
oundsi
gnst
hatLobengul
ahadhur
r
i
dl
yabandonedhi
sShangani
camp
andt
heyhadj
ustf
ai
l
edt
ocat
chupwi
t
hhi
m.
 Onr
eal
i
si
ngt
hatt
heset
t
l
er
scoul
dj
ustcat
chupwi
t
hhi
m,
Lobengul
asentt
wo
ofhi
si
ndunast
ohi
epur
suer
swi
t
hapeacemessageandabagofgol
d
Page159of159
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 Lobengul
a’
ssur
r
endermessageandt
hegol
ddi
dnotr
eachFor
besandt
he
l
at
t
ercont
i
nuedsear
chi
ngf
orLobengul
a’
spar
t
y
.
 For
besandhi
sf
or
cescampedatShangani
 For
besassi
gnedWi
l
sonandhi
st
eam 1821ment
of
i
ndLobengul
a’
s
di
r
ect
i
on
 Wi
l
son’
sf
or
cescaughtupwi
t
hLobengul
a’
sf
l
eei
ngpar
t
yont
hewest
er
nsi
de
oft
her
i
v
er
 Wi
l
sonr
equest
edr
ei
nf
or
cement
sbutFor
besdi
dnotcompl
y
 I
nst
ead,
hedi
spat
chedcapt
ai
nH.
J.
Bor
r
owwi
t
h20menwi
t
houti
nst
r
uct
i
ng
t
hem whet
hert
heywer
easuppor
tuni
toranot
herat
t
acki
ngf
or
ce
 Bor
r
ow’
sf
or
cesj
oi
nedWi
l
son’
sgr
oupon4December
 Toget
her
,
Wi
l
son’
sgr
oupandt
hatofBor
r
owat
t
ackedLobengul
a’
sgr
oup
 Lobengul
a’
sgr
oupdef
endedi
t
sel
fwel
l
andt
heydef
eat
edt
hecombi
ned
f
or
cesofBor
r
owandWi
l
son
 Bor
r
owandWi
l
sonandamaj
or
i
t
yoft
hei
rmenwer
eki
l
l
edexcept3scout
s
whoescaped
 For
bes’
gr
oupcoul
dnotassi
stt
hem becauset
heShangani
r
i
v
erwasf
l
ooded
 On5December
,
For
besandt
her
estoft
heexpedi
t
i
onr
et
r
eat
ed
 Theygav
eup,
nev
ercapt
ur
edLobengul
a.
[
c]
.
Di
dt
hi
spur
sui
tbenef
i
tt
heB.
S.
A.
C? Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
8]
.
Benef
i
t
st
ot
heB.
S.
A.
C.
 ALLANWi
l
sonwasr
egar
dedasaher
o.
 Compl
t
edconquestandoccupat
i
onofZi
mbabwe.
 Gai
nedcompl
et
econt
r
ol
ofMat
abel
el
and
 Gai
nedLobengul
a’
scat
t
l
e
 Uni
t
edset
t
l
er
st
hanev
erbef
or
e
 Gai
nedmi
ner
al
weal
t
h
 Gai
nedl
and,
gai
nedl
abour
 Ledt
oLobengul
a’
sdeat
h,
const
r
uct
i
onoft
her
ai
l
wayl
i
net
hr
ough
Page160of160
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Mat
abel
el
andbecamepossi
bl
e
 WeakenedNdr
bel
er
esi
st
ance
Di
sadv
ant
agest
ot
heB.
S.
A.
C
 Expedi
t
i
onwascost
l
y
 BB.
S.
A.
Cl
ostmen.
 Companyf
ai
l
edt
odi
smant
l
eal
l
Ndebel
er
egi
ment
s
 Thebagofgol
dnev
err
eachedt
hem
 Companyhor
sesandcat
t
l
ewer
eki
l
l
ed
 Companyl
ostammuni
t
i
on
 Set
t
l
er
sf
ai
l
edt
ocapt
ur
eLobengul
a
 TheCompanyf
acedcr
i
t
i
ci
sm f
r
om Br
i
t
ai
n
POST1897TO1950SZI
MBABWE
[
Nov2003]
108[
a]
.
St
at
esi
xl
awspassedbyt
hecol
oni
al
gov
er
nmenti
nRhodesi
at
ocont
r
ol
Af
r
i
caneconomi
cact
i
v
i
t
i
esbef
or
e1950.
[
6]
 Mat
abel
el
andor
deri
ncounci
l
1894
 Or
deri
ncounci
l
1898
 TheI
ndust
r
i
al
Conci
l
i
at
i
onAct
1934
 LandAppor
t
i
onmentAct
1930
 Nat
i
v
eRegi
st
r
at
i
onAct
1936
 TheNat
i
v
ePassesAct
1937
 Mai
zeCont
r
ol
Act
1931
 Cat
t
l
eLev
yAct
1934
 LandCommi
ssi
onAct
[
b]
.
Whatf
or
msofact
i
onwer
et
akenbyt
akenbywor
ker
si
nRhodesi
at
opr
ot
est
agai
nstexpl
oi
t
at
i
onbef
or
e1950
[
11]
 Wor
ker
sdel
i
ber
at
el
ybr
okemachi
nes
 Absent
eei
sm
Page161of161
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 Deser
t
i
on
 Wor
ker
scausedacci
dent
sf
orwhi
t
es
 St
r
i
kese,
gShamv
aMi
nest
r
i
kes
 Ref
usedt
owor
k
 Ref
usedt
ocar
r
ypasses
 For
gedpasses
 For
mat
i
onofpr
ot
estmov
ement
s
 For
mat
i
onoft
r
adeuni
onmov
ement
s
 Ref
usedt
opayt
ax
 For
mat
i
onofAf
r
i
cani
ndependentchur
ches
 For
mat
i
onofbur
i
al
soci
et
i
es
 Hel
dammoni
t
esneededbywhi
t
es
 Sabot
agesetcr
opsonf
i
r
e,
r
ef
usedor
der
sf
r
om whi
t
es,
f
akedi
l
l
ness
[
c]
.
Howsuccessf
ul
wer
et
hewor
ker
si
nf
i
ght
i
ngexpl
oi
t
at
i
oni
nt
hi
sper
i
od?[
8]
[
i
]
.
Successf
ul
 Shor
t
ageofl
abouri
nmi
nesandf
ar
ms
 I
mpr
ov
ementofsomewor
ki
ngcondi
t
i
ons
 Bur
i
al
soci
et
i
esandAf
r
i
cani
ndependentchur
cheshel
pedt
ouni
t
eAf
r
i
cans
 Pr
ot
estmov
ement
shi
ghl
i
ght
edpr
obl
em ofwor
ker
s
[
i
i
]
.
Notsuccessf
ul
 Poorwor
ki
ngcondi
t
i
onscont
i
nued
 Notal
l
owedt
ov
ot
e
 Accommodat
i
oncont
i
nuedt
obeapr
obl
em
 Whi
t
escont
i
nuedt
odemandpassesf
r
om wor
ker
s.
[
June2004]
109[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xmi
ner
al
sexpl
oi
t
edbyt
heset
t
l
er
si
nRhodesi
a(
Zi
mbabwe)
bet
ween1923and1969.
[
6]
 Gol
d;
Copper
;Coal
;I
r
on
 Lead;
Zi
nc;
Asbest
os;
Ti
n;
Chr
ome.
Page162of162
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[
B]
.
Out
l
i
net
heef
f
ect
sofmi
ni
ngact
i
v
i
t
i
esi
nt
hecount
r
yatt
hatt
i
me.
 Dev
el
opment
soft
ownsatmi
ni
ngcent
r
essuchasKadoma(
gol
d)
,
Hwange,
Zv
i
shav
ane,
Shur
ugwi
,
Bi
ndur
a,
Mv
ur
a
 Dev
el
opmentofi
nf
r
ast
r
uct
ur
er
oads/
r
ai
l
way
sl
eadi
ngt
omi
ni
ngcent
r
es
 Dev
el
opmentofsecondar
yi
ndust
r
i
es–suchaspr
ocessi
ngandf
ood
i
ndust
r
i
es
 Ther
ewasi
nf
l
owofcapi
t
al
f
r
om abr
oad–e,
gRi
oTi
nt
o,
Angl
o-Amer
i
can
Compani
es.
 Dev
el
opmentofsl
ums/
compoundsatmi
ni
ngcent
r
es/
wor
ker
sl
i
v
i
ngi
n
cr
owdedunheal
t
hycondi
t
i
ons
 SomeAf
r
i
canscamet
ol
i
v
eper
manent
l
yatt
hecompounds
 Thi
sal
sosawt
hedev
el
opmentoft
hemi
gr
antl
aboursy
st
em
 Ext
r
al
abouri
mpor
t
edf
r
om Mal
awi
,
Zambi
a
 Al
somostmi
ner
al
swer
eexpor
t
edmost
l
yt
oBr
i
t
ai
n-sour
ceofr
ev
enue
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dmi
ni
ngact
i
v
i
t
i
esbenef
i
tAf
r
i
cansatt
hatt
i
me?Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.
[
8]
[
i
]
.
Benef
i
t
s:
Af
r
i
canwor
ker
swer
eempl
oy
edatt
hemi
ni
ngcent
r
esobt
ai
ned:
 Gotmoneyf
orpay
mentoft
axes
 Gotmoneyt
opur
chasegoodsofEur
opeanor
i
gi
nsuchascl
ot
hes,
bl
anket
s
andguns
 I
nv
est
menti
ndi
r
ect
l
yi
mpr
ov
edgener
al
l
i
v
i
ngcondi
t
i
onsi
nt
hecount
r
y
 Someheal
t
handeducat
i
onal
f
aci
l
i
t
i
eswer
ebui
l
tl
at
er
[
i
i
]
.
Af
r
i
canwor
ker
sal
sosuf
f
er
eddi
scr
i
mi
nat
i
on:
 Howev
er
,
Af
r
i
canswer
el
ar
gel
yexpl
oi
t
ed.
 Theywer
epai
dl
owwages,
andhencei
ncr
owdedcompoundswer
et
akenas
cheapl
abour
unski
l
l
ed.
 Af
r
i
canswer
esubj
ect
edt
of
or
cedl
abourasl
abourwasscar
ce
 Af
r
i
canswer
et
axedt
of
or
cet
hem t
ot
akeupempl
oy
mentatmi
ni
ngcent
r
es
 Ther
ewer
enor
ecr
eat
i
onal
f
aci
l
i
t
i
esf
orAf
r
i
cansexceptbeerhal
l
s.
[
Nov
2004]
110[
a]
.
Nameanyt
hr
eemi
ner
al
smi
nedandanyt
hr
eecr
opsgr
owni
ncol
oni
al
Page163of163
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Zi
mbabwebef
or
e1923.
[
6]
 Gol
d;
I
r
on;
Copper
;
Lead;
Coal
;
Zi
nc;
Chr
ome;
Asbest
os
 Mai
ze;
Rapoko;
Tobacco;
Sor
ghum;
Mi
l
l
et
;
Cot
t
on;
Gr
oundnut
s;
Roundnut
s;
Cowpeas;
Gour
ds;
Pumpki
ns
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hemeasur
est
akenbyt
heBr
i
t
i
shSout
hAf
r
i
caCompany(
BSAC)t
o
depr
i
v
eAf
r
i
cansoft
hei
rl
andi
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabwebef
or
e1923.
[
11]
.
 Landgi
v
ent
oPi
oneer
sonar
r
i
v
al
i
n1890,
v
ol
unt
eer
sof1893war
 Cr
eat
i
onofr
eser
v
es,
l
andbank,
l
oansf
orwhi
t
es.
 TheBSACt
ookl
andwhi
chi
tl
at
ersol
dt
oset
t
l
er
s
 For
cedl
abour
,
t
ax
at
i
on
 Absent
eel
andl
or
ds,
or
deri
ncounci
l
-1898
[
c]
.
Howef
f
ect
i
v
ewer
et
hemeasur
esi
ndepr
i
v
i
ngAf
r
i
cansoft
hei
rl
andby1923?[
8]
[
i
]
.
Ef
f
ect
i
v
eness:
 Af
r
i
cansf
or
cedt
ol
i
v
ei
nr
eser
v
es
 Af
r
i
cansbecamesquat
t
er
sorbecamewor
ker
sonf
ar
msormi
nes
 Managedt
or
educecompet
i
t
i
onbet
weent
hewhi
t
eandbl
ackf
ar
mer
si
n
f
ar
mi
ng
[
i
]
.
Notef
f
ect
i
v
e:
 SomeAf
r
i
cansr
esi
st
edev
i
ct
i
on
 SomeAf
r
i
cansabl
et
opur
chase
 Af
r
i
canscont
i
nuedt
ogr
owcr
opswhi
cht
heysol
dt
oset
t
l
er
s
 Set
t
l
er
satf
i
r
stnotr
eal
l
yi
nt
er
est
edi
nagr
i
cul
t
ur
e.
]Nov2004]
111[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xf
or
msofi
l
l
t
r
eat
mentofAf
r
i
canmi
newor
ker
sbyset
t
l
er
si
n
col
oni
al
Zi
mbabwebet
ween1894and1932?
[
11]
 Pai
dv
er
yl
owwages
 For
cedt
ol
i
v
el
i
kepr
i
soner
si
ndi
r
t
y
,
ov
er
cr
owdedandbadl
ybui
l
t
accommodat
i
onwi
t
houtl
i
ght
s
 Suf
f
er
edf
r
om mal
nut
r
i
t
i
onast
heywer
ef
edwi
t
hbadandr
ot
t
enf
ood
 Nosy
st
em ofmedi
cal
t
r
eat
mentf
ormi
newor
ker
s
Page164of164
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 For
cedt
owor
kundert
hecont
r
ol
ofpol
i
ce/
chi
bar
o
 Manywer
eki
l
l
edori
nj
ur
edbecauset
heyhadnopr
ot
ect
i
v
ecl
ot
hi
ng
 Nocompensat
i
onf
ori
nj
ur
i
es
 Cheat
edort
r
i
ckedsot
hatt
heywoul
dnotr
ecei
v
et
hei
rsal
ar
i
es
 Somet
i
mest
heybeat
enbysuper
v
i
sor
s
 Nopensi
onschemes/
t
er
mi
nal
benef
i
t
s
 Nouni
ons-out
l
awi
ngofst
r
i
kes
[
b]
.
Whatmet
hodswer
eusedbyt
heAf
r
i
canmi
newor
ker
st
or
esi
stexpl
oi
t
at
i
on
byEur
opeanset
t
l
er
sbet
ween1894and1932.
 Fl
edf
r
om wor
kpl
aces
 Cheat
edonpasses–wr
ot
eonsomeoft
hepassesev
ent
hought
heydi
dnot
wor
k
 Manypeopl
esol
dt
hei
rcat
t
l
eandgr
ai
ni
nor
dert
or
ai
set
het
axesr
equi
r
ed
 Somel
ef
tt
hei
rhomest
or
esi
stdi
r
ectf
or
cedl
abour–e,
gsomef
l
edt
o
Mozambi
que
 Agent
ssentt
ol
ookf
orl
abourwer
esomet
i
meski
l
l
ed
 Bur
ntpasses
 Machi
nebr
eaki
ng–sabot
agi
ng
 Acci
dent
al
l
yi
nj
ur
edt
hei
rbosses
 Fl
edt
owor
ki
nSout
hAf
r
i
cami
nes
 St
r
i
kesanddemonst
r
at
i
ons
 Ref
usal
t
opayt
axes
 Absent
eei
sm/
gosl
ow
[
c]
.
Whydi
dt
heAf
r
i
canmi
newor
ker
sf
ai
l
t
oachi
ev
et
hei
robj
ect
i
v
esi
nt
hi
sper
i
od?[
8]
[
i
]
.
f
ai
l
ur
et
oachi
ev
eobj
ect
i
v
es:
 Mi
newor
ker
snotuni
t
ed
 Mi
newor
ker
swer
enoteducat
ed/
f
ear
edwhi
t
es
 For
cedt
opaymanyt
axeswhi
chf
or
cedt
hem t
owor
k
 Af
r
i
canshadl
ostcat
t
l
eandl
andhencehadnomeansofsur
v
i
v
al
Page165of165
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[
i
i
]
.
Theset
t
l
ergov
er
nmental
soassi
st
edt
hemi
neempl
oy
er
s
 Mi
neowner
shadt
hesuppor
tofpol
i
ce
 Useofpassesf
or
cedbl
ackmi
newor
ker
st
owor
k
 Useofpassesbyset
t
l
erpol
i
ce
112[
a]
.
Li
stsi
xr
esul
t
soft
heNdebel
e/
ShonaRi
si
ngsof1896t
o1897i
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabwe[
6]
 Companyi
nt
r
oducedf
or
mal
gov
er
nment
 Ndebel
e/
Shonadef
eat
ed
 Mat
abel
el
andandMashonal
anduni
t
edi
nt
oonear
eacal
l
edSout
her
n
Rhodesi
a
 Af
r
i
cansst
r
i
ppedofal
l
power
 Af
r
i
cansl
ostconf
i
denceandbegant
oacceptmor
ewest
er
ncul
t
ur
e
 Sout
her
nRhodesi
abecameaBr
i
t
i
shcol
ony
 MostAf
r
i
canl
eader
soft
her
i
si
ngwer
ehunt
eddownandei
t
herki
l
l
edor
i
mpr
i
soned
 Thespi
r
i
toff
ut
ur
eAf
r
i
canr
esi
st
ancewasal
sosowed
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hepol
i
t
i
cal
andeconomi
cdev
el
opment
si
nZi
mbabweundercompany
r
ul
ebet
ween1898and1923.
 1898Or
der
sI
nCounci
l
gav
enewconst
i
t
ut
i
ont
ot
hecount
r
y
 Est
abl
i
shedanExecut
i
v
eCounci
l
,
al
egi
sl
at
i
v
ecounci
l
,
anAdmi
ni
st
r
at
oranda
Br
i
t
i
shr
esi
dent
 Col
oni
al
r
ul
er
sexpandedcont
r
ol
ov
ert
hewhol
ecount
r
ye,
gPol
i
ceandNat
i
v
e
Commi
ssi
oner
s
 Landdi
v
i
si
ont
hr
ought
hesy
st
em ofr
eser
v
esf
ort
hewhi
t
es
 1900set
t
l
er
sgi
v
enmor
esayi
nt
hegov
er
nment
 1910mor
eel
ect
edmember
swer
eaddedt
oLegi
sl
at
i
v
eCounci
l
 Sy
st
em off
r
anchi
set
hr
oughqual
i
f
i
cat
i
onwasi
nt
r
oducedi
,
e1898v
ot
egi
v
en
t
omal
esov
er21ear
ni
ng50poundsorwi
t
hpr
oper
t
yof75pounds;
1912
sal
ar
ywas100poundsandpr
oper
t
yof150pounds;
1919whi
t
ewomengot
t
hev
ot
e
 1914B.
S.
ACompanyr
ul
ewasext
endedbutset
t
l
erbegant
ocal
l
f
ori
t
send
 1917set
t
l
er
sf
or
medt
heResponsi
bl
eGov
er
nmentAssoci
at
i
ont
ocal
l
f
or
Page166of166
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r
esponsi
bl
eGov
er
nment
 1923Br
i
t
ai
ngr
ant
edt
hecount
r
yResponsi
bl
eGov
er
nment
 Mostl
andwasbr
oughtunderEur
opeancont
r
ol
andl
ar
gescal
ef
ar
mi
ng
st
ar
t
ed
 Mi
ni
ngwasi
nt
r
oducedGol
d,
coal
,
chr
ome,
asbest
os
 Ledt
odev
el
opmentofar
oadandr
ai
l
waynet
wor
k
 I
nagr
i
cul
t
ur
emai
ncr
opswer
emai
zeandt
obacco.Cat
t
l
eal
sopl
ay
edapar
t
.
Mai
zeandt
obaccoexpor
t
edt
oSout
hAf
r
i
ca.
 Landdi
st
r
i
but
edt
ot
heset
t
l
er
swhi
l
eAf
r
i
canswer
edepr
i
v
ede,
gbyt
heOr
der
s
I
nCounci
l
of1920.
[
c]
.
Di
dt
heAf
r
i
cansbenef
i
tf
r
om t
hesedev
el
opment
sdur
i
ngt
hi
sper
i
od?Expl
ai
ny
our
answer
.
[
8]
 Af
r
i
cansl
ostt
hei
rcount
r
yandpol
i
t
i
cal
powert
ot
hewhi
t
est
heyl
ostt
hei
r
weal
t
hwhencat
t
l
ewer
et
aken
 Theywer
enoti
ncl
udedi
nt
hef
r
anchi
se
 Theybecameeconomi
cal
l
ydependentont
hewhi
t
esmai
nl
yasal
abourf
or
ce
 Theywer
ei
l
l
t
r
eat
edatwor
kandunder
pai
d;
wor
kedi
nhar
shcondi
t
i
onsi
n
mi
nesanddur
i
ngt
heconst
r
uct
i
onofr
ai
l
wayl
i
nes
 Theywer
ei
nt
r
oducedt
ot
hecasheconomy
,
butwi
t
hl
i
t
t
l
emoneyont
hem
 Theywer
et
aughtnewmet
hodsoff
ar
mi
ngandi
nt
r
oducedt
onewcr
ops
 Thei
rmodeoft
r
anspor
twasi
mpr
ov
edt
hought
heyst
ay
edf
arf
r
om t
hemai
n
r
oads/
r
out
es.
[
Speci
men]
113[
a]
.Li
stanysi
xgr
i
ev
ancesoft
heAf
r
i
canwor
ker
si
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabwebet
ween
1931and1953.
[
6]
 For
cedl
abour
 Longwor
ki
nghour
s
 Lowwages
 Pooraccommodat
i
on
 I
l
l
t
r
eat
mentatwor
k
 Lackofj
obsecur
i
t
y
Page167of167
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 Raci
al
di
scr
i
mi
nat
i
onatj
obs
[
b]
.
Whatst
epswer
et
akenbyt
heset
t
l
er
sandt
hei
rgov
er
nment
st
oexpl
oi
tAf
r
i
can
l
abouri
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabwebet
ween1931and1953?
 1931l
andappor
t
i
onmentactf
or
cedAf
r
i
canst
ol
eav
et
hei
rl
andanddr
ov
e
t
hem i
nt
owhi
t
econt
r
ol
l
edar
east
ol
ookf
orj
obs
 Foundj
obsi
nmi
nes,
f
ar
msandf
act
or
i
es
 1934I
ndust
r
i
al
Conci
l
i
at
i
onAct
,
r
eser
v
edhi
ghpay
i
ngj
obsf
orwhi
t
esonl
y
 Taxat
i
oni
,
ehut
,
dogt
axes,
f
or
cedAf
r
i
canst
ogoandl
ookf
r
oj
obs
 Asy
st
em off
or
cedl
abour
(
Chi
bar
o)wasappl
i
edr
ut
hl
essl
y
 Whi
t
esusedt
hecompoundsy
st
em (
komboni
)t
ohousemanywor
ker
si
na
smal
l
pl
acet
osav
eonaccommodat
i
oncost
s.Meantov
er
cr
owdi
ngand
i
nsani
t
ar
ycondi
t
i
ons
 Rhodesi
aNat
i
v
eLabourRecr
ui
t
mentBur
eau-hadaut
hor
i
t
yt
of
or
ci
bl
yr
ecr
ui
t
Af
r
i
canl
abourandal
soi
mpor
text
r
al
abourf
r
om Mal
awi
,
Zambi
aand
Mozambi
que
 I
ndi
v
i
dual
whi
t
eset
t
l
er
sev
i
ct
edwi
l
l
y
ni
l
l
y
,
Af
r
i
canscl
oset
ot
hei
rnewl
y
acqui
r
edf
ar
ms,
t
aki
ngst
r
aycat
t
l
e,
sheep,
goat
saspuni
shment
 Whi
t
eal
soopenedDomboshawaandTshol
ot
shot
r
ai
ni
ngcent
r
eswi
t
h
speci
f
i
cpur
poset
ocr
eat
esemi
ski
l
l
edl
abourt
oser
v
et
hewhi
t
eempl
oy
er
s.
[
c]
.
Howef
f
ect
i
v
ewer
et
hesest
epsi
ncont
r
ol
l
i
ngAf
r
i
cansi
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabwe
dur
i
ngt
hi
sper
i
od?
 Gov
er
nmentmeasur
esmadesur
eAf
r
i
cansl
ef
tt
hei
rhomest
ogoandwor
k
.
Rur
al
t
our
bandr
i
f
tst
ar
t
ed,
asy
oungmenbecameur
bandwel
l
er
swor
ki
ngi
n
emer
gi
ngi
ndust
r
i
es,
r
et
ai
l
shops,
f
ar
ms,
.
andmi
nes.
 Af
r
i
cansl
ostcat
t
l
e,
t
hei
rbasi
sf
orweal
t
h,
andt
heyhadt
of
i
ndal
t
er
nat
i
v
ei
n
t
hel
abourmar
ket
.
 Af
r
i
canwayofl
i
f
ewaschangedasf
ami
l
i
eswer
esepar
at
ed,
wi
t
hhusbandsi
n
t
heur
banar
easwhi
l
ewi
v
esandchi
l
dr
enr
emai
nedi
nt
her
ur
al
ar
eas
 Af
r
i
canswhor
emai
nedi
nexpr
opr
i
at
edl
andbecamesquat
t
er
sandhadt
o
wor
kf
ort
henewwhi
t
eownerorl
eav
et
hepl
ace.
 Becauseofl
abourdi
scr
i
mi
nat
i
oni
nsal
ar
i
es,
Af
r
i
cansbegant
oseekt
o
i
mpr
ov
et
hemsel
v
esi
nabi
dt
oqual
i
f
yf
orbet
t
erpay
i
ngj
obs(
i
,
eget
t
i
ngbet
t
er
educat
i
on)
 Af
r
i
canswer
enotbl
i
ndt
ot
hei
deaofbei
ngexpl
oi
t
edandof
t
enr
et
al
i
at
edby
sabot
agi
ngt
heeconomy
st
r
i
ki
ng,
machi
nebr
eaki
nganddeser
t
i
nghar
sh
compani
es
Page168of168
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 Af
r
i
cansal
sot
ookadv
ant
ageandusedt
hei
rwor
kerst
at
usandsmal
l
wages
t
oi
mpr
ov
et
hemsel
v
esacademi
cal
l
yandsoci
al
l
yandl
ear
nt
opol
i
t
i
cal
l
y
chal
l
enget
hewhi
t
es.
[
Nov2005]
114[
a]
.
Nameanysi
xr
esour
ceswhi
chEur
opeanset
t
l
er
st
ookf
r
om Af
r
i
cansi
n
col
oni
al
Zi
mbabwe.
[
6]
 Landf
orcul
t
i
v
at
i
on,
gr
azi
ngl
and,
hunt
i
nggr
ounds
 Tr
ader
out
es/
post
s
 Mi
ner
al
s,
i
r
on,
gol
dcopper
 I
v
or
y
 Li
v
est
ock,
cat
t
l
e,
sheepandgoat
s
 Gr
ai
norcr
ops
 Cr
af
t
s
 Labour
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
heeconomi
cdev
el
opment
swhi
cht
ookpl
acei
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabweup
t
o1923.
[
11]
 Landappr
opr
i
at
i
oncont
i
nued,
r
eser
v
escont
i
nuousl
ycr
eat
ed
 Set
t
l
er
sconcent
r
at
edi
ngol
dmi
ni
ngatf
i
r
st
 BSACi
nv
est
edheav
i
l
yi
nt
heRai
l
waypr
oj
ect
s-Maf
eki
ngt
oBul
away
or
ai
l
way
l
i
necompl
et
edi
n1897,
ext
endedt
oWanki
ei
n1903andLi
v
i
ngst
onei
n
1904.
Bul
away
ot
oSal
i
sbur
yr
ai
l
wayl
i
necompl
et
edby1902.
Bei
r
at
oMut
ar
e
1897.
 By1914,
Eur
opeanf
ar
mer
swenti
nl
ar
gescal
epr
oduct
i
onofMai
ze,
t
obacco
andbeef
.
 By1900,
BSACt
ookmor
el
andf
r
om t
heAf
r
i
cans
 1908BSACest
abl
i
shedal
andbank
 Appoi
nt
edagr
i
cul
t
ur
al
exper
t
st
oadv
i
seset
t
l
er
sonf
ar
mi
ng
 I
nt
r
oduct
i
onoff
or
cedl
abour
 Useofmi
gr
antl
abour
 Monet
ar
i
sat
i
onoft
heeconomy
 Decl
i
nei
nAf
r
i
canagr
i
cul
t
ur
eby1920
Page169of169
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 Technol
ogi
cal
i
mpr
ov
ement
s
 Coal
mi
ni
ngbegani
nWanki
ei
n1903
 Chr
omemi
ni
ngst
ar
t
edatSel
ukwepeaki
n1906
 Dev
el
opmentofi
nf
r
ast
r
uct
ur
e
 Asbest
osmi
ni
ngst
ar
t
edatShabani
i
n1908
 Const
r
uct
i
onofbanks
 Agr
i
cul
t
ur
ef
or
est
r
yandci
t
r
us
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dt
heseeconomi
cdev
el
opment
sbenef
i
tAf
r
i
cansi
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabwe
upt
o1923.
[
i
]Benef
i
t
s:
 Empl
oy
mentonmi
nesandf
ar
ms
 Newf
ar
mi
ngt
echni
ques
 I
mpr
ov
edmi
ni
ng
 Li
v
est
ockv
acci
nat
edagai
nstmanydi
seases
 Af
r
i
canf
ar
mi
ngenj
oy
edpr
of
i
t
sbet
ween1898and1915.
[
i
i
]
Di
sadv
ant
ages:
Gener
al
l
ysuf
f
er
edeconomi
coppr
essi
onandexpl
oi
t
at
i
on.
 Lossofl
and
 Lossofl
i
v
est
ock
 For
cedl
abourwashar
danddanger
ousespeci
al
l
yi
nmi
nes
 Wor
ker
s’
l
i
v
i
ngcondi
t
i
onswer
ev
er
ypoor
 Gi
v
enl
owwages
[
June2006]
115[
a]
.
Gi
v
eanysi
xr
esul
t
soft
heShonaRi
si
ngof1896t
o1897i
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabwe.[
6]
 Shonewer
edef
eat
ed
 Companyi
nt
r
oducedr
ul
eofl
aw
 Mat
abel
el
andandMashonal
anduni
t
edi
nt
oSout
her
nRhodesi
a
 Af
r
i
canr
ul
er
sst
r
i
ppedofal
l
power
s
Page170of170
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 Af
r
i
cansl
ostconf
i
dencei
nt
r
adi
t
i
onal
r
el
i
gi
on
 Makoni
capt
ur
edatendof1896
 NehandaandKaguv
i
t
r
i
edandexecut
ed
 At
t
empt
st
or
est
or
eRozv
i
r
ul
et
hwar
t
ed
 Br
i
t
i
shi
nv
ol
v
ementi
ngov
er
nmentofcol
onyi
ncr
eased
 Set
t
i
ngupofShonar
eser
v
es
 Spi
r
i
tofAf
r
i
canr
esi
st
ancesowed
 Compl
et
i
onofBei
r
a-Mut
ar
el
i
ne
 Lossofl
i
v
es
 Hungerandst
ar
v
at
i
on.
 Pov
er
t
yoft
heShonapeopl
e
 Dest
r
uct
i
onofpr
oper
t
y
.
 Notal
l
owedt
obui
l
dhousesi
nkopj
es
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
hepol
i
t
i
cal
dev
el
opment
si
nZi
mbabweunderBSACr
ul
ef
r
om 1894upt
o
1923.
[
11]
 1894Or
derI
nCounci
l
gav
eRhodesandJamesonf
r
eedom t
or
ul
eSout
her
n
Rhodesi
aatt
hei
rexpenseonbehal
fofBSAC.
 I
nj
ust
i
cesandabuseofpowerbyset
t
l
er
swasbl
amedbyBr
i
t
i
shgov
er
nment
.
 Apr
opergov
er
nmentwassetupt
omakel
awsandt
heset
obei
nt
er
pr
et
edby
l
awcour
t
s
 1898Sout
her
nRhodesi
aor
deri
ncounci
l
begant
her
ul
eofl
aw;
i
tgav
eanew
const
i
t
ut
i
ont
ot
hecount
r
y
.
 Sout
her
nRhodesi
abecameof
f
i
ci
al
name
 I
test
abl
i
shedexecut
i
v
ecounci
l
,
l
egi
sl
at
ur
e,
admi
ni
st
r
at
orandBr
i
t
i
shr
esi
dent
.
 Cont
r
ol
ext
endedbyuseofpol
i
cef
or
ceandNat
i
v
eCommi
ssi
oner
s
 Asy
st
em ofv
ot
i
ngt
hr
oughpr
oper
t
yqual
i
f
i
cat
i
ons(
onl
ywhi
t
esbecamev
ot
er
s)
 Whi
t
ewomengotv
ot
ei
n1919
 Companyr
ul
eext
endedi
n1914t
o1923
 Responsi
bl
eGov
er
nmentAssoci
at
i
onf
or
medi
n1917
 Responsi
bl
egov
er
nmentgr
ant
edbyBr
i
t
ai
ni
n1923
Page171of171
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 1923const
i
t
ut
i
ongr
ant
edBr
i
t
ai
nr
i
ghtt
oappr
ov
el
awsaf
f
ect
i
ngbl
acksonl
y
,
a
Br
i
t
i
shgov
er
norbasedatSal
i
sbur
y
 Legi
sl
at
i
v
ecounci
l
r
epl
acedbyl
egi
sl
at
i
v
eassembl
yl
edbyPr
i
meMi
nst
erand
Cabi
net
 Assembl
yhad30member
s
 El
ect
i
onst
obehel
dev
er
y15y
ear
s
 18967r
i
si
ngs
 Ndebel
enotal
l
owedt
ochooseanot
herki
ngt
or
epl
aceLobengul
a
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dAf
r
i
cansbenef
i
tf
r
om t
hesepol
i
t
i
cal
dev
el
opment
si
nt
hi
sper
i
od?[
8]
[
i
]
Benef
i
t
s:
 Benef
i
t
edf
r
om pr
ot
ect
i
onorl
awt
osomeext
ent
 Br
i
t
ai
nr
ev
i
ewedl
awsaf
f
ect
i
ngt
heAf
r
i
cans
[
i
i
]
.
Di
sadv
ant
ages:
 Nov
ot
ewasext
endedt
oAf
r
i
cans
 Onf
ar
msandmi
neswhi
t
esst
i
l
l
l
ar
gel
ybey
ondt
hel
aw–i
l
l
t
r
eat
edbl
acks
 Tomaxi
mi
segai
nspr
of
i
t
swer
er
epat
r
i
at
ed,
Br
i
t
ai
ncondonedl
awsr
est
r
i
ct
i
ng
mov
ementofbl
acks,
t
axat
i
on.Suchl
awspassedwi
t
hBr
i
t
i
shAppr
ov
al
.
[
Nov2006]
116[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xmi
ner
al
spr
oducedi
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabweupt
o1930.[
6]
 I
r
on,
Gol
d,
Coal
,
Copper
,
Chr
ome,
asbest
os,
Ni
ckel
,
Ti
n.
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hemet
hodsusedbywhi
t
eset
t
l
er
si
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabwet
or
ecr
ui
t
l
abourupt
o1930.
 Recr
ui
t
mentofl
abourbyagr
eement
t
ar
get
edt
hosewi
l
l
i
ngt
owor
k.Af
r
i
cans
encour
agedt
owor
k.Pai
dbet
t
erwages.
 For
cedl
abour–pol
i
ceusedt
or
oundupmenwhowor
kedf
orset
t
l
er
sbyf
or
ce.
Themet
hodwasal
sousedt
ogetl
abourf
r
om nei
ghbour
i
ngcount
r
i
es.For
ced
l
abour
er
sear
nedv
er
yl
i
t
t
l
eandusual
l
ywor
kedont
wel
v
emont
hcont
r
act
s.
 Whi
t
esr
ef
usedt
osi
gnt
hepasses
 Cr
edi
tsy
st
em[
moneydeduct
edf
r
om sal
ar
y
]
 Squat
t
er
sf
or
cedt
owor
kont
hewhi
t
es’
f
ar
ms
 Taxat
i
on-peopl
ewer
ef
or
cedt
opayt
axasawayt
of
or
cet
hem t
owor
k.
Page172of172
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Taxeswer
et
obei
ncashorl
abour
.Fai
l
ur
et
opayt
axr
esul
t
edi
ngov
er
nment
conf
i
st
i
cat
i
ngpr
oper
t
ysuchascat
t
l
eoft
heof
f
ender
.
 Useofl
aws/
l
egi
sl
at
i
one,
gMast
er
s’
andSer
v
antOr
di
nance,
Nat
i
v
ePass
Or
di
nance.Fai
l
ur
et
opr
oducepasseswoul
dr
esul
ti
npeopl
ebei
ngf
or
cedt
o
wor
k.
 Fal
sechar
gesagai
nstAf
r
i
canswer
eal
sousedt
of
or
ceAf
r
i
canst
owor
k.
 Suppr
essi
onofpeasantagr
i
cul
t
ur
esot
hatt
heywoul
dnotpr
oducemuch,
woul
dendupwor
ki
ngi
nor
dert
osur
v
i
v
e.
 LandofAf
r
i
canswast
akent
of
or
cet
hem t
owor
k.For
cedt
ol
i
v
ei
nar
easof
l
owr
ai
nf
al
l
andpoorsoi
l
s.Lowpr
oduct
i
onf
or
cedt
hem t
owor
k.
[
c]
.
Howdi
dt
hesemet
hodsaf
f
ectt
hel
i
v
esofAf
r
i
cansi
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabweat
t
hatt
i
me?
[
8]
[
i
]
.
Posi
t
i
v
eef
f
ect
s:
 Empl
oy
ment
 Gai
nednewl
abourski
l
l
s
 Abl
et
opayt
axes
 Uni
t
yamongAf
r
i
cans
[
i
i
]
.
Negat
i
v
eef
f
ect
s
 Pr
ost
i
t
ut
i
on
 Soci
al
i
l
l
s
 Thef
t
 For
cedt
owor
kf
orl
owwages
 Separ
at
edf
ami
l
i
es
 Oppr
essi
onandexpl
oi
t
at
i
on
 Poorpr
oduct
i
onofcr
ops
 Lossofdomest
i
cani
mal
s
 Di
seasesi
ncompounds.
[
Nov2007]
117[
a]
.
Li
stsi
xai
msoft
heLandAppor
t
i
onmentActof1930.
[
6]
 Toav
oi
dcompet
i
t
i
onbet
weenAf
r
i
cansandwhi
t
es
 Tocr
eat
eapool
ofcheapl
abour
Page173of173
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 Todi
scr
i
mi
nat
ebl
ackf
ar
mi
ngar
easandwhi
t
ef
ar
mi
ngar
eas
 Tocr
eat
ear
abl
el
andf
orwhi
t
eur
banpopul
at
i
on
 Topr
ov
i
degoodt
r
anspor
tt
ot
heEur
opeans
 Tosetasi
denat
i
onal
l
andf
orwi
l
dani
mal
s
 Tor
eser
v
emor
el
andf
ort
heunbor
nwhi
t
echi
l
dr
en
 Byi
mpl
i
cat
i
on,
t
ol
egal
i
sel
andandst
ockt
hef
t
 Toat
t
r
actmor
ewhi
t
eset
t
l
er
s
 Topr
ev
entAf
r
i
cansf
r
om uni
t
i
ngandr
i
si
ngagai
nstt
hewhi
t
es.
[
b]
.
Out
l
i
net
heef
f
ect
soft
heLandAppor
t
i
onmentActof1930.
[
11]
 Cr
eat
edcheapl
abourf
orwhi
t
esi
nmi
nes,
f
ar
msandf
act
or
i
es
 Zi
mbabwedi
v
i
dedal
ongr
aci
al
l
i
nesi
,
eEur
opeansr
i
chsoi
l
sandAf
r
i
canspoor
r
eser
v
es
 Ov
er
cr
owdi
ngi
nr
eser
v
esandal
soov
er
st
ocki
ng
 I
ncr
easedpr
oduct
i
onofEur
opeanagr
i
cul
t
ur
ecompar
edt
oAf
r
i
canspl
acedi
n
r
eser
v
es
 Wagesf
orAf
r
i
cansdr
oppedespeci
al
l
yi
nmi
nesandf
ar
ms
 Ev
i
ct
i
onbecameor
derofdayf
r
om Eur
opeanassi
gnedar
eas
 Whi
t
esr
eser
v
edar
abl
el
andf
ort
hei
runbor
nchi
l
dr
en-unassi
gnedar
eas
 Af
r
i
cancat
t
l
ebecameweakandsmal
l
duet
ol
ackofpast
ur
es
 Af
r
i
cansr
eset
t
l
edf
arawayf
r
om mar
ketcent
r
esandhadnogoodt
r
anspor
t
net
wor
k
 Manypeopl
emi
gr
at
edi
nt
our
banar
eas
 I
twasi
l
l
egal
f
orAf
r
i
canst
obuyl
andi
nEur
opeanar
eas
 Reducedcompet
i
t
i
onbet
weenbl
acksandwhi
t
es.
Eur
opeansgr
ewcashcr
ops
whi
l
stAf
r
i
canspr
act
i
sedsubsi
st
encef
ar
mi
ng
 Massi
v
esoi
l
er
osi
on
 Massnat
i
onal
i
sm
 Af
r
i
cansbecamesquat
t
er
sonwhi
t
eownedl
and.
 Twopy
r
ami
dsy
st
em
[
c]
.
Wast
heLandAppor
t
i
onmentActf
ai
rt
oAf
r
i
cans?Expl
ai
ny
ouranswer
.[
8]
Page174of174
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[
i
]
.
Fai
r
nessofL.
A.
A/
Benef
i
t
s.
 Somepar
t
sofZi
mbabwewer
epr
eser
v
edandsav
edf
r
om dest
r
uct
i
onby
want
onf
i
r
esandt
r
eecut
t
i
ng
 Ther
ewasnowl
andr
eser
v
edf
orAf
r
i
canswhi
chnowhi
t
escoul
d
al
i
enat
e/
possess.
 Lef
tAf
r
i
cansl
ar
gel
yt
ot
hei
rowncul
t
ur
al
pr
act
i
ces
 Gamer
eser
v
eswer
ecr
eat
edt
opr
eser
v
eani
mal
l
i
f
e
 Af
r
i
canspur
chasedar
easwhi
cht
heyr
eser
v
edf
orf
ut
ur
euse
[
i
i
]
.
Unf
ai
r
nessofL.
A.
A
 Unf
ai
rdi
st
r
i
but
i
onofl
and(
whi
t
esgotpl
ent
yandf
er
t
i
l
esoi
l
s)
 I
tl
edt
oov
er
cr
owdi
ngandov
er
st
ocki
ngi
nr
eser
v
es y
ett
her
ewasunder
ut
i
l
i
sedl
and
 I
tl
ocat
edAf
r
i
cansf
arf
r
om mar
ket
s
 I
tdi
dnotal
l
owAf
r
i
canst
obuyl
andi
nwhi
t
ear
eas
 I
tt
ur
nedbl
acksi
nt
owor
ker
sexpl
oi
t
edbywhi
t
es.
[
Nov2007]
118[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xf
or
msofi
l
l
t
r
eat
mentofAf
r
i
canf
ar
m andmi
newor
ker
sby
set
t
l
er
si
nSout
her
nRhodesi
abet
ween1900and1950.
[
6]
 Poorwor
ki
ngcondi
t
i
ons
 Pai
dl
owwages
 For
cedl
abour
 Nopensi
onschemes
 Ov
er
cr
owdedshant
yt
owns
 Poordi
et
 Noheal
t
hi
nsur
ance
 beat
enj
ustbef
or
epaydayt
omaket
hem r
unawayandl
eav
et
hei
rwage
behi
nd
 l
ongwor
ki
nghour
s
 nol
eav
eday
s
 pai
di
nki
nd
Page175of175
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 i
nadequat
epr
ot
ect
i
v
ecl
ot
hes
 poorv
ent
i
l
at
i
on
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hemeasur
est
akenbyt
hef
ar
m andmi
newor
ker
st
or
esi
st
expl
oi
t
at
i
ondur
i
ngt
hi
sper
i
od.
 Fakedpasses/
al
t
er
edpasses
 For
mat
i
onoft
r
adeuni
ons
 Fakedi
l
l
ness
 Somewor
ker
sst
ol
ef
ar
m/
mi
nepr
oduce
 Dest
r
uct
i
onofcr
ops
 Dest
r
uct
i
onofmachi
ner
y
 Abandonedwor
kf
orSout
hAf
r
i
ca
 St
r
i
keact
i
one,
gShamv
ami
ne
 Roast
edseeds
 Car
el
essappr
oacht
owor
ke,
gf
i
el
dswer
ecar
el
essl
yweeded
 Absent
eei
sm
 Br
okemachi
nes/
f
ar
mi
mpl
ement
s
 Gav
eempl
oy
er
sni
cknameswar
ni
ngt
oot
her
se,
gPachay
amat
ako/
l
ef
tsi
gns
ont
r
ees–t
opot
ent
i
al
empl
oy
ees
 Thef
tofl
i
v
est
ock
 Deser
t
i
ons
 Wor
ker
sor
gani
sedacci
dent
sf
ort
hebosses
[
c]
.
Whywer
et
heAf
r
i
canf
ar
m wor
ker
sunabl
et
osol
v
et
hei
rpr
obl
emsdur
i
ngt
hi
s
per
i
od
[
8]
[
i
]
Wor
ker
s’
weaknesses
 Lackofuni
t
y
 Lossofl
andandcat
t
l
e
 Not
r
adeuni
ons
 Fearoft
heset
t
l
er
s
 I
l
l
i
t
er
acy
Page176of176
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 Gr
i
ndi
ngpov
er
t
yi
nt
her
eser
v
es
[
i
i
]
.
Ot
herf
act
or
s
 For
cedt
opayt
axi
ncash
 Whi
t
esusedf
or
ce
 Absent
eei
sm waspuni
shabl
ebyf
or
f
ei
t
i
ngwagef
ort
womont
hs
 Lossofwages
 St
r
i
keswer
ei
l
l
egal
 Tr
adeuni
onsbanned
 Deser
t
er
swer
ei
mpr
i
soned
 Useoff
or
ce
 LackofGov
er
nmentcar
eandpr
ot
ect
i
v
el
egi
sl
at
i
on.
[
Nov2008]
119[
a]
.
I
dent
i
f
yt
heear
l
yt
ownshi
psf
orAf
r
i
cansWor
ker
si
nt
hef
ol
l
owi
ngci
t
i
es:
Har
ar
e;
Bul
away
o;
Mut
ar
e;
Gwer
u;
Kadoma;
Masv
i
ngo.
 Har
ar
e—Mbar
e,
Mabv
uku,
Taf
ar
a;
Muf
akose;
Hi
ghl
ands.
 Bul
away
o—Makokoba;
Luv
ev
e;
Mpopoma;
Si
zi
nda;
Mat
shobane;
 Gwer
uMut
apa;
Senga;
Mambo;
 KadomaRi
muka.
 Masv
i
ngoMucheke.
 Mut
ar
e—Sakubv
a
[
b]
.
Whatmet
hodswer
eusedbyAf
r
i
cani
ndust
r
i
al
wor
ker
st
osol
v
et
hei
r
gr
i
ev
ancesagai
nstwhi
t
eempl
oy
er
sbef
or
e1950?
[
11]
 Boy
cot
t
sMenv
er
ycar
ef
ul
onchoi
ceofmi
nest
owor
ki
n.
Somemi
neswi
t
h
badsaf
et
yr
ecor
dswer
eboy
cot
t
ed.Thi
smeansnoonewoul
dwor
kt
her
e
 St
r
i
keact
i
on–exampl
esr
ecor
ded:
Wanki
eCol
l
i
er
i
esr
ecor
dedst
r
i
kesi
n1912,
1919and1921.
TheShamv
aMi
neSt
r
i
keof1927wher
e3500wor
ker
sdowned
t
ool
sf
orbet
t
erpay
.
 Deser
t
i
on.
 Demonst
r
at
i
on
 St
eal
i
ng
Page177of177
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 Fakedi
l
l
ness
 Al
t
er
edpasses
 I
nj
ur
edsuper
v
i
sor
s
 For
medbur
i
al
soci
et
i
es
 Absent
eei
sm
 Sabot
age–damagedmachi
nes,
soast
ounder
mi
newhi
t
epr
of
i
t
sandget
t
i
met
or
est
 Gav
eempl
oy
er
sni
cknamesshay
amat
akho
 For
medAf
r
i
cani
ndependentchur
ches
 Hi
di
ng.
[
c]
.
Towhatext
enthadt
hesegr
i
ev
ancesbeenaddr
essedby1950? [
8]
[
i
]
.
Benef
i
t
s:
 Cr
eat
edcondi
t
i
onsf
orst
abl
el
abourbypr
ov
i
di
ngbet
t
erhousi
ng,
bet
t
er
educat
i
onal
f
aci
l
i
t
i
esandl
essof
f
i
ci
al
har
assmentaboutpet
t
yr
ul
esand
r
egul
at
i
ons
 Li
v
i
ngcondi
t
i
onsandwor
ki
ngcondi
t
i
onswer
ei
mpr
ov
ed
[
i
i
]
.
Li
mi
t
at
i
ons:
 Topr
ev
entanAf
r
i
canpr
ol
et
ar
i
atf
i
ght
i
ngt
heconser
v
at
i
v
ecapi
t
al
i
st
s,
t
hey
encour
agedt
hedev
el
opmentofabuf
f
ergr
oup-mi
ddl
ecl
assofAf
r
i
cans.
 Usedpol
i
cet
osuppr
essst
r
i
kes
 SomeAf
r
i
cant
r
adewer
ear
r
est
edandi
mpr
i
soned.
 Whi
t
econt
i
nuedt
odemandpasses
 Theypassedhar
sherl
aws.
[
Nov2009]
120[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xcr
opsgr
ownatEur
opeanf
ar
msi
nSout
her
nRhodesi
abet
ween
1900and1953.
[
6]
.
 Mai
ze;Tobacco;
Wheat
;
Bar
l
ey
;
cot
t
on;
Soy
aBeans;
 Gr
apes;
Pot
at
oes;
Ci
t
r
us;
Sor
ghum;
Gr
oundnut
s;
Mi
l
l
et
;
 Sugar
cane;
Cof
f
ee;
Tea;
Ri
ce;
Sunf
l
ower
[
b]
.
Whatf
act
or
sl
edt
ot
hedev
el
opmentofEur
opeanagr
i
cul
t
ur
edur
i
ngt
he
per
i
od1900t
o1953?
Page178of178
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 Av
ai
l
abi
l
i
t
yofl
and–gi
v
enatl
owf
eesbyt
hegov
er
nment
 Cheapl
abour
 Est
abl
i
shmentoft
heEst
at
eDepar
t
menti
n1908
 Cr
eat
i
onoft
heDepar
t
mentofAgr
i
cul
t
ur
e,
andt
heset
t
i
ngoft
heRhodesi
a
Agr
i
cul
t
ur
al
Jour
nal
 Theset
t
i
ngupoft
heLandbanki
n1912
 Var
i
ousi
ncent
i
v
esgi
v
ent
owhi
t
ese,
ggener
ousl
oans,
l
owpr
i
cesofl
and
 I
nt
r
oduct
i
onofanumberoft
axeswhi
chf
or
cedAf
r
i
cansi
nt
owagel
abour,
so
bet
ween1918and1932per
i
odofGr
eatDepr
essi
on,
Eur
opeanagr
i
cul
t
ur
e
i
ncr
eased
 Laws/
Act
susedt
oassi
stwhi
t
esi
nt
ocommer
ci
al
agr
i
cul
t
ur
ee,
gLand
Appor
t
i
onmentAct
(
1930)
,
Mai
zeCont
r
ol
Act
(
1931)
,
and1934,
andLand
Husbandr
yAct
(
1951)
,
Cat
t
l
eLev
yAct
.
 Gov
er
nmentsuppl
i
edf
i
nancedandpr
ocur
edseeds,
f
er
t
i
l
i
ser
sandchemi
cal
s
f
orwhi
t
ef
ar
mer
s.
 Mar
ket
i
ngboar
dssetupt
opr
omot
eEur
opeanagr
i
cul
t
ur
ee,
gTobacco
Mar
ket
i
ngBoar
d,
Gr
ai
nMar
ket
i
ngBoar
d,
Cot
t
onMar
ket
i
ngBoar
d,
Tobacco
Cont
r
ol
Boar
d,
et
c
 I
ncr
easeddemandf
orf
oodi
nEur
opeaf
t
erWor
l
dWarTwoboost
ed
Eur
opeanagr
i
cul
t
ur
e
 Near
nesst
or
ai
l
wayt
r
anspor
t
 Cont
r
actf
ar
mi
ng
 Li
nkedt
omaj
orr
oads
 Resear
chcent
r
es
[
c]
.
Howf
ardi
dt
hecount
r
ybenef
i
tf
r
om t
hedev
el
opmentofEur
opean
agr
i
cul
t
ur
e?
[
8]
[
i
]
.Benef
i
t
s:
 Count
r
yst
ar
t
edexpor
t
i
ngmeatt
oSout
hAf
r
i
ca;
Bel
gi
anCongo;
Ger
manyand
Nor
t
her
nRhodesi
a
 Sel
f
suf
f
i
ci
encyi
nf
oodt
of
eedpeopl
ei
nt
owns,
mi
nesandl
abourf
or
ce
 Dur
i
ngy
ear
sofGr
eatDepr
essi
oncount
r
ywasnotaf
f
ect
ed,
because
pr
oduct
i
onofcr
opsonEur
opeanf
ar
msi
ncr
eased
 I
ncr
easedr
ev
enue
Page179of179
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 Dev
el
opmentofmoder
nagr
i
cul
t
ur
e:
count
r
ybecameanagr
o-based
economy
 I
nt
r
oduct
i
onofi
nt
er
nat
i
onal
v
ar
i
et
i
esofcat
t
l
ebr
eedse,
gHer
ef
or
d;
Br
ahman
andJer
sey
 Empl
oy
mentcr
eat
i
on
 Newski
l
l
swer
eacqui
r
ed
 I
mpr
ov
edt
r
anspor
tandcommuni
cat
i
on
 I
nt
r
oduct
i
onofnewcr
opv
ar
i
et
i
es
 Const
r
uct
i
onofdams
[
i
i
]
.
NonBenef
i
t
s:
 Expl
oi
t
at
i
onofi
ndi
genousAf
r
i
cansascheapl
abour
 Af
r
i
cansl
ostt
hei
rl
ands
 Mar
gi
nal
i
sat
i
onofAf
r
i
canagr
i
cul
t
ur
e
 Af
r
i
cancat
t
l
et
aken
 Di
scr
i
mi
nat
i
onoft
heAf
r
i
cans
 Af
r
i
canpov
er
t
y
-Eur
opeanagr
i
cul
t
ur
ecent
r
edont
heexpor
tmar
ket
 Count
r
ybecameasour
ceofr
awagr
i
cul
t
ur
al
pr
oduceandnotf
i
ni
shedor
pr
ocessedgoods-si
nceEur
opeanagr
i
cul
t
ur
ewasexpor
t
-cent
r
ed
 Pr
of
i
text
er
nal
i
sedt
oEur
ope
 Ri
seofbi
t
t
ercl
assconf
l
i
ctbet
weent
heAf
r
i
cansandt
heWhi
t
es
 I
nt
r
oduct
i
onofmi
gr
antl
aboursy
st
em l
eadi
ngt
ot
hedi
sr
upt
i
onoft
heAf
r
i
can
f
ami
l
i
es.
(
Nov2010)
121(
a)
.
I
dent
i
f
yanysi
xgr
i
ev
ancesofAf
r
i
cansi
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabwebet
ween1897band
1923.[
6]
 For
cedl
abour
 Lowwages
 Lossofl
andi
l
l
t
r
eat
mentbywhi
t
es
 For
cedt
ocar
r
ypasses
 Unf
ai
rpr
i
cesf
oragr
i
cul
t
ur
al
pr
oduce
 Regar
dedassquat
t
er
sbywhi
t
eswhooccupi
edt
hei
rl
and.
Page180of180
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(
b)
.
Descr
i
bet
hemet
hodsusedbyt
heBr
i
t
i
shSout
hAf
r
i
caCompanyt
ocont
r
ol
Af
r
i
cansupt
o
1923.[
11]
 Useoff
or
ce:
pol
i
ceandmi
l
i
t
ar
y
 Legi
sl
at
i
on
 Useofl
ocal
chi
ef
s
 Far
mer
s,
t
r
ader
susedt
ocont
r
ol
peopl
e
 Mi
ssi
onar
i
esal
socont
r
ol
l
eddi
st
r
i
ct
s
 Compoundsy
st
emf
ar
ms,
mi
nes
 Usedspi
es\
i
nf
or
mer
s
 I
mpr
i
sonment
 Pay
mentoft
axes
 Magi
st
r
at
es
 Di
st
r
i
ctAdmi
ni
st
r
at
or
scont
r
ol
l
eddi
st
r
i
ct
s.
[
c]
.
Howf
arwer
eAf
r
i
cansaf
f
ect
edbyt
hesemet
hods?
[
8]
Posi
t
i
v
eef
f
ect
s:
 Af
r
i
canswor
kedhar
dt
obeabl
et
opayt
axes
 Empl
oy
ment
 Enf
or
cedl
awandor
der
 Uni
t
yagai
nstunj
ustsy
st
em
[
i
i
]
Negat
i
v
eef
f
ect
s
 Lessf
r
eedom
 Beat
enandar
r
est
ed
 Respectf
orchi
ef
snowl
ess
 Af
r
i
cansdi
v
i
ded
 For
cedempl
oy
ment
.
[
Nov2010]
122.
[
a]
.
Li
sti
ndust
r
i
est
hatempl
oy
edAf
r
i
cansi
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabwebef
or
e1945.[
6]
 Agr
i
cul
t
ur
e,
Mi
ni
ng,
Manuf
act
ur
i
ng,
 Const
r
uct
i
on,
El
ect
r
i
ci
t
yandwat
er
 Commer
ceandFi
nance
Page181of181
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 Tr
anspor
tandCommuni
cat
i
on
 Pr
i
v
at
edomest
i
cser
v
i
ces.
[
b]
Out
l
i
net
hef
act
or
swhi
chmadei
tdi
f
f
i
cul
tf
orAf
r
i
cant
r
adeuni
onst
oachi
ev
et
hei
rai
ms
bef
or
e1945.
[
11]
 Tr
adeuni
onsnotal
l
owedt
oent
ermi
ni
ngcompoundst
oor
gani
sewor
ker
s
 Not
r
adeuni
onf
orpar
t
i
cul
ari
ndust
r
i
es,
sodi
f
f
i
cul
tt
ocoor
di
nat
ewor
ker
sofdi
f
f
er
ent
i
ndust
r
i
es
 Leader
sofuni
onsnotabl
et
oar
t
i
cul
at
epr
obl
emsofdi
f
f
er
enti
ndust
r
i
es
 Uni
ondi
dnotbel
i
ev
ei
nor
gani
si
ngst
r
i
keswi
t
ht
hehopet
hatpeacef
ul
meanswoul
d
succeed
 Mostwor
ker
swer
eunski
l
l
ed,
socoul
deasi
l
yber
epl
acedi
ft
heywer
et
r
oubl
esome.
 Somewor
ker
swer
epeasant
swhoonl
ywor
kedt
obeabl
et
opayt
axes
 Wor
ker
swer
ef
r
agment
edasi
ndust
r
i
eswer
ef
arapar
t
.
 For
msoft
r
anspor
tandcommuni
cat
i
onwer
escar
ceatt
het
i
mesol
eader
swer
enot
mobi
l
eenough
 Hi
ghi
l
l
i
t
er
acyamongAf
r
i
canwor
ker
s
 Ear
l
yt
r
adeuni
onsl
edbyf
or
ei
gner
s.
[
c]
.
Wer
et
heAf
r
i
cant
r
adeuni
onst
obl
amef
orf
ai
l
i
ngt
oachi
ev
et
hei
rai
ms?[
8]
Af
r
i
canst
obl
ame:
 Lesseducat
i
onsonotabl
et
oef
f
ect
i
v
el
yor
gani
seuni
ons
 Fai
l
edt
or
eal
i
sei
mpor
t
anceofst
r
i
kes
 Lackoski
l
l
s,
soeasi
l
ydi
spensabl
e
 Wor
ki
ngwaspar
t
t
i
me,
sodi
f
f
i
cul
tt
oor
gani
se
Ot
herf
act
or
s:
 Empl
oy
er
swer
est
r
i
ct
 Notenoughoppor
t
uni
t
i
esf
oreducat
i
onandt
r
ai
ni
ng
 Thr
eat
enedwi
t
hdi
smi
ssal
.
[
Nov2011]
123[
a]
.
St
at
eanysi
xeconomi
cpr
obl
emswhi
cht
heear
l
yBASCset
t
l
er
sf
acedi
n
Souht
er
nRhodesi
a.
[
6]
 Shor
t
ageofmachi
ner
y
,
gol
dmi
ni
ngwasunpr
oduct
i
v
e,
Labourshor
t
ages
Page182of182
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 Li
v
est
ockdi
seases,
Shor
t
ageoff
ood,
Af
r
i
canswi
t
hhel
dt
hei
rgoods
 Compet
i
t
i
onf
r
om Af
r
i
canf
ar
mer
s,
l
andquar
r
el
swi
t
hcompanyof
f
i
ci
al
s
 Companyheav
i
l
yt
axedear
l
yset
t
l
er
s
[
b]
.
Descr
i
bet
hesy
st
em off
or
cedl
abouri
nSout
her
nRhodesi
abef
or
e1930.
[
11]
 Fai
l
ur
eoft
heEl
dar
adot
heor
ycompel
l
edset
t
l
er
sandt
heBSAC t
of
ocuson
agr
i
cul
t
ur
e
 Set
t
l
er
sandt
heB.
S.
A.
C.r
equi
r
edl
abourbutt
hi
swasdi
f
f
i
cul
tt
ogetbecausel
ocal
s
wer
eunwi
l
l
i
ngt
owor
kf
orsomeone
 Companyr
esol
v
edt
ousef
or
cedl
abour
 Enf
or
cedl
abourpr
ov
i
si
onbyexpr
opr
i
at
i
ngAf
r
i
canl
and
 Al
sogotl
abourbygr
abi
ngAf
r
i
canl
i
v
est
ock,
t
ookAf
r
i
canwomenandchi
l
dr
en
host
aget
of
r
ceAf
r
i
canment
ol
ookf
orwor
k
 Est
abl
i
shedt
heRhodesi
aNat
i
v
eLabourBur
eau(
RNLB)t
or
ecr
ui
tl
abour
 Set
t
l
er
ssentpat
r
ol
st
ocapt
ur
epeopl
ef
orf
or
cedl
abour
 Chi
ef
scont
r
act
edt
osuppl
yl
abourandi
ft
heyf
ai
l
edt
odot
hi
s,
t
heywer
epuni
shed
 I
nt
r
oducedcont
r
act
ual
l
aboure.
g12mont
hscont
r
act
,
i
nt
r
oducedt
axes,
engaged
mi
gr
antl
abour
 Chi
bal
oaccount
edf
or½ t
hel
abourf
or
ceusedbyset
t
l
er
s,
monet
ar
i
sat
i
onoft
he
economye,
gset
t
l
er
sst
oppedl
ev
y
i
ngt
axesi
nf
or
m ofgods
 Enact
edpassl
aws,
i
nt
r
oducedt
hecompoundsy
st
em
 Usedt
hecr
edi
tsy
st
em,
l
abour
er
swer
ei
l
l
t
r
eat
ed–beat
enwhi
l
eatwor
k,
poor
l
ypai
d,
wor
kedl
onghour
s.Notgi
v
enr
at
i
onsandal
sosuf
f
er
edpoorl
i
v
i
ngcondi
t
i
ons–l
i
v
i
ng
i
ndor
mi
t
or
i
esandsl
ums.
[
c]
.
Howef
f
ect
i
v
ewast
hesy
st
em off
or
cedl
abouri
nt
hedev
el
opmentoft
hecount
r
y
?[
8]
Ef
f
ect
i
v
enessoff
r
cedl
abour
 Hal
fofmi
neandf
ar
ml
abourf
or
cewasbasedonf
or
cedl
abour
 For
cedl
abourwasusedt
odev
el
opi
nf
r
ast
r
uct
ur
ee,
gbui
l
di
ngs,
t
het
obaccoi
ndust
r
y
 Cheapl
abourgav
ef
ar
mer
sandmi
ner
sl
ar
gepr
of
i
tmar
gi
ns
I
nef
f
ect
i
v
enessoff
or
cedl
abour
 Absent
eei
sm,
st
r
i
kes,
ni
cknamest
obossesaswar
ni
ngt
oot
her
s
Page183of183
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 Chi
bar
owor
ker
sf
ei
gnedi
l
l
nessandt
hi
sr
educedpr
oduct
i
on
 Sabot
agewasr
i
f
e,
causedmar
kedl
osses,
wor
ker
sdam,
agedmachi
ner
y
 Chi
bar
owor
ker
susual
l
ywast
ef
ul
wi
thr
esour
ces
 Chi
bar
oencour
agedr
esi
st
ance,
f
r
cedl
aboural
sopr
omot
edr
aci
al
di
scr
i
mi
nat
i
onand
hat
r
ed
 Causedacci
dent
st
obosses,
deser
t
i
onr
educedpr
oduct
i
on
[
Nov2011]
124[
a]
.
Li
stanysi
xchar
act
er
i
st
i
csoft
her
eser
v
esf
orAf
r
i
cansi
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabwebef
or
e
1930.[
6]
 I
nhabi
t
abl
e,
dr
yl
ands,
hotl
ands,
l
owr
ai
nf
al
l
ar
eas,
sandysoi
l
s
 I
nf
er
t
i
l
el
ands,
mosqui
t
oandt
set
sef
l
yi
nf
est
edar
eas
 Remot
ear
eas,
f
arawayf
r
om mar
ket
s,
r
oadsandr
ai
l
wayl
i
nes
 Mount
ani
nousandr
ockyar
eas,
ov
er
cr
owdedar
eas
[
b]
.
Oul
i
nef
act
or
swhi
chenabl
edAf
r
i
cansi
ncol
oni
al
Zi
mbabwet
opexpandt
hei
r
agr
i
cul
t
ur
ebef
or
e1930.
[
11]
 I
ni
t
i
al
l
yset
t
l
er
sdi
dnoti
nt
er
f
er
ewi
t
hAf
r
i
canagr
i
cul
t
ur
e
 Bet
t
er
,
moder
nt
ool
sandmet
hodsoff
ar
mi
ng,
cashcr
opf
ar
mi
nge,
gt
obacco,
cot
t
on
et
c
 Reducedt
r
i
bal
andcl
anr
i
v
al
r
ye,
gr
ai
di
ngended,
cont
r
ol
ofwi
l
dani
mal
st
hr
ough
hunt
i
ngbyset
t
l
er
s
 Ear
l
yset
t
l
er
swer
ear
el
i
abl
emar
ket,
r
easonabl
epr
i
cesf
oragr
i
cul
t
ur
al
pr
oduce
 Di
sr
upt
i
onofAf
r
i
cant
r
adi
t
i
onal
t
r
ade,
mostmenj
oi
nedt
hei
rwi
v
esandchi
l
dr
eni
n
cr
opcul
t
i
v
at
i
on,
mostAf
r
i
canspr
ef
er
dagr
i
cul
t
ur
et
owor
ki
ngi
nwhi
t
emen’
sf
ar
ms
andmi
nes
 Capi
t
al
i
stmonet
ar
yeconomy
,
t
axat
i
on,
someAf
r
i
cansst
i
l
l
cont
r
ol
l
edf
er
t
i
l
el
ands.
[
c]
.
Towhatext
entdi
dset
t
l
er
scont
r
i
but
et
ot
heexpansi
onofAf
r
i
canagr
i
cul
t
ur
ei
nt
hi
s
per
i
od?
[
8]
Cont
r
i
but
i
onofset
t
l
er
s
 I
ni
t
i
al
noni
nv
ol
v
ementandi
ner
f
er
encei
nagr
i
cul
t
ur
e,
moder
nandbet
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