MAINTAINING LABORATORY
SAFETY AND SURROUNDINGS
MAINTAINING LABORATORY SAFETY
By F.S. Mwalilo
2022
CHAPTER ONE
Laboratory Safety Responsibilities
Responsibilities.
Principal Investigators, laboratory personnel, your department and EHS (Environmental Health &
Safety) all share responsibility for laboratory safety. Specific duties of each include the following:
Department Chair/ Laboratory Manager
1. Ensure the department’s compliance with health and safety standards.
2. Provide timely notification upon termination of facility, who used hazardous materials, to
speed up clearance of the laboratory for the next investigator/ manager.
3. Consider appointment of a safety committee from a cross-section of the department’s
employees to address departmental safety concerns.
Principal Investigator/ Laboratory technician
1. Prepare a Laboratory Safety Plan (LSP), to complement the Laboratory Safety Manual (LSM).
These documents constitute your Chemical Hygiene Plan as required by OSHA (Occupational
Safety and Health Authority).
2. Ensure that laboratory personnel meet the training requirements of the Laboratory Standard,
including chemical hazard information, safety rules and good work practices.
3. Provide initial training to laboratory personnel, upon employment, on the contents of the
Chemical Hygiene Plan. Employees document this training through the online Lab Safety Plan
application.
4. Provide annual training to all laboratory employees on the contents of the Chemical Hygiene
Plan. Employees document this training through the online Lab Safety Plan application.
5. Ensure that staff and visitors observe safety rules and don proper Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) when working in or visiting the laboratory.
6. Ensure that proper safety supplies and equipment, such as gloves, safety glasses and/or
goggles, lab coats, and respirators* are available for all people in the laboratory. *Note: if
respirators are required.
7. Obtain safety data sheets (formerly known as material safety data sheets) for hazardous
chemicals used in the laboratory and make these available to the laboratory staff.
8. Post appropriate hazard information signs within the laboratory.
9. Provide information to EHS in a timely manner so that it may post appropriate signage at
laboratory entrances.
10. Conduct an “exit interview” with laboratory workers prior to their departure to ensure that
they have properly labelled and prepared hazardous materials for disposal by EHS or use by
other workers.
11. Notify EHS prior to vacating laboratory space when moving on campus and notify department
chair and EHS of planned departure from UNC or discontinuance of the use of hazardous
materials. Decontaminate laboratory surfaces and prepare hazardous materials for disposal
by EHS or use by other laboratories. Refer to EHS guidelines on vacating laboratory space.
Laboratory Workers /Assistants
1. Study the Laboratory Safety Plan, the chapters of the Laboratory Safety Manual relevant to
your research, and other information provided by your supervisor.
2. Complete appropriate training and orientation programs provided by EHS.
3. Complete and submit a Laboratory/Radiation Worker Registration Form to EHS whenever
there is a change in work location or laboratory assignment. See Appendix 1-A for instructions
on how to fill out this form.
4. Follow safety guidelines when handling hazardous materials, including the proper use of
personal protective equipment.
5. Notify EHS of accidents, spills, or conditions that may warrant further investigation and/or
monitoring.
6. Review laboratory materials to ensure that you have properly labelled and prepared all
hazardous materials for disposal by EHS or use by other workers before you leave the
research group.
Environment, Health & Safety
1. Provide training and orientation programs for laboratory personnel.
2. Inspect laboratories regularly for safety and health hazards and for compliance with state and
federal regulations.
3. Investigate potential safety and health hazards identified by laboratory employees.
4. Monitor personnel for over-exposures to chemical, biological, physical, and radioactive
hazards.
5. Advise laboratory personnel on proper disposal of waste chemicals and other hazardous
materials.
6. Consult with faculty, staff, students, and departmental safety committees on safety matters.
7. Assist safety committees in organizing committee meetings.
8. Post appropriate signage at laboratory entrances.
CHAPTER TWO
General laboratory Guidelines and rules:
The following recommendations are simply guidelines for safe laboratory practices, and they
should not be understood as a complete code of practice. Consult your institution’s safety
committee and follow local rules and regulations pertaining to laboratory safety. The below
guidelines/ rules are categorised as personal guideline and environmental guidelines
1. Personal safety and Guidelines
i. Always wear appropriate personal protective equipment. Change gloves when
contaminated, and dispose of used gloves with other contaminated laboratory waste.
ii. Wash your hands after working with potentially hazardous materials and before leaving
the laboratory.
iii. Do not eat, drink, smoke, handle contact lenses, apply cosmetics, or store food for human
consumption in the laboratory.
iv. Follow the institutional policies regarding safe handling of sharps (i.e., needles, scalpels,
pipettes, and broken glassware).
v. Take care to minimize the creation of aerosols and/or splashes.
vi. Decontaminate all work surfaces before and after your experiments, and immediately
after any spill or splash of potentially infectious material with an appropriate disinfectant.
Clean laboratory equipment routinely, even if it is not contaminated.
vii. Report any incidents that may result in exposure to infectious materials to appropriate
personnel (e.g., laboratory supervisor, safety officer).
viii. Decontaminate all potentially infectious materials before disposal.
ix. Avoid skin and eye contact with all chemicals.
x. Assume that all chemicals of unknown toxicity are highly toxic.
xi. Post warning signs when unusual hazards, hazardous materials, hazardous equipment, or
other special conditions are present.
xii. Avoid adding solids to hot liquids.
xiii. All laboratory personnel should place emphasis on safety and chemical hygiene at all
times.
2. Environmental safety Guidelines
i. Do not pour chemicals down drains. Do NOT utilize the sewer for chemical waste disposal.
ii. Keep all sink traps (including cup sink traps and floor drains) filled with water by running
water down the drain at least monthly.
iii. Do not utilize fume hoods for evaporations and disposal of volatile solvents.
iv. Perform work with hazardous chemicals in a properly working fume hood to reduce
potential exposures.
v. Avoid working alone in a building. Do not work alone in a laboratory if the procedures
being conducted are hazardous.
vi. Laboratory employees should have access to a chemical inventory list, applicable SDSs,
Department Laboratory Safety Manual, and relevant SOPs.
vii. Access to laboratories and support areas such as stockrooms, specialized laboratories,
etc. should be limited to approved personnel only.
viii. All equipment should be regularly inspected for wear or deterioration.
ix. Equipment should be maintained according to the manufacturer’s requirements and
records of certification, maintenance, or repairs should be maintained for the life of the
equipment.
x. Designated and well-marked waste storage locations are necessary.
xi. No cell phone or ear phone usage in the active portion of the laboratories, or during
experimental operations.
xii. Clothing made of synthetic fibres should not be worn while working with flammable
liquids or when a fire hazard is present as these materials tend to melt and stick to
exposed skin.
xiii. Laboratory coats should not be stored in offices or break rooms as these spreads
contaminates to other areas.
xiv. Computers and instrumentation should be labelled to indicate whether gloves should be
worn or not. Inconsistent glove use around keyboards/keypads is a source of potential
contamination.
xv. Avoid wearing jewellery in the lab as this can pose multiple safety hazards.
CHAPTER THREE
Protective Clothing and Equipment:
Commonly referred to as PPE (Personal protective equipment), is equipment worn to minimize
exposure to hazards that cause serious workplace injuries and illnesses.
These injuries and illnesses may result from contact with chemical, radiological, physical,
electrical, mechanical, or other workplace hazards.
Personal protective equipment may include items such as gloves, safety glasses and shoes,
earplugs or muffs, hard hats, respirators, or coveralls, vests and full body suits.
1. Eye and Face Protection
Safety Glasses
Goggles
2. Use of Gloves
Wear proper protective gloves for potential contact with corrosive or toxic materials,
materials of unknown toxicity, sharp edged objects, and very hot or cold materials. Select
gloves based on the material handled, the particular hazard involved, and their suitability for
the operation conducted.
While it is important to wear gloves while performing laboratory manipulation of potentially
hazardous materials, it is equally important to remove gloves before contacting “clean” areas
such as food area surfaces, or common equipment such as telephones, computer keyboards,
and photocopiers. Do not wear gloves outside the laboratory, as you could possibly
contaminate surfaces you touch such as doorknobs, elevator buttons, or restroom fixtures
(Figure 5.3). Remove your gloves even if you believe they are non-contaminated, as others
do not know if you might have handled hazardous materials with your gloved hand(s).
3. Laboratory Clothing and Protective Gear
The clothing you wear in the laboratory can affect your safety. Do not wear loose (e.g., gown,
hanging neckties, oversized or ragged laboratory coats), skimpy (e.g., shorts, halter-tops), or
torn clothing in the laboratory.
Loose or torn clothing and unrestrained long hair can easily catch fire, dip into chemicals, or
become ensnared in apparatus and moving machinery. Skimpy clothing offers little
protection to the skin in the event of chemical splash.
Finger rings can react with chemicals, and you should avoid wearing them around equipment
with moving parts. Appropriate protective gear is advisable for most laboratory work and may
be required for some.
Such gear can include laboratory coats and aprons, Overall, special boots, shoe covers, and
gauntlets, which can be washable or disposable in nature. Commercial garments are available
to protect from chemical splashes or spills, heat/cold, moisture, and radiation.
Laboratory coats help prevent contact with dirt and the minor chemical splashes or spills
encountered in laboratory-scale work. The cloth laboratory coat is, however, primarily a
protection for clothing and may itself present a hazard (e.g., combustibility) to the wearer.
4. Foot Protection
Wear shoes at all times in laboratories or other chemical use and storage areas. Do not wear
holed shoes, sandals, or cloth sneakers in laboratories or mechanical work areas.
Safety shoes protect the feet against injuries from heavy falling objects, crushing by rolling
objects, or lacerations from sharp edges.
5. Respiratory Protection (Face masks)
Respiratory protection might be necessary when working with highly toxic chemicals,
biological hazards, or dusts known to cause asthma or pulmonary fibrosis. However,
respirators are a “last line” of defence, and should not be used until all engineering controls
(e.g. ventilation) and work practice controls (e.g. product substitution) are exhausted.
The respirator regulations do not cover “comfort masks” or surgical masks (Figure above).
These are technically not respirators, as they are not certified by NIOSH (National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health), and have no protection factor rating. If you are using
these masks in the lab, consider whether you might need a true respirator such as those
depicted in Figure below.
CHAPTER FOUR
Proper Storage of Equipment and Chemicals in Laboratories
Introduction
This chapter instructs you how to interpret the labels on chemical containers, and how to safely
store chemicals in the laboratory in a way that minimizes incompatible chemical reactions,
spillage, breaking, or waste due to expiration.
Inventory and Inspection
Label a storage place for each chemical, and return it to that place after each use. Store chemicals
by hazard class, not the alphabet, and post storage areas to show the exact location of the
chemical groups. Inspect chemical storage areas at least annually for outdated or unneeded
items, illegible labels, leaking containers, etc.
Examples of chemicals in poor condition, that you should NOT keep stored in your lab:
✓ Expired/outdated chemicals
✓ Illegible/removed labels
✓ Degraded containers
✓ Leaking lids
Proper Sealing of Chemical Containers
To prevent leakage, odours, or reaction with air, tightly seal all containers of highly toxic, highly
volatile, smelly, carcinogenic or reactive chemicals.
Make sure that caps and other closures are tight on all hazardous chemicals. A limited exception
is freshly-generated mixtures such as acids and organics that may generate gas pressure
sufficient to burst a tightly sealed bottle.
Use commercially available vent caps or keep the lids loose until sufficient time passes to
complete the reactions, and then tightly close the lids. Until all reactions are completed, the
contents of the bottle are not waste, but are instead the last step of the chemical procedure.
Storage Symbols
Most chemical manufacturers include chemical storage symbols on their labels. Many
manufacturers use symbols that include a hazard ranking system.
Chemical signs, Hazard symbols or warning symbols are recognisable symbols designed to warn
about hazardous or dangerous materials, locations, or objects, including electric currents,
poisons, and radioactivity. The use of hazard symbols is often regulated by law and directed by
standards organizations.
Chemical Sign
Meaning
General Warning
The symbol denotes a General Warning and acts as a broad
reminder that the area you’re working in is likely to contain
hazards and risks and you should work accordingly.
Biohazard
The equipment or containers that you’re dealing with have likely
been in contact with biohazardous materials and therefore run
the risk of being contaminated. If a lab is working with infectious
agents, this sign should mark the area accordingly.
Flammable Material
Have the tendency to ignite and should be store accordingly.
Keep the chemicals away from flames, sparks, and oxidizing
substances.
Explosive material
It pertains to chemicals in the lab that has explosive properties.
Toxic
It is a generic sign for toxic/poisonous substances and can cause
severe damage when inhaled, absorbed, or swallowed.
Oxidizing agents
They transfer oxygen to another chemical substrate, which
means they can give oxygen to flammable substances. They
should be store separately from flammable substances. When
dealing with oxidizing agents, you should wear proper lab
clothing including gloves and eye protection.
Corrosive agents
Strong chemicals that corrode into your skin and other
substances. A drop of the corrosive agent can cause serious
damage. So, wear protective gear at all times when working with
corrosive substances.
Irritant
It refers to substances that can irritate the eyes and toxic when
inhaled or swallowed. Protective gear must be worn when
dealing with substances tagged as irritants.
Health hazard
It pertains to substances that can cause serious health damage
such as respiratory problems, reproductive toxicity, and
carcinogenicity.
Cabinets
You can use cabinets under hoods and laboratory benches for storage of chemicals. In some
cases, laboratory furniture manufacturers design cabinets specifically for storage of flammable
and/or corrosive materials.
However, do not store laboratory chemicals near or under sinks where there may be exposure
to water. Storage of cleaning supplies under sinks is acceptable.
Cabinets for chemical carcinogens or highly toxic chemicals should have a lock.
Desiccator Jars or Cabinets
Desiccator jars and cabinets are useful for storage of air and water reactive, toxic, and
malodorous chemicals. In case of especially smelly compounds such as mercaptans, replace the
desiccator material with a vapor adsorber (e.g. charcoal) to control odours.
Bench Tops and Shelves
Chemical storage on bench tops is
undesirable, and is vulnerable to accidental
breakage by laboratory, housekeeping, and
emergency response personnel.
Do not store liquids on shelves that are
above eye-level. When storing chemicals on
open shelves, consider several factors such
as compatibility grouping (see below), the
container material (plastic or metal versus
breakable glass), physical state of the
chemical (it’s riskier to store liquids on open
shelves compared to solids), the relative
toxicity of the chemical, and the height and
depth of the shelving.
Storage by Compatibility Group
Store chemicals in the laboratory according to their compatibility groups. Do not
store chemicals in alphabetical order, as this might place incompatible chemicals
next to each other (examples include acetic acid and acetaldehyde, sodium cyanide
and sulfuric acid, sodium borohydride and sodium chlorate), increasing the
potential for accidental mixing of incompatible chemicals.
Groups and Chemical Classes
Compatibility Group Name
Group
Chemical Class
Group A
Inorganic Acids, inorganic acids (except nitric), sulphur, arsenic,
Inorganic Salts
halides, sulphates, sulphites, thiosulfates, halogens,
phosphorus, phosphates
Group B
Inorganic Bases
hydroxides, oxides, silicates, carbonates
Group C
Organics
alcohols, glycols, amines, amides, hydrocarbons,
esters, aldehydes, phenol cresols, organic sulphides,
organic acids
Group D
Flammables,
Combustibles
ethers, aliphatic solvents, aromatic solvents
Group E
Inorganic
Oxidizers
borates, chromates, manganates, permanganates,
chlorates, perchlorates, chlorites, hypochlorite,
hydrogen peroxides, amides, nitrates, nitrites,
azides
Group F
Organic
peroxides, azides, hydroperoxides
Peroxides and
Explosives
Group G
Reactive
air and water reactive, metals and hydrides
Group H
Cyanides,
Sulphides
cyanides, cyanates, sulphides, carbides, nitrides
Group I
Highly Toxics, highly toxic compounds, carcinogens, mutagens,
Carcinogens,
teratogens
Reproductive
Toxins
CHAPTER FIVE
Laboratory Waste Management
The characterization, management storage and disposal of laboratory wastes (i.e., chemical
waste including hazardous and non-hazardous solid waste, radioactive or mixed waste,
biohazardous and medical waste, and universal waste) is regulated and requires strict compliance
with regulatory obligations.
The Principal Investigator (PI) or lab personnel for each laboratory has overall responsibility for
managing the process of:
✓
✓
✓
✓
Characterizing laboratory waste
Containerizing laboratory waste
Marking/labelling laboratory waste
Managing laboratory waste in their laboratory spaces
Preceding to waste disposal confirmation and waste pickup by EHS. The Environmental Affairs
Section of the EHS Department is responsible for managing the review and characterization of
laboratory waste, making the waste determination, as well as the approval of laboratory waste
disposal requests from the laboratory PI or lab personnel.
EHS personnel conduct the transfer of chemical wastes, radioactive wastes, and mixed wastes
from laboratory areas to your organization’s Hazardous Materials Facility for treatment (i.e.,
bulking) or package consolidation and managed storage prior to the transport to off-site
treatment and disposal facilities.
After the waste as been characterised and contained the
following stage is labelling; When a material has no further
use, laboratory personnel must identify the material as an
unwanted material by attaching the label shown below.
The full chemical name (no formulas, abbreviations or
structures) of each component in the waste container must
be listed as well as the estimated percentages. The
accumulation start date must also be noted when waste is
first added to the container. The label must include
whether the unwanted material is used or unused. If the
size of the container or number of contents does not fit on
a label, an associated tracking sheet may be used.
Best Management Practices for Chemical Waste
In addition to container labelling and accumulation time limit requirements, chemical waste
managed within laboratories should follow best management practices for containerization,
waste segregation, personnel training, lab cleanouts and emergencies.
1. Containers
Waste containers and lids must be in good condition and chemically compatible with the waste
inside the container. do not use corks or stoppers.
Laboratory beakers, flasks, or plastic milk cartons are not acceptable as waste containers.
Metal containers are not acceptable unless they are the original container for the chemical waste
being managed (no mixtures).
Glass or plastic reagent bottles are generally the most convenient to use.
All containers of waste must be kept closed at all times, except:
i. When the waste is being temporarily collected in a working container, as described above.
ii. When waste is being added to, removed from, or consolidated in the container.
iii. When venting of the container is necessary for either the proper operation of laboratory
equipment or to prevent the dangerous build-up of extreme pressure that may result
from a reaction between the wastes being added.
Liquid wastes may be accumulated in glass reagent bottles compatible with the waste. If
you generate a large volume of liquid waste, consider 5-gallon carboys for solvent
accumulation. Filled containers of liquids must have at least ten percent headspace
(roughly 1.5 liters) to accommodate thermal expansion during transport and storage.
Store glass waste containers in rubber safety carriers, buckets, or similar containers to
protect against breakage and spillage. All waste containers holding 4 liters or less of liquid
chemical waste, and all glass containers of liquid chemical waste stored on the floor,
require secondary containment.
Solid wastes may go into a double-lined cardboard box. Liners must be 1.5 mm or greater
polypropylene bags. Do not use biohazard or radiation waste bags for solid waste
accumulation, regular, labelled trash bags are preferred. Tie and seal each bag
individually. Ethidium bromide-containing solid and semi-solid waste (e.g. used gels) is
also collected in double bags within cardboard boxes. Collect liquid ethidium bromide
waste in carboys or bottles and manage accordingly.
Reactive chemicals must be disposed in their original shipping containers, or in containers
provided by EHS.
2. Chemical Waste Segregation
Segregate containers of acids and bases from one another in individual, compatible
containers while accumulating as waste.
Do not discharge acids or bases containing heavy metals to the sanitary sewer, i.e., through
the laboratory sinks.
Do not mix acids and bases containing heavy metals with other acidic or basic wastes and do
not include neutralization disposal of aqueous waste into the sanitary sewer as the last step
in laboratory procedures.
Package oxidizers separately; store and accumulate away from organics including flammable
materials. Oxidizers should never be stored or accumulated adjacent or near any organic
substances.
3. Laboratory Cleanouts
All laboratories are required to inventory their chemicals at least once a year as part of their
laboratory safety plan. Chemicals that are unwanted or no longer needed should be removed
from the laboratory and disposed of.
4. Chemical Waste Emergencies
If a dangerous situation occurs to a chemical waste in your laboratory, do not touch the
container. As best as possible, try and determine the contents and potential hazards and call
a supervisor or EHS to report
5. Other Laboratory Wastes
Medical Waste (sometimes called biohazard waste) is defined as, “any solid waste that is
generated in the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals, in
research pertaining thereto, or in the production or testing of biologicals.”
Generators should place solid medical waste (other than sharps) in a container that is:
✓ ≤ 15-gallons (57-L),
✓ closable with a lid,
✓ durable,
✓ labelled with the universal biohazard symbol,
✓ leak-proof
✓ a red-coloured container.
The bag should be lined with a plastic bag that is:
✓ autoclavable
✓ orange
✓ labelled with universal biohazard symbol
Limit the use of orange plastic bags to medical waste that must be autoclaved before disposal
or incinerated. All biohazard bags must be orange in colour.
6. Broken Glass and Other Sharp Objects
Place uncontaminated and/or decontaminated glassware and non-regulated sharp objects in
a plastic bag within a cardboard box identified with a label indicating: “CAUTION, GLASS AND
SHARPS, and NON-HAZARDOUS WASTE ONLY “.
7. Empty Chemical Containers and Recycling
Empty glass containers can either be used for waste collection if it is compatible with the
waste, or defaced and put in with your glass waste box. If the container once held a P-listed,
or acutely toxic substance, dispose as waste.
CHAPTER SIX
Handling Hazards
What are hazards?
A hazard is a source or a situation with the potential for harm in terms of human injury or ill-health,
damage to property, damage to the environment, or a combination of these.
Hazards at work may include noisy machinery, a moving forklift, chemicals, electricity, working at heights,
a repetitive job, or inappropriate behaviour that adversely affects a worker’s safety and health.
What is risk?
A risk is the chance of something happening that will have a negative effect. The level of risk reflects:
✓ The likelihood of the unwanted event
✓ The potential consequences of the unwanted event.
What are controls?
Controls are the measures put in place to decrease the likelihood or consequences from an unwanted
event. They can:
✓ Prevent the unwanted event or reduce the loss of control of the hazard (e.g. Reduce or contain
energy release)
✓ Reduce the effects (e.g. Provide shield from hazard; event has happened but emergency response
and medical treatment reduce the severity and duration of consequences).
Most hazards encountered fall into three main categories:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Mechanical Hazards
Chemical Hazards
Biological Hazards
Physical Hazards
i. Mechanical Hazards
Mechanical hazard factors include just about anything inorganic that moves or can injure you. These
include many tools, machines and (moving) vehicles, but also, for example, black ice and even high
steps or stairs, if they are not secured against falling.
Mechanical hazards can be caused by
controlled moving unprotected parts; which are freely accessible and form, for example, squeezing
points, shearing points, cutting and puncturing points, intake and catching points as well as butt joints,
✓ Dangerous surfaces; such as corners, edges, points, cutting, surfaces with high surface roughness,
✓ Mobile work equipment; for example, in connection with remote controls, guidance systems,
reverse driving, driving with restricted visibility, on unpaved ground or with a load changing the
centre of gravity.
✓ Uncontrolled moving parts; such as overturning, rolling, sliding or falling parts or detached,
bursting or flying parts and media splashing out under pressure or ejected media or working
material, slippery surfaces and tripping hazards
✓ Crash; to a lower surface or object.
ii. Chemical Hazards
Chemical hazards are mainly caused by the characteristics of chemical substances that may cause
explosions, fires, or corrosions; or emit poisonous gases or mini particles. Often, chemical substances
react negatively when exposed to, or mixed with, other materials or chemical substances. For
instance, asbestos particles are usually dispersed in the atmosphere when moved.
The types of chemical hazards may be Asphyxiants, Corrosive, Irritants, Sensitizers (allergens),
Carcinogens, GHS labels for chemical safety Mutagens, Teratogens, Reactive and Flammable.
Routes of Chemical Exposure
While the use of chemicals in processes, production, and goods have benefited people in many ways,
these chemical substances are also the cause of chemical hazards. There are several routes of
chemical exposure as described below.
✓ Inhalation – that is breathing in toxic vapours or small chemical particles
✓ Absorption – such as direct exposure to the skin by touching a chemical substance without
any protection such as wearing gloves.
✓ Injection – that is when a sharp contaminated object or needle accidentally penetrates a
worker’s body (such as hand or foot)
✓ Ingestion – that is when toxins are accidentally swallowed
Handling Workplace Chemical Hazards
The following are the recommendations from the most effective to the least effective ways to control
chemical hazards given by OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) are as follows:
✓ Elimination/Substitution – where the need for hazardous chemical usage is completely
removed or an alternate less or non-hazardous chemical is used.
✓ Engineering Controls – where employers must implement changes that are physical to the
workplace that helps to reduce exposure to the chemical hazard on the workers using or
handling hazardous chemical substances.
✓ Administrative and Work Practice Controls – changing how a work task is performed or
establishing efficient workplace policies, protocols, processes, and control and monitoring
mechanisms.
✓ Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) – using PPE such as respirators, gloves, protective fullbody suits, etc., can help in reducing the workers’ direct contact with the hazardous chemical.
iii. Biological Hazards
Biological hazards, also known as biohazards, refer to biological substances that pose a threat to the
health of living organisms, primarily that of humans. This can include medical waste or samples of a
microorganism, viruses, or toxins (from a biological source) that can affect human health.
Controlling and handling biohazards
✓ Protecting people from infection
Infection can result from ingestion, inhalation or skin penetration. In particular, staff or
students having little or no microbiological training should not be exposed to situations in
which they may not appreciate the potential hazards.
Non-laboratory workers such as cleaners and tradesmen should be given special instruction
if they are to come into contact with this class of hazard. No one should be working in a
microbiological environment without knowledge of recommended practices and procedures.
✓ Preventing cross-contamination of results
Prevention of cross-contamination or contamination with adventitious micro-organisms is
important since this may nullify experimental procedures and lead to erroneous results. Such
a situation may result in incorrect treatment of patients or modified techniques.
✓ Warning signs
A biological hazard must be clearly indicated by standard biological warning signs giving the
type and degree of risk and the person responsible. Immediately adjacent to the symbol, a
sign shall also be displayed stating: Danger - infectious material.
✓ Separate areas
Separate areas should be set aside for:
i. preparation of media
ii. holding of materials
iii. sterilisation
iv. storage of sterile articles
v. collection of specimens from patients
vi. receipt of samples – spill trays should be provided.
vii. Animal rooms must be segregated from laboratories and should contain separate
areas for infected animals, for non-infected animals and post-mortems.
✓ Protective clothing
Protective clothing should be worn in microbiological laboratories, and gowns or coats
removed before leaving the laboratory for common rooms, office areas or home.
✓ Protective gloves should be worn in highly infective situations, and personnel should disinfect
their hands before and after using gloves, as minute holes may allow entry of microorganisms.
✓ Elbow or foot operated taps should be available for washing as well as emergency showers.
Wounds and infections provide excellent routes for further infections. Any cut or abrasion
should be treated immediately and covered with a waterproof dressing. Any infections,
particularly of the respiratory or alimentary tracts or hand wounds, must be reported
immediately.
✓ Safety cabinets
Clean workstations, using biological safety cabinets or laminar flow clean air benches, are to
be used for product and/or user protection. These types of equipment have different
purposes and laboratory staff should be aware of the differences.
✓ Biosafety cabinet
Virulent pathogenic organisms must be handled in a biosafety cabinet where contaminated
air is passed through a high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter. There are three types of
biological safety cabinet, Class I, Class II and Class III:
Class I: inward flow of air away from the operator and a HEPA filter is used before exhaust air
is discharged from the cabinet
Class II: protects the operator by use of an air barrier and in addition a flow of filtered air
passed over the work to prevent it becoming contaminated. A HEPA filter is used before
exhaust air is discharged from the cabinet.
Class I and II cabinets are completely free-standing and must not be directly connected to
ducting which has outside vents as wind may interfere with operator protection.
Class III: completely enclosed unit with built-in air locks for introducing and removing
materials. Both incoming and outgoing air passes via HEPA filters. This class of safety cabinet
is used for work with high-hazard micro-organisms.
Any procedure, such as using blenders, shakers or sonicators, that is likely to produce
infectious aerosols should be carried out in a biosafety cabinet.
All biological cabinets must be inspected and maintained by a registered repairer every 12
months.
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✓ Decontamination
Disinfectants; Whenever possible, decontamination should be achieved by sterilisation in an
autoclave (steam heat under pressure). Disinfectants should only be utilised where
sterilisation is not possible, for example, in large spaces, surfaces and delicate instruments.
Disinfectants should be chosen on their effectiveness to deal with the specific type of microorganism.
The main uses for disinfectants are:
i.
ii.
iii.
washing – such as, discarded containers, re-useable pipettes
wiping down benches and work surfaces at end of day
regular cleaning of equipment – such as water baths, incubators, centrifuges,
freezers, refrigerators.
Steam heat autoclaves are used for sterilisation. Only properly trained staff should use the
autoclave and care must be taken to ensure the load reaches the required temperature and
remains at that temperature for the prescribed time.
✓ Waste disposal
All infectious wastes should be disposed of in accordance with both federal and state
regulations, and the following procedures should be followed:
i.
All contaminated waste material shall be sterilised, preferably by autoclaving, before
disposal, preferably by incineration.
ii.
Culture or fluids which may contain viable organisms shall not be poured into sinks or
drains.
iii.
iv.
Solid contaminated materials shall not be placed in waste bins.
v.
Aerosol cans or other sealed containers may explode if autoclaved or incinerated and
must be surface sterilised only (using a suitable procedure).
vi.
Re-useable contaminated glassware should be disinfected or autoclaved or both
before cleaning.
All samples, remains, disposable equipment, animal carcasses, tissue, fluids, faeces
and bedding should be regarded as contaminated.
iv. Physical Hazards
Physical hazard is an agent, factor or circumstance that can cause harm with contact. They can be
classified as type of occupational hazard or environmental hazard. Physical hazards include ergonomic
hazards, radiation, heat and cold stress, vibration hazards, and noise hazards.
As with chemical hazards, having good awareness of these hazards, good preplanning, use of personal
protective equipment and following basic safety rules can go a long way in preventing accidents
involving physical hazards.
Ergonomic hazards are physical conditions that may pose a risk of injury to the musculoskeletal
system. Ergonomic hazards include awkward postures, static postures, high forces, repetitive motion,
or short intervals between activities.
The risk of injury is often magnified when multiple factors are present. Factors such as whole-body or
hand/arm vibration, poor lighting, poorly designed tools, equipment, or workstations all contribute
to negative interactions with the worker/user. Some of the common body regions where injuries may
occur include, but are not limited to;
✓ Muscles or ligaments of the lower back.
✓ Muscles or ligaments of the neck.
✓ Muscles, tendons, or nerves of the hands/wrists.
✓ Bones and muscles surrounding the knees and legs.
Hazard analysis and identification
To make your work at your laboratory safe, we start with a risk analysis and identification. It is an essential
part of the risk assessment. In cooperation with you and / or your superior, we as safety personnel (if
necessary, also the company doctor) look at your workplace and try to determine whether and if so, which
hazards can occur. Your supervisor prepares the risk assessment and the safety engineers advise him/her
on this.
So-called hazard factors can be noise, dust exposure or mechanical factors such as sharp surfaces and
edges.
The analysis begins with an inventory. This can possibly take place within the framework of a so-called
safety inspection or simply an inspection.
An inspection is indeed a search for defects, but not with the aim of finding errors or even identifying
culprits. Rather, it is a matter of improving working conditions and eliminating possible sources of danger
or developing and later implementing measures for improvement in cooperation with the heads of the
specialist areas and you as an employee.
Inspections are announced in good time and take place together with as many participants as possible.
Hazard/ risk evaluation
Now it is time to consider whether there is a risk. In order for a hazard to become a concrete hazard, the
source of the hazard must coincide with you in terms of space and time. Risk is the combination of the
probability of an event occurring and the possible severity of damage or illness.
In many cases there are limit values or so-called workplace limit values that can be measured directly.
These include, for example, noise exposure, radiation dose, temperature, humidity, etc.
In these cases, measurements can be used to determine precisely whether there is a risk or not. But what
does it look like if an exposure cannot be measured?
Risk assessment
As described in the introduction, this table compares the probability of occurrence with the possible
severity of a loss. At the points of intersection, a score can then be read, or the colours green, yellow and
red can be used to determine whether no measures are necessary (green), whether measures should be
considered (yellow) or whether there is even an immediate need for action (red).
Let's assume you are travelling by plane: as long as you are not sitting in it, nothing can happen (the source
of danger, the plane, must coincide with you in space and time). When you take off, the plane must crash
to cause damage. The example is extreme, but illustrates the proportionality. The probability of a crash is
extremely low (aircraft are considered the safest means of transport). However, the consequence, i.e. the
damage caused by a crash, would be fatal.
Now you weigh up and ask yourself: "Do I accept the risk? Have you ever asked yourself this question
before a flight?
There's no such thing as no risk. Taking no risks is impossible. The risk is either very low, medium or high,
or everything in between.
The aim of modern occupational safety is to keep the risk as low as possible and, if necessary, to reduce
it to an acceptable level.
Measurement on the assessed risk/ hazard
As soon as a risk has been identified that is no longer acceptable, i.e. outside the "green zone", measures
must be taken to reduce the risk.
However, measures cannot be taken randomly. They must be well-considered, practicable and, above all,
viable. A measure that cannot be implemented because, for example, it is not accepted by employees is
ineffective.
A measure that would go beyond the company's budget cannot be the goal. When it comes to defining
measures, you need to take a measure.
The hierarchy of measures
As soon as a risk has been identified that is no longer acceptable, i.e. outside the "green zone", measures
must be taken to reduce the risk.
This follows a so-called hierarchy of measures, which is divided into 5 levels in modern occupational health
and safety:
Stage 1: Elimination of the source of danger
Here the source of danger is to be eliminated completely. This is usually done by replacing the source with
a less dangerous one. Can a hazardous chemical be replaced by another non-hazardous one?
Stage 2: Elimination of hazards through technical measures
Can a source of danger be limited, e.g. by shielding? A fume hood with extraction would be an example in
the laboratory.
Stage 3: Organisational measures (local and temporal separation from the source of danger)
This concerns you personally. If you are exposed to a noise source for only a short time and not
permanently, the risk is reduced.
Stage 4: Personal protective equipment (PPE)
If contact with the source cannot be avoided by any of the above steps, you must wear protective clothing
as a measure to separate you or your body from the source of danger. Safety glasses, respiratory
protection or hearing protection are typical examples.
Stage 5: Behavioural measures
This includes, for example, instructions and operating instructions. You must know which substances you
handle and which hazards they pose. You will be instructed in how to protect yourself.
Important:
The effectiveness of the measures decreases steadily from level 1 to level 5. It should always be checked
whether a more effective measure is possible. So, it always starts with 1! Only if this is not possible, one
goes over to the next stage.
When weighing up the measures, you as a human being are always in the centre. It must be weighed
whether and how a measure can be realized. Economic aspects also play a role. In addition, the purchase
of a new machine or the modification of a workflow must not lead to new, previously unknown or even
greater risks!
All further steps:
They include the implementation of the measures and their control. Do the measures work at all or do
they have to be reworked somewhere? You are a key figure here, because you work daily at your
previously assessed workplace.
CHAPTER SEVEN
HANDLING FIRE ACCIDENTS
Handling different types of fire
Fire is a chemical reaction in which energy in the form of heat is produced.
The chemical reaction is known as combustion. Combustion occurs when fuel or other material reacts
rapidly with oxygen, giving off light, heat, and flame. A flame is produced during the ignition point in the
combustion reaction and is the visible, gaseous part of a fire. Flames consist primarily of carbon dioxide,
water vapor, oxygen, and nitrogen depending on the heat given off.
The process of existence of fire is summarised in by the fire triangle; that includes the three components
that must be present for a fire to burn. These components are:
1. Fuel
2. Oxygen
3. Heat/ ignition source
Without one of these components, fire cannot exist. For a fire to ignite.
Firefighting equipment/ fire protective equipment is equipment designed to extinguish fires or protect
the user from fire. It may be used by trained fire fighters, untrained users at the scene of a fire, or built
into a building's infrastructure (such as a sprinkler system).
Firefighting equipment includes not only fire hoses and fire extinguishers but also fire-resistant protective
clothing, fire-resistant gloves, respirators, fire blankets, helmets etc.
Classes of fire and Fire extinguishers
Fires can be placed into different classes depending on what material is burning. This classification then
gives us information on the type of fire extinguisher we should use to put out the flames.
Not all fires require the same type of extinguisher and the correct type has to be used for each blaze.
Type of fire
Class A
Class B
Class C
Description and extinguisher
A class A fire is burning flammable solids as fuel. Examples of these include paper
and wood.
Extinguishers that can be used: Water, Foam, ABC Dry powder, Wet chemical
Class B fires are burning flammable liquids. Examples include petrol and paint.
Extinguishers that can be used: Foam, CO2 Gas, ABC Dry powder
Class C fires burn flammable gases. A couple of examples are propane and butane.
Extinguishers that can be used: ABC Dry powder
Class D
Electrical (class E)
Class F
Class D fires are burning flammable metals. These may include lithium or
magnesium.
Extinguishers that can be used: Dry Special Powder
Any fire involving electrical equipment is classed as an electrical fire.
Extinguishers that can be used: CO2 Gas, ABC Dry powder
Class F fires are burning cooking oils or fat.
Extinguishers that can be used: Wet chemical
Fire extinguishers are tools/ equipment designed to tackle specific types of fire. There are several different
types of fire extinguishers.
1. Water extinguishers: Water extinguishers are one of the most cost-effective ways to fight Class A
fires, those fuelled by solid materials such as paper, wood and textiles. There are four different
types of water extinguishers: water jet, water spray, water with additives and water mist or fog.
✓ Water jet extinguishers work by spraying a jet of water at the burning materials, cooling them
and preventing re-ignition. They should not be used on live electrical equipment.
✓ Water spray extinguishers use a very fine spray of water droplets, each droplet is surrounded
by air which is non-conductive.
✓ Water extinguishers with additives are water extinguishers with foaming chemicals added.
The water loses its natural surface tension meaning that it can soak into the burning materials
more effectively.
✓ Water mist, or fog, extinguishers apply water in the form of mist, or fog, the droplets are
much smaller than those from the water spray extinguisher. All water extinguishers have a
red label.
2. Foam extinguishers: can be used on Class A and B fires. They are most suited to extinguishing
liquid fires such as petrol or diesel and are more versatile than water jet extinguishers because
they can also be used on solids such as wood and paper. Foam extinguishers have a cream label.
3. Powder extinguishers: are a good multi-purpose fire extinguisher because they can be used on
Class A, B and C fires. They can also be used on fires involving electrical equipment however, they
do not cool the fire so it can re-ignite. They are not generally recommended for use inside
buildings unless there is absolutely no alternative. Powder extinguishers have a blue label.
4. Carbon dioxide extinguishers (CO2): are ideal for places with a lot of electrical equipment such
as offices or server rooms because they are safe to use on fires involving electrical apparatus.
They can also be used on Class B fires, those involving flammable liquids such paraffin or petrol.
Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers (CO2) have a black label.
5. Wet chemical extinguishers: are suitable for use on Class F fires involving cooking oils and fats,
such as lard, olive oil, sunflower oil, maize oil and butter. Although they are primarily designed for
use on Class F fires, cooking oils and deep fat fryers. They can also be used on Class A fires (wood,
paper and fabrics) and Class B fires (flammable liquids). Wet chemical extinguishers have a yellow
label.
6. Fire blankets: are primarily for use on hot oil fires such as frying pans or small deep fat fryers.
They can also be used on someone whose clothing has caught fire. They work by smothering the
fire, stopping access to the oxygen fuelling it and extinguishing it.
Fire extinguisher checking and servicing
A fire extinguisher needs to work straight away when needed, so it is vital they are regularly checked and
serviced. Fire extinguishers are pressurised vessels that can burst when corroded or damaged and have
been known to cause serious injury and even death.
The Regulatory Fire Reform (Fire Safety Order) 2005 states that firefighting equipment “must be subject
to a suitable system of maintenance and are maintained in an efficient state, in efficient working order
and in good repair.”
There are two types of maintenance procedures.
i. Visual inspection by the user
ii. Maintenance by a competent person.
Fire extinguishers maintenance intervals
The table below shows the recommended intervals for maintenance of fire extinguishers. It may be
necessary to carry out a basic service more than once in a 12-month period if the monthly visual inspection
identifies any damage or drop in pressure.
Extinguisher type
Water and water based
Powder
Powder - primary sealed
CO2
Visual inspection
Monthly
Monthly
Monthly
Monthly
Basic service
Annually
Annually
Annually
Annually
Extended service
5 years
5 years
10 years
10 years
Visual basic inspection
The visual inspection should be carried out, and recorded, on a monthly basis and cover:
✓
✓
✓
✓
Location of the extinguisher - is it in the right place?
Visibility of the extinguisher - is it positioned in such a way that it can be easily seen?
Operating instructions - are the instructions facing outwards, clean and easy to read?
The condition of the extinguisher - has it been used, is there any obvious damage or are there any
missing parts?
✓ Extinguisher pressure - is the pressure of the extinguisher within safe operating limits?
✓ Tamper seals - have the seals and tamper indicators been broken?
Extended servicing
Every five years most fire extinguishers need an extended service. This means completely discharging the
extinguisher, checking for internal corrosion, refilling and repressurising.
Extinguishers should be available for immediate use at all times. Fire extinguishers should be permanently
mounted on brackets, floor stands or in extinguisher cabinets in conspicuous positions. Siting the
extinguishers in conspicuous positions means they can be easily seen by people following an escape route.
This could be near to room exits, corridors, stairways, lobbies and landings.
Firefighting rules and regulations
1. Keep flammable liquids to a minimum, and stored in flammable liquid storage cabinets. Never
allow more than ten gallons of liquid to be outside of cabinets at any time.
2. Store compressed gases with valve caps on when not in use, and keep cylinders firmly anchored in
place.
3. Store incompatible substances in separate areas, keeping oxidizers well away from flammable
liquids and gases.
4. Do not store flammable liquids in fume hoods.
Importance of checking and servicing fire extinguisher
1. To avoid loss of life and property damage.
2. To ensure that it will properly operate in case of an emergency.
3. To check any signs of damages on the cylinder. Corrosion to the steel extinguishers can occur on
the inside, weakening the integrity of the cylinder over time.
4. Possible of hose blockage. Another difficult problem is that the hose might have been clogged,
impairing its functionality. The O-rings on the hose can also deteriorate and compromise the
extinguishers.
5. Inspection of the pressure gauge. For each working fire extinguishers, there is a pressure meter
that indicates its functionality and it has to be centered in the green zone. The meter will drop
after a while whether it’s used or unused.
6. Some may need a refill. The extinguishing agents in a fire extinguisher will need a refill after each
use, to maintain an optimum spread whenever there’s a fire.
Importance of handling fire accidents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reduce the risk of injury to employees and customers
Reduce damage to facility/building
Protect against possible fines
Protect against losing customers’ trust
Protect employee jobs that would be lost due to extensive building damage
CHAPTER SIX
Performing First Aid
First aid: refers to the emergency or immediate care you should provide when a person is injured or
ill until full medical treatment is available. For minor conditions, first aid care may be enough. For
serious problems, first aid care should be continued until more advanced care becomes available.
The decision to act appropriately with first aid can mean the difference between life and death. Begin
by introducing yourself to the injured or ill person. Explain that you are a first aid provider and are
willing to help. The person must give you permission to help them; do not touch them until they agree
to be helped. If you encounter a confused person or someone who is critically injured or ill, you can
assume that they would want you to help them. This is known as “implied consent”.
If you encounter an emergency situation, follow these three basic steps/ procedures for first aid
administration:
1. Taking immediate action: This is the key to the ‘Preserving Life’ principle – a quick response to an
accident can save lives and minimise the risk that things get worse. If someone needs help, either
from an injury or sickness, you shouldn’t hesitate to help if possible.
2. Calming down the situation: First aiders should be able to remain calm under pressure and help
reduce the overall stress levels of the injured person as well as other people who may be
concerned. Reassurance can provide more support that you might expect in an emergency
situation and help people make the right decisions.
3. Calling for medical assistance: Make sure to get a hold of the emergency services as soon as
possible, either by calling directly yourself or asking a bystander to do so if you’re preoccupied
handing the injury. This will ensure that a medical professional arrives quickly to handle the
situation in a more comprehensive manner and provide more specialist treatment.
4. Apply the relevant treatment: Before a medical professional does arrive, you will need to apply
first aid treatments in order to stabilise the condition of the injured person. This comes under the
‘preserve life’ banner.
5. Scene safety: Assessing the safety of the surroundings is critical when approaching any scene. You
do not want to become another person who is injured or ill, so look for any potential dangers.
Remove the person from any dangers, such as the presence of water at the scene. Be especially
alert to avoid danger from automobile traffic.
Handwashing and personal protective gear
Handwashing is essential in the prevention of disease and illness. Wash your hands after each episode
of care and after taking off gloves. When a sink is not available, use hand sanitizers. (Most hand
sanitizers are alcohol-based and are a substitute for handwashing when needed.)
Hand Washing
Proper handwashing technique is fairly simple:
✓
✓
✓
✓
Completely wet your hands and generously apply soap.
Rub vigorously for at least 20 seconds.
Rinse your hands with plenty of running water.
Dry your hands with a towel or air dryer.
Using personal protective gear is an important strategy to minimize the risk of blood and bodily fluid
exposure. If the person is bleeding, always wear gloves and protective eyewear when giving first aid
care.
This is to reduces the risk for both the rescuer and the injured/ill person to be exposed to a bloodborne disease. Gloves protect your hands from exposure to blood and other bodily fluids, while eye
protection prevents accidental exposure from splashing fluids.
Consider a pocket mask as part of your personal protective gear as it provides safety during rescue
breathing. Be sure to dispose of all equipment that has touched bodily fluids in a biohazard bag when
available.
When taking off the gloves, avoid touching the outer contaminated surface. Slowly pull one glove off
while turning it inside out. Place the glove in the palm of the other gloved hand, and then remove the
second glove while turning it inside out.
First aid kit
First Aid Kit: a small box containing items used in giving help to a sick or injured person until full
medical treatment is available.
A standard first aid kit should include:
✓ adhesive bandages of assorted sizes
✓ roller bandages of assorted sizes
✓ absorbent compress dressings
✓ sterile gauze pads
✓ adhesive cloth tape
✓ antiseptic wipes
✓ aspirin
✓ acetaminophen or ibuprofen
✓ antibiotic ointment
✓ hydrocortisone cream and calamine lotion
✓ nitrile or vinyl gloves
✓ safety pins
✓ scissors
✓ tweezers
✓ thermometer
✓ breathing barrier (masks)
✓ instant cold pack
✓ blanket
✓ first aid manual
First aid bandage
In many cases, you can use an adhesive bandage to cover minor cuts, scrapes, or burns. To cover and
protect larger wounds, you might need to apply a clean gauze pad or roller bandage.
To apply a roller bandage to a wound, follow these steps:
✓
✓
✓
✓
Hold the injured area steady.
Gently but firmly wrap the bandage around the injured limb or body part, covering the wound.
Clip the bandage with sticky tape or safety pins.
The bandage should be wrapped firmly enough to stay put, but not so tightly that it cuts off
blood flow.
✓ To check the circulation in a bandaged limb, pinch one of the person’s fingernails or toenails
until the colour drains from the nail. If colour doesn’t return within two seconds of letting go,
the bandage is too tight and needs to be adjusted.
First aid for burns
If you suspect that someone has a third-degree burn, call emergency service. Seek professional
medical care for any burns that:
✓ cover a large area of skin
✓ are located on the person’s face, groin, buttocks, hands, or feet
✓ have been caused by contact with chemicals or electricity
To treat a minor burn, run cool water over the affected area for up to 15 minutes. If that’s not possible,
apply a cool compress to the area instead. Avoid applying ice to burned tissue. It can cause more
damage.
Over-the-counter pain relievers can help relieve pain. Applying lidocaine or an aloe vera gel or cream
can also reduce discomfort from minor burns.
To help prevent infection, apply an antibiotic ointment and loosely cover the burn with clean gauze.
Find out when you should contact a doctor for follow-up care.
First aid CPR
If you see someone collapse or find someone unconscious, call emergency service. If the area around
the unconscious person seems safe, approach them and begin Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
Even if you don’t have formal training, you can use hands-only CPR to help keep someone alive until
professional help arrives.
Here’s how to treat an adult with hands-only CPR:
✓ Place both hands on the centre of their chest, with one hand on top of the other.
✓ Press straight down to compress their chest repeatedly, at a rate of about 100 to 120
compressions per minute.
✓ Compressing the chest to the beat of “Staying Alive” by the Bee Gees or any hip hop songs
that can help you count at the correct rate.
✓ Continue performing chest compressions until professional help arrives.
✓ Learn how to treat an infant or child with CPR and how to combine chest compressions with
rescue breathing.
First aid for bee sting
For some people, a bee sting is a medical emergency. If a person is having an allergic reaction to a bee
sting, call emergency service. If they have an epinephrine auto-injector (like an EpiPen), help them
find and use it. Encourage them to remain calm until help arrives.
Someone who’s stung by a bee and showing no signs of an allergic reaction can usually be treated
without professional help.
✓ If the stinger is still stuck under the skin, gently scrape a credit card or other flat object across
their skin to remove it.
✓ Then wash the area with soap and water and apply a cool compress for up to 10 minutes at a
time to reduce pain and swelling.
✓ To treat itching or pain from the sting, consider applying calamine lotion or a paste of baking
soda and water to the area several times a day.
First aid for nosebleed
To treat someone with a nosebleed, ask them to:
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Sit down and lean their head forward.
Using the thumb and index finger, firmly press or pinch the nostrils closed.
Continue to apply this pressure continuously for five minutes.
Check and repeat until the bleeding stops.
If you have nitrile of vinyl gloves, you can press or pinch their nostril closed for them.
If the nosebleed continues for 20 minutes or longer, seek emergency medical care. The person should
also receive follow-up care if an injury caused the nosebleed.
First aid for heatstroke
When your body overheats, it can cause heat exhaustion. If left untreated, heat exhaustion can lead
to heatstroke. This is a potentially life-threatening condition and medical emergency.
If someone is overheated, encourage them to rest in a cool location. Remove excess layers of clothing
and try to cool their body down by doing the following:
✓ Cover them with a cool, damp sheet.
✓ Apply a cool, wet towel to the back of their neck.
✓ Sponge them with cool water.
Call emergency service if they develop signs or symptoms of heatstroke, including any of the following:
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
nausea or vomiting
mental confusion
fainting
seizures
a fever of 104°F (40°C) or greater
If they’re not vomiting or unconscious, encourage them to sip cool water or a sports drink.
First aid for heart attack
If you think someone might be experiencing a heart attack, call emergency service. If they’ve been
prescribed nitro-glycerine, help them locate and take this medication. Cover them with a blanket and
comfort them until professional help arrives.
If they have difficulty breathing, loosen any clothing around their chest and neck. Start CPR if they lose
consciousness.
It’s also smart to include a list of your healthcare providers, emergency contact numbers, and
prescribed medications in your first aid kits.
Outlook
It’s important to protect yourself from contagious illnesses and other hazards when providing first aid.
To help protect yourself:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Always check for hazards that could put your safety at risk before approaching a sick or injured
person.
Avoid direct contact with blood, vomit, and other bodily fluids.
Wear protective equipment, such as nitrile or vinyl gloves when treating someone with an
open wound or a breathing barrier when performing rescue breathing.
Wash your hands with soap and water immediately after providing first aid care.
In many cases, basic first aid can help stop a minor situation from getting worse. In the case
of a medical emergency, first aid might even save a life. If someone has a serious injury or
illness, they should receive follow-up care from a medical professional.
The Principles and Practices of First Aid
1. Preserve Life: The first aim of first aid is to preserve life, which involves the key emergency
practices to ensure that the casualty isn’t in any mortal danger. Remember though, this includes
preserving your own life as you shouldn’t put yourself in danger in order to apply first aid. Its at
this stage where you should do a quick risk assessment to check for dangers to the injured person,
yourself or bystanders which could cause the situation to escalate. If in doubt, do not attempt to
apply first aid and immediately call for a medical professional.
2. Prevent Deterioration: Once you’ve followed all the steps associated with the first principle, your
next priority is to prevent deterioration of the injured person’s condition. Keeping a casualty still
to avoid aggravating their injury, or from complicating any unseen issues, is crucial. This helps
prevent to further injuries, and clearing the area of any immediate dangers will help you to do so.
3. Promote Recovery: Finally, there are steps you should follow which will help lessen the amount
of time taken for a casualty to recover from an accident and aid in minimising lasting damage and
scarring. The prime example of this is applying cold water to a burn as soon as possible to lower
the chance of long-term scarring and helps speed up the healing process.
Check for consciousness
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Open the airway
Check for breathing Follow airway, breathing, of resuscitation, administer CPR if needed
Check for circulation
Check for bleeding, controlling any major bleeding
There are a number treatments which correspond to the different problems that might arise as
you work through this list, e.g. CPR, applying a tourniquet, running a burn under cold water, etc.
First Aid Regulation/ law
Under the Health and Safety at Work etc Act 1974 (HSWA), employers are responsible for making sure
that their workplace has a health and safety policy. This should include arrangements for first aid.
Employers should also be aware of the Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981. This places a
responsibility on all employers (no matter the size of their business) to provide adequate resources to
those who are injured at work. This includes ensuring there is equipment, facilities and first aiders
who have had appropriate training.
Although the 3Ps are outlined above, we will also include two more areas that needs attention when
conducting primary emergency care:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Protection against further injury.
Preservation of life.
Promotion of recovery.
Prevention of injuries for people at any age.
Promotion of healthy lifestyles.