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FOO1501 Food Preparation Colour

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FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
CONTENTS
Page
WELCOME �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� v
LEARNING UNIT 0:
WELCOME AND INTRODUCTION ������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1
LEARNING UNIT 1:
HEATING AND EQUIPMENT �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 13
LEARNING UNIT 2:
FOOD PREPARATION BASICS ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 18
LEARNING UNIT 3:
MILK AND CHEESE ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 26
LEARNING UNIT 4:
EGGS �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 31
LEARNING UNIT 5:
STARCHES AND SAUCES ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 38
LEARNING UNIT 6:
CEREALS, GRAINS AND PASTAS ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 43
LEARNING UNIT 7:
FLOURS AND FLOUR MIXTURES ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51
LEARNING UNIT 8:
QUICK BREADS ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 56
LEARNING UNIT 9:
YEAST BREADS ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 60
LEARNING UNIT 10: CAKES AND COOKIES����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64
LEARNING UNIT 11: PIES AND PASTRIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 69
LEARNING UNIT 12: SWEETENERS ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 74
LEARNING UNIT 13: CONFECTIONARY PRODUCTS �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 80
LEARNING UNIT 14: FROZEN DESSERTS ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 85
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FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
WELCOME
Dear Student
Welcome to the module Food Preparation I, which forms part of the Bachelor in Consumer Science degree�
I hope you will have an interesting and a successful academic year. I am sure that you will find the module
enriching and that the skills and knowledge you gain will prove valuable to you, not only as a student, but also
in your future career�
This module will focus on food preparation methods and techniques� On completion of this module you will be
able to classify and explain the composition, preparation and storage of different food types�
As from 2016 the module will be offered online, but as an alternative you will also be receiving a printed study
pack. You will find more details on how to study this module in Learning Unit 0, as well as in Tutorial Letter 101�
If you are reading this online, you will see the different options that are available on this site on the left-hand
side of the screen� The material that you must study is contained in the learning units� A printable PDF version
of the learning units (MO001) is available in the Additional Resources tool� Tutorial Letter 101 is stored in
Official Study Material� From time to time you will receive announcements, for example to remind you of a
due date for an assignment� We will use the Discussions tool in the course of your studies, and you can also
use it to communicate with other students� Additional Resources is a folder that contains resources relevant
to this course� The schedule will remind you of important dates in the semester, for example due dates for
assignments. You will find more details about these different tools in Learning Unit 0�
Please read Tutorial Letter 101 if you have not done so already� After that, please go on to the learning units�
Be sure to read Learning Unit 0, as it contains important information�
v
If you have any queries about the module, you are welcome to contact me by e-mail or telephone� You may
also make an appointment to see me in my office on the Unisa Science Campus in Florida.
I wish you all the best in your studies�
Mr R Mathye
Tel: +27116709727
Fax: +274712796
E-mail: mathyr@unisa�ac�za
Office: Room 202, Calabash Building
UNISA Science Campus
Florida, Johannesburg
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FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
LEARNING UNIT 0: WELCOME AND INTRODUCTION
The content of this unit is as follows:
Page
0�1
GETTING STARTED ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 2
0�2
LECTURER AND CONTACT DETAILS ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 3
0�2�1
Lecturer and department ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 3
0�2�2
University ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 3
0�2�3
Student support services ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 4
0�3
PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES OF THE MODULE ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 5
0�4
HOW THE CONTENT OF THE MODULE IS ORGANISED�������������������������������������������������������������������� 5
0�5
LEARNING RESOURCES ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 6
0�6
MODULE-SPECIFIC STUDY PLAN�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 6
0�7
HOW SHOULD YOU GO ABOUT STUDYING THIS MODULE? ������������������������������������������������������������ 7
0�7�1
0�8
0�9
Learning strategies you can apply: The SSS method ����������������������������������������������������������������� 8
0�7�1�1
Skimming ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 8
0�7�1�2
Scanning and outlining ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 9
0�7�1�3
Study-reading and active learning ������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9
0�7�2
Managing your self-paced study time ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 10
0.7.3
Finding research/scientific articles �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 10
0�7�4
Plagiarism ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11
ORIENTATION TO USING myUNISA ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11
0�8�1
The myUnisa menu options ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 11
0�8�2
myUnisa etiquette ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 11
0�8�3
Activity 0�1: Introduce yourself �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
ASSESSMENT IN THIS MODULE ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12
1
0.1
GETTING STARTED
Welcome to food preparation 1 (FOO1501), a module that is offered in Unisa’s Department of Life and
Consumer Sciences� I would like to take this opportunity to wish you success with your academic year�
This is an online module, which means that you will find everything you need to complete the module on this site.
Check the site regularly for updates, posted announcements and additional resources uploaded throughout
the semester� Rapid communications throughout the semester(s) have been made possible through myUnisa�
By using the myUnisa site, you can:
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submit assignments (please note: it is advisable that you submit your assignment online as this will
ensure that you receive feedback and comments rapidly),
access your official study material,
have access to the Unisa Library functions,
“chat” to your lecturer or to fellow students and participate in online discussion forums, and
obtain access to a variety of learning resources�
Please take some time to familiarise yourself with the site so that you can get to know where the different tools
and resources are� I will give you more information about this later in this learning unit�
Although I would like to encourage you study this module online, we also recognise that it might be impossible
for some of you to get online at all, while others among you might only be able to get online infrequently� For
this reason, you can also use the print-based study pack that you will receive to study for this module�
Your study material for this module includes:
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Your prescribed textbook
14 learning units
Tutorial Letter 101
Any other tutorial letters you may receive through the year
Details of your prescribed book are given in the “Prescribed books” menu option, which you can access on the
left-hand side of this screen, and also in Tutorial Letter 101�
Tutorial Letter 101 will be posted to you, but you can also access it on this site� You can do this by clicking on
“Additional Resources” in the menu on the left� Once there, click on the Tutorial Material folder, and when that
opens, select Tutorial Letter 101�
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FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
Tutorial Letter 101 is one of the tutorial letters you will be receiving during the year. It is important that you
read this tutorial letter carefully. You will also receive Tutorial Letter 201 in the course of the semester
shortly after the due dates for submission of each assignment. This tutorial letter is closely linked to Tutorial
Letter 101 and will provide you with a guide or feedback on the answers for the assignments.
In this learning unit, I will give you an overview of and some general information about the module. I will also
tell you more about how you can study in the module and how to use myUnisa, and about assessment in the
module.
Click on “Next” below to go to the next screen, where you will find more information about contact details.
Create “Tutorial Material” folder in Additional Resources and upload TUT101 there.
0.2
LECTURER AND CONTACT DETAILS
In this section I will give you my own contact details, as well as details of the Department of Life and Consumer
Sciences at Unisa, which is the academic department that offers this module. I will also give you the university’s
contact details, as well as some information about the student support services at Unisa, which you are
welcome to make use of.
Please note that whenever you contact the university, whether in writing or telephonically, you should always
mention the module code and your student number.
Also note that if you write a letter to Unisa, you may enclose more than one letter in an envelope, but do not
address enquiries to different departments (e.g. Despatch and Library Services) in the same letter. This will
cause a delay in the replies to your enquiries. Please write a separate letter to each department and mark each
letter clearly for the attention of that department. Letters to lecturers may not be enclosed together with
assignments. Always write your student number and the module code at the top of your letter.
0.2.1
Lecturer and department
Lecturer: Mr R Mathye
Telephone number: +27 11 670 9727 (during office hours 8:00–16:00)
Email address: mathyr@unisa.ac.za
Postal address:
The Lecturer (FOO1501)
Department of Life and Consumer Sciences
Private Bag X6
Florida
1710
The department offering this module is the Department of Life and Consumer Science.
Telephone number (Departmental Secretary): +27 11 6709727
Fax number: +27 11 471 2796
0.2.2
University
Should you need to contact the university about matters not related to the content of this module, consult
the publication, my Studies @ Unisa, which you received with your study material. This brochure contains
information on how to contact the university (e.g. to whom you can write about different queries, important
telephone and fax numbers, addresses and details of the opening and closing times of particular facilities).
3
You can also make use of the following contact routes:
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0.2.3
Unisa website http://www�unisa�ac�za & http://mobi�unisa�ac�za
Email (general enquiries) info@unisa�ac�za
International students are urged to make use of the email address, info@unisa�ac�za
study-info@unisa�ac�za queries related to application and registration
assign@unisa�ac�za for assignment enquiries
exams@unisa�ac�za for examination enquiries
despatch@unisa�ac�za for study material enquiries
finan@unisa.ac.za for student account enquiries
myUnisaHelp@unisa�ac�za for assistance with myUnisa
myLifeHelp@unisa�ac�za for assistance with myLife email accounts
SMS 32695 – South Africa only
(You will receive an autoresponse SMS with the various SMS options� The cost per SMS is R1,00� )
Fax 012 429 4150
Student support services
For information about the various student support systems and services available at Unisa (e�g� student
counselling, tutorial classes and language support), consult my Studies @ Unisa�
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Fellow students
It is always a good idea to have contact with fellow students� You can do this using the Discussion menu
option on myUnisa. You can also use the Discussion forum to find out whether there are students in your area
who would like to form study groups�
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Library
The brochure my Studies @ Unisa lists all the services offered by the Unisa Library�
To log in to the library website and access the library’s online resources and services, you will be required to
provide your login details, i�e� your student number and your myUnisa password� This will enable you to:
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request library material
view and renew your library material
use the library’s e-resources
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Unisa Directorate for Counselling and Career Development (DCCD)
DCCD supports prospective and registered students before, during and after their Unisa studies� There are
resources on their website (http://www�unisa�ac�za/Default�asp?Cmd=ViewContent&ContentID=15974) as
well as printed booklets that can assist you with
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career advice and how to develop your employability skills
study skills
academic literacy (reading, writing and quantitative skills)
assignment submission
exam preparation
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The Advocacy and Resource Centre for Students with Disabilities (ARCSWiD)
You will find more information about this Centre on their web page at http://www�unisa�ac�za/default�asp?Cmd
=ViewContent&ContentID=19553� You can also contact Ms Vukati Ndlovu on 012 4415470�
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0.3
PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE
Food Preparation is the study of the structure, composition, chemical processes and reactions of substances
in living systems� This module aims at introducing you to Food Preparation 1�
The purpose of the module is to enable you to identify and describe the fundamentals and functions of some
food preparation methods and ingredients as well as the utensils that are used in food preparation�
More specifically, the outcome of this module is to enable you to develop the ability to apply food preparation
principles and skills in a food service operation�
The next section will give you a better idea about how the content of the module is structured and how the
various ideas expressed in the learning outcomes are related�
0.4
HOW THE CONTENT OF THIS MODULE IS ORGANISED
This module is an introductory course and deals with the fundamentals of food preparation� Essentially, in
this module, you will learn about how food preparation processes work and about all that is involved in food
preparation� You will also gain an understanding of how to prepare food and of the use of certain utensils in the
kitchen� In learning about this, you will not only be acquiring knowledge that may be helpful in your career, but
will also come to understand how important food preparation is on a day-to-day basis�
We will start out in Learning Unit 1 by refreshing your knowledge of some basic cooking principles� These all
play a role in the preparation of food, and so it is necessary for you to understand fundamental concepts so
that you can grasp the rest of the module content�
Learning Unit 1 will introduce you to heating and equipment in food preparation� Equipment used in cooking
and the important role of heat in the preparation of food are discussed in this unit�
Learning Units 2, 3 and 4 will focus on food preparation basics�
Learning Unit 2 focuses on the methods of heating foods, handling knives, identifying and cutting food into a
specific style and measuring ingredients, seasonings and flavourings.
Learning Unit 3 discusses milk and cheese, the composition of milk, the nutritional value of milk, types of milk
and how to purchase milk�
Learning Unit 4 focuses on eggs, how eggs are composed, how to purchase them, their function in food and
how they can be prepared�
In Learning Unit 5 we look more deeply into these fundamental processes by examining how starches and
sources play a role in food preparation, seasoning and flavouring.
Learning Unit 6 focuses on the use of cereals and grains, their composition, types and uses and how they fit
into food preparation�
Learning Unit 7 looks at the different types of flours and flour mixtures and how they are categorised.
Learning Unit 8 focuses on quick breads and how to make quick breads� Learning Unit 9 focuses on the
different types of yeast breads and how to prepare and store them�
Learning Unit 10 deals with the preparation of cakes and cookies, the different types thereof and how to
prepare them�
Learning Unit 11 discusses pies and pastries and the different types of pastries and their preparation and
storage�
5
Learning Units 12, 13 and 14 focus on the types of sweeteners and how they are used in food preparation,
confectionary products and frozen desserts respectively�
You can go to the Table of Contents to see the names and subsections of each of the learning units�
Now that you have a better idea of how the module is structured, let’s look at what your studies will
involve�
0.5
LEARNING RESOURCES
Your main learning resources for this module will be your prescribed textbook and the learning units� These
resources will be supported by tutorial letters�
The prescribed textbook to be used in conjunction with the online material is:
Brown, A, 2015� Understanding food principles and preparation� University of Hawaii, Manoa: Fifth edition�
More details about the textbook are given in the menu option “Prescribed books” to the left of this screen, and
also in Tutorial Letter 101�
The textbook is a comprehensive guide to food preparation� You will not be required to learn the whole textbook,
as I will guide you on what is needed while you are studying this module� Use the online learning material to
guide you on what you need to learn� You will need to study the chapters that are mentioned at the beginning
of each learning unit and any recommended reading sections. If you find a topic particularly interesting, then
feel free to do further reading on that topic�
0.6
MODULE-SPECIFIC STUDY PLAN
Use your my Studies @ Unisa brochure for general time management and planning skills�
This is a semester module over 15 weeks and it requires at least 120 hours of study time, which means that
you will have to study at least 8 hours per week for the module�
The following is a recommended time schedule that you could use as a guideline for studying this module�
ACTIVITY
HOURS
Reading and re-reading Tutorial Letter 101 and Learning Unit 0
3
Skimming learning units and textbook, forming a thorough general impression of the whole
5
First reading of Learning Units 1 to 8 and textbook 2 hours per learning unit
16
In-depth study of Learning Units 1 to 8: making mind maps and summaries, and doing
learning activities 8 hours per learning unit
64
Completing two assignments (Please Note: Assignment 01 should typically take less time
than Assignment 02�)
14
Examination revision
16
Writing the examination
2
Total
120
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FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
Below is an example of how you can schedule your study plan�
Week
1
(January/July)
Activity (each week represents 8 hours of study time)
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Read and re-read Tutorial Letter 101 and Learning Unit 0�
Skim through the learning units and the textbook, forming a thorough general
impression of the whole�
2
Read through the learning units and the textbook and identify all key areas�
3
4
5
6
In-depth study of Learning Units 1 and 2 (make mind maps and summaries and do
learning activities)�
Complete and submit Assignment 01 (please note, depending on how you will submit
the completed assignment, you should allow sufficient time for the assignment to reach
Unisa before the due date)�
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In-depth study of Learning Units 3 to 5 (make mind maps and summaries and do
learning activities)�
If possible, participate in the online discussion activity in Learning Unit 4�
9
10
Complete and submit Assignment 02 (please note, depending on how you will submit
the completed assignment, you should allow sufficient time for the assignment to reach
Unisa before the due date)�
11
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12
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In-depth study of Learning Units 6 to 8 (make mind maps and summaries and do
learning activities)�
If possible, participate in the online discussion activity in Learning Unit 7�
13
14
15
(April/October)
0.7
Revision and preparation for exam
HOW SHOULD YOU GO ABOUT STUDYING THIS MODULE?
Distance studies are unique, with particular requirements for success that you should not underestimate� Once
you have received your study material, please plan how you will approach and complete this module� You can
use the study plan in the previous section as a guideline to draw up a reasonable study schedule that can
guide you through the whole module� Remember to take into consideration the due dates of the assignments
as given in Tutorial Letter 101 for this module�
A crucial phase in the process of understanding and learning the basics of food preparation is to articulate your
ideas about the principles you are learning, both orally and in writing� Only when you have tried this process
for yourself will you understand the full value of the exercise�
7
The assignments in this module will take the form of written work, and they should give you an idea of how well
you are making progress in achieving the learning outcomes�
You should work through the learning units, making use of the learning strategies explained in the sections that
follow� Your work on each learning unit should involve the following:
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Skim through the unit and draw your own basic mind map of the content of the learning unit� Then expand
this map as your knowledge and understanding of the unit increase�
Make your own summary of every unit�
Do a reflection exercise at the end of every unit. (This is explained in more detail in a later section.)
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As you work, build up your own study and exam preparation portfolio� This portfolio will not be assessed, but
it will be an extremely valuable tool for you as you complete your assignments and revise for the examination�
What is a portfolio? A portfolio is a folder/file in which you gather and compile additional and/or summarised
information during the year as you work through the learning material�
Your portfolio should comprise:
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answers to each activity in each learning unit
a mind map/summary of each learning unit
your marked assignments (or a copy you made prior to submitting your assignment)
your reflections on each learning unit
extra reading material taken from the Internet, additional books and medical and/or scientific journals
a vocabulary of new words or a glossary of new terms in your own words
In order to ensure that you achieve the learning outcomes of this module, you can use the learning strategies
explained in the following section� After explaining these, I will also say more about managing your study time,
finding articles for further reading and avoiding plagiarism.
0.7.1
Learning strategies you can apply: The SSS method
There are a number of strategies that can help you study, one of which is the SSS strategy� The three techniques
in the SSS strategy are
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skimming,
scanning and outlining, and
study-reading and active learning�
In order to help you understand what these steps involve, I discuss the strategy in more detail in the following
sections�
0.7.1.1 Skimming
Skimming involves moving your eyes over a piece of text at a very fast pace in order to get a general overview
of what the text is about�
1�
Page through and explore� First, read the section quickly, forming a rough idea of the contents�
Concentrate on headings and subheadings, bold and italic type, boxes, tables and illustrations, and – in
the case of a chapter or learning unit – introductions and summaries. The outcomes for a learning unit
are important� (Think of how you would page through a magazine� When starting a new study unit, scan
it and concentrate on the concepts that catch your eye�)
2�
Do a cursory survey� Ask yourself while you read: What key terms occur in this learning unit or
chapter? Stop when you identify a key term and read carefully what is said about it� Mark it in the book
or in your printed study text� What you are trying to ascertain is: Where is it? In other words, where is
the information that you will need to discuss later?
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0.7.1.2 Scanning and outlining
Scanning also involves moving your eyes quickly over a text, but in this case you are doing it to find specific
key words or specific items of information.
3�
Using the key concepts you identified during skimming, scan the chapter, learning unit or section�
If you have Internet access, you can find more information on skimming and scanning here: https://www�
aacc.edu/tutoring/file/skimming.pdf
4�
Outline the section by starting a mind map (for the whole learning unit or chapter or for parts of it, as in
starting a summary)� You are looking for items and concepts while reading the information in the section
or chapter in a more evaluative way. Reflect on interrelationships between concepts. The question now
is: What is the main topic of this section/unit? What are the key concepts and how do they relate to the
topic?
If you have access to the Internet, you can find a great deal of information about drawing mind maps, and
also see examples of such maps� Some good sites to start with are the following:
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http://www�wikihow�com/Make-a-Mind-Map
http://www�mind-mapping�co�uk/make-mind-map�htm
Extend your outline� Start by giving your mind map a structure� As you work through the prescribed
activities of the section or chapter, keep returning to the mind map to fill in the detail. Think about the
value and meaning of categories, concepts and key terms�
0.7.1.3 Study-reading and active learning
6�
Study-reading and completing activities� This follows directly from the previous stages and is done
carefully, thoroughly and thoughtfully� The key terms and concepts you have pinpointed have to be
linked up, and here the mind map and summaries are important� (Remember to put your detailed mind
map in your portfolio�) Pause while reading, consolidate what you remember and consider how new
information fits in with what you already have. This will give you a good representation of the whole.
Your learning will be enhanced if you are active throughout this process� Whenever you get to an activity
in your study guide, complete it in full on loose pages, which you then insert into your portfolio, grouped
together per section and study unit� Supplement this with your own notes from your portfolio� (You do not
need to submit the activities in the portfolio to the lecturer, but these are essential for exam preparation�)
Further, take time to understand what you read� Note new vocabulary words� Use a dictionary to
understand the meanings of new words, or use Google to define a word for you. You could compile a page
for each study unit and add it to your portfolio�
7�
Communicate. If you have access to the Internet, use the Discussions tool to raise any issues you find
difficult, or even just interesting. If you cannot get help from your fellow students, feel free to contact
your lecturer� Also respond to other students’ postings in the Discussions tool� Communicating with
others about what you are learning will help to enhance the process�
8�
Reflect. At the end of every learning unit, reflect on what you have learnt. This involves asking yourself
the following questions:





What are the main new insights I gained in this learning unit? (Write down two or three�)
What did I already know and find quite easy?
Is there anything that I found difficult?
What did I find difficult? Why might I have found this difficult? What can I do to resolve these difficulties?
Has the new knowledge I gained perhaps changed my thinking about issues such as how the body
functions and how my own health is or should be maintained and what the uses of food preparation
knowledge might be in my life or career? (If so, write down your thoughts on this or discuss it with others
in the Discussions tool�)
9
Reflection has a great potential to enhance your learning by making you aware of your individual learning
strategies and progress, of the wider context in which you can apply your learning, and also of the impact that
your learning process has had on yourself and your own circumstances�
0.7.2
Managing your self-paced study time
As I mentioned in an earlier section, you require at least 120 study hours to achieve the outcomes of this
module (although this time may vary substantially among individuals)� As you will have around 15 weeks to
complete a semester module, you should plan to use at least eight study hours per week per module�
Remember, if you have registered for more than one module you should plan time for each module accordingly�
I advise you to keep a study schedule or diary so that you can have a clear idea of the time you have available
for study� This will help you to manage your studies within your available time and balance study with work and
family life�
In Tutorial Letter 101 and on myUnisa you will find a list of due dates for various assignments, which you
should keep in your normal diary� Break the large assignments into a series of smaller tasks to be completed
one step at a time�
0.7.3
Finding research/scientific articles
One of the easiest ways to find scientific and scholarly articles is to use the site Google Scholar, which you can
access at http://scholar�google�com�
On this site, you will see that there is a down arrow within the search bar where you are to enter your search
terms� If you click on this arrow, you will get a menu, ”Advanced Search”, that will allow you to make your
search much more specific. When you have entered your search terms and pressed “Search” (or the icon
representing this – a magnifying glass), a number of websites relating to your query will appear. The advantage
of using this portal is that you can access most journal references in this way�
Certain journals, such as Science Direct, can be accessed only through a tertiary academic institution such as
Unisa� To access this journal, you need to do the following:
1�
Go to Unisa online at http://www�unisa�ac�za/�
2�
Click on “Library” at the top of the page�
3�
In the menu on the left-hand side of the screen, click on “search for information resources”�
4�
Follow the guidelines if you are a first-time user.
5�
Click on the option “find e-resources”.
6�
Now click on “A-Z list of electronic resources”�
7�
When you have entered one of these databases, you can search for scientific articles by typing in the
relevant keywords in the “search” box. Be very specific with the keywords. One word will usually give too
much information and not on the specific topic you are looking for.
8�
You will need to do some independent searches yourself, as part of your portfolio, assignments and
exam preparation, especially since this is a distance education course, which needs to be supplemented
with information from Internet sources�
Contact the Unisa Library at +27 12 4293206 or see the library website for the local branch library’s telephone
number if you have any difficulties or for assistance.
10
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
0.7.4
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is regarded as an act of fraud. It occurs when a student or any other person unfairly uses or copies
words or ideas of others as his or her own, uses references incorrectly or alters the sentence structure without
giving credit to the other person(s). The act of plagiarism is a serious offence and you must avoid it all cost.
Avoiding plagiarism
Never try to pass off other people’s work (or our learning units and study material) as your own. If you want
to incorporate other people’s words and ideas or our notes in your own answers, enclose these in quotation
marks if you are quoting directly, and always acknowledge your source. Use the Harvard referencing method.
You can search for more information on this method online; a good source is http://www.staffs.ac.uk/assets/
harvard_quick_guide_tcm44-47797.pdf. If you are unsure about the correct way to acknowledge sources,
contact Unisa’s Library Information Desk.
Students who do not acknowledge the source of quotations, or who plagiarise from lecture notes and outside
sources or who copy someone else’s answers may be refused permission to write the examination, or may be
penalised in the assignment.
0.8
ORIENTATION TO USING MYUNISA
I have already outlined the advantages of online learning in section 0.1 of this learning unit. In the sections that
follow, I will give you an orientation to using myUnisa. We will see how the Unisa menu options work, and refer
to the rules or etiquette of online communications. Finally, you will have the opportunity to try your own hand
at using one of the most important tools on myUnisa, the Discussions tool.
0.8.1
The myUnisa menu options
You need to be able to use the various menu options on this course site. They will enable you to participate
actively in the learning process.
Click on the following links to see where the various options are located.







0.8.2
Announcements: From time to time I will use this facility to give you important information about this
module. You should receive e-mail notification of new announcements placed on myUnisa.
Schedule: This tool gives you access to important dates and details about events, such as examination
dates and deadlines for your assignments. You will need this information to help you manage your time
and plan your own schedule.
Course contact: If you want to send me e-mails in connection with this module, use this tool to
communicate with me.
Additional resources: This tool allows you to access any additional learning support material that might
help you in your studies for this module. I will send an e-mail alert or announcement to inform you if I add
anything to this folder.
Discussions: This tool allows us to hold discussions as if we were in a contact setting, and I hope that
this will give you clarity on many of the issues that students tend to struggle with. I will set up a number
of discussion forums that you can visit to discuss specific topics. There will also be a forum for students,
where you can discuss issues among yourselves, or just support one another.
Assessment info: This tool allows you to submit your assignments electronically and to monitor your
results. If you can, please submit your assignments via myUnisa. If you do not know how to do this,
consult Tutorial Letter 101.
Learning units: The learning units are your main learning resource in this module and contain the content
and learning activities that you need to work through to achieve the module outcomes.
myUnisa etiquette
myUnisa is the university’s online platform where lectures and students meet, interact and participate in
an ongoing process of learning and teaching. In interacting online, always remember to be mindful of and
11
respectful towards your fellow students and your lecturers� The rules of polite behaviour on the Internet are
referred to as netiquette – a term that means “online manners”.
You can access the following websites to learn more about netiquette:



http://networketiquette�net/
http://www�studygs�net/netiquette�htm
http://www�carnegiecyberacademy�com/facultyPages/communication/netiquette�html
Please observe the rules of netiquette during your normal, everyday online communications with colleagues,
lecturers and friends� In particular, remember to be courteous to your fellow students when using the Discussions
tool�
0.8.3
Activity 0.1: Introduce yourself
At this point, I would like you to do an activity called an “ice breaker”�
What is an ice breaker?
The ice breaker serves a number of purposes� Among other things:


It will help you to get to know the myUnisa online environment�
It will help you to get to know and connect to your fellow students�
To do the activity, click on the “Discussions” option in the menu on the left-hand side of the screen� From here,
click on the forum “Module-related discussions”, and then on the topic “Introducing yourself”�
Once inside the topic, post a short entry in which you:


tell us who you are and where you live;
share what food preparation means to you, and why you chose to study it�
Also respond to at least one posting by one of your fellow students�
0.9
ASSESSMENT IN THIS MODULE
Your work in this module will be assessed by the following:


Two written assignments, which will be used to calculate a year mark that will count 30% towards your
final mark
One written examination of 2 hours, which will count 70% towards your final mark
Please consult Tutorial Letter 101 for details about assessment in this module� Be sure to read the following
information in the tutorial letter:




How your assignment and exam marks will be calculated
The due dates and unique numbers of your assignments
How you should submit your assignments
Examination periods, admission and marks
Tutorial Letter 101 also contains the actual assignment questions�
Remember that while Tutorial Letter 101 will be sent to you, you can also access an electronic version by using
the link on this page, or by going to the “Additional Resources” folder and the “Tutorial matter” subfolder�
Good luck and enjoy the course!
12
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
LEARNING UNIT 1: HEATING AND EQUIPMENT
Contents
Page
1�1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 14
1�2
LEARNING OUTCOMES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 14
1�3
PRESCRIBED READING���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 14
1�4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 14
1�5
1�4�1
Heating foods ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 14
1�4�2
Food preparation equipment ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
1�4�3
Measuring and mixing ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
1�5�1
Activity 1�1 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
1�5�2
Feedback on Activity 1�1 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
1�5�3
Activity 1�2 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
1�5�4
Feedback on Activity 1�2 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
1�6
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17
1�7
CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 17
13
1.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Nobody really knows how cooking was discovered� However, it is important to know how to heat food properly
and what the correct equipment is to use in food preparation� After this learning unit you must be able to explain
the fundamentals of heating and equipment use in food preparation�
Figure 1.1 Heating equipment
(http://www�shutterstock�com/)
1.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this learning unit you should be able to:








1.3
explain how the heat is transferred when food is cooked
recognise the different kinds of thermometers and know how to read them
identify primary and auxiliary kitchen equipment and utensils that are used in the kitchen
list various pots and pans and their uses
list various knives and their uses
discuss different measuring utensils
explain the difference between mass and volume
explain the difference between metric and nonmetric measurement
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A, 2015� Understanding food principles and preparation� University of Hawaii, Manoa: Fifth edition�
1.4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
It is important to learn and develop the ability to use appropriate utensils and apply food preparation principles
and skills in a food service operation�
1.4.1
Heating foods
Heating is the process of speeding up the movement of molecules, while low temperatures slow it down� Many
factors are involved in the heating of foods� Heating food also involves conduction, convection, induction and
radiation�
For more insight on the heating of foods, study the following chapters of your prescribed book, Understanding
food principles and preparation:
14
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
Chapter: 4 Food Safety
Chapter: 5 Food Preparation Basics
Heading: Cooking (Heating)
Heading: Heating Foods
Pages:
Pages:
1.4.2
85–89
101–106
Food preparation equipment
Food preparation equipment can be divided into different categories as illustrated in the following diagram:
FOOD PREPARATION EQUIPMENT
Primary equipment
Auxiliary equipment
Utensils













Stoves
Ovens
Refrigerator
Dishwasher
Toaster
Pressure cooker
Microwave
Slow cooker
Teaspoons
Knives
Forks
Table spoon
Serving spoons
For more insight on food preparation equipment, refer to the following:
Prescribed book: Understanding food principles and preparation.
Appendix A 1–13: Food preparation equipment
YouTube and websites
Cooking course: https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=71cvSqZSwi0
Essential cooking tools: https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=n4BBdzmQnFg
1.4.3
Measuring and mixing
Consistency in measuring and mixing techniques can make the difference to a recipe’s success or failure and
depends on the following noticeable differences:
h
Mass and volume
Weighing, commonly used to mean determining the mass, is a much more accurate measurement than
determining volume� Consequently, it is used by many food service operations� Weight can be measured by a
number of different scales�
h
Metric and nonmetric
Metric measurements of volume are expressed in millilitres� Five different types of measuring utensils are used
in food preparation�
For more insight on measuring tools and techniques follow this YouTube link:
Measuring tools and techniques: https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=1pVDV8QK8HQ
15
1.5
ACTIVITIES
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
1.5.1
Activity 1.1
List the various types of knives that are commonly used in kitchens, and describe how each may be used�
1.5.2
Feedback on Activity 1.1
The following types of knives are commonly used in kitchens:
Utility knife : Cuts tomatoes or carves meat�
Paring knife : Trims vegetables, fruits and small pieces of meat such as chicken breasts
Boning knife : Debones chicken breasts, disjoints poultry, cuts between meat joints and dices raw meat�
Slicing knife : Slices potions of meat including poultry�
Serrated knife : Cuts tomatoes and bread�
Butcher knife : Cuts raw meat�
Heavy cleaver knife : Cuts through bones�
Steak or scimitar knife : Cuts steaks from parts of the carcass�
Oyster and clam knife : Opens shellfish.
1.5.3
a�
Activity 1.2
Watch the video clip on measuring tools and techniques and answer the questions below�
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=1pVDV8QK8HQ


1.5.4
List all the measuring tools mentioned in the video clip�
Explain how each one of them can be used�
Feedback on Activity 1.2
1�
List the measuring tools that are used in the video�
2�
Explain what each tool is used for�
3�
Explain how you are going to practise what you have learned�
The lady in the video clip mentioned the following measuring tools:





Measuring cups
Measuring spoons
Digital scanner
Measuring bowls
Measuring jug
16
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
1.6
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
1.7
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were introduced to the heating of food and the use of equipment in food preparation�
You also learned about the types of heat and how heat is transferred in food preparation� You were further
introduced to the different materials used to measure heat�
In the next learning unit we will learn the basics of food preparation, i�e� methods of heating foods, how to use
different kitchen utensils and how to measure ingredients when cooking�
17
LEARNING UNIT 2: FOOD PREPARATION BASICS
Contents
Page
2�1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 19
2�2
LEARNING OUTCOMES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 19
2�3
PRESCRIBED READING���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 19
2�4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 19
2�5
2�4�1
Methods of heating foods ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20
2�4�2
Cutlery techniques �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 20
2�4�3
Measuring the ingredients ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
2.4.4
Seasonings and flavourings ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 24
ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 24
2�5�1
Activity ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 24
2�5�2
Feedback on activity ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 25
2�6
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 25
2�7
CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 25
18
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
2.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
It is essential to understand the basics of food preparation� No matter how knowledgeable and careful the chef
may be, the results in terms of taste and presentation will vary from meal to meal� Factors that contribute to
the differences in prepared food include the type of heat used, the cooking utensils, the quantity of food, the
freshness of the ingredients and the unique tastes and preferences of individuals� Learn the basic techniques,
practise as often as you can, love what you do, and you will become a master at your work�
Figure 2.1 Food preparation
(http://www�shutterstock�com/)
2.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After you have studied this learning unit, you should be able to:






classify the heating methods
handle different types of knives
measure ingredients correctly
distinguish between different mixing techniques
present food on a plate
list the types of garnishes
2.3
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A, 2015� Understanding food principles and preparation� University of Hawaii, Manoa: Fifth edition�
2.4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
It is important to learn how to apply different heating methods appropriately, to know knives and how to use
them, how to apply the correct measuring and mixing techniques and how to enhance food by using seasoning
and flavouring.
Pictorial summary
Prescribed book: Understanding food principles and preparation.
Chapter:
5 Food preparation basics
Page:
118
19
2.4.1
Methods of heating foods
There are three methods of heating food
h
Moist-heat preparation
Heat is transferred by water, a water-based liquid or steam�
h
Dry-heat preparation
Heat is transferred by air, radiation, fat or metal�
h
Microwave
Usually listed as a moist heat, microwaves actually incorporate both dry-heat (radiation) and moist-heat
methods�
Heating changes the molecular structure of food, destroys harmful microorganisms and alters the texture,
taste, odour and appearance of food�
2.4.2
Cutlery techniques
Using cutlery properly is one of the most important aspects of food preparation� For instance, knowing knives
and how to use them is essential to basic food preparation� The technique varies according to the type of knife
that is chosen for a particular task�
Handling knives
The most frequently used knife is the chef’s or French knife. This knife should be firmly held with the base of
the blade between the thumb and forefinger and the other fingers wrapped around the handle. The other hand
must hold the food and guide it towards the blade. Curl the fingers, keep them away from the cutting edge, and
allow at least a 1,25 cm barrier of food between the blade and the fingers holding the food. Figure 2.1 below
illustrates the ways of handling a knife�
Figure 2.2
(http://www�shutterstock�com/)
Follow this YouTube link to learn more about handling knives
Knife Skills
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=Ydc_SaQ_eRQ
20
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
Cutting styles
It is very important to apply the right style when cutting food� The goal in cutting food is uniformity� Why?
Because this allows even heating and gives food an appetising appearance� The size of your food service
establishment will determine whether you can do everything by hand or have to rely on equipment to do the
job� Time, money and labour also play a role in your decision� The different styles of cutting allow us to have
different types of food shapes for convenience in food preparation, and because foods are different some
require a certain style of cutting�
Slicing
Figure 2.3
(http://www�shutterstock�com/)
To move the food under the blade while keeping the point of the blade firmly on the cutting board the base of
the knife is lifted up and pushed down with a forward and backward motion�
Julienne
Figure 2.3
(http://www�shutterstock�com/)
This method is used to cut food length-wise into thin, stick-like shapes as shown in a bowl with carrots and
celery Figure 2�3 illustrates how to cut food this way�
21
Shredding
Figure 2.4
(http://www�shutterstock�com/)
This is method is used to cut leaf vegetables into thin strips� Figure 2�4 shows shredded vegetables�
Dicing
Figure 2.5
(http://www�shutterstock�com/)
This method is used to cut food into even-sized cubes� Figure 2�5 illustrates diced carrots�
22
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
Mince
Figure 2.6
(http://www�shutterstock�com/)
This method is used to chop food into very fine pieces. Figure 2.6 below illustrates how to cut food into fine
pieces�
Peeling
Figure 2.7
(http://www�shutterstock�com/)
This is used to remove the skin as shown in figure 2.7. Some vegetables like asparagus can be peeled with a
paring knife�
For more insight on cutting styles, study the following from your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
2.4.3
Understanding food principles and preparation.
5 Food Preparation Basics Appendix A: 1–13: Food Preparation Equipment
Cutlery Techniques
107–109
Measuring the ingredients
Correct measuring is essential in basic food preparation� It is important to know how to use and read the
general measuring units� Wet ingredients are measured by means of a transparent, graduated cup with a pour
spout. Dry ingredients are measured by means of flat-topped measuring cups for levelling.
23
For greater accuracy, scales may be used to measure ingredients� There are three basic steps in measuring:
acquiring the amount for a specific measurement
selecting the right measuring utensil
using an accurate measuring technique



For more insight on measuring ingredients and techniques, study the following chapters of your prescribed
book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
2.4.4
Understanding food principles and preparation.
5 Food Preparation Basics Appendix A: Food Preparation Equipment
Measuring Ingredients
Appendix B: Appropriate Food Measurement
109–112
Seasonings and flavourings
“Enhancing the flavour of food is an art that is critical to the acceptability of foods, and restaurants can succeed
or fail depending on how that art is practiced” (Amy Brown, 2015:113)�
The ingredients that are used for seasoning and flavouring are commonly known as herbs and spices. These
add flavour to food. More than one seasoning can be used in a dish to complement each other.
The types of seasoning and flavouring are salt, herbs and spices, oil extracts, marinades, breading and batters.
For more insight on seasoning and flavouring, study the following chapters of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
5 Food Preparation Basics
Seasoning and Flavourings
113–117
Follow this slide share link to learn more about seasonings and flavourings: http://www�slideshare�net/
rohitmohan754/seasonings-and-flavourings
2.5
ACTIVITIES
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
2.5.1
a�
Activity
Complete the table below by listing the kinds of knives that are used in the kitchen in Column A and
matching each one of them with a corresponding cutting style in Column B
Column A: Type of knife
Column B: Cutting style
Utility knife
Paring knife
Boning knife
Slicing knife
Serrated
24
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
b.
Explain the difference between seasoning and flavouring. Indicate how each can be used to enhance
food�
2.5.2
Feedback on activity
a.
Type of knife
Cutting style
Utility knife
slicing
Paring knife
dicing
Boning knife
dicing
Slicing knife
julienne
Serrated
slicing
Feedback on activity
b.
Seasoning is used to enhance the natural taste that is found in food� Salt is used to season food� The
two most common types of salt are sea salt, which is produced as a result of the evaporation of sea
water, and rock salt, which is mined from land deposits�
Flavouring is an ingredient that is added to food to bring out a new flavour. This addition alters and enhances
the natural taste of the food�
To learn more about seasoning and flavouring, follow the slide share link on seasoning and flavouring:
http://www.slideshare.net/rohitmohan754/seasonings-and-flavourings
2.6
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
2.7
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were introduced to and learned about the following:





Basics of food preparation
Heating methods
The different uses of kitchen knives
Different ways of measuring and mixing food, seasoning and flavouring
The different utensils that are used
In the next learning unit we will deal with the nutritional value of milk and the physical properties of milk as well
as the effect of heat on the quality of milk�
25
LEARNING UNIT 3: MILK AND CHEESE
Contents
Page
3�1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 27
3�2
LEARNING OUTCOMES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
3�3
PRESCRIBED READING���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
3�4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
3�5
COMPOSITION OF MILK ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
3�5�1
Types of milk ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 28
3�6
HOMOGENISATION ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 28
3�7
CHEESE������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 29
3�7�1
3�8
3�9
Cheese production �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29
ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29
3�8�1
Activity 3�1 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 29
3�8�2
Feedback on activity 3�1 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 30
3�8�3
Activity 3�2 ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 30
3�8�4
Feedback on activity 3�2 ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 30
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 30
3�10 CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 30
26
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
3.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Milk is a unique beverage that provides complete protein, many of the B vitamins, vitamins A and D and
calcium� Milk is not an absolutely perfect food, but it is the most complete single food known�
Figure 3.1 Milk and cheese
(http://www�shutterstock�com/index-in�mhtml)
3.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this learning unit, you should be able to:








3.3
briefly discuss the nutritional value of milk
explain the effect of heat on the quality of milk
list and recognise types of milk
discuss the physical properties of milk
discuss the stability factors of milk foam
handle and store milk
classify cheese according to its moisture content
discuss the basic processes of cheese manufacturing
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A, 2015� Understanding food principles and preparation� University of Hawaii, Manoa: Fifth edition�
3.4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
You are going to learn about the composition of milk�
3.5
COMPOSITION OF MILK
Milk is a complex food in which more than a hundred components have been identified. The exact composition
of milk varies, depending on the breed of cattle, the feed used and the period of lactation� The milk available on
the market, however, has a uniform composition that may vary slightly according to governmental regulations
in terms of butterfat and solids content�
The nutrients in milk
We will now look at the general categories of nutrients in milk and the forms in which they occur:


Water – almost 90% of milk is water.
Proteins – the predominant types of protein found in milk are casein and whey.
27
Whey. Putting milk through an ultrafiltration process isolates whey. This liquid fraction is used by the food
industry as an emulsifier and as a foaming and gelling agent. Adding milk proteins to other foods improves their
texture, mouth-feel, moisture retention and flavour.

Carbohydrates� Lactose or milk sugar is the primary carbohydrate found in milk� When the bacteria in milk
metabolise lactose, lactic acid is produced. Lactic acid is responsible for the flavour in cheese, yogurt and
sour cream� Lactose is broken down by lactase into glucose and galactose, which are easily absorbed�
Fats. The fat in milk, called milk fat or butterfat, plays a role in the flavour, mouth-feel and stability of milk
products. Milk contains cholesterol. The fat that is present in the cream is finely emulsified.
Minerals� The major mineral in milk and milk products is calcium�
Phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sodium, chloride and sulphur are found in smaller quantities in milk
and milk products� Milk is low in iron�
Vitamins. Milk contains vitamins A, D, B (riboflavin) and traces of niacin.




For more insight into the composition of milk, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
3.5.1
Understanding food principles and preparation.
10 Milk
Composition of Milk
212–216
Types of milk
There are different types of milk available. They include fluid milk, canned milk, dried milk and cultured milk as
well as creams�
For more insight into types of milk, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
3.6
Understanding food principles and preparation.
10 Milk
Types of Milk
218–225
HOMOGENISATION
To homogenise means to make uniform or the same� Because the fat is lighter than the liquid part of the milk,
it rises to the surface and forms a layer of cream� When milk is homogenised, it is forced through a tiny valve
under high pressure� The process breaks up the fat into very small globules, now evenly dispersed throughout
the milk. A film of proteins immediately surrounds the small fat globules, so that the globules no longer adhere
to one another� However, because larger areas of the fat globules are now exposed to the air, the fat in the milk
may become rancid more easily� But, as all homogenised milk is also pasteurised, the fat in the milk does not
become rancid� This process has no effect on nutrient content, but sensory changes do occur�
You can also watch the following video clip on homogenisation and pasteurisation:
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=r0rCEBPgo5Q
For more insight into homogenisation, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Page:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
10 Milk
Homogenisation
217
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FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
3.7
CHEESE
Cheese is a preserved food made from the curd, or solid portion, of milk�
One of the most nutrient-dense foods, cheese is used daily all over the world as an ingredient to add flavour,
colour and texture to prepared food or to enjoy on its own� Adding certain enzymes and/or acid to any type of
milk causes the casein proteins and fat to coagulate and separate from the liquid portion or whey to form the
curd� Moisture is removed from the curd to varying degrees� The curd is then treated in a variety of ways to
produce different types of cheese�
3.7.1
Cheese production
Five basic steps are common to the production of all varieties of cheese�
No two cheese varieties are produced by exactly the same method�
1�
Milk selection� Choose the appropriate milk� Pasteurised cow’s milk is the most common choice� The
type of milk from which the cheese is made determines the amount of fat in the cheese�
2�
Coagulation� Cheese making starts with the coagulation of the casein protein in milk� Adding enzymes or
acid represents the two main methods of aiding coagulation�
Visit https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=mQRIMxWXvAo to learn more about making cheese from powdered
milk�
3.8
ACTIVITIES
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
3.8.1
Activity 3.1
a�
Milk may be treated according to pasteurisation processes� Temperatures and times vary� The processes
most commonly used by milk processors are the LTLT and HTST types� (See p192, table 9-4, in your
prescribed book�)
i.
Define “ultrapasteurisation”:
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
ii.
Define “ultrahigh temperature” (UHT):
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
iii.
What are the benefits of sterile packaging of UHT milk?
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
29
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
iv�
How should UHT milk be treated, once opened?
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
3.8.2
Feedback on activity 3.1
Milk is graded according to its bacterial count� The highest grade, Grade , has the lowest count� The law
requires that all Grade A milk and milk products crossing state lines be pasteurized� Pasteurisation is the
heating process that was originally used on wine and beer to minimize microbial growth� It was soon discovered
the pasteurising milk helped reduce associated food borne illness�
3.8.3
Activity 3.2
Discuss the effects of fat content� Your answer must focus on the following aspects:
i�
ii�
iii�
iv�
v�
temperature
cream
age
sugar
whipping time with regard to the stability of milk foam in whipped cream
3.8.4
Feedback on activity 3.2
Study pages 218 to 219 in your prescribed textbook to learn more about different types of milk� Examples
include whole milk, reduced-fat and low-fat milk and fat-free or non-fat milk� Cream is a collective of fat droplets
that floats to the top of nonhomogenized whole milk. The heavier and thicker the cream is, the higher the fat
content will be�
An example of how to whip cream is shown in the following video:
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=XNtKdMLBqFg
3.9
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
3.10
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were introduced to how milk is produced and to the different types of milk� We also
discussed the different classifications of cheese and the processes involved in producing cheese.
30
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
LEARNING UNIT 4: EGGS
Contents
Page
4�1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 32
4�2
PRESCRIBED READING���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
4�3
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
4�4
LEARNING OUTCOMES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
4�5
COMPOSITION OF EGGS ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
4�6
4�5�1
Purchasing eggs ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 33
4�5�2
Function of eggs in food ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 34
4�5�3
Preparation of eggs ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
4�5�4
Storage of eggs ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
4�6�1
Activity ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
4�6�2
Feedback on activity ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
4�7
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
4�8
CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 37
31
4.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
The quality of protein in eggs is so high that it has become the protein standard by which researchers rate
all other foods� It is a life-sustaining protein� The versatility of eggs, whether prepared on their own or in
combination with other foods, makes them nearly indispensable in cooking� A sound understanding of the
various roles eggs play in food preparation requires a general knowledge of eggs� We shall discuss chicken
eggs� A laying hen produces one egg every 25 hours or so�
Figure 4.1 Eggs
(http://www�shutterstock�com/)
4.2
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A, 2015� Understanding food principles and preparation� University of Hawaii, Manoa: Fifth edition�
4.3
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
It is important to learn how the major components of eggs play a role in food preparation� Their size, grading
and quality have implications for the decision that you need to make when purchasing them� Eggs perform
various functions in food�
4.4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this learning unit you should be able to:







4.5
analyse the structure and composition of an egg
determine the quality of eggs
evaluate the nutritional value of eggs
discuss the effect of heat on eggs
explain the formation of egg foam
discuss the different uses of eggs in food preparation
determine the most effective ways of storing eggs
COMPOSITION OF EGGS
In the following sections you will learn more about the composition of eggs�
Structure
The egg has five major components:
32
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
Yolk
The yolk makes up 30% of the egg, is located near the centre of the egg and is surrounded by the thin vitellin
membrane� This membrane separates the white from the yolk� The germinal disc is visible as a very small
spot on the surface of the yolk from which the chick develops in a fertilised egg� At each end of the yolk is an
opaque, twisted strand called the chalaza that anchors the yolk to the membranes surrounding the albumen to
hold the yolk in the centre of the egg�
Albumen
The albumen or egg white is a viscous, opalescent substance forming 58% of the mass of the egg� The
albumen is composed of four layers of alternating viscosity:




the inner thick albumen around the yolk
the inner thin albumen
the outer thick or firm albumen
the outer thin albumen
Shell membranes
Inside the shell there are two membranes� One of these adheres closely to the shell� The membranes press
up against the shell and protect the egg against bacterial invasion�
Air cell
Soon after an egg is laid, the contents shrink and the two membranes become separated by a small air space
that usually appears at the larger end of the egg� The air space is used in grading to judge the approximate
age of the egg�
Shell
A hard calcium-carbonate shell surrounds the delicate internal contents of an egg� Eggshells are not solid but
porous� Carbon dioxide and moisture escape and air enters through this porous shell� A transparent substance
known as a cuticle covers the shell� This protective coating blocks the pores and prevents excessive moisture
loss and bacterial contamination� The cuticle is removed when the eggs are washed� Washed eggs may be
coated with a thin film of edible oil for protection.
For more insight on the composition of eggs, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
4.5.1
Understanding food principles and preparation.
12 Eggs
Composition of Eggs
251–253
Purchasing eggs
When you are purchasing eggs it is very important to inspect them for quality and consider their grading� It is
also important to learn how to inspect an egg and take its size into consideration�
Inspection
Egg quality is determined by the egg’s characteristics, how fresh it is and its quality�
Grading
The following methods may be used to determine the grading of an egg:
33
h
Candling
Before eggs are packed, they are checked for defects by means of candling� This method is used to assess
the quality of an egg without removing it from the shell� The egg is slowly rotated and simultaneously viewed
under a strong, bright light� The following aspects of the egg are checked:





the size and position of the air space
the clearness of the egg white
the position and mobility of the yolk and the shadow it casts
the condition of the shell
appearance
When broken onto a plate, a fresh egg will have a domed yolk set in two distinct layers of egg white that appear
to be a thick layer and a thin layer� In a less-than-fresh egg, the egg white becomes watery and thin, the yolk
membrane weakens and the yolk tends to spread over the plate� The result is that the whole egg will appear
flat. Study p228, figure 11-4, in your prescribed book.
h
Size
The freshness of an egg is judged by the size of the air space� The older the egg, the bigger the air space�
When eggs are placed in a container of cold water, a new-laid egg will sink to the bottom� It will lie there in a
horizontal position because the air space is only beginning to form and is therefore small� When an egg is no
longer fresh, the air space has become bigger� As a result of the larger air space, the egg stands upright in cold
water with the large end uppermost� When the egg has become stale, the air space has increased so much
that the egg will float when placed in cold water.
For more insight into the purchasing of eggs, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
12 Eggs
Purchasing Eggs
253–255
Follow this link to learn how to test if an egg is fresh:
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=E2OWXN80NZQ
4.5.2
Function of eggs in food
Eggs have different functions in food and we will now look at each of these functions in more detail�
Emulsifying
Egg is the most widely used emulsifying agent in food preparation� It is not only a natural emulsion, but also a
very efficient emulsifying agent for water and oil mixtures because it contains a high proportion of lecithin. The
lecithin acts as the emulsifying component of egg yolk� It forms a permanent and stable emulsion that will not
separate on standing� Examples of these permanent emulsions are mayonnaise, choux pastry, batter, dough
and ice cream�
Binding
Egg mixed with other ingredients acts as a binding agent in many dishes� When such dishes are heated, the
protein in the egg coagulates and binds the separate ingredients together� In this way the egg in dishes such
as croquettes, meat fillings and stuffing holds together ingredients that would otherwise fall apart.
Foaming
The best eggs to use for egg-white foam are fresh eggs because they have thick egg whites which contribute
to foam stability� Egg foam forms when raw eggs are beaten or whisked� Air is incorporated in the form of small
bubbles surrounded by a film of protein. These air bubbles are dispersed through the water in the egg. The
34
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
three most common stages in the whisking of egg whites into foam are foamy, soft peak, and stiff peak� Egg
white whisked to the dry-foam stage is not suitable for use because such foams collapse readily and are lumpy
when added to other mixtures�
For more insight on the functions of eggs, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Page:
4.5.3
Understanding food principles and preparation.
12 Eggs
Functions of Eggs
256
Preparation of eggs
Eggs are extremely versatile and can be prepared on their own or in combination with other foods� They
are easy to prepare� Adherence to the basic principles of protein cookery will enhance the appearance and
palatability of egg dishes� Eggs can be prepared in a variety of ways, using either dry-heat or moist-heat
methods�
Dry-heat
Moist-heat







Fried eggs
Scrambled eggs
Omelettes
Baking
Hard or soft boil
Coddling
Poaching
For more insight on the preparation of eggs, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Page:
4.5.4
Understanding food principles and preparation.
12 Eggs
Preparation of Eggs
259
Storage of eggs
Eggs begin to deteriorate as soon as they are laid, and they lose quality very rapidly at room temperature� To
ensure the freshness of eggs, they may be refrigerated, frozen or dried�
For more insight into the storage of eggs, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
4.6
Understanding food principles and preparation.
12 Eggs
Storage of Eggs
266–267
ACTIVITIES
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
35
4.6.1
a.
Activity
Explain the role that egg foam plays in food preparation.
b.
Complete the following table by indicating the function of eggs in the different dishes:
Dish
Function of eggs
Croquettes
Ice cream
Omelettes
Soufflés
Angel food cake
4.6.2
Feedback on activity
a.
The capacity of egg whites to be beaten into a foam that increases by up to six or eight times their
original volume in invaluable in food preparation� Egg white foams are used to aerate and leaven a number of
food products, such as puffy omelettes, soufflés, angel food cake, sponge cake and meringues.
b.
Dish
Function of eggs
Croquettes
A croquette is a small, breadcrumbed, fried food roll� The mashedpotato-filled croquettes are often served as a side dish.
Ice cream
To thicken and stabilise food and prevent water, fat and other liquids
from separating�
Omelettes
To increase the volume, to aerate and to leaven�
Soufflés
To increase the volume, to aerate and to leaven�
Angel food cake
To thicken and stabilise food and prevent water, fat and other liquids
from separating�
4.7
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
36
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
4.8
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were taken through the composition and functions of eggs, different ways of cooking
eggs and how eggs can be purchased and stored� We also looked at methods to determine egg quality�
37
LEARNING UNIT 5: STARCHES AND SAUCES
Contents
Page
5�1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 39
5�2
LEARNING OUTCOMES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39
5�3
PRESCRIBED READING���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39
5�4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39
5�5
SOURCES OF STARCH ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
5�6
5�5�1
Starch transformations �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
5�5�2
Storage of starches and sauces ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 41
5.5.3
Seasoning and flavouring ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 41
ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 41
5�6�1
Activities ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 42
5�6�2
Feedback on activities �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42
5�7
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42
5�8
CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42
38
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
5.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Starches are complex carbohydrates and are a staple food in diets throughout the world� Carbohydrates
provide as much as 65% of the calories in one’s diet� Starch is enjoyed in the form of potatoes, rice, pasta,
sorghum, cereals, breads etc and provides energy� The texture, taste and appearance of many foods, for
example sauces, gravies, cream soups, salad dressings and desserts are determined by starch� The video
below will give you more insight into starch as a complex carbohydrate and the food types which contain
starch� Visit:
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=ZbERk9e0Mk0
Figure 5.1 Starches
(http://www�shutterstock�com/)
5.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this learning unit, you should be able to:







5.3
describe the basic structure of starch
discuss the different characteristics of starch and how these are utilised in food preparation
list and discuss the factors that influence gelatinisation
define a mother sauce and a small sauce and list examples of both
discuss the difference between a thickened and an unthickened sauce
explain how to prepare a thickened sauce by different methods
explain how to store starches and sauces
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A, 2015� Understanding food principles and preparation� University of Hawaii, Manoa: Fifth edition�
5.4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
You probably recognised most of the starches, and you most likely also have a very good idea of their various
types�
In this learning unit, we will refine this knowledge that you already have by exploring how the starches and
sources work together�
39
5.5
SOURCES OF STARCH
Common sources of starch are wheat, rice, potatoes, arrowroot, dried beans, peas, sago palm and corn�
Starch acts as a thickening or gelling agent in food preparation�
Starch in food products
Starch is found in food products such as cereals (rice, wheat and maize) and the root vegetables (potatoes
and cassava)�
Starch functions as
A thickening agent (foods that are frequently thickened with starch are soups, sauces, pie fillings and
puddings)
An edible film (which can be a protective coating on chewing gum, is used to bind foods such as meat
products and pet foods, and also acts as a base to hold substances such as fats and oils in chocolates)
Dextrose (This is used as a sweetener in confections, wine and some canned foods�)



For more insight into starches and sauces, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
5.5.1
Understanding food principles and preparation.
18 Starches and Sauces
Starch Characteristics
389–391
Starch transformations
Starches go through changes or transformations and these processes make them valuable in food preparation�
Gelatinisation
When starch granules are heated in a liquid, they absorb the liquid, swell, and increase in viscosity and
translucency� This process is called gelatinisation� Gelatinisation helps to improve the availability of starch for
amylase hydrolysis� Gelatinisation of starch is used constantly in cooking to make the starch digestible or for
thickening�
The following factors affect gelatinisation:
Water
During the preparation of foods such as rice and pasta, enough water must be available to cover the starch,
to allow for evaporation, and to allow for expansion of the starch. Sufficient water must also be available for
absorption by the starch� The concentrations of amylose and amylopectin in the starch determine how much
water is required�
Temperature
The type of starch determines the gelatinisation temperature� Gelatinisation occurs over a range of temperatures�
Gelatinisation temperature of starch depends upon plant type and the amount of water, salt and sugar present�
Timing
Continued heating will cause the starch granules to break apart because of the stressed bonds which hold the
granules together�
Stirring
Stirring is required at the beginning of the gelatinisation process to ensure uniform consistency and to prevent
lumps from forming� Continued and vigorous stirring causes the starch granules to break, which results in a
slippery starch paste with less viscosity, e�g� roux source�
40
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
Acidity
Acidity inhibits the development of large crystals, giving the confectionery a smoother texture�
Sugar
Sugar decreases the thickness as well as the firmness of the cooked starch product because the sugar in the
mixture limits the swelling of the starch granules by competing with the granules for water� Put another way:
the sugar absorbs some of the water in the mixture to enable it to dissolve, leaving less water available for the
granules to absorb and swell to their full capacity�
Fat


The fat or protein coats the starch and prevents it from absorbing water� This delays gelatinisation�
All these factors need to work in synchronic order for maximum gelatinisation to occur�
Gel formation (gelation)



Gelation occurs when a hot, gelatinised paste is cooked and cooled�
Gelatinisation will therefore always precede gelation�
Hydrogen bonding occurs during cooling (below 38˚C), when water is retained in the network of starch
molecules�
The gelatinised sol (suspension in a liquid) forms a gel when cooled�
Only those starch grains that contain amylose are effective agents for gelling a liquid� Although amylopectin
starches do not form firm gels, they are able to give thickness to a starch mixture.


Retrogradation
The swollen amylose molecules are attracted to each other during the cooling process� When this happens,
they rebond and draw closer to each other to form a swollen starch network�
For more insight into starch transformation, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
5.5.2
Understanding food principles and preparation.
18 Starches and Sauces
Starch Transformation
392–394
Storage of starches and sauces
As with all other grains, starches should be kept in airtight containers and stored in a cool, dry place away from
light, moisture, oxygen and pests� The ingredients added to prepared starches make them prone to bacterial
contamination and thus to food-borne diseases� Store prepared sauces in the refrigerator� Never leave them
at room temperature for too long�
5.5.3
Seasoning and flavouring
The basic seasonings are salt, pepper, spices, herbs, wine and lemon juice� Any acid product is added after
gelatinisation, because acid breaks down the starch. Glaze, a highly flavoured concentrate, is added for flavour.
5.6
ACTIVITIES
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
41
5.6.1
Activities
a�
Discuss the role of starch in food preparation�
b�
What is the function of gelatinisation in food preparation?
c�
Prepare a table with two columns� In column A, list the factors that affect gelatinisation� In column B,
explain how each factor contributes to food preparation�
5.6.2
a.
Feedback on activities
Your answer should reflect the following:



b.
Your answer should reflect the following:



c.
The effect of heat
The availability of amylase hydrolysis
Digestion and thickening
Your answer should reflect the following:






5.7
Starch as a thickening agent
An edible film
The role that dextrose plays
Water: evaporation, expansion, absorption, and the concentration of amylose and amylopectin
Temperature: the role that it plays in starch transformation
Stirring: timing and consistency
Acidity: texture of food
Sugar: consistency, the effect of water
Fat: absorption
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
5.8
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were introduced to grains, starches and sources� The different types of sources and
starches were discussed in the relevant chapter�
42
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
LEARNING UNIT 6: CEREALS, GRAINS AND PASTAS
Contents
Page
6�1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 44
6�2
LEARNING OUTCOMES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44
6�3
PRESCRIBED READING���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44
6�4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 44
6�5
COMPOSITION OF CEREAL GRAINS ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 45
6�5�1
Uses of cereal grains ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 45
6�5�2
Types of cereal grains ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 45
6�5�3
Factors that affect the cooking time of cereals�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 48
6�6
ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49
6�7
ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49
6�8
FEEDBACK ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50
6�9
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50
6�10 CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50
43
6.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Cereals are produced in every part of the world� Cereal grains are seeds from the grass family Gramineae�
These seeds and their products may be regarded as “the staff of life”� Each area grows its own preferred
cereal, which is usually the grain best suited to the soil and climatic conditions in the particular area� In many
countries 80% to 90% of the food energy consumed is supplied by one kind of cereal� Grains are the world’s
main food crops�
Figure 6.1 Cereals, grains and pastas
(http://www�shutterstock�com/pic)
Can you identify the different foods in the picture above? I think you probably recognised most of them, and
you most likely also have a very good idea of their various functions. In this learning unit, we will refine the
knowledge you already have by exploring how the cereals, grains and pastas work together�
6.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this learning unit, you should be able to:






6.3
describe the structure of cereal grains and list the grains
discuss the uses of cereal grains
classify and define cereal products
explain how to prepare some grain products and pastas
discuss the storage of cereals and pastas
describe the different types of pastas
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A, 2015� Understanding food principles and preparation� University of Hawaii, Manoa: Fifth edition�
6.4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
In this learning unit you will learn important facts about cereals, grains and pastas, and in particular:




how they are composed
what the different types are
how they are used
how they are stored
44
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
6.5
COMPOSITION OF CEREAL GRAINS
All cereal grains consist of four major parts:




the husk or chaff
the bran covering
the starchy endosperm
the germ
For more insight into the composition of cereal grains, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
6.5.1
Understanding food principles and preparation.
16
Cereals, Grains and Pastas
345–347
Uses of cereal grains
Cereal grains are mostly used for flour, pasta, breakfast cereals, the production of alcoholic beverages and
animal feeds�
Flour
Flour is the fine powder obtained from crushing the endosperm of the grain. The bran and germ are also milled
and added to make whole-grain flours. Why is wheat the predominant choice of grain for flour? Because it
provides a protein structure that facilitates the rising of baked goods� Flour is used to make breads and an
assortment of other baked products and it also plays an important role as a thickener�
Pasta
Pasta comes in a variety of shapes and is sold both dried and fresh�
Breakfast cereal
Breakfast cereal was introduced to the general public in the 1800s as a vegetarian substitute for the traditional
bacon and eggs� Over 75% of breakfast cereals nowadays are the ready-to-eat types made from wheat, maize
or oats� Varying kinds of breakfast cereals are available to consumers�
For more insight into the uses of cereal grains, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
6.5.2
Understanding food principles and preparation.
16 Cereals, Grains and Pastas
Uses of Cereal Grains
347–348
Types of cereal grains
The primary grains in the world today are, in descending order of importance: wheat, rice, maize, barley, millet,
sorghum, oats and rye�
Wheat
Classification of wheat
Wheat is classified according to:




species
growing season
texture
colour
45
There are 14 different species of wheat and each of them has a number of different varieties� Only three
species account for almost 90% of all the wheat grown in the world:



common (soft)
club
durum (hard)
Two major types of wheat are classified according to their growing season:
Winter wheat (hard): With a high protein content for the production of leavened bread (Durum is the
hardest and the highest in protein and is suitable for making pasta and certain breads�)
Spring wheat (soft): With a lower protein content than winter wheat for making baked products such as
cakes, pastries and biscuits�


The protein content of wheat makes this cereal grain the most suitable for a variety of different baking purposes�
Wheat may also be classified by colour, for example red and white, with various shades of yellow and amber
in between. However, all milled flours appear white.
Forms of wheat
Flour is just one of many possible forms of wheat� Other forms of wheat are as follows:
Table 6�1: Forms of wheat
Form
Definition/Description
Cooking time/Uses
Wheat berries
Whole, not processed or milled
Takes the longest time to cook
Cracked wheat
Berries that are ground until they crack
(coarse, medium, fine)
Takes about 15 minutes to
cook
Rolled wheat
Berries, flattened between rollers
Similar to rolled oats
Bulgur wheat
Partially steamed dried and cracked with
a more pronounced flavour
Ingredient in tabbouleh
Farina
Granulating the endosperm into a fine
consistency
Cream of wheat
Wheat germ
Germ of kernel
Source of vitamin E, some
Vitamin Bs and fibre
Wheat bran
Bran kernel
Source of insoluble
For more insight into wheat, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
16 Cereals, Grains and Pastas
Cereal Grains Containing Gluten
349–350
Rice
Rice is the staple food of half the world’s population, and 94% of the world’s rice is produced in Asia�
46
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
Classification of rice
Rice is classified according to the following criteria:
Mode of cultivation


lowland, wet or irrigated rice (90% of all rice is grown with its roots submerged in water
highland, hills or dry rice, grown in areas with plentiful rain (hilly terrain prevents flooding.)
Grain length
The length in relationship to the width of the grain determines whether rice is considered long-grain, mediumgrain or short-grain rice�
Texture
For more insight into rice, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
16 Cereals, Grains and Pastas
Rice
354–356
Maize or corn
More than 50% of the world’s maize is grown in the United States (US)� Maize (or “corn” in the US) has an
important place in the daily diet of most South Africans� It provides about 35% of the population’s per capita
carbohydrate requirements, 31% of its protein requirements, and about 15% of its fat requirements� Maize as
a food has been the most economical and versatile source of energy in South Africa for many years�
Classification of maize or corn
Maize is classified according to the following criteria:
Colour


Maize is predominantly yellow or white, but can also be red, pink, blue or black and with bands or stripes�
Kernel type
Dent corn accounts for 95% of all maize grown in the US� Half is sold as livestock feed and the rest is stored
as a buffer against the next year’s crop, exported or used in the production of corn syrup, alcohol, starch and
canned and other processed corn�





Sweet corn tastes best before the milky fluid in fresh corn kernels has had a chance to harden.
Flint corn produces extremely hard corn kernels and makes a good quality cornmeal�
Popcorn comprises thick-walled kernels�
Flour corn is white or blue and used to make flour and chips.
Pod corn is non-commercial�
Types of maize
Maize is used for livestock feed and human food, to make alcohol, and for its seed�
Table 6�2: Types of maize
Form/brand
Definition/description
Cooking time/uses
Corn on the cob
and kernel corn
Yellow, white or hybrid
Eaten directly off the cob, or kernels
are removed from the cob� Used as a
vegetable in a variety of dishes
47
Form/brand
Definition/description
Cooking time/uses
Hominy
The endosperm is soaked in lye and dried,
enlarged kernels of hulled (i�e� with the bran
and germ removed) corn
Canned or frozen
Hominy grits
Ground, dried hominy in small
Boiled as a breakfast dish
Cornmeal
Coarsely ground corn
Whole or degerminated, used in corn
bread, with high fat content or short
shelf life
Cornstarch
Finely ground endosperm
Thickener
Corn syrup
Cornstarch treated with certain enzymes
produces a viscious liquid consisting of
fructose, glucose and other sugars
Dark or light (the darker the colour,
the stronger the flavour
Corn oil
Extracted from the germ
For more insight into maize or corn, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
16 Cereals, Grains and Pastas
Corn
352–354
Barley
Barley is primarily used as malt in cereals and soups, for livestock feed, in the manufacture of beer and
whiskey, and in salads and stews� Barley is available in different forms, such as






Hulled barley
Pot barley
Pearled barley
Flaked barley
Barley grits
Malt
For more insight into barley, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
6.5.3
Understanding food principles and preparation.
16 Cereals, Grains and Pastas
Barley
350–351
Factors that affect the cooking time of cereals
Several factors affect the time required for cooking cereals:






The size of the cereal particles
The quantity of water used in the cooking process
The previous treatment of the cereal
The amount of cellulose in a particular cereal
The temperature used in the cooking process (which will influence the thickening and softening of the
starch)
The method of cooking (e�g� whether moist or dry heat is used)
48
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
PASTAS
Pasta is an excellent source of complex carbohydrates. Pasta is predominantly made of starch flour and water.
Flavourings and colourings can be added� The carotenoid pigments in durum wheat contribute to pasta’s rich,
golden colour� Added egg yolks also enhance the colour�
Most pastas are enriched� The highest-quality pastas are made from the higher-protein wheats� Although
pasta is naturally low in fat, the fat and calorie (kcal) count goes up when it is served with sauces made from
butter, oil, cream and meat�
The high protein content of durum wheat flour, also called semolina, makes it the best suited for pasta production.
Durum wheat can withstand the pressures of mechanical kneading and manipulation during commercial pasta
production as well as the heating during preparation�
Types of pasta
The various types of pasta are extruded at 46˚C and dried in their own characteristic shapes. The moisture
level drops from 31% to ±10%–12%.
Consumption percentage of pastas:
Table 6�3: Types of pasta
Long goods (e�g� spaghetti,
linguine) 41%
Short goods (e�g� macaroni)
noodles 15%
Speciality items (e�g� lasagne)
13%
For more insight into pasta, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
6.6
Understanding food principles and preparation.
16 Cereals, Grains and Pastas
Pastas
358–361
ACTIVITIES
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
6.7
ACTIVITIES
a�
Discuss the factors that affect the cooking time of cereals�
b�
Draw a mind map of the different types of cereal grains� In your mind map you can include the following:
i�
ii�
iii�
iv�
Uses
Definition
Classification
Storage
Follow this link to learn more about creating mind maps:
http://www�mind-mapping�co�uk/mind-mapping-information-and-advice/how-to-make-a-mind-map/
49
http://freemind�sourceforge�net/wiki/index�php/Main_Page
https://www�edrawsoft�com/freemind�php
6.8
FEEDBACK
a�
Factors that affect the cooking time of cereals are:







The size of the cereal particles
The quantity of water used in the cooking process
The previous treatment of the cereal
The amount of cellulose in a particular cereal
The temperature used in the cooking process (which will influence the thickening)
The softening of the starch
The method of cooking (e�g� whether moist or dry heat is used)
6.9
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
6.10
CONCLUSION
In this unit you were introduced to cereals, grains and pastas� Food examples were also given and discussed�
Activities were given to enable you to learn more about cereals, grains and pastas�
50
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
LEARNING UNIT 7: FLOURS AND FLOUR MIXTURES
Contents
Page
7�1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 52
7�2
LEARNING OUTCOMES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 52
7�3
PRESCRIBED READING���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 52
7�4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 52
7�5
MILLING ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 53
7�6
7�5�1
Gluten ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
7.5.2
Types of wheat flour ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 53
7�5�3
Flour mixtures ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 54
ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55
7�6�1
Activities ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 55
7�6�2
Feedback ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55
7�7
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55
7�8
CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 55
51
7.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Since humans first discovered how to bake bread, there has been a huge increase in the variety of baked
goods from basic breads (e�g� yeast and quick breads) to specialty breads, cakes and desserts� From your
everyday practical knowledge as well as what you learnt at school, you probably already have a great deal of
knowledge of flours and flour mixtures.
Flours provide:



Structure (The starch in flour strengthens the baked product through gelatinisation.)
Crumb texture
Flavour in baked products
Figure 7.1 Flour and flour mixture
(http://www�shutterstock�com/pic)
7.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this learning unit, you should be able to:







7.3
categorise a basic flour mixture’s ingredients into dry or liquid
describe the five steps of the milling process
list the different types of wheat flours and non-wheat flours and describe how each one is used
list and discuss the uses of the different types of treated flours
list the various ingredients used in flour mixtures and discuss their functions
explain the differences between doughs and batters in terms of their ingredients and preparation processes
explain how to store flour and flour mixtures
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A, 2015� Understanding food principles and preparation� University of Hawaii, Manoa: Fifth edition�
7.4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
In this unit you are going to learn about flour and how it can be used to produce baked products, and about the
ingredients that are used to complement the flour.
52
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
7.5
MILLING
Milling or grinding is a process in which the grain kernel’s endosperm is ground into a fine powder known as
flour.
There are five steps in the milling process:
Step
Process
Step 1: Breaking
Break rollers remove the bran and germ layers from the endosperm� The result is
called break flour.
Step 2: Purifying
Flour is moved through containers where air currents remove any remaining bran�
The purified endosperm is known as middlings.
Step 3: Reducing
Rollers grind the middlings into flour.
Step 4: Sifting
The flour is then sifted in streams and these determine how the flour is classified.
Step 5: Classifying
Flours are classified from patent flour (fine) to straight flour (containing all the
different types of streams)�
For more insight into milling, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
7.5.1

Understanding food principles and preparation.
17 Flour and Flour Mixtures
Milling
370–371
Gluten
Gluten is a protein formed in the dough� Gluten provides the structural framework for baked products� The
proteins in flour that form gluten are gliadin and glutenin.
Kneading allows gluten to develop� During kneading, the starch molecules absorb water� The gluten
becomes elastic and plastic and has the ability to retain water in its foam-like network�
When the dough is baked, the gas trapped within expands and this causes the dough to rise� Gluten (the
protein) coagulates and the dough sets in its risen form�


For more insight into gluten, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
7.5.2
Understanding food principles and preparation.
17 Flour and Flour Mixtures
Gluten
367–369
Types of wheat flour
Flours vary according to the specific types of wheat used for their particular qualities, the blending of different
combinations, and the streams selected during milling. Wheat flour is discussed here.
Wheat is used to make bread because of the gluten-forming properties of wheat. Rye flour is second to wheat
for bread making, but has to be mixed with about 25% wheat flour. The different types of wheat differ in their
protein content�

Soft wheat has the least protein and the highest starch content, and is ideal for the tender, fine crumb of
cakes and pastries�
53


Hard wheat has a higher protein content and is ideal for making yeast breads�
Durum wheat is milled into semolina flour, which is ideal for making pasta.
Different types of flours can be obtained from different types of wheat, which are blended in different
combinations with the use of selected streams. The specific type of wheat is chosen for its particular quality.
For more insight into wheat flour, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
7.5.3
Understanding food principles and preparation.
17 Flour and Flour Mixtures
Wheat Flour Classification
371–373
Flour mixtures
Flour mixture ingredients may include leavening agents, sugar, salt, liquid, fat, eggs and in some cases
commercial additives� These will be discussed in more detail in our prescribed textbook� We turn our attention
to the following:
Sugar
The function of sugar as one the flour mixture ingredient is to








sweeten baked food
increase volume
provide food for yeast
raise temperatures and give the gluten more time to stretch
add moistness and tenderness
help to brown the outer crust through
caramelise
ensure the Maillard reaction�
For more insight into wheat flour, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
17 Flour and Flour Mixtures
Flour Mixture Ingredients
371–373
Salt
The function of salt as one the flour mixture ingredients is to




add flavour
produce a firmer dough by adjusting the solubility and swelling capacity of the gluten
improve volume, texture of crumb and flavour
prolong shelf life
Fat
Fat is sometimes called shortening because when it is incorporated into a wheat flour mixture it physically
interferes with the development of gluten and creates a tenderer crumb� The following are some of the functions
of fat in a flour mixture:





It improves volume�
It adds strength, crumb and flakiness.
It improves flavour and enhances colour.
It prolongs shelf life�
It inhibits yeast activity�
54
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
For more insight into flour mixture ingredients, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
7.6
Understanding food principles and preparation.
17 Flour and Flour Mixtures
Flour Mixture Ingredients
374–381
ACTIVITIES
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
7.6.1
Activities
a�
Explain why wheat is used to make bread�
b�
Explain why the following flour mixtures need to be added to flour-based food products:



7.6.2
a�
the role of starch in the bread and the texture of bread/yeast breads
Your answer should reflect the following:





7.7
Feedback
Your answer should reflect the following:

b�
sugar
salt
fat
taste
volume
moisture, tenderness and flavour
colour
storage
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
7.8
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were introduced to flours and flour mixtures. These ingredients add texture and
structure to products that are baked�
55
LEARNING UNIT 8: QUICK BREADS
Contents
Page
8�1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 57
8�2
LEARNING OUTCOMES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
8�3
PRESCRIBED READING���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
8�4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
8�5
PREPARATION OF QUICK BREADS ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
8�6
8.5.1
The muffin method �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58
8�5�2
Varieties of quick breads ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58
ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 58
8�6�1
Activities ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 59
8�6�2
Feedback to activities ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 59
8�7
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 59
8�8
CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 59
56
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
8.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Why are quick breads called “quick”? Because they are baked immediately after the ingredients have been
mixed� There is no waiting, as in the case of yeast breads, for leavening to take place through the slow
fermentation of yeast� Quick breads are leavened during baking by air, steam, and/or carbon dioxide produced
through the action of baking soda or baking powder�
Figure 8.1 Quick breads
(http://www�shutterstock�com/pic)
8.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this learning unit, you should be able to:




8.3
describe the making of quick breads through the muffin method
explain the differences between drop batters, pour batters and doughs
describe how the different varieties of quick breads are prepared
discuss why problems occur when quick breads are prepared
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A, 2015� Understanding food principles and preparation� University of Hawaii, Manoa: Fifth edition�
8.4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
In the sections that follow, I will alert you to the key points you should take note of with regard to quick breads,
the preparation of quick breads and varieties of quick breads�
8.5
PREPARATION OF QUICK BREADS
The two most important factors in the preparation of quick breads are:


the consistency of the batter
the cooking temperature
How do you make a quick bread?
Visit this video at https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=Er1MK6kwv3Q to learn about how to make a quick bread�
57
8.5.1
The muffin method
The muffin method is used to prepare many quick breads. This method comprises three steps:



Sift the dry ingredients together�
Combine the moist ingredients in a separate bowl�
Stir the dry and moist ingredients together with only a few strokes, until the dry ingredients are just
moistened but still lumpy�
Approximately ten strokes are sufficient if kneading is called for. Overkneading creates too much gluten,
which causes the finished bread to be dense and heavy. The pans are normally greased, filled and baked at
temperatures between 177˚C and 232˚C, depending on the type of bread. For muffin recipes visit this link:
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=52VYxUHjfQE
8.5.2
Varieties of quick breads
The ratio of flour to liquid determines whether the mixture is a pour batter or a drop batter or dough.
Pour batters
Pour batters are quite thin and are used for:




pancakes
crêpes
waffles
popovers
According to your prescribed book, flapjacks or crumpets are called “pancakes” in the United States. In South
Africa we also use the word “pancakes” instead of “crêpes” and “Yorkshire puddings” instead of “popovers”�
Drop batters
Drop batters are thicker because they contain more flour. They are used for:




muffins
quick tea breads
coffee cakes
dumplings
Dough
Dough contains still more flour. It is usually lightly kneaded and used for:



8.6
biscuits (leavened)
scones (leavened)
unleavened breads (e.g. tortillas, chapatis, crisp flat breads and matzos).
ACTIVITIES
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
58
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
8.6.1
a�
Activities
What is the difference between pour batters, drop batters and dough?
8.6.2
Feedback to activities
a�
Your answers must reflect the following differences in the breads:



Flour mixture
The amount of water
The ratio of flour to liquid
8.7
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
8.8
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were introduced to quick breads, how they are prepared and the variety of quick breads
available�
59
LEARNING UNIT 9: YEAST BREADS
Contents
Page
9�1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 61
9�2
LEARNING OUTCOMES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 61
9�3
PRESCRIBED READING���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 61
9�4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 61
9�5
PREPARATION OF YEAST BREADS��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 61
9�6
STORAGE OF YEAST BREADS ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 62
9�7
ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 63
9�7�1
Activities ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 63
9�7�2
Feedback ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 63
9�8
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 63
9�9
CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 63
60
FOO1501/MO001/4/2016
9.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Yeast breads are leavened with carbon dioxide that is produced by baker’s yeast, a one-celled fungus that
multiplies rapidly at the right temperature and in the presence of a small amount of sugar and moisture�
Figure 9.1 Yeast breads
(http://www�shutterstock�com/pic)
9.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this learning unit, you should be able to:
list the different ingredients for yeast bread and discuss the functions they fulfil
describe how yeast breads are prepared as well as mixing methods, kneading, fermentation and baking
discuss the different ingredients for the different varieties of yeast breads and describe how these breads
are prepared
identify the factors that affect the quality of the baked product
explain how yeast breads should be stored





9.3
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A, 2015� Understanding food principles and preparation� University of Hawaii, Manoa: Fifth edition�
9.4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
In this unit you are going to learn about the preparation of yeast breads and about mixing methods, types of
yeast breads and methods of storage�
9.5
PREPARATION OF YEAST BREADS
Introduction
The ingredients that are needed to bake yeast breads are flour, yeast as a leavening agent, sugar, salt and fat
and/or eggs�
For more insight into the preparation of yeast bread, the ingredients and their functions, study the following
table from your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Table:
Page:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
20 Food Safety
Yeast Breads Ingredients and their Functions
20-1
418
61
Mixing methods
The four best-known mixing methods for yeast breads are
the straight dough method, which requires all ingredients to be placed in a mixing bowl at the same
time;
the sponge method, which requires yeast and water to be mixed slightly with over one third of flour to
create the foamy, bubbly mixture that looks like a sponge;
the batter method, which is the simplest of all the mixing techniques and requires no kneading after the
ingredients have been mixed (When the batter method is followed, the dough is not kneaded� A thin layer
of flour prevents the dough from sticking.);
the rapid-mix method, which is used when bread making machines and bread making kitchen appliances
are used to make the task easier�




All the ingredients should be at room temperature so that the desired dough consistency may be obtained�
The dough must reach the desired degree of consistency because this influences the dough’s characteristics
and the final quality of the baked item.
Kneading
Gluten develops to its maximum potential when dough is kneaded� Dough must be physically handled until it
is smooth, soft and non-stick and springs back when pressed gently�
More flour may be kneaded into the dough, but if too much flour is added, fermentation will take longer. The
final product will then be dry and streaked or heavy.
For more insight into mixing methods, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
20 Yeast Breads
Mixing Methods
419–421
Fermentation – first rising
After the dough has been kneaded, you grease the surface by gently rolling the sides of the dough in a lightly
greased bowl� This prevents the dough from drying out as it rises� To maintain humidity and prevent drying, the
dough is placed in a bowl and covered with a clean, moist dish towel, paper towel or plastic wrap�
Changes during fermentation




The yeast ferments and the dough doubles in size as carbon dioxide is produced by the yeast� Enzyme
and pH changes are responsible for changes in the dough�
The dough becomes more acidic because carbonic acid (i�e� carbon dioxide + water) is formed and
because of the lactic and acetic acids produced by the yeast�
The increased acidity improves the gluten’s ability to combine with water�
Acid improves the flavour, extends the shelf life by inhibiting staling and mould growth and reduces the
stickiness of the dough�
The time it takes for the dough to rise (approximately three quarters of an hour to two hours) depends on the
type and concentration of the yeast and its sugar content�
9.6
STORAGE OF YEAST BREADS
Freshly baked bread is best consumed within a day or two and wheat bread and rye bread should be consumed
within seven days� Completely cooled bread must be wrapped and stored in a cool, dry place� Bread and
baked products start to stale as soon as they come out of the oven�
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9.7
Activities
In the sections that follow I will provide an activity that is aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
9.7.1
Activities
a�
Describe the mixing methods�
b�
Explain what determines the character of a baked food product�
9.7.2
Feedback
a�
Your answer should reflect the four best-known methods and their descriptions.
b�
Your answer should reflect the following determinants:


9.8
Kneading – the effect of gluten, the amount of flour, fermentation and the physical influence of
kneading
Fermentation – the importance of first rising, the effect of yeast and acidity
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
9.9
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were taken through the various types of yeast breads, their preparation and how to
store them�
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LEARNING UNIT 10: CAKES AND COOKIES
Contents
Page
10�1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 65
10�2 LEARNING OUTCOMES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 65
10�3 PRESCRIBED READING���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 65
10�4 TYPES OF CAKES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 65
10�4�1 Shortened cakes ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 65
10�4�2 Preparation of cakes ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 66
10�4�3 Types of cookies ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67
10�5 ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67
10�5�1 Activities ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 67
10�5�2 Feedback on activities �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67
10�6 REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 67
10�7 CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68
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10.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
With regard to cakes and cookies, the same basic ingredients as for quick and yeast breads are combined in
a flour mixture. Cakes and cookies, however, require a higher proportion of sugar, liquid and fat. The different
ways and styles in which these ingredients are combined produce a range of baked goods, from the simplest
cookies to the most elaborate wedding cakes�
Figure 10.1 Cakes and cookies
(http://www�shutterstock�com/pic)
10.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this learning unit, you should be able to:




10.3
classify types of cakes and cookies and briefly explain the differences
list the different ingredients used in cake and cookie preparation and discuss the functions they fulfil
describe how different cakes and cookies are prepared
explain how cakes and cookies should be stored
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A, 2015� Understanding food principles and preparation� University of Hawaii, Manoa: Fifth edition�
10.4
TYPES OF CAKES
Cakes are classified into three categories:



Shortened cake: This is made with fat�
Unshortened cake: Fat is not part of the ingredients�
Chiffon cake: This is made by combining the ingredients of both shortened and unshortened cakes�
Before you continue to the next section, watch this video clip on preparing and baking a simple chocolate cake:
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=nGsxFaG4BZI
10.4.1 Shortened cakes
Shortened cakes are also known as butter or conventional cakes�
Examples of shortened cakes are white, chocolate and fruit cakes�
65
Shortened cakes are normally leavened with baking powder or baking soda�
Two other factors also contribute to leavening:


steam generated by the liquid ingredients
air incorporated into the mixture during the mixing process
Unshortened cakes
Unshortened cakes are also known as sponge or foam cakes� Examples of unshortened cakes are angel food
or sponge cakes�
The term “sponge’’ is used to describe cakes made with beaten egg whites�
Unshortened cakes are normally leavened with:


steam generated by the liquid ingredients
air from foamed or beaten eggs
Angel food cakes are made with beaten egg whites� Sponge cakes are made with beaten whole eggs (giving
the cake a rich, yellow colour)�
Chiffon cakes
Fat, usually vegetable oil and egg yolks, is combined with cake flour, leavening agents and foamed egg whites.
Examples of chiffon cakes are lemon and chocolate chiffon cakes�
For more insight into types of cakes, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
23 Cakes and Cookies
Types of Cake
478–481
10.4.2 Preparation of cakes
The ingredients as well as the mixing of the batters for shortened and unshortened cakes are different� Different
ingredients and different mixing methods produce different cakes�
Flour mixtures that produce cakes and cookies are very similar to those used to make breads� However,
cakes and cookies require more sugar, liquid and fat. These mixtures are sweeter, with added flavourings not
normally used in breads�
Ingredients
The primary goal is to bake a cake that holds together, but is still tender and moist�
The main ingredients in cakes are:





flour
sugar
fat
eggs
milk
Also visit https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=BFPdcRVBj7g for a butter cake recipe demonstration�
For more insight into the preparation of cakes, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book: Understanding food principles and preparation.
Chapter:
23 Cakes and Cookies
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Heading:
Pages:
Preparation of Cakes
481–488
10.4.3 Types of cookies
Cookies contain many of the same ingredients as cakes, except that less water and more sugar and fat are
added to the mixture�
There are hundreds of cookie recipes because there is a wide range of flavouring agents that may be added.
Types of cookies




Dropped cookies
Bar cookies
Moulded cookies
Rolled cookies
10.5
ACTIVITIES
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
10.5.1 Activities
a�
Identify the categories of cakes and give a description of each�
b�
Identify the categories of cookies and give a description of each�
10.5.2 Feedback on activities
a�
Your answer should reflect the following:



b�
Your answer should reflect the following:




10.6
Shortened cakes – leavening and fat
Unshortened cakes – leavening and fat
Chiffon cakes – leavening and fat
Dropped cookies – characteristics
Bar cookies – characteristics
Moulded cookies – characteristics
Rolled cookies – characteristics
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
67
4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
10.7
CONCLUSION
Cakes and cookies make an interesting difference whether it is at a function or at home� Their preparation
allows for a great deal of variation, which adds to the difference that they make� You have learned about the
types of cakes, the various methods of preparation and how these make a difference�
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LEARNING UNIT 11: PIES AND PASTRIES
Contents
Page
11�1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 70
11�2 LEARNING OUTCOMES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70
11�3 PRESCRIBED READING���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70
11�4 KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 70
11�5 TYPES OF PASTRY������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 70
11�5�1 Preparation of pastry ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 71
11�5�2 Mixing and baking ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 71
11�6 STORAGE OF PASTRY ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 71
11�7 ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 72
11�7�1 Activities ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 72
11�7�2 Feedback on activities �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 72
11�8 REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 72
11�9 CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 73
69
11.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Good-quality pastry is flaky, tender and crisp and lightly browned. Making pastry is labour-intensive. Pastries
are made with precisely measured ingredients, in a time- and temperature-sensitive manner, and with an
artistic touch – “the true test of a chef’s skill”.
Figure 11.1 Pies and pastries
(http://www�shutterstock�com/pic)
11.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this learning unit, you should be able to:





11.3
classify types of pastries and briefly explain the differences
list the different ingredients used in pastry preparation and discuss the functions they fulfil
describe how the different pastries are prepared
identify factors that affect the quality of the final baked product
explain how pastry should be stored
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A, 2015� Understanding food principles and preparation� University of Hawaii, Manoa: Fifth edition�
11.4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
In the sections that follow, I will alert you to the key points you should take note of with regard to pastries, types
of pastries and pies� We will also discuss the mixing of pastries�
11.5
TYPES OF PASTRY
There are two basic types of pastry:


Plain (or pie) pastry: This is used for pie crusts, quiches, tarts and main-dish pies� Examples of this
pastry are chicken-and-mushroom pie�
Puff pastry: This is a delicate pastry that puffs up� It can increase up to 8 times its original size during
baking� It is used primarily in desserts� Examples of this pastry are banana pie and samosas�
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11.5.1 Preparation of pastry
There are two basic types of pastry� Pastries are the most delicate of all baked products and their preparation
requires considerable skill�
The following issues have to be considered when pastries are prepared:



correct proportions of ingredients
correct preparation technique
correct distribution of the fat and development of the gluten to create a crust that is flaky, tender and crisp
11.5.2 Mixing and baking
The classic method for mixing plain pie pastry includes the following steps:
Sift flour and salt together.
Let the mixture chill�
Cut cold fat into the chilled flour/salt mixture until the particles are reduced to the size of peas.



Watch the following videos to learn more:
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=1siW_wm9TnA
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=FC87gs1V-Gc
When baking pastry, you need to consider the following factors that can affect the quality of the final baked
product:
Pans
Pans that help absorb the heat are best to use for pies (e.g. Pyrex glass pans or pans with dull finishes).
Shiny metal pans deflect heat and thick metal pans take too long to heat.
The size of the pan determines the number of pie slices�
Pan placements in the oven differ for pies and puff pastries and custard-base pies�




Temperature
The temperature of the oven should be between 218˚C and 232˚C.
Timing
The type of pastry, the size of the product and the filling influence the baking time. Baking is complete when
the crust is lightly and delicately browned�
Watch the following video clips on how to prepare pastry:
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=1siW_wm9TnA
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=FC87gs1V-Gc
11.6
STORAGE OF PASTRY
Pastries are best served fresh from the oven� However, pastries will keep longer if they are refrigerated, and
some can be frozen�
Table 11�2: Storage of pastry
Product
Storage
Pastry dough
Frozen for up to 6 months
Unbaked pies
Frozen for up to 4 months
71
Baked berry pies
Frozen for 6 to 8 months
Pies with milk and egg
Do not freeze (milk and egg may separate)
Custard and cream pies
Frozen commercially, but not recommended for home freezing
Pies containing milk, eggs,
custard, cream and meringue
Keep refrigerated to avoid bacterial growth and food-borne illness)
For more insight into pastries, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Page:
11.7
Understanding food principles and preparation.
24
Storage of pastry
513
ACTIVITIES
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles;
examination preparation�
11.7.1 Activities
a�
What is considered of vital importance during the preparation of pastries?
b�
Explain what can impact the quality of a baked pastry�
11.7.2 Feedback on activities
a�
Your answer must reflect the following:



b�
Your answer must reflect the following:



11.8
Proportion of ingredients
Preparation techniques
Fat and gluten
Pans
Temperature
Timing
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
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4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
11.9
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were introduced to pastries and pies, including the storage of pies and the mixing of
pie ingredients�
73
LEARNING UNIT 12: SWEETENERS
Contents
Page
12�1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 75
12�2 LEARNING OUTCOMES ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75
12�3 KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75
12�4 SUGARS ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75
12�4�1 Types of sucrose ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 76
12�4�2 Syrups ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 77
12�4�3 Alternative sweeteners �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 78
12�5 ACTIVITIES ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 78
12�5�1 Activity ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 78
12�5�2 Feedback to activities ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 78
12�6 REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 78
12�7 CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 79
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12.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Every day researchers are on the lookout for new methods of extracting sweeteners from the natural plant
world� Sugar cane and sugar beets are the primary sources of sucrose (table sugar)� Sugar is the most widely
used sweetener in food preparation� Other types of sweeteners are syrups, sugar alcohols and alternative
sweeteners� What are the functions of sugar in foods?
Figure 12.1 Sweeteners
(http://www�shutterstock�com/pic)
12.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this learning unit, you should be able to:






12.3
discuss the functions of natural sweeteners
list different forms of sucrose
discuss the differences between different syrups
explain the differences between sugar alcohol and other sweeteners
list alternative sweeteners and briefly discuss their sweetness compared to that of sucrose
list and discuss the functions of sugar in food
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
In the sections that follow, I will alert you to the key points you should take note of with regard to sweeteners�
12.4
SUGARS
Where does sugar come from?
The process of obtaining table sugar from plants is as follows:








Harvested sugarcane is washed and machine-shredded�
Juice is extracted from the cane by crushing and squeezing�
Water is sprayed on the cut and pulverised sugarcane�
More juice flows out and is collected.
Sugar beets are washed, sliced and soaked in vats of hot water to remove the sugar�
The juices from both sugarcane and sugar beets are heated and concentrated in evaporation tanks to
create a thick syrup that is known as molasses�
Vacuum equipment lowers the boiling point of the syrup�
The syrup may be concentrated without being burnt�
75



Large sugar crystals form as the solution becomes saturated�
A centrifuge is used to separate the crystals from the molasses�
The centrifuge spins the solution at very high speeds and separates particles and/or liquids according to
their density�
Sugar provides 4 calories (kcal) per gram. Once extracted from its source, sugar becomes a refined
carbohydrate� By mass, sugar is the number one food additive because of its ability to sweeten�
Most of the sugar is used by manufacturers of confectionary products� Other uses are foods such as tomato
sauce, heavy syrup, canned fruit and nondairy creamers�
The many kinds of sugar differ in terms of individual characteristics and their functions in food�
Click on this link to learn how sugar is made:
https://www�youtube�com/watch?v=MIgavNuBRRA
Sucrose (table sugar)
Sucrose is the most familiar of the sugars, the one that usually comes to mind (and is often meant) when the
words “sugar” or “sweetener” are used�
12.4.1 Types of sucrose
The types of sucrose are produced from refined sugar that is further processed.
Glucose (dextrose)



Glucose is a basic building block of most carbohydrates�
It comes from fruit, vegetables, honey and corn syrup�
It is the most important sugar found in blood�
Glucose is used in confectionary products, fermented and other beverages, baked goods and canned fruit�
Glucose is used in the baking industry� It enhances crust colour, texture and crumb, and it is a component in
dry mixes� It also tempers the sweetness of sucrose�
Fructose (levulose or fruit sugar)
Fructose is found in fruit, honey, syrup, agave nectar, honey, molasses, maple syrup, fruit and fruit juices�
Fructose is rarely used in food preparation because it causes excessive stickiness in confectionary products,
overbrowning in baked products, and lower freezing temperatures in ice cream� It is primarily used in
pharmaceutical products�
Lactose
Lactose is the primary type of sugar found naturally in the breast milk of all mammals, including humans�
It is also widespread within various commercially made dairy products, but milk is its only source in nature�
Different types of milk contain different percentages of lactose� Lactose intolerance is a widespread digestive
problem, especially among people of African and Asian ancestry� It is found in milk and extracted from whey
for commercial use in baked products�
Lactose is used:


to promote browning in baked products;
as a filler in pills.
Maltose (malt sugar)
Maltose is also called malt sugar� It lends certain milk shakes and candies their characteristics malt taste� It is
used primarily as a flavouring and colouring agent in the manufacture of beer.
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Maltose is used for




confectionary products
milk shakes
flavouring
colouring in beer manufacturing
12.4.2 Syrups
Syrups are sugar solutions that vary in viscosity, carbohydrate concentration, flavour and price.
Types of syrup
Corn syrup
Corn syrup is a by-product of cornstarch� It is a viscous liquid and is 75% sugar and 25% water�
It is used in



soft drinks and processed foods to reduce costs
dry mixes for beverages
sauces and instant breakfast drinks
High-fructose corn syrup (HFCS)
The source of high-fructose corn syrup is cornstarch treated with a glucose isomerase enzyme� The beverage
industry alone uses 90% of available HFCS�
Advantages:



It has greater sweetening power, so that less is needed�
The cost is below that of sugar�
Clarity and colourlessness contribute to its industrial popularity�
Honey
Bees collect nectar during their flight. The nectar is converted through enzymatic action into fructose and
glucose molecules� The bees deposit these molecules in honeycombs where the water evaporates to create
the thick, sweet syrup known as honey�
Honey is extracted from the comb and then heated to 60˚C for 30 minutes to destroy most microorganisms. It
is then filtered and packed in airtight containers.
Honey is also sold as unfiltered comb honey, or whipped, creamed, dried and infused. Dried, granular honey
is used in baked products, confections and dry mixes� Honey in all its forms is used in all kinds of foods (e�g�
pancakes, glazed pork and teas)� With regard to storage, a high sugar content prevents the growth of bacteria
so that honey can be stored in a cool, dry place for years�
Molasses
Molasses is a thick, yellow to dark brown liquid by-product of the juice of sugar cane or beets� (Most of the
sugar in molasses is sucrose�)
The liquid is repeatedly boiled� To be called molasses, it must contain no more than 75% water and 5% mineral
ash�
Molasses is used in food preparation, baking (enhances the flavour of breads, cakes and cookies) and the
manufacture of rum (the molasses is fermented)�
77
Maple syrup
The juice of the maple tree is harvested� The clear, almost tasteless watery juice is boiled down at a sugarhouse�
Maple syrup’s flavour and colour develop during the boiling process. Maple syrup is graded and sold by colour.
The darker the colour, the more pronounced the flavour. It must contain at least 65,5% sugar.
For more insight into pastries, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Page:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
21
Syrup
434
12.4.3 Alternative sweeteners
Despite the controversy over the safety of alternative sweeteners, they continue to be in demand by diabetics,
people watching their weight, and individuals trying to prevent tooth decay� The chemical structures of
alternative sweeteners vary tremendously� Their relative sweetness compared to that of sucrose also ranges
over a wide spectrum�
12.5
ACTIVITIES
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
12.5.1 Activity
a�
Explain why fructose in used in pharmaceutical products�
b�
What are the functions of lactose and glucose?
12.5.2 Feedback to activities
a�
Your answer should reflect the effect of fructose with reference to the following:
ii�
iii�
iv�
b�
Your answer should make reference to the following:
i�
ii�
12.6
Excessive stickiness
Overbrowning
Temperature
Lactose – mammals, dairy products, nature and whey
Food preparation and beverages
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
1�
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and write down the main new insights you have gained�
2�
Was there anything you found particularly easy to learn in this unit? Why do you think that was?
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3�
12.7
Was there anything you found particularly difficult? Why was that? What can you do to overcome these
difficulties?
CONCLUSION
Sugar has the ability to contribute to improved taste through its sweetening properties� It is absorbed slowly
but creates a cooling sensation in the mouth when it dissolves�
79
LEARNING UNIT 13: CONFECTIONARY PRODUCTS
Contents
Page
13�1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 81
13�2
LEARNING OUTCOMES���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 81
13�3
PRESCRIBED READING ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 81
13�4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 81
13�5
CLASSIFICATION OF CONFECTIONARY PRODUCTS ��������������������������������������������������������������������� 82
13�6
STEPS IN CONFECTIONARY PREPARATION ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 82
13�6�1 Difference between crystalline sweets and noncrystalline sweets ������������������������������������������� 82
13�6�2 Activities ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 82
13�6�3 Activity �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83
13�7
FEEDBACK ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������83
13�7�1 Chocolate ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 83
3�8
FEEDBACK ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������84
13�9
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 84
13�10 CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 84
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13.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
Sugar and its close relative, corn syrup, are the basic ingredients of almost all sweets and are essential to the
confectionary production process� Confectionery is the art of making confections, which are food items that
are rich in sugar and carbohydrates. Exact definitions are difficult. In general, though, confectionery is divided
into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories: bakers’ confections and sugar confections https://
en�wikipedia�org/wiki/Confectionery, which is itself a secondary source�
Figure 13.1 Confectionary products
(http://www�shutterstock�com/pic)
In this learning unit, we will refine the knowledge you already have by exploring how the confectionery process
works�
13.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:









13.3
classify confectionary products according to their ingredients and preparation methods
explain how to prepare confectionary products
explain the functions of the ingredients for preparing confectionary products
discuss the difference between crystalline and noncrystalline sweets
list the different categories of sweets that are available
explain how sweet thermometers are used
discuss the process of manufacturing chocolate
discuss the different types of chocolate
explain how sweets and chocolates should be stored
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A� Understanding food principles and preparation� Thomson Wadworth� ISBN 0-534-50609-7�
Study the following section in your prescribed textbook:
Chapter 25, p517, Heading: Confectionary products
13.4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
In this unit you will learn about the classifications of confectionary products, confectionary preparation and
chocolates�
81
13.5
CLASSIFICATION OF CONFECTIONARY PRODUCTS
Different sweets are eaten all over the world. They are classified according to ingredients and/or preparation
method. There are two major classification schemes used by the confectionary industry, i.e. syrup phase
versus fat phase and crystalline versus noncrystalline�
For more insight into starches and sauces, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
25
Preparation of candy
517–529
How confectionary products are prepared
(1)
Ingredients
Most sweets are syrup-based, meaning they are made from a simple syrup mixture (e�g� jelly beans, nougat
and marshmallows). The basic ingredient of sweets is sugar with added flavourings. When chocolate or nut
pastes are used, the sweets are fat-based� An example of a combined syrup- and fat-based sweet is chocolatecovered candy bars�
(2)
Preparation
Crystalline sweets are soft, creamy and smooth (e�g� fudge and fondant)� Noncrystalline sweets are made of
sugar solutions that did not crystallise (e�g� hard sweets and jelly beans)�
13.6
STEPS IN CONFECTIONARY PREPARATION
There are four basic steps in confectionary preparation:
i�
ii�
iii�
iv�
creating a syrup solution
concentrating this solution via heating and evaporation
cooling
beating
For more insight into confectionary products transformation, study the following chapter of your prescribed
book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
25
Preparation of candy
518–519
13.6.1 Difference between crystalline sweets and noncrystalline sweets
Crystalline sweets are soft, smooth and creamy and are formed from sugar solutions that yield many fine, small
crystals (e�g� fudge, fondant and divinity)�
Noncrystalline sweets are formed from sugar solutions that did not crystallise and are amorphous, or without
form� Noncrystalline sweets include caramel, toffee, hard sweets and gummy sweets�
13.6.2 Activities
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:

reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
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FOO1501/MO001/4/2016



deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
13.6.3 Activity
1�
Explain how starch can play a role in the preparation of food�
2�
Define “noncrystalline sweets”:
��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
3�
Define “crystalline’’:
��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
13.7
FEEDBACK
The goal in preparing these sweets is to develop numerous, very fine nuclei in the syrup solution to serve as
the basis of the sugar crystals� Crystals are a compilation of loosely packed sugar molecules organised around
these nuclei� The rate of nuclei formation determines the size of the sugar crystal�
13.7.1 Chocolate
Study p524 in Chapter 25 of your prescribed book� Chocolate is derived from the tropical cocoa or cacao tree�
It is a major ingredient in many different types of sweets�
1�
Obtaining chocolate liquor from cocoa beans





Cocoa beans are blended into various combinations to obtain specific flavours and colours that are
further developed through roasting of the beans�
The hull and germ of the cocoa beans are removed until only the nibs remain�
The nibs contain 54% cocoa butter�
The nibs are ground very fine and heated, and the result is chocolate liquor.
What is responsible for chocolate’s melt-in-the-mouth appeal and its brittle snap at room temperature?
2�
Conching
The chocolate’s characteristic flavour and consistency develop during conching (kneading and mixing). The
process is as follows:


3�
Warmed chocolate (at 21˚C to 71˚C) is kneaded and aerated by machines. Why? To increase its
smoothness, viscosity and flavour.
Several ingredients may be added, after which the chocolate is poured into blocks and cooled, packed
and stored�
Tempering
The tempering process takes place after conching and before forming�
Why? Because tempering gives chocolate that “snap” when it is bitten into or broken in half�
This process comprises three basic steps:
i�
melting
83
ii�
iii�
cooling
rewarming
Types of chocolate
Semi-sweet or sweet chocolate: Granulated sugar and extra cocoa butter are added to the chocolate liquor to
produce the sweeter, smoother taste of semi-sweet or sweet chocolate�
Milk chocolate
Milk chocolate candy bars were first produced in 1875. A Swiss manufacturer added condensed milk to
chocolate liquor and other ingredients. Milk chocolate has a lighter colour and a sweeter, milder flavour than
other chocolates�
Activity 13.2
Give other examples of the types of chocolate and briefly discuss them.
��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
13.8
FEEDBACK
Chocolate is a major ingredient for many confections� It is consumed in the form of chocolate bars, as syrup,
as a coating (or centre) or as a topping� There are many different types of chocolate� For more insight, refer to
Chapter 25 on pages 524 to 527 of the prescribed book� The process used in chocolate production determines
the type of chocolate that will be produced�
13.9
Reflecting on your learning
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
13.10
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were introduced to confectionary products and the preparation of confectionary
products and chocolate�
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LEARNING UNIT 14: FROZEN DESSERTS
Contents
Page
14�1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86
14�2
LEARNING OUTCOMES���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86
14�3
PRESCRIBED READING ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86
14�4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 86
14�5
TYPES OF FROZEN DESSERTS �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 87
14�6
STEPS IN CONFECTIONARY PREPARATION ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 87
14�6�1 Activities ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 87
14�6�2 Activity 14�1 ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 88
14�6�3 Preparation of frozen desserts �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 88
14�6�4 Factors that affect quality ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 88
14�6�5 Storage of frozen desserts �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 88
14�7
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 88
14�8
CONCLUSION �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 88
85
14.1
INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
From the early days of human history, ice has been flavoured with nectar, fruit pulp and honey to be enjoyed
as a special treat� Today, these commercially frozen treats are popular and commonly consumed desserts all
over the world�
Figure 14�1 Frozen desserts
(http://www�shutterstock�com/pic)
In this learning unit, we will refine the knowledge you already have by exploring how the confectionary process
works�
14.2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you have studied this unit, you should be able to:






14.3
list different types of frozen desserts
list the different ingredients in the different types of frozen desserts
explain how to prepare different frozen desserts
discuss factors that affect the quality of frozen desserts
explain the mixing and freezing methods used in the preparation of frozen desserts
describe the storage of frozen desserts and the influence of temperature fluctuations on the quality of
these desserts
PRESCRIBED READING
Brown, A� Understanding food principles and preparation� Thomson Wadworth� ISBN 0-534-50609-7�
Study the following section in your prescribed textbook:
Chapter 26, p534
14.4
KEY POINTS IN THIS LEARNING UNIT
In this unit you will learn about frozen desserts and about the ingredients in the different types of desserts� You
will also learn how prepare desserts�
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14.5
TYPES OF FROZEN DESSERTS
The ingredients, especially the type and proportion of milk fat and milk solids-not-fat (MSNF) and the way
in which these and other ingredients are combined, make one frozen dessert different from another� Sugar,
stabilisers, emulsifiers, water, air and flavourings are added to the milk and MSNF when frozen desserts are
prepared�
For more insight into frozen desserts, study the following chapter of your prescribed book:
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
26
Frozen desserts
534–547
Different ingredients
Ice cream
Ice cream is high in fat� Ice cream is prepared by simultaneously stirring and freezing a pasteurised mix of dairy
and non-dairy ingredients�
Low-fat ice cream (ice milk)


Contains more sugar than milk�
Contains less than 7% fat�
Imitation ice cream

Replace the milk fat and MSNF in ice cream with other ingredients (e�g� vegetable fat, tofu, soy protein
and corn oil)�
Replace the sucrose with sorbitol for diabetic use�

14.6
STEPS IN CONFECTIONARY PREPARATION
There are four basic steps in confectionary preparation:
i�
ii�
iii�
iv�
creating a syrup solution
concentrating this solution via heating and evaporation
cooling
beating
For more insight into the making of frozen desserts, study the following chapters of your Prescribed book[another
unit� Replace with relevant material�]
Prescribed book:
Chapter:
Heading:
Pages:
Understanding food principles and preparation.
26
Frozen desserts
534–539
14.6.1 Activities
In the sections that follow I will provide activities that are aimed at helping you to achieve the learning outcomes�
It is important that you attempt all the activities� They will assist you with the following:




reviewing the information that is provided in this learning unit;
deepening your understanding;
gaining insight into the key points and principles; and
examination preparation�
87
14.6.2 Activity 14.1
Study pages 536 to 547 in your prescribed book� Describe how the basic ingredients of the following frozen
desserts differ: ice cream, low-fat ice cream, imitation ice cream, frozen yoghurt, sherbet, sorbet, water ices
and still-frozen dessert� Include an example of each type of dessert�
14.6.3 Preparation of frozen desserts
Activity 14.2
Describe the method of preparing a frozen dessert�
Feedback
There are various factors that can affect the preparation of frozen desserts� It is imperative to take into
consideration the factors that could affect the quality of the dessert. The flavours as well as the texture ought
to be considered during when the preparation of the dessert�
14.6.4 Factors that affect quality
The structure of frozen desserts depends on the crystallisation of water in a sugar mixture�
Crystals are made by:
1�
churning a mixture while it is in the process of freezing; or
2�
placing the mixture in a mould where it is allowed to freeze�
Three general factors are crucial to the quality of frozen desserts:



flavour
texture
body
14.6.5 Storage of frozen desserts
Temperature: -18 ˚C or below.
Time: One to two months�
Prevent the absorption of odours from other foods and exposure to moisture build-up by putting the whole
container in an airtight plastic bag� For the same reason, commercial ice cream is sometimes covered with a
thin, plastic film.
14.7
REFLECTING ON YOUR LEARNING
Think about what you have learnt in this unit and do the following:
1�
Write down the new insights you have gained in this unit�
2�
List points in this unit that you found easy to learn�
3�
Explain why these points were easy to learn�
4�
List points in this unit that you found difficult to learn.
5�
Explain why these points were difficult to learn.
6�
List the steps that you might take to overcome this learning difficulty.
14.8
CONCLUSION
In this learning unit you were introduced to frozen desserts� The factors that could possibly affect the preparation
of frozen dessert were also discussed�
88
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