General Terminology
1. Hermaphrodites: Animals with both female and male genitals
2. Reproduction senescence: Decline of reproductive ability due to increase in age
3. R breeders: Rapid reproduction rate with large litter. Short lifespan. Unstable
population
4. K breeders: Slow reproduction rate with single offspring. Long Lifespan. Stable
population
5. Sexual Congress: Copulation method
i.
Incorporation: Reproduce during vegetative phase
ii.
Separation: Either reproduce or not the entire life OR only reproduce
iii.
once and die.
Alteration: Switches between reproductive and vegetative phase
according to season or other external factors.
6. Gamete transfer:
i.
Spermatophore: Store gametes in external vessels for later use
ii.
Quasi copulation: No penetration but leaving gametes near female
iii.
individuals
True copulation: Sperm deposition by penetration
7. Mating partners
i.
Monogamy: Single pairs
ii.
Polyandry: 1 female with multiple males
iii.
iv.
Polygyny: 1 male with multiple females
Promiscuity: Indiscriminate mating within a group
8. Life cycles
i.
Puberty: the period or age at which a person is first capable of sexual
reproduction of offspring
ii.
Seasonality: the state of being seasonal or dependent on the seasons
iii.
Senescence: growing old; ageing
9. JIVET: Juvenile In Vitro Embryo Transfer
10. Sex determination
i.
ii.
Testis Determining Factor (TDF): presence of Y chromosome
Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH): initiate development of male
genitalia of an embryo, and degeneration of paramesonephric ducts
Only for males
Hormonal Activity Terminology List
1. GnRH agonist: Medicine that inhibits GnRH production to reduce hormonal
activity
2. Follicular phase: From regression of CL to ovulation (~20% of cycle)
i.
Recruitment: E2 produced by multiple small follicle cells. Surge of
GnRH increases production of FSH. FSH > LH
ii.
Selection: Larger, more developed follicle cells produce more E2 and
inhibin that restrict FSH secretion. LH > FSH
iii.
Dominance: Single large follicle cell further produces higher conc. of
E2. More inhibin is produced to restrict FSH production. LH >> FSH
Follicular phase breaks into:
i. Proestrus: Occurs during increased E2 levels produced by increased
number of follicular cells
ii. Oestrus: When E2 levels are at their highest, causing ovulation to begin
signaling that the follicles have burst, beginning the luteal phase.
3. Luteal Phase: From ovulation to regression of CL (~80% of cycle)
i.
Luteolysis: When pregnancy is absent, progesterone will stimulate
production of prostaglandin (PGF2α) in the uterus, which will then
initiate the formation of oxytocin receptors (OtR) at the uterine
endometrium. When oxytocin (Ot) is able to attach to a OtR, it
ii.
initiates the release of PGF2α to degenerate the CL.
Uterine-ovarian venous drainage: PGF2α acts locally on the ovary by
diffusing into the ovarian artery. The artery is tightly coiled and
adhered to the uterine vein; thus, the hormone can be diffused into
the ovarian artery while leaving via the uterine vein.
iii.
Luteal phase breaks into:
1.
2.
Metoestrus: E2 levels begin to fall
Dioestrus: Concentrations of E2 have died down to the lowest
level, as there are no follicles producing E2. P4 peaks at this time,
preparing the body for pregnancy.
4. Sperm transport hormones
i.
Estrogens: increases uterine contractility and increases secretion of
cervical mucus
ii.
Oxytocin: stimulates muscular contractions
iii.
Progestagens/prostaglandins: causes deterioration of cervical mucus
5. Pregnancy
i.
Antiluteolysin: Hormone or protein produced by the embryo to
prevent luteolysis by inhibiting or diverting PGF2α. Species
dependent.
Male Terminology List
1. Testis: consist of seminiferous tubules where sperm is made inside. The testis has
two functions: production and transmission of male gametes (spermatozoa), and
production of reproductive hormones (androgens --> testosterone and
oestrogen)
i.
Scrotal: Visible scrotum
ii.
Extrascrotally: Hidden internally
2. Testicular parenchyma: consists of two discrete compartments
i.
Within seminiferous tubules: sertoli cells present, where sperm
ii.
develop
Between seminiferous tubules: leydig cells present, where androgens
are synthesized
iii.
iv.
Sertoli cell: influences spermatogenesis
Epididymis
1.
Caput epididymis (head): Proximal cytoplasmic droplet. Immotile
and infertile
2.
Corpus epididymis (body): External modifications. Cytoplasmic
3.
droplet removal.
Cauda epididymis (tail): Distal/removed cytoplasmic droplet.
Motile and fertile
3. Epididymal maturation
i.
Sperm structure: Condensation of chromatin
ii.
Sperm membrane:
1.
2.
iii.
Metabolism:
1.
2.
iv.
Addition of Glycoprotein to stabilize plasma membrane
Alternate fluidity and lipid composition
Drop in metabolic rate
Rely on external fructose for energy
Motility
1. cAMP amount in tail increase. Acquiring motility.
4. Anatomy of the penis:
i.
Shaft: Corpus spongiosum (urethra) and corpus cavernosum (main
body) act as blood reservoirs during erection
ii.
Glans penis: the tip
iii.
Fibroelastic penis: (bull, boar, ram) - limited erectile tissue, presence
of sigmoid flexure (penis retracted in body until erection held by
retractor penis muscles in the sheath, during erection retractor
muscles relax)
iv.
Muscolovascular penis: (stallion, human) - large corpus cavernosum
fills with blood during erection. There is no sigmoid flexure.
5. Spermatogenesis: Forms spermatozoa by mitosis, meiosis and
cytodifferentiation.
Three phases:
i.
Mitotic proliferation: Diploid, identical spermatogonia multiplied to a
ii.
large amount at the basal compartment of the tubule
Meiotic division: Diploid cells turn haploid (spermatocytes →
spermatids) at the adluminal compartment of tubule
iii.
Cytodifferentiation (spermiogenesis): spermatids elongate and turn
into spermatozoa
Other terms(?)
i. Spermatogenic wave: travelling along the tubule, successive lengths are
at earlier stages in the cycle, forming a wave made up of the spatial
arrangement of stages in the temporal cycle
6. Ejaculation: primarily a result of stimulation of the glans penis, it causes
contraction of muscles surrounding deferens, seminal vesicles and prostate.
(Copulation and site of deposition vary between species)
i.
Emission: Sperm move from epididymis to urethra. Seminal plasma is
expelled into urethra, and sperm and seminal plasma mix forming
ii.
semen.
Expulsion: Contraction of muscles surrounding the vas deferens,
seminal vesicles and prostate. Semen is expelled.
7. Cytoplasmic condensation: Removal of excess cytoplasm during
cytodifferentiation
8. Retrograde transport: Backflow of semen to the bladder causing reduced
amount of sperm in ejaculate. Reduced occurrence by coagulum (rodent, pigs,
horse), or “Tie” in dogs.
9. Epididymal structure
i.
Caput: fluid from sertoli cells resorbed, thus sperm are concentrated
100-fold. The sperm are subsequently transported by muscles in
ii.
epididymis
Corpus: modification of environment and sperm maturation
iii.
Cauda: sperm storage
10. Spermatozoa
i.
Head: has acrosome (cap) and contains enzymes necessary for
fertilisation
ii.
Tail: mid-piece, principal piece, and end-piece
iii.
Mid-piece: surrounded by mitochondrial sheath around 9 dense
fibres, within which are 9 pairs of microtubules surrounding another
central pair (all called the axoneme).
11. Fertilization
i.
Capacitation: Seminal plasma component removed at the oviduct for
acrosomal reaction. Rise of internal calcium level induces change in
ii.
motility.
Acrosome reaction: Proteolytic enzyme in the acrosome allows sperm
to get into the egg.
iii.
Sperm membrane: Primary Zona Binding Region (ZBR) + Acrosome
reaction promoting region (ARPR). Both regions should bind to the
receptors at ZP3 for oocyte activation.
12. Hormones of foetal testis:
i.
Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH): secreted by Sertoli cells
ii.
Testosterone: produced by Leydig cells, stimulates Wolffian duct
development
iii.
Dihydrotestosterone: induces development of male external genitalia
Female Terminology List
1. Types of uteri
i.
Duplex: 2 cervices with no body. Separated horns (small mammalian)
ii.
iii.
Bicornuate: 1 cervix with long body (pigs)
Bipartite: 1 cervix with an outstanding body. Have horns (mare, ewe,
cat, dog)
iv.
Simplex: 1 cervix with an outstanding body. No horns. (primate)
2. Types of Oestrous cycle
i.
Seasonal Polyestrus: Long day → Estrus in April to July
(Spring/Summer), Short day → September to November
(Autumn/Winter)
ii.
Polyestrus: estrus throughout the year
iii.
iv.
Monoestrus: Once every year at a specific period
Dioestrus: The period between oestrus cycles
v.
Anoestrus: Absence of oestrus cycles
3. Formation of corpus luteum
i.
Preovulatory follicle: granulosa and theca interna cells merge as
ii.
follicle starts to break down
Corpus haemorrhagicum: small blood vessels rupture, the follicle
implodes and folds inwards on itself
iii.
Functional corpus luteum: large luteal cells were originally granulosa,
and small luteal cells were theca
4. Oogenesis
i.
ii.
Early Folliculogenesis: Primordial and primary follicles
Secondary Follicles: Formation of Zona pellucida, Granulosa cells, and
Theca cells
iii.
Atresia: death of entire follicular structure
5. Tertiary Follicle cell layers
iii.
Thecal cell: Surround and support the follicle. Growth stimulated by
LH.
iv.
Granulosa cell: produces oestrogen, inhibin and follicular fluid in
v.
response to FSH
Cumulus oophorus: promotes maturation and ovulation
6. Fertilization
i.
Viscosity of cervical mucus:
1. Sialomucin: low viscosity. Usually the mucus at the basal region
of the cervical crypts
2.
ii.
Sulfomucin: high viscosity. Usually the mucus at the apical
regions. Filtering out immotile or abnormal spermatozoa.
Zona pellucida: ZP1 & ZP2 = structural protein, ZP3 = receptor for
sperm membrane
iii.
Oocyte activation:
1. Cortical reaction in Calcium Oscillation: Calcium ion spikes to
form barrier around the oocyte to prevent polyspermy by
2.
exocytosis
Zona reaction in Calcium Oscillation: Biochemical change to
further prevent polyspermy
3.
Meiotic arrest: 2nd meiotic division. Produces second polar body
ARTs Terminology
1. Artificial Insemination (AI) - semen collection, storage or dilution, AI dose
i.
Steps are as follows: Detect oestrus, collect and prepare semen,
inseminate
2. Cryobiology: the study of impacts of cold temperatures on biologicals (e.g.,
organisms, tissues, cells)
iv.
Cryopreservation: the storage of biologicals at cold (often sub-zero
temperatures)
v.
Cooling rate: optimal rate is determined by cell size and what is
present in the extracellular solution
1. When the cooling rate is slow, the cells are very dehydrated
vi.
2.
When the cooling rate is fast, the cells will begin to form ice and
3.
the cells will explode/rupture
When the cooling rate is optimal, the cells will survive as per
optimal
Thawing rate: just as important as cooling rate, optimal thawing rate
avoids ice recrystallation. It depends on cryodiluent formulation and
vii.
how the cells are packaged.
Cryodiluent: a diluent specifically used to cryopreserve cells
viii.
Cryodamage: damage to the sperm cells
1.
2.
Lethal damage: loss of membrane integrity, cells die
Sublethal damage: cells viable, but with molecules (e.g., protein,
sugar, DNA) or physiological changes (e.g., damaged
3.
mitochondria, higher ROS production)
Reactive oxygen species (ROS): ROS cycle increased causes
oxidative stress which leads to damage, and propagating ROS
production
2. Embryo transfer (ET) - MOET, JIVET
i.
MOET: synchronise cycles of donors and recipients, super-ovulate
donors, artificially inseminate donors, flush embryos and preserve,
transfer to recipients
ii.
JIVET: harvesting eggs from pre-pubertal lambs (6-8 weeks) or calves
via oocyte pick up, then culturing them to maturity and fertlising them
with semen from elite sires
3. Sexed semen: XY sperm = -ve charged, XX sperm = +ve charged
4. Oocyte in vitro maturation (IVM)
5. In vitro fertilisation (IVF): sperm and oocytes are cultured in the lab for 5-6
days before either insemination or freezing for later insemination
6. Intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI): overcomes male infertility problems
(e.g., ogliospermia, azoospermia)
7. Embryo in vitro culture or production (IVC or IVP)
8.
Pregnancy and Parturition Terminology
1. Germ layers
i. Ectoderm: outer layer – hair, skin, nails/hooves, CNS, epithelia of sense
organs, mouth, anal canal, mammary glands
ii. Mesodem: middle layer – skeleton, muscle, heart, epithelia of blood
vessels, kidneys, gonads, urogenital system
iii. Endoderm: inner layer – epithelium of the pharynx; larynx, trachea,
and lungs; the gastrointestinal tract (except mouth and anus), the
urinary bladder, the vagina and the urethra
2. Placenta: composed of foetal (chorion) and maternal (modified endometrium
components, it provides an interface for metabolic exchange and produces a
variety of hormones
3. Parturition:
a. Stages are as follows: initiation of myometrial contractions, expulsion
of the foetus, expulsion of the foetal membranes
4. Dystocia: foetus fails to position itself correctly
5. Cryptorchidism: failure of the testes to descend into the scrotum
6. Freemartins: infertile female in mix-gender twins, occurs in cattle as at a
certain stage placentas are able to fuse