Training and
Development
Chapter 8
Overview:
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Training and Development:
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What is it?
Why does it matter?
How can we efficiently assess needs?
What are Instructional Design Essentials?
3 Types of Training Delivery Systems?
Emerging Needs and Trends?
The Importance of Training
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Over 90 percent of Fortune 500 companies
have some type of formal training program
How much will US Businesses Spend on
Training in 2005?
About 140 Billion Dollars…
Equal to the budget of about 750 Michigan
Tech Budgets…
About 15 times more than the State of Michigan
Spends on ALL Education…
This is BIG business…
The Importance of Training
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U.S. organizations spent $109 billion on
employee learning and development in 2005
(American Society for Training and
Development)
Have you received job training in the past?
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Was it helpful? Did you need the training? Did the
training carry over to your job? Were you and the
organization made more efficient due to the training?
Why Training Is Needed
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Why train if your valid selection system
identifies high performers?
Cannot guarantee workers are ready to
perform effectively on the first day of the job
Experienced employees must sometimes be
retrained due to changes in the job or
organization
Continued development of employees
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Increased organizational commitment, job
satisfaction  increased productivity, decreased
absenteeism, less turnover
What Is Training?
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The formal procedures that a company
utilizes to facilitate learning so that the
resultant behavior contributes to the
attainment of the company’s goals and
objectives (McGehee & Thayer, 1961)
Assessing Training Needs
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Must identify training needs before
developing a training program
Competency-based training – identify the
competencies a company wants all
employees to have and then develop training
programs around those competencies
Four types of needs analyses
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Organizational
Task
Person
Demographic
Organizational Analysis
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Conducted to determine the organization’s
short- and long-term goals; compare goals to
the organization’s accomplishments
Where organization is not meeting goals =
targets for training
Organizational culture should be considered
(does the culture see training and development
as important?); if not this could be a potential
obstacle to training!!
Task Analysis
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Examination of task requirements for
successful conduct of each job
Involves task-oriented job analysis
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SMEs often used to gather training needs
Identify the KSAOs needed to be further developed
or refined
Example of how selection and training fit
together! Both deal with human capital – the
skills, abilities, and experiences of organization
members that provide a competitive advantage
or unique aspects
Person Analysis
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Examines how well all employees are
carrying out job responsibilities and duties
Performance appraisal data are often used to
identify employees who need training (or who
are exemplary!)
Some organizations allow employees to selfnominate for training or give a test to
diagnose employee strengths/weaknesses to
indicate who needs additional training
Demographic Analysis
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Needs analysis should consider the
demographic makeup of the organization
Determine specific training needs of various
demographic groups
Examples: technological training for older
employees, training for employees with
disabilities, redesign of existing training
programs to accommodate disabled
employees
Trainers must avoid discriminating against
employees
Principles of Learning
Learning Context
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Important to the success of any training
program; includes:
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Principles of instructional design
Basic principles of learning
Characteristics of trainee and trainer
Learning organization – organization-wide
concern with, and valuing of, knowledge
acquisition (also called climate for learning)
Continuous learning – learning how to learn
Instructional Design
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All activities that are developed and
coordinated to support the trainees’ learning
processes
Elements
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Determining what is to be learned; learning can
be categorized as cognitive, psychomotor, or
social
Planned evaluation
Planned re-evaluation!!
Principles of Learning
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Learning – a relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs as a result of experience
or practice…
I/O psychologists draw on learning research
to apply to training programs
Principles of Learning
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Active learning-approach to instruction that involves
actively engaging students with a course material through
discussion, problem solving, case studies, role playing and
other methods of learning.
Size of the unit to be learned
Whole vs. part learning
For a highly organized, coherent, independent task, more
effective to be trained on the whole task at one time
For a complex task that is easily divided into independent
components, train on each component separately
Principles of Learning
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Size of the unit to be learned (continued)
Distributed practice – training divided into
segments, usually with rest periods in
between
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Better for learning skills and for long-term retention,
but not always practical for organizations
Effective for low complexity tasks
Massed practice – training that takes place at one
time, without breaks
Principles of Learning
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Meaningfulness of material
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Overview of material should be presented
Present material in a way easily understood
(e.g., job-relevant examples)
Sequencing of material (i.e., logical order)
Practice and overlearning
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“Perfect practice”
Overlearning – process of giving trainees
continued practice even after they have appeared
to master the behavior; results in high levels of
learning
Principles of Learning
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Feedback (knowledge of results)
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Timely and useful feedback is important
Three purposes:
1. Provides information so adjustments can be made
to behaviors
2. Makes the learning process more interesting and
increases motivation to learn
3. Leads to goal setting for improving performance
Principles of Learning
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Feedback (knowledge of results)
Important principles to delivering feedback:
Works best when delivered immediately
following behavior
Immediate and frequent feedback results in
best performance
Both positive and negative feedback have
value when delivered in a sensitive, yet clear
manner
Individual Differences
in Trainees
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Characteristics of the learner are also
important
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Readiness (the extent to which the trainee has
the necessary knowledge, ability, or experiences
to allow them to learn)
Motivation to learn
“Error training” – more exploration (trial and
error) may help trainees learn at a deeper
level; may be affected by personality (Big 5)
Characteristics of the Trainer
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Command on the subject
Establish specific objectives, communicate
them clearly to the trainees
Solid understanding of how people learn
and the role played by approach or style
Effective communication skills
Realize that different trainees may require
different style or different treatment from the
trainer
Transfer of Training
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Extent to which the material, skills, or
procedures learned in training are taken back
to the job and used regularly by the employee
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Positive transfer – training improves performance
Negative transfer – performance declines after
training
How to Increase the Likelihood
of Positive Transfer of Training
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Maximize the similarity between training
situation and job situation (identical
elements theory)
Provide adequate amount of active practice
Provide different contexts in which
employees can practice desired behaviors
Trainers, trainees, and managers should
work together throughout process
How to Increase the Likelihood
of Positive Transfer of Training
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Expectations for trainers, trainees, and
managers should be clear up front
Provide an on-the-job maintenance program
to help employees continue their learned
behaviors
Social support is also important to the
transfer process; transfer climate – peer and
supervisory support for transfer
Training Delivery: Overview
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Traditional approaches
Technology-based approaches
Employee development-based approaches
Traditional Approaches:
Lecture
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Use of simple lecturing to teach trainees
important work-related information
Very economical, can train many at once
Effectiveness of technique varies greatly
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Useful for teaching facts/acquiring knowledge
Not very effective for developing problem-solving
or interpersonal skills
Fixed time limit not likely to include practice,
overlearning, feedback
Traditional Approaches:
On-the-Job Training
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Most widely used training technique in
organizations
Underlying assumption: new employee can
learn job by watching an experienced
employee perform job, talking with the
employee, working with actual job materials
Potential downside: reliance on trainer; put in
place instead of carefully planned training
program
Traditional Approaches:
Self-Directed Techniques
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Trainees work at their own pace to remedy
identified weaknesses using self-instructional
materials
Programmed instruction (PI):
1. Present material broken into small elements
2. Arrange material from simple to complex
3. Administer a short test after each element
4. Give immediate feedback
Traditional Approaches:
Self-Directed Techniques
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Based on learning principles
PI techniques result in shorter training times
than other techniques
PI training groups do not show superiority in
learning or retention
Learner control may be counterproductive
Computer-assisted Instruction (CAI) involves
PI but trainees interact with a computer
Traditional Approaches:
Work Simulators
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Simulator is designed to be as realistic as
possible so that trainees easily transfer skills
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Used when actual equipment is too costly and
training would be inefficient (e.g., training
astronauts, airline pilots)
Determinants of simulator effectiveness
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Physical fidelity – extent to which operation of
equipment mimics real world
Psychological fidelity – extent to which behavioral
processes needed for success on job are
necessary for success in simulation
Technology-Based Approaches:
Audiovisual Techniques
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Use of audiovisual or multimedia
presentations as basis of training
Believed to be at least as effective as, and
often more effective than, traditional live
lectures
Allow flexibility in presentation (pausing,
repeating, stopping)
Technology-Based Approaches:
Distance Learning
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Delivery of educational or training materials,
usually through electronic means, to people
at different locations at same time
Benefits:
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Most efficient use of high-quality instructors and
instruction
Learners’ assume more responsibility for
personal success
Very clear cost savings
Technology-Based Approaches:
E-Learning
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Training delivered via the Internet; employees
at remote sites can sort through, read, and
work with information
Benefits:
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Easy to update/change information
Can be done at work or other convenient location
Sharing of information via discussion groups, etc.
Little empirical research, but may be slightly
more effective than classroom-based training
Employee Development-Based
Approaches: Orientation Training
and New Employee Socialization
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Organizational socialization – process by
which an individual acquires the attitudes,
behaviors, and knowledge needed to
participate as an organizational member
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Formal (orientation meetings) or informal
When formal and informal rules, procedures, and
expectations are learned
Employee Development-Based
Approaches: Coaching
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Coaching – process by which supervisors
provide subordinates with advice and
information about current performance,
discuss ideas and goals for improving
performance
Managers are coached and they are coaches
Employee Development-Based
Approaches: Coaching
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Three functions of coaching:
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Guidance – clearly communicate performance
expectations, performance outcomes, and
suggestions for improvement
Facilitation – help employees analyze and explore
ways to solve problems/enhance performance
Inspiration – challenge employees to aspire to
and realize their potential
Employee Development-Based
Approaches: Coaching
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Managerial coaching: ADEPT
Research: coaching has an effect on
managerial behaviors (goals, amount of
feedback, extent to which managers ask
others for feedback)
Executive coaching: similar, except coach is
typically an external consultant who develops
relationship with mid- to high-level executives
Employee Development-Based
Approaches: Behavior Modeling
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Based on theory that most social behavior is
learned through modeling
Well-suited for improving interpersonal skills
Example: Latham & Saari (1979) developed
nine training modules for managerial
interactions with subordinates
Employee Development-Based
Approaches: Business Simulations
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Managers are given brief introduction, includes
fictitious company background, situation,
organizational problems, organizational goals;
asked to make decisions
Many types of management games
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Often well-received by trainees (interesting,
relevant, realistic)
Criticism is that trainees become involved in
competition and lose sight of general principles
Employee Development-Based
Approaches: Corporate Universities
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Corporate classrooms, modern facilities with
up-to-date technology; allow for effective
learning and transfer on-site
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Examples: GE, Motorola, McDonald’s Hamburger
University, Caterpillar Training Institute
Stem from the societal trend, “Third Wave” in
which world’s industrialized economies
evolve into knowledge-based societies
Training and Issues Related
to Diversity: Overview
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Sexual harassment training
Workplace diversity management and
training
Sexual Harassment Training
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Consequences of sexual harassment
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Widespread implications on work outcomes
Psychological and somatic outcomes
Negative effects on the organization
Training may be best tool against harassment
Research indicates
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Behavior modeling may help individuals become
more sensitive to sexual harassment behaviors
Males and females may view behaviors differently
with respect to their potential for being sexual
harassment
Workplace Diversity
Management and Training
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Demographic changes in workforce
necessitate new HR approaches to managing
that workforce
Diversity training is a $10 billion a year
industry
60 percent of Fortune 500 companies provide
some type of diversity training
Workplace Diversity
Management and Training
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Three primary objectives of diversity training
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Increase awareness about diversity issues
Reduce biases and stereotypes that interfere with
effective management
Change behaviors so that a diverse workforce can
be more effectively managed
Favorable, yet limited, evidence for
effectiveness of diversity training
Training Evaluation
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Criteria for training programs similar for the
“criteria for criteria” discussed earlier
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Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy
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Relevant, reliable, sensitive, practical, fair
Reaction criteria – trainees’ attitudinal reactions
Learning criteria – how much is learned
Behavioral criteria – on-the-job changes that take
place
Results criteria – ultimate value to company
Training effectiveness (Kirkpatrick) – .60 to .63
Training Evaluation
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Augmented Framework (Alliger & colleagues)
differs from Kirkpatrick’s taxonomy:
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Reactions are recategorized into affective
reactions and utility reactions
Learning is recategorized into three types:
immediate posttraining knowledge measures,
knowledge retention measures, behavior/skill
demonstration measures
Behavioral criteria changed to transfer criteria
However, only modest correlations among
these new criteria
Training Evaluation:
Evaluation Designs
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Quasi-experiments are the most viable
alternatives for evaluation of training programs
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Pre/post design – allows us to measure criteria
prior to training and again after training, changes
reflect training effect
Pre/post design with control group – measures are
given pre- and post-training to both experimental
and control groups
Solomon four-group design – two experimental
groups and two control groups; very costly but
strong research design