CHESS PROGRESS
from beginner to winner
Erik M. Czerwin
EVERYMAN CHESS
www.everymanchess.com
First published in 2014 by Gloucester Publish ers Limited, North burgh House,
10 Northburgh Street, London EC1V OAT
Copyright © 2014 Erik Czerwin
The right of Erik Czerwin to be identified as the author of this work h as been
asserted in accordance with the Copyrights, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
electrostatic, magnetic tape, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior permission of the publish er.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
I S B N : 978 1 78194 136 2
Distributed in North America by The Globe Pequot Press, P.O Box 480,
246 Goose Lane, Guilford, CT 0643 7-0480.
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Everyman is the registered trade mark of Random House Inc. and is used in this work under
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Everyman Chess Series
Chief advisor: Byron J acobs
Commissioning editor: John Emms
Assistant editor: Richard Palliser
Typeset and edited by First Rank Publishing, Brighton .
Cover design by Horatio Monteverde.
Printed and bound by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall
About the Author
En"k Czerwin is a high school teacher and chess coach. He is a self-taught player who h as
h ad great success teaching the game to his students since he began coaching in 2005. In
2007, he started a chess team at Marengo High School, and by 2012, the team won the Illi­
nois Division lA title, the first in school history. That year, the Illinois Chess Coaches Asso­
ciation elected Erik as the Coach of the Year. He then moved to Guilford High School and
h as recently started a new team there as well. With the h elp of other coaches, Erik has
helped to expand chess to schools across the Northern Illinois region. He often volunteers
to coordinate with community organizations where he teaches and encourages people of
all ages and backgrounds to learn and play chess. Erik Czerwin lives, works, and plays in
Rockford, I L.
Contents
About the Author
Acknowledgments
Introduction
How to use this book
3
7
9
11
1
Beginning with the Basics
The Board: Know Your Battlefield
The Pieces: Know Your Army
Ending the Game
Chess Notation
13
14
29
50
75
2
The Fundamental Elements of Chess Strategy
Fundamental Elements of Chess
Opposition
Critical Squares and the Square of the Pawn
Pawn Structure
Weak Squares, Holes, and Outposts
Open and Closed Positions
89
90
105
114
124
133
143
3
Applying the Elements of Chess Strategy
Principles of Exchanging Material
Fundamental Defence
Fundamental Tactics
Fundamentals of Openings
159
1 60
1 74
184
233
4
The Rules of Chess
The Basics
Clocks and Time Controls
Personal Conduct
Tournaments
255
256
258
261
263
5
Over the Board
Analysing a Position & Forming a Plan
Choosing and Making a Move
U sing the Clock
Move by Move
Maintaining Presence
After the Game is Over ...
Conclusion
268
269
2 77
2 79
281
284
289
293
Appendices
A: Continuing Study
B: Benjamin Franklin's On the Morals of Chess
C: Fundamental Principles of Chess
D: Notation Tip-Sheet and Order of Operations
294
295
296
298
308
Answers to Exercises
Glossary
I ndex
309
324
331
5
Acknowledgments
This book is dedicated to the MCHS Chess Teams from 2007-2012. Without your determi­
nation, drive, and faith in my coaching, we never would h ave achieved the mountaintop.
Thanks to my dear friend and colleague, Brian. Your friendship, camaraderie, and assis­
tance built my chess foundation. Without you, there would be no Big Daddy C, and this
book certainly never would have h appened. Thanks, also, to the coaches of the N I C L: Jeff,
Glen, Peter, Phil, Carol, Dane, Randy, Joel, Dan, Will, and Betsy, your guidance and chal­
lenges kept me moving even in the most trying times. Your wisdom and experience h ave
been invaluable to me. Oh, and I promise I 'll email a little less often now that this is done.
Thanks, also, to Bill in DeKalb for all your guidance and for your faith in me as a coach.
Wherever you are Mike, thanks for those games on the front porch that one spring
break. That was the beginning of this obsession . Thanks for introducing me to this game.
Thank you, especially, Nathan and Joanna; and most importantly, thank you, Tiffany.
7
Welcome to chess. Chess is a game that brings m any players satisfaction, exhilaration, and
joy throughout their lives. Many casual players also find it confusing and too difficult to
master. This book can help both beginning players and experienced players who wish to
play more seriously. Using this book, a pure beginner can know absolutely nothing about
chess and learn everything they need to know in order to compete with other serious play­
ers. A more experienced player can work through this book and discover new l ayers of the
game that they hadn't considered or hope to consider with a new perspective. In both cas­
es, players who work through this book should gain a solid foundation in all aspects of the
game. This text provides everything a player needs to pick up any other chess study re­
source and be fully prepared to learn from it.
The lessons begin with the simplest possible position, the empty board, and progress to
the most complex, the opening. By first examining the empty board, a player can begin to
understand the intricacies of the game at their most basic level. Next, each piece is exam­
ined by itself as it relates to the board. After an explanation of the endgame and notation,
the sequence continues by examining the three elements of chess strategy. This is followed
by an explanation of the next simplest position, two kings on an empty board. After this, a
single pawn is added. This sequence continues so that the player learns to incorporate
each new fundamental concept in layers, progressing until the game reaches its most
complex point, the first move.
Each section builds upon the previous one in such a way that, even on the first page, the
student is learning the fundamentals that the top rated players use when forming their
strategies and brilliancies. I've worked h ard to introduce the most complex ideas in comfort­
able portions, gradually building a firm foundation for the reader. If a reader skips a section,
he or she may miss a tiny nugget of information that is useful in a later section. On the other
hand, each lesson is designed as a unique, complete package and may be read out of order.
My hope is that this book will provide a complete and solid foundation of chess funda­
mentals. I hope that all chess players find a deep love for the game; chess is an art form
that can only really be discovered once one understands the basics. Chess has enriched my
life in many ways, and I hope that this book can help you build a strong, enriching under­
standing of the game from the most fundamental building blocks to the most complicated
strategies. Most importantly, I hope to share with you the captivating journey of learning
this remarkable game.
Erik M. Czerwin,
Rockford, I L, July 2014
9
How to Use this Book
This book is designed for you, the reader, to work through the lessons, not just to read the
words. While reading, you should use a complete chess set; each diagram should be set up
on the board and the demonstration played out. As the demonstration is explained in the
book, you should observe and study the demonstration on your board.
After each section, there is a series of exercises. These should be practiced on the board
as well. An swers can be kept in a notebook and then checked after all of the practice exer­
cises for that section h ave been completed. No peeking ! The best study will only occur if
you discover the answers for yourself. If, upon checking the solutions, you discover that you
h ave answered incorrectly, you should try to figure out why you were incorrect before re­
turning to the text of the book. This will ensure that your learning process is wholly yours.
The best learning comes from within, not from the text of any book.
The practice exercises are just for a brief review and application of the ideas presented
in that section. In order to cement those ideas fully, I advise you to practice much more on
your own. To guide that extra practice, after each series of exercises, I've provided a brief
listing of drills that will help consolidate your understanding. If you work at these practice
exercises repeatedly until you can do them automatically, then you will h ave fully ce­
mented the ideas in your mind and you will be a much stronger chess player because of it.
Doing this before moving on to the next section is the best way to learn and advance, while
minimizing confusio11 and gaps in understanding.
It m ay seem like a slow, arduous process, and you may be anxious to "just play games".
However, you can always play chess along the way; in fact, it's a good idea to enjoy playing
chess games as you progress through these lessons. After each lesson, you should notice
new understanding enter your play and your perception of the game. This is a good way to
practice. But don't get caught up in just playing games. Practicing games while you are still
l acking fundamentals is actually practicing poor chess. Your goal should be to practice
strong chess, which requires you to be the strongest chess player you can be. Going
through the exercises and drills here is a good way to practice the fundamentals, just as a
basketball player practices free throws, ball h andling, jump shots, and defence separately;
basketball players don't train by just playing g ames all the time, they break the game down
into elements and practice each skill, just as you should with chess skills.
Once you h ave mastered the skills presented h ere, look in the back (Appendix A: Con-
11
Ch ess Prog ress
tinuing Study) to find some tips on how to continue your chess studies. This book is only an
introduction to the fundamentals of chess; once you m aster them, it will be important to
continue studying, and those tips can help you understand how best to proceed for your
personal chess goals.
H ave fun, and remember: the more you put into learning these fundamentals, the
stronger your foundation will be. The stronger your foundation, the stronger your chess
play and the stronger your ability to learn from other sources.
12
Chapter One
Beginning with th e Basics
The Boa rd
This section focuses on the particulars of the chess board. The lesson reveals the different
perspectives of the board so that each player can fully understand the field of battle.
The Pieces
This section focuses on each of the chess pieces. Each description contains information
about each piece's squares of origin, movement, capturing, and some fundamental strat­
egy. All types of piece movement are explained, including castling, en passant, and promot­
ing pawns.
Ending the Game
This section explains how t o e n d a chess game. Specific ways of ending the game are ex­
plained, including checkmate, stalem ate, and draws.
Chess Notation
This section explains how to write and read chess notation, which is an essential skill.
13
Ch e s s Prog ress
The Board: Know Your Battlefield
Many players start learning chess by learning how the pieces move, and they neglect the
board itself. It h as 64 squares organized into an 8x8 square with alternating light and dark
squares. This seems simple, but there are actually m any layers of perspective. Each l ayer
holds interest for a different piece (or pieces), and each layer is just as important as the
others when considering h ow to plan and carry out your manoeuvres.
The first layer of perspective on the board is the squares themselves. Each square is ei­
ther light or dark (some boards have different colours, but the squares are labelled as light
or dark), and they alternate light-dark-light, etc, from one end of the board to the other. To
understand how each square is unique, players must also understand the other l ayers of
perspective that are described below.
The next perspective is the one of the most fundamental : the lines. Each line is a series
of connected squares running vertically, horizontally, or diagonally across the board. The
lines running vertically from one player to the other are called files. Each file is named with
a lowercase letter "a" to "h". The lines running horizontally across the board are called
ranks. Each rank is named with a number "1" to "8".
The white pieces always set up on the side with the a-file on the left and rank 1 nearest
to the player. The black pieces always set up on the other side with the h-file on the right
and rank 8 nearest to the player.
Ranks may sometimes be referred to by a player's rank. This means the number of the
rank from the player's perspective. For example, White's third rank is rank 3, but Black's
third rank is rank 6. White's seventh rank is rank 7, whereas Black's seventh rank is 2.
8
7
6
5
4
3
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1
a
b
c
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e
Files
14
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B eg i n n ing with t h e B a s ics
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1
a
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d
e
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h
Ran ks
The file and rank system allows players to refer to a specific square using a co-ordinate
system by naming first the file then the rank, so these lines actually help us identify each
square by n ame. For example, square c4 is a light square and square f4 is a dark square. It
is also important to note the a8- and h i-squares. One rule for starting a game of chess is
that the board should always be set up with a light square in the player's near right-hand
corner (stars above). Another rule for starting a game is that the White player always
moves first.
Aside from the vertical and horizontal lines, there are also diagonals. Diagonal s are
named by their beginning and ending squares. For example, the a1-h 8 diagonal is the
longest dark square diagonal on the board, and the h 1-a8 diagonal is the longest light
square diagonal on the board. Note second longest diagonals: the dark-squared g 1-a7 and
the h 2-b8 diagonal s, as well as the light-squared b1-h7 and a2-g8 diagonal s.
15
C h e s s Prog ress
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Long Diagonals
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Second Longest Diagonals
The lines layer of perspective is based on the actual lines of connected squares on the
board: files a-h, ranks 1-8, and the m any diagonals. These lines represent a very straight­
forward perspective on the board. The pieces move and capture along these lines, and we
must learn to open the lines, block the lines, or hold the lines according to the pieces we
have and the pieces our opponent h as. Sometimes we will fight vicious battles to gain con­
trol of a key file, or we will m anipulate a diagonal in order to control the base of a file while
our queen dances across an open rank to deliver check to the enemy king on a short diago­
nal. Understanding this perspective of the board is critical in beginning to understand how
16
B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
to formulate strategies throughout the game. It is the first way that we look at the board
beyond the simple square-by-square view we might take in with our first glance.
A simple demonstration of this is seen in the diagram below. The m arked light square is
on four lines: the e-file, rank 2, the f1-a6 diagonal, and the dl-h S diagonal .
8
7
6
5
4
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1
a
b
c
d
e
f
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h
The next l ayer of perspective is regional. The starting positions of the pieces determine
this l ayer of the board, so it is important to know where they start. Pawns fill each player's
second rank, and the back rank starts with the rooks in the corners, knights beside them,
bishops beside them, then the king and queen in the centre. The queen always gets h er
colour square (the black queen on a dark square, white queen on a light square).
8
7
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h
Pawns
17
Ch e s s Prog ress
Pieces
Based on this original starting position, the board h as two more perspectives. The board
can be divided into two 4-file regions: the queenside (a/b/c/d files) and the kingside
(e/f/g/h files): the four ranks on the left and right side of the board where the queen and
the king begin. The board can also be divided into two 4-rank regions: black (8/7/6/5 ranks)
and white (1/2/3/4 ranks) territories - the four ranks closest to the Black and White play­
ers.
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Queenside and Kingside
18
h
B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
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Black and White Territories
So the third, regional, perspective of the board divides it into h alves based on the start­
ing position. This can h elp us begin to see where pieces are controlling territory or reaching
into territory. This understanding helps us see the board as a real battlefield where own­
ing, controlling, and influencing territory is the real purpose of the pieces. Each square now
h as a location within a certain region of the board and each line will h ave value within that
region, while possibly reaching into another territory.
The final perspective, space, is based on the ability of each piece to move around from a
given location on the board. To demonstrate this, we see below the bishops on dS and h6.
The h6-bishop can move to seven squares. However, the ds-bishop can move to 13 squares.
Next, we see three knights at h l, f8 and dS. The h i-knight has only two places to move, the
f8-knight can move to four squares, and the ds-knight, the one in the centre, has eight
places to move. Therefore, the location of a piece and the space it has, or holds (the squares
it can move to on its next move ) , can affect its value and strength. When a piece holds a
square that an enemy piece occupies, it is attacking the enemy piece.
19
C h e s s Prog ress
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g
h
Bishop Mobility
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Knight Mobility
With this in mind, we can see that the space in the centre of the board can be extremely
useful throughout the game. The centre four squares ( d4, dS, e4, and es ) hold particular
importance. The squares surrounding the centre h ave stronger influence on the centre and
are therefore equally important to note. In fact, any piece that holds influence in the centre
is probably an important piece, while any piece cut off from the centre m ay be in trouble.
The central files, then, are also important since they are the lines running through the cen­
tre directly into the enemy's camp. On either side of the centre files are the queenside and
king side fl anks, which we can use as spaces to strike at the enemy's position.
20
B eg in n i n g with th e B a s ics
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Centre Squares
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f
Centre Files and Flanks
Within this perspective of space, the files and the board are called open or closed. Gen­
erally, the difference between open and closed depends on the position of the pawns
throughout the game.
Files are often referred to as open or closed. An open file is one with no pawns on it, and
a closed file is one with pawns of both colours. A half-open file has a pawn of only one col­
our on it. Below, we see that the a-, d-, g-, and h -files are all closed. The only open file is the
e-file since there are no pawns on it. The b- and c-files are h alf-open since the b-file has
only a black pawn and the c-file has only a white pawn. The f-file would also be considered
h alf-open since there are no white pawns, even though there are two black pawn s.
21
Ch ess Prog ress
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Open and Closed Files
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Open and Closed Position
As games progress, the pawns can create either an open position (one where the pawns
are traded off or still very flexible) or a closed position (one where the pawns are jammed
together and locked, unable to move). In the Open and Closed Position diagram above, we
see that the centre of the board is open, with no pawns blocking the lines, while the king­
side flank is closed, jammed with pawns that will not be moving anytime soon.
One final aspect of space is the space that pieces influence, hold, or battle over. In the
diagram below, the bishop on f3 can move to the squares marked by stars and the rook can
move to the squares marked by crosses. Both pieces hold those squares. Both pieces can
22
B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
move to c6 and a8 (marked by plus signs), and therefore they have ten sion over that space
(battle over it). With all this in mind, we see that the pieces affect how we view the space
on the board.
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5
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a
b
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e
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h
With this understanding of how the board and pieces interact to create space unique to
each position, we see that certain squares, lines, and regions will h ave more importance
over others, depending on their location and which pieces are located on which squares.
To summarize, the chessboard is not as simple as our first glance might lead us to be­
lieve. The board has several layers that offer different and unique perspectives:
t
Squares
t Lines (files, ranks, diagonals)
t Regions (queenside and kingside, white territory and black territory)
t Space (the centre, centralfiles, flanks, open vs. closed, piece-controlled squares)
23
C h e s s Prog ress
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a
b
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The diagram above will help you understand how these layers of perspective work to­
gether.
For the star:
The star is on square b7.
t The star is on the following lines: it is on the b-file, the 7th rank, the h 1-a8 diago­
nal, and the a6-c8 diagonal.
t The star is in the following regions: it is in Black's territory, on the queenside flank.
t The star only has the space of b7 (because it is not a piece, it does not have space ) .
t
For the bishop:
The white bishop is on square f4.
t The bishop is on the following lines: it is on the f-file, the 4th rank, and the h2-b8
diagonal, as well as the c1-h6 diagonal .
t The bishop is in the regions: it is in White's territory, on the kingside fl ank.
t The bishop has the following space: bishops move along diagonals, so the bishop
h as nine squares (it can move to the eight m arked squares, and it occupies the f4square ) . The bishop's space is blocked on the c1-h 6 diagonal because of the pawn
on e3. Additionally, the bishop holds space: three dark squares in Black's queenside
( d6, c7, and b8 ) and three dark squares in Black's kingside ( es, gS, and h 6 ) .
t
Combining these perspectives and being able to visualize each l ayer as it applies to the
position on the board, the pieces, and the value of certain squares at any given moment is
vital in understanding the game. Knowing each perspective is imperative if we are to un­
derstand the pieces that will attack, defend, live, and die on the chess board.
24
B eg i n n i n g with t h e B a s ics
Exercises
Name the square or line marked by the stars or crosses.
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#1
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#2
25
C h e s s Prog ress
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#3
For each star and cross, list the following:
t
t
t
The square;
The lines it is on (file, rank, diagonals);
The regions and space it is in.
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a
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#4
26
B e g i n n i ng with t h e Bas ics
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#5
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#6
27
C h e s s Prog ress
For each piece, list the following: (the stars m ark where the piece can move)
t
t
t
t
The square it is on;
The lines it is on (file, rank, diagonal s);
The regions it is in;
The space it holds.
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a
b
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e
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#7
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#8
28
B eg i n n i n g with t h e B a s ics
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#9
For further practice, try repeating the above exercises with other squares, lines, and
pieces.
The Pieces: Know Your Army
The King ( '!;} clg}
The king is the most important piece of the game. He usually h as a cross on top of his
crown. When he is under attack and cannot escape, he is in checkmate and the game is
over.
Origin Square: White on el, Black on e8 (in the centre, opposite colour of the king).
Movement: Moves one square in any direction; cannot move into a square that another
piece holds (cannot move into check).
Captures: Moves onto the square of the opposing piece.
29
Ch ess Prog ress
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King Starting Position
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King Mobility
Fundamentals: The king is never actually captured. When the king is under attack and
he cannot end the attack, the king is in checkmate. In the diagram below, the black king is
in checkmate because the aS-rook is attacking him, and the b7-rook eliminates g 7 and h7
as escape squares for the king . The black king cannot move away, cannot capture the at­
tacking aS-rook, nor can Black put a piece between the aS-rook and the king. No matter
what Black does, White will capture Black's king, and this is checkmate. The white king is
only in check because he can move away from the bishop's attack to fl or hl. White also
has the option of blocking the check by moving his own bishop to f2.
30
B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
In the final diagram, we see that the black king can only move to f7 because the white
bishop attacks e7 and f8 while the white rook attacks d7 and d8.
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Check and Checkmate
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King Mobility 2
The Rook (�
E)
The rook looks like a tower. It is a m ajor piece because it can cover a lot of space in a single
move, and it is only restricted by other pieces on the board.
Origin Squares: White on al and h l, Black on a8 and h8 (in the corners).
Movement: Moves as far as it chooses in a straight line along a file or rank, unless
blocked by a piece of its own colour.
31
Ch e s s Progress
Captures: Moves onto the square of an opposing piece.
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Rook Starting Position
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Rook Mobility
Fundamentals: Because rooks move along files and ranks, they are most effective on
files and ranks that are open. In the diagram below, White's rooks are placed far better
than Black's rooks. White's b-rook h as full mobility along the b-file, and both white rooks
are free to move along the 1st rank. Black's rooks, on the other h and, h ave zero mobility
along their rank, and the f8-rook can only move to two squares. White will h ave many
chances to use his rooks, while Black should try to open the ranks and files of his rooks so
they can be more effective.
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Rook Strategy
Specia l Move: Castling
Castling is a move unique to the king and rook relationship; it is a standard move in most
games used early to protect the king from attack. Players can only castle once per game,
and it h as a few rules about when it is and is not allowed.
To castle, the king moves two spaces towards either of his rooks, and the rook moves in­
to the square the king skipped over. In the first diagram, the black pieces show where they
would move if Black castled. When a player castles towards the kingside, he h as castled
short; and when he castles to the queen side, he has castled long.
Al so in the first diagram, we can see th at White h as castled short and his king is safe
from any unwanted attacks. He is safer behind his pawn s and rook than the black king,
which is currently sitting vulnerable in the centre of the board.
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Ch e s s Prog ress
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Illegal Castling
There are four rules to castling:
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You cannot castle if there are pieces in the way of the castle.
You cannot castle if the king or the rook (the one being castled) h as moved.
You cannot castle if your king is in check.
You cannot castle through or into check.
In the second diagram above, the black king cannot castle because he is currently in
check from the white queen. If he were to block the check by moving his pawn to c6, Black
would not be able to castle kingside because the h-rook h as already moved. Even if the h­
rook moved back to h 8, the rule still applies and Black would be unable to castle king side.
Also in the second diagram, the white king cannot castle to either side. White cannot
castle kingside because he would have to move his king through check on fl, which is un­
der attack by the f8-rook. White cannot castle queen side because his king would be moving
into check at cl, which is under attack by the h 6-bishop. White also cannot castle queen­
side because the b8-knight blocks the path of the castle.
Castling early is a good idea because it usually m akes the king safer. U sually, castling
kingside is safer, because when a king castles queenside, the a2- and a7-squares are slight­
ly vulnerable to attack. For the king to protect them, he would have to move again to bl or
b8. However, when a king is castled king side, he protects all three pawns immediately.
34
B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
The Knight (4)
�)
Knights are usually shaped like a horse. They are minor pieces because, although they can
jump over pieces and touch every square on the board, they are limited in their movement
and may take several moves to get where they want to go.
Origin Squares: White on bl and g 1, Black on b8 and g8 (next to the rooks).
Movement: Moves in an "l" shape; two squares along a file or rank then one square at a
right angle. Or, one square along a file or rank then one square diagonally away from the
starting square. It can jump over any piece in its path, as long as the destination square is
unoccupied by a piece of its own colour.
Captures: Moves onto the square of an opposing piece.
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Knight Starting Position
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Ch e s s Progress
Knight Mobility
Fundamentals: Because knights can jump over pieces, they are comfortable moving even
when pieces clog the board (closed positions ) . Knights are strong because they can attack
rooks, bishops, and queens without being in the line of fire. In the first diagram below, the
white knight can leap over the pawns to cs and d6, or to capture Black's g s-rook.
Another important note is that knights are, in particular, most effective from the centre
of the board. In the second diagram below, the white knight on es attacks eight squares,
whereas the black knight on a6 holds only four and the h i-knight holds only two. As with a
rook on an unblocked file, the knight should usually be placed where it h as some flexibility.
A common expression to remember this idea is: "a knight on the rim is grim".
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B eg i n n i n g with th e B a s ics
The Bishop (A j..)
Bishops usually look like a Catholic bishop's h at. They are minor pieces because, although
they can move quickly across the board, each bishop is always limited to only h alf the
squares on the board, and if the diagonals are closed, they can be trapped and unable to
move.
Origin Squares: White on c1 and f1, Black on c8 and f8 (next to the king and queen).
Movement: Moves as far as it chooses in a straight line along a diagonal, unless blocked
by a piece of its own colour.
Captures: Moves onto the square of an opposing piece.
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Bishop Starting Position
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Ch e s s Progress
Bishop Mobility
Fundamentals: Each player begins with a light-squared bishop and a dark-squared bishop.
If a player trades off or loses their light-squared bishop, that player will no longer be able to
influence the light squares with a bishop and will need to divert other pieces to that task,
since the dark-squared bishop can never touch the light squares.
A bishop's strength is based on the diagonals available to it. Below, we see that White's
bishop is good, since it is a dark-squared bishop and all of White's pawns are on light
squares. This means that it can move around without a problem. Once it slips behind
Black's lines, it will also have targets to attack. Black's bishop, however, is bad; it h as no
open lines, and even if a diagonal opens, it would have no targets to attack on White's side.
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The Queen
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(� it')
Queens usually look like a crown, and they are a m ajor piece. Queens are the most power­
ful pieces on the board because they move like a combination of the bishop and rook.
Origin Squares: White on dl, Black on d8 (in the centre, on the same colour).
Movement: Moves as far as it chooses in a straight line along a file, rank or diagonal,
unless blocked by a piece of its own colour.
Captures: Moves onto the square of an opposing piece.
38
B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
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Queen Starting Position
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Queen Mobility
Fundamentals: Because the queen is so powerful, it is usually wise to h old her in reserve
until just the right moment. Because the queen moves like a rook and a bishop, she prefers
open files, ranks, and diagonals. However, she only needs one of them to be a useful piece.
Below, the white queen can use the f1-a6 diagonal to access the a4-e8 diagonal, the a2-g 8
diagonal, or the 4th rank. The white queen can also use the dl-h S diagonal to access the
h S-e8 diagonal, the h 3-c8 diagonal, or the 4th rank. She can also move easily to the open f­
file where she can put pressure on Black's camp. Black's queen, on the other hand, is much
more restricted. From her current position, she only h as access to the 8th rank. In order to
be more effective, she first needs to spend a move to get to a position with more open lines
(perhaps the dB-square, g 8-square, or h 7-square).
39
Ch ess Progress
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The Pawn
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(ft t)
Pawns are the smallest pieces on the board and, individually, the weakest. However, when
combined with other pawns, they actually dictate the position to the other pieces. As
pawns move closer to their 8th rank the more important they become, because once they
reach the 8th rank they promote to a m ajor or minor piece.
Origin Squares: Each square on a player's second rank in front of the other pieces.
Movement: Can move straight forward one or two squares on their first move, then a
single square forward thereafter, unless blocked by any piece. Pawns cannot move back­
wards or sideways.
Captures: Moves a single square diagonally forward to capture an opposing piece.
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Full Starting Position (with pawns)
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Pawn Mobility
Fundamentals: Though pawns are weak individually, because they capture diagonally
they have the ability to protect one another in a pawn chain ( see: Pawn Structure ) . When
pawns are positioned diagonally, as in the diagram below, they make a wall that discour­
ages opponents from taking them, since the next pawn will immediately capture that
piece. Also due to their diagonal capture, they can be blocked from moving while still influ­
encing space. Below, we see that the d7-knight is trapped, since White's pawns hold all of
the squares the knight could move to. Players are wise to be careful with how they place
their pawns, depending on the type of space they wish to create for the position and pieces.
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Ch ess Progress
Special Move: En Passant
Because of their unique movements and capturing motion, pawns h ave the ability to cap­
ture other pawns en passant. This French expression means "in passing".
Since pawns get to move forward two squares on their first move, they may actually
move through another pawn's capturing square. In diagram #1, White's dS-pawn holds c6
and e6. If either Black's c-pawn or e-pawn exercises its ability to move forward two squares
on its first move, it would actually pass through one of the dS-pawn's capturing squares. In
that case, White h as the option to capture that pawn en passant- i.e. as it passes through
the capturing square.
Diagram #2 shows that Black has moved the e-pawn forward two squares, passing the
ds-pawn's capturing square on e6. To capture en passant, White would move the d-pawn
to e6 and capture Black's e-pawn. Diagram #3 shows the position after the capture. Black
has the same option when a black pawn rests on rank 4 ( Black's sth rank) as shown in #4.
En Passant is only possible when a pawn is on its sth rank, thereby holding squares an
enemy pawn h as to pass over when advancing two squares on its first move ) . A player can
only capture en passanton the first move after the opponent's pawn h as advanced; if they
do not capture en passant immediately, then they give up the opportunity to do so.
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En Passant #1
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En Passant #2
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En Passant #3
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Ch ess Progress
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En Passant #4
Specia l Move: Promoting Pawns
Pawns h ave another ability due to their unique motion. Because they can only move for­
ward, once they reach the other side of the board, they would h ave nowhere to go. Instead
of being stuck at the edge of the board, they h ave the ability to Promote to another piece.
Pawns can promote to any minor or m ajor piece: a knight, a bishop, a rook, or a queen. Ob­
viously, they cannot promote to a king. They are not limited to promoting to pieces that
have already been captured or the pieces at h and. If a player wishes to promote to a queen
and no queen is available, that player can go find a queen or use another piece (such as a
captured rook turned upside-down), as long as both players agree that the piece is a queen.
Most often, pawns promote to a queen since it is the most powerful piece. Below,
Black's c-pawn promotes to a queen because it is then able to attack the white bishop on
al. However, sometimes it m ay be advantageous to underpromote. Black's fl-pawn h as
promoted to a knight because it immediately attacks both White's king and queen. When
White defends the check by moving the king, the new knight will be able to capture the
queen.
In chess games, promotion usually h appens near the end of a game, and sometimes
players race to promote a pawn first. When a player h as a pawn nearing its promotion
square, his opponent often h as to divert pieces to defend against the pawn; although it is
only a pawn, its potential (should it promote) must be defended, so the opponent does eve­
rything he can to prevent promotion from h appening.
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B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
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h
Each piece h as a set of characteristics that give it a unique flavour. When the pieces
work together to create positions and carry out plans, a brilliant sort of dance occurs on
each level of the board. The king, the m ajor pieces (rook and queen), the minor pieces
(knight and bishop), and the pawns operating in concert represent the core of the game.
Understanding the complexity of each piece is fundamental to playing chess. All the ideas
that follow are rooted in the fundamentals presented in the previous two sections; these
basic ideas are the building blocks to everything you will ever learn about chess.
Exercises
For the selected piece, name all of its possible moves and possible captures.
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#1
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Ch ess Progress
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#2
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#3
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#4
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#5
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Ch ess Prog ress
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#6
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#7
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#8
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#9
For further practice, repeat the above exercises by placing pieces randomly on the board
and then listing all possible moves and captures. To challenge yourself, see if you can find
the best move possible for the exercises above and in your own random positions.
49
Ch ess Progress
Ending the Game
Having learned about the board and the pieces, it is time to begin learning about how to
end the game. The goal of every chess g ame is to checkmate the enemy king . This mean s
that the enemy king is under attack and cannot stop the attack. Another perspective is to
think of it as a position when the king h as no squares left.
To demonstrate this spatial perspective, look at diagram #1 below. The white king h as
nine squares. It h as d3, e3, f3, d2, f2, dl, el, and fl; he also has the square that he currently
occupies, e2. The king has his square and all the squares to which he could possibly move.
The black king, then, h as only six squares: d8, e8, f8, d7, e7, and f7.
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#1
When the kings are next to each other, there is a no-man's-land between them. In dia­
gram #2, we see that both the white king on e6 and the black king on e8 both hold d7, e7,
and f7. Since a king cannot move into check (cannot move into a square where he will be
under attack), neither king can h ave any of those three squares. Therefore, the white king
has been reduced to six squares and the black king h as been reduced to three squares.
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B eg in n in g with th e Bas ics
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#2
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#3
In diagram #3, the white fl-rook holds the f7- and f8-squares, and the white knight
holds the e7- and dB-squares. Since the black knight occupies the d7-square, the black king
h as only one square: e8, the square it occupies.
With that understanding in mind, we can begin to look at check and checkmate.
Check
When a king is under attack from an enemy piece, he is in check. From a spatial perspective,
the enemy piece has taken the square that the king occupies and, usually, another square or
51
C h e s s Prog ress
two. The king cannot occupy a square held by an enemy piece ( since that piece could take the
king on its next move ) ; therefore, the player must end the check immediately.
Players often announce "check" as they complete the move that places their enemy in
check. As long as the player in check can end the check, the game will continue.
There are three ways a player can end a check to his king :
1.
2.
3.
Escape by moving the king out of the attack
(onto a square that is not held by an enemy piece);
Remove the check by capturing the attacking piece
(returning the king's square or squares to him);
Block the check by putting a piece in the line of attack (interpose a piece )
(blocking the attacker's ability to hold the king's square).
In diagram #4, we see that the black king is in check along the h 3-c8 diagonal by the
white bishop on g4. The bishop has taken the c8- and d7-squares away from the king. The
king needs to h ave at least one square to occupy, so Black must end the check. Black can
escape the check by moving to either b8 or d8. Black can also remove the check by captur­
ing the bishop with his g8-rook, returning c8 and d7 to the king. Finally, Black can block the
check by moving his own bishop to d7, thereby blocking the h 3-c8 diagonal and returning
c8 to the king. The specific position or situation on the board dictates which option is best.
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#4
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#5
Sometimes, the options to end a check are limited. For example, when a knight places a
king in check, the player cannot interpose a piece because knights do not attack on lines,
and they can jump over pieces anyway. Above, in diagram #5, the white knight on e7 has
checked the black king, taking the c8-square. Black can escape the check by moving to b8 or
d8, remove the check by capturing the knight with the e8-rook, but Black cannot interpose
a piece because the check is coming from a knight.
Another instance where option s for ending a check are limited is called a double check;
this is when two pieces check the enemy king at the same time. Below, we see that the
black king is in check by both the d6-knight and the g4-bishop. Black, therefore, cannot re­
move the check, because he cannot capture both the knight and the bishop at the same
time. Neither can Black block the attack, because h e cannot block both the bishop and the
knight. Therefore, Black's only option is to escape to b8 ( d8 is h eld by White's bishop on h4) .
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C h e s s Prog ress
Checkmate
Checkmate is when the king is in check and cannot end ( escape, remove, or block ) the
check. From a spatial perspective, checkmate is when the king h as no space left and cannot
occupy any squares by escaping, removing, or blocking.
In diagram #6, the white d8-rook has delivered checkmate to the black king . The rook
holds all the squares on rank 8. The black king has no squares left, and Black cannot escape
the check since there are no squares available for the king to occupy. The f7, g 7, and h7squares are already occupied by Black's pawn s, and the f8, g8, and h 8-squares are all held
by the white rook. Black also cannot remove the check, because h e h as no pieces capable of
capturing the white rook. Finally, Black cannot block the attack, because there are no pieces
that can move to the 8th rank between the attacking rook and the king .
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#6
Below are some examples of common checkmate patterns. It is h elpful to understand
these pattern s so you can look for them in your games. Most often, the positions will in­
clude many more pieces, but the diagram s demonstrate the patterns clearly.
In the first diagram below, the white queen and bishop work together to checkmate the
black king on d8. The queen holds c8, d8, e8, c7, and e7, while occupying d7. The black king
cannot escape, cannot block, nor can he capture the queen since the queen is protected by
the bishop on fS. Similarly, in the second diagram below, the queen h as delivered check­
mate, this time protected by a knight.
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B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
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Queen and Bishop
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Queen and Knight
In the next diagram, the white queen and king are working together to checkmate the
black king on d8. The queen has taken c8, d8, e8, and e7 from the black king, while the
white king h as taken c7 and d7. The black king cannot escape because all his squares h ave
been taken, cannot block, nor can he take the queen . In the fin al diagram below, the white
queen has delivered checkmate while protected by the C2-rook. She occupies the c8-square
and holds the d8, e8, c7, d7, c6, and e6-squares. The fs-knight is h elping the checkmate by
taking the e7 and d6-squares away from the king, holding the so-called blind spots that the
queen leaves open.
55
C h e s s Prog ress
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Queen and King
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Queen's Blind Spots
In each example, the queen's overwhelming power takes away several squares from the
enemy king, but she always needs at least one more piece to protect her and/or hold the
space that she cannot hold alone.
The next checkmate examples demonstrate how minor pieces can work together to
checkmate the king. In the first diagram below, White's eS-bishop h as delivered checkmate
to the black king on h8. White's dS-bishop holds the g8-square; White's king holds g7 and
h7. The black king cannot escape, remove, or block the check coming from the eS-bishop.
Here, we also see h ow the board itself acts in the checkmate: since the black king is in a
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B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
corner, he h as fewer squares to work with anyway. This was also true in the above exam­
ples with the queen. In the second diagram below, we see that the f6-knight h as delivered
checkmate to the black king on g8. The white king holds the f7 and h 7-squares while hold­
ing the g 7-square, thereby protecting the bishop. The white bishop holds the f8 and h8squares, leaving the black king with no space to occupy.
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Bishop-Bishop-King
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Bishop-Knight-King
The next example uses two rooks to deliver checkmate. In the diagram Rook Mate #1,
we see that White's b7-rook h as delivered check to the black king. Since White's a6-rook
holds e6, f6, and g6, the king must escape by moving to the 8th rank, perh aps to e8. Once
57
C h e s s Prog ress
he moves there, White's a6-rook can move to a8 and deliver checkmate by taking away d8,
e8, and f8 from the black king. This is a common pattern as two rooks can system atically
push the enemy king backwards or sideways to the edge of the board.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
g
h
Rook Mate #1
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
Rook Mate #2
In these examples, the pieces worked together to eliminate space from the enemy king .
When all that space h as been eliminated, Black is in checkmate.
In the Rook and King diagram below, we see a common checkmate where the black king
is forced against the edge of the board, held there by the white king . Since d7, e7, and f7
are h eld by the white king, Black only has d8, e8, and f8. However, those squares h ave been
58
B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
taken by White's a8-rook. This is very similar to the queen and king checkmate demon­
strated earlier. One great exercise to practice is using a king and a queen or a king and a
rook to checkmate an enemy king. Practice this until it becomes automatic.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
g
h
Rook and King
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
Smothered Mate
In the smothered mate diagram above, the white f7-knight has delivered checkmate to
the trapped black h 8-king. The knight only takes the h8-square from the king, but Black's
pieces occupy the escape squares of g8, g7, and h7. Because none of the black pieces can
capture the knight, Black is in checkmate. This smothered m ate pattern is an important
one to notice and defend against; after all, it doesn't have to happen in the corner. Any
59
C h e s s Prog ress
time a king is surrounded by his own pieces, the threat of a smothered mate exists.
Below, we see two examples of early checkmates. In the Fool's Mate, Black has opened the
h S-e8 diagonal, and the white queen has delivered checkmate. Since the king cannot escape
(surrounded by his own pieces), Black cannot capture the queen, and the queen holds the f7
and e8-squares (while Black cannot interpose a piece on that diagonal), Black is in check­
mate. In the Four-Move Mate, the white bishop protects the f7-queen which has delivered
checkmate. It is called the Four-Move Mate because it takes White four moves to create it.
However, the pattern can be a constant threat for several moves if Black is not careful.
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
f
g
h
Fool's Mate
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
Four-Move Mate
60
B eg in n in g with t h e Bas ics
One more example of checkmate takes place when a pawn promotes. In the diagram be­
low, with White to move, the g-pawn is about to promote. If White promotes to a queen,
Black will be able to move his h4-rook to h2 and check the white king, which will result in the
game continuing, probably with several pieces traded, and leading to a complicated end­
game. However, White can instead underpromote the pawn to a knight. With a white knight
on g8, delivering check to the black king on h6, Black cannot stop the check or deliver a forc­
ing check of his own. In fact, by leaving the g7-square, the pawn opened up the 7th rank for
the b7-rook to hold g7 and h7. White's g 1-rook holds g S and g6 from the king. Black would be
unable to escape, unable to capture the knight, and unable to interpose a piece between the
knight and king. Here, underpromoting ends the game with a win for White.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
There are m any more examples of checkmate. The fundamental idea is to capture all of
the enemy king's space, in whatever way one can m anage to do so.
To review, check is when a piece attacks the enemy king, taking control of the square
that king occupies. The player in check needs to end the check immediately by:
.t
.t
.t
Escaping the check by moving the king out of the attack onto a square that is not
held by an enemy piece;
Removing the check by capturing the attacking piece returning the king's square
or squares to him; or
Blocking the check by putting a piece in the line of attack (interposing a piece ) ,
blocking the attacker's ability to hold the king's square.
If the player in check cannot escape, remove, or block the check, the king is in checkmate
since he h as no space left to occupy and will therefore be captured.
Every single move, from the first to the l ast is an attempt to carry out a plan to capture
61
C h e s s Progress
the enemy king's space while protecting the space of the player's own king . The entire
game of chess is the attempt by each player to use his pieces to capture all of the space of
his opponent's king.
A game that ends in checkmate is a win for one player and a loss for the other. There are
two possible ways to end the g ame in a tie. One is stalemate, and the other is a draw. Either
result is a draw when ended.
Sta lemate
A stalemate occurs when a player has no legal moves, but the king is not under attack. In a
checkmate, the square occupied by the king is held by an opponent's piece, but in a stale­
mate, the king still has one square, the square he occupies.
Below, in diagram #1, the black king is stuck on the h 8-square. Since the white queen
holds the g8, g7, and h7-squares, Black cannot make a legal move. It is illegal for a king to
move into check; therefore, Black has no legal moves. However, since no white piece is at­
tacking the h 8-square (the square that the black king occupies), the black king is not in
check. Therefore, the game h as ended in a stalemate, a tie. White probably should have
used his previous moves to do something a bit more productive.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
#1 (Black to play)
62
g
h
B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
8
7
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5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
#2 (Black to play)
In diagram #2 above, we see a different kind of stalemate. White h as many more pieces
than Black h as, and White should h ave been able to find a way to win. However, White has
mistakenly left Black without any legal moves. The space around the black king is all h eld
by white pieces: cs and es are held by the d4-pawn, c6 and d7 are held by the a4-bishop, c7
is held by the b6-bishop, and e7 is held by the e8-rook. So the black king has only one
square, d6, which he occupies. All of Black's other pieces are locked and cannot move.
Therefore, Black has no legal move, but the black king is also not in check. This game, too, is
a stalemate.
If a checkmate is when a king h as no space left, stalemate is when a king h as only his oc­
cupied square left and no other legal moves. Stalemates can be a strategic aim. If a player
finds him self in a bad position, perhaps without m any pieces left while his opponent h as
several, that player can begin to make moves to eliminate his ability to m ake legal moves.
If his opponent is not careful, the player may be successful in manoeuvring into a stale­
m ate and getting a tie instead of a loss.
Below are a few common stalemate patterns. It is helpful to understand these patterns
so you can look for them in your games.
In diagram #3, the white queen holds d8, d7, e7 and f8, while the white king holds f7.
This leaves the black king with only e8, the square h e occupies. Black h as no legal moves,
and the game is therefore a stalemate.
In diagram #4, the black h-pawn is about to promote. White has only his king and there­
fore no hope of checkmating the black king. However, White h as successfully manoeuvred
into this stalemate position to force the draw. If it is Black to play, Black h as no legal moves
since the white king holds the g2 and g 1-squares and the black pawn cannot move. If it is
White to play, White can simply move the king to fl with the same result.
63
Ch e s s Prog ress
8
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2
1
a
b
c
d
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f
g
h
g
h
#3 (Black to play)
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2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
#4
In diagram #5 below, the black pawn is once again about to promote. White can cap­
ture the advancing pawn with the queen; however, if he does, the black king will h ave no
remaining legal moves, a position similar to stalemate diagram #1 on the previous page.
64
B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
8
7
6
5
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3
2
1
a
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d
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g
h
e
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h
#5
8
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2
1
a
b
c
d
#6
In diagram #6 above, the black king is in stalemate. If it is Black to play, Black h as no le­
gal moves because the white pawn h olds d8 and f8, while the white king holds d7, e7, and
f7. However, if it is White to play, White can move the king to d6 or f6. 1f he moves to f6, the
black king h as only one move, to d7. Then White can move the king to f7, grabbing control
of the e8-square, allowing the pawn to promote and White to play for a win.
65
Ch ess Prog ress
Draws
A game is drawn when no resolution can be reached. There are four types of draws:
t
t
t
t
By agreement, where both players agree that a checkmate will not be reached
and agree to the draw;
By insufficient m aterial, where neither player h as enough power with his re­
maining pieces to deliver a checkmate;
By threefold repetition; and
By perpetual check.
Sometimes, players reach a position where they know or believe that the game will
most likely devolve into one of the other forms of a draw, and they reach a draw by agree­
ment. One player m akes the offer of a draw, and the opponent can accept or reject the of­
fer. The diagram below shows an extreme example of this type of position. Based on the
position of the pawns, neither player will be able to manoeuvre to take any of the enemy
pawns and neither king will be able to get to the opponent's territory. In this case, there is
no chance of either player ever reaching a checkmate position, so the players would proba­
bly agree to a draw long before they reach a threefold repetition.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
Draw by agreement
66
g
h
B e g i n n in g with t h e B a s ics
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Even with the rooks added, as above, the players might well agree to a draw since they
are likely to trade the pieces and leave the game with fewer pieces but still a draw. At the
top levels of chess, players often agree to a draw in still more complex positions, because
they know that their opponent will be able to force a drawing position later.
A draw by insufficient material arises when neither player h as enough pieces (or strong
enough pieces ) to deliver a checkmate. A lone king, king and knight, or king and bishop
cannot ever checkmate the enemy king by themselves. The minor pieces simply do not hold
enough space in the right configuration to take away both the enemy king's escape
squares and the square he occupies at the same time.
In diagram #1 below, the white knight h as checked the black king, but the black king
can escape to the h 2-square. If the knight again delivers check by moving to fl, the black
king could escape to either h l or h 3 . The knight, limited by its octopus-like space coverage,
simply does not hold enough space to both attack the enemy king's square and his escape
squares at the same time.
In diagram #2 below, the white bishop h as checked the black king, but the black king
can escape to a2. If the bishop then moves to b2, the black king would be in stalemate. If
the bishop moves anywhere else, the king could then move back to al, or move to a3 if the
bishop did not take control of that square. The bishop, limited by its ability to move only on
one colour, simply does not hold enough space to attack the enemy king's square and his
escape squares at the same time.
67
Ch e s s Prog ress
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
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g
h
e
f
g
h
#1
8
7
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5
4
3
2
1
a
b
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d
#2
Finally, in diagram #3 below, because both players h ave only a king left, neither will
have a chance to checkmate his opponent, and the game is therefore drawn .
68
B e g i n n in g with t h e B a s ics
8
7
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5
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1
a
b
c
d
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g
h
#3
A draw by threefold repetition is when the exact same position repeats on the board
three times. The pieces all have to be in exactly the same position with the same player to
move for the position to be a threefold draw.
In the diagram below, White can check Black by moving the queen to f7. The black king
can then escape to h7. The queen can then return to hS and check the king again; the black
king can then return to g8 and the position h as now been repeated, m aking it the second
time this position h as been reached. If White were to check the king at f7 again, Black could
then again move to h 7. If White then checks again at hS, as soon as the black king returns
to g8, the position will h ave been repeated a third time and the game is drawn.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
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h
White to play
69
Ch e s s Prog ress
A draw by perpetual check is similar. Usually, one player is down material or near
checkmate and seemingly headed for a certain loss, but he can deliver checks indefinitely
to his opponent without the possibility of his opponent stopping the checks. In this case,
the player can use the tactic of perpetual check to stay alive and earn the draw. The dia­
gram above is also an example of a perpetual check.
White does not have to keep checking the black king from f7 and h S . Every time the
black king returns to g8, the white queen can also deliver check from e8, which has the
same effect of pushing the black king to h 7. When the black king is on h7, the white queen
can deliver check on g6 in addition to h s. If White attempts to avoid the threefold repeti­
tion by checking on these other squares, the black king still keeps dancing back and forth .
To review, a stalemate occurs when a player h as no legal moves remaining, but his king
still h as the square it occupies. A draw can occur when both players agree, neither player
h as sufficient m aterial to checkmate the opponent, a position is repeated three times, or
the game continues indefinitely due to a perpetual check situation.
Understanding stalemates and draws is important because players can look to create
the draw or avoid the draw depending on whether they stand better or worse than their
opponent. For example, a player that has a winning chance must be careful to avoid stale­
m ating the opposing king, while his opponent can try to blockade himself into a stalemate.
Alternatively, a player with a losing position can look to trade off all the pieces, leaving his
opponent with insufficient material. Finally, a player can threaten to repeat a position
three times in order to avoid losing a game. After all, a draw is better than a loss, and a
winning position would be a terrible thing to waste.
Exercises
List every move that can deliver check to the black king and the white king.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
#1
70
f
g
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B eg in n in g with th e B a s ics
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
e
f
g
h
#2
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
#3
71
Ch e s s Prog ress
List the moves that are checkmate: a) if White moves, and b) if Black moves. Remember,
you should consider all possible moves.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
e
f
g
h
#4
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
#5
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B e g i n n in g with t h e B a s ics
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
#6
List the move for White that leads to stalemate and the move that leads to checkmate.
8
7
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5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
#7
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Ch e s s Prog ress
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
e
f
g
h
#8
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
#9
For further practice, set up random positions on the board and find every possible
check. Also, try checkmating a black king (while avoiding stalemate ) with the following var­
ious combinations of white pieces: king-queen-rook, king-rook-rook, king-bishop-rook,
king-knight-rook, king-bishop-bishop, king-bishop-knight, king-queen, king-rook.
74
B eg i n n in g with t h e Bas ics
Chess Notation
Learning chess notation is critical to further study of the game. From this point forward,
you must understand how to read notation so you can continue to progress, but you must
also learn to write notation so that you can record your games for further study of your
moves, tactics, and strategies. After reading this section, you can look at the back of this
book for a helpful Notation Tip-Sheet that you might use during games to help you re­
member how to notate your game properly. There are several types of notation; the nota­
tion described here is Algebraic Notation.
To notate a chess move, you must know:
t
t
t
which piece you are moving;
the square that piece is on;
the square the piece will move to.
Each chess piece h as a capital letter associated with it:
K = King
Q = Queen
R = Rook
B = Bishop
N = Knight
Pawns h ave no letter since they always occupy one particular file of the board; there­
fore, each pawn is identified by its file alone. (Although some players do use a capital P
when notating pawn moves.)
Each square on the board is named by the co-ordinates of the file letter (lowercase a-h)
and the rank number (1-8). For example, square a1 is the lower left h and corner of the
board and square h8 is the upper right hand corner of the board (as seen from White's
side).
A piece's letter followed by a square indicates its starting position. For example, in the
following diagram the starting square of the white knight would be notated Ne4, the white
queen 's Qc6, the white king's Kel, and the black king's Kf8.
75
Ch e s s Prog ress
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
To notate a move, begin with the piece letter and starting square, add a hyphen or dash,
then end with the destination square. For example, if the knight above moved to gS, the
notated move is Ne4-g 5 . The N indicates that a knight is moving, e4 indicates its starting
square, the dash indicates that it simply moved (did not capture ) , and the g S indicates that
it moved to the g S -square. If the pawn moved forward to f4, the move is f2-f4 (notice that
the pawn does not need a letter indicating the pawn as the piece moving ) . If the queen
moved to b7, the move is Qc6-b7. If the white king moved to d2, the move is Ke1-d2. If the
black king moved to f7, the move would be Kf8-f7. When reading this last notation aloud,
the reader would say, "king on f8 moves to f7".
Capturing
When a piece moves and captures a n enemy piece, the hyphen is replaced with an "x". For
example, in the diagram below, if Black's b8-rook captures White's pawn on b2, the move
is Rb8xb2. It is not necessary to notate which piece is taken because only one piece can
stand on each square. When reading this notation aloud, the reader would say, "rook on b8
takes (or captures ) on b2". When pawns capture, since they h ave no letter, they are labelled
with only their starting square. For example, if White's f-pawn captures the black knight on
e6, the move is fsxe6.
76
B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
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5
4
3
2
1
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b
c
d
e
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h
Castling
Castling is notated i n a unique way. Castling king side is 0-0. Castling queenside is o-o-o.
Just remember, if the rook moves two squares, use two zeros; if it moves three squares, use
three zeros. For example, in the diagram above, if Black castles king side, the move would
be 0-0; if White castles queen side, the move would be 0-0-0.
Promoting
When a pawn promotes, the move is notated a s usual, but the promotion is added after
the move notation. The promotion is m arked with an equal sign (=) and the letter of the
piece promoted to. For example, in the diagram above, if the a7-pawn promoted to a
queen on a8, the move would be notated as a7-a8=Q.
En Passant
En passant is notated like a capture move, with the addition of "e.p." after the regul ar no­
tation to signify the en passant capture. For example, in the diagram above, if Black h as
just played g 7-g 5, White could capture en passant with fsxg6 e.p.
Check and Checkmate
When a move places the enemy king in check, we add a plus sign (+) to the move. For ex­
ample, if the white queen delivers a check to the black king by moving to c6, the move
would be Qc3-c6+. When a king is placed in checkmate, some players add a double plus
sign (++), and some players add a h ash tag (#). For example, if the black h 8-rook delivers
checkmate to the white king by moving to h l, the move would be Rh8-h1++ or Rh8-h1#.
Shorthand Notation
Now that you are familiar with Algebraic Notation, you should be aware that there is a
C h e s s Prog ress
shorthand version. The most common shorthand version of Algebraic notation is to not
notate the starting square of the piece. In the capturing example above, simply writing
Rxb2 should be sufficient for someone to replay the game since there is only one rook that
can legally capture on b2. Pawn moves become even shorter; e4 would simply mean that a
pawn moved to e4. There is only ever one pawn that can move forward to a certain square
(without making a capture), so simply noting e4 is enough information for a player to re­
play the move and understand what took place on the board. Another example would be
the notation Rh1#. This means that a rook moved to h1 and delivered checkmate.
This shorthand version of notation is widely accepted as the standard method of notat­
ing games. It does h ave the one shortfall, however. There are instances where two different
pieces can move to the same square. This conflict is resolved by using the rank and file sys­
tem to indicate which piece moved to a certain square. In the diagram below, there are
three examples of this.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
First, both the d-pawn and the f-pawn can capture the black knight on e7. Since pawns
capture diagonally, when using shorthand the pawn's starting file is always named first. If
the d-pawn captures, the move would be dxe7, but if the f-pawn captures, it would be
fxe7.
In the diagram above, both white rooks can move to c6, cs, c4, and c3. Therefore a nota­
tion that reads "ReS" would be ambiguous, since a player would not know which rook
moved to cs. As the rooks occupy different ranks, we can l abel them with a rank to indicate
which rook moved. For example, if the c7-rook moves to cs, the move would be R7c 5 , and if
the C2-rook moved to cs, the move would be R2c 5 . This ensures that the notation is clear.
Finally, in the diagram above, both black knights can move to c6. Since they occupy dif­
ferent files, we can use the file l abel in the same way we used the rank l abel for the rooks. If
the b8-knight moved to c6, the move would be Nbc6; and if the e7-knight moved to c6, the
78
B e g i n n in g with t h e B a s ics
move would be Nec6. Again, this ensures that the notation is clear about which piece
moves.
U sing this shorthand version of notation is much easier and faster when playing a
game. Since players are usually required to keep notation of their g ames, this is a good sys­
tem to become familiar with.
Finally, below is a series of moves and how to notate them shorthand.
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
f
g
h
1 e4 e 5
7
6
5
4
3
2
a
b
c
d
e
2 Nf3 Nc6
79
Ch e s s Prog ress
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
f
g
h
3 Bbs a6
8
7
6
5
4
3
1
a
b
c
d
e
4 Bxc6 dxc6
80
Beg i n n in g with t h e B a s ics
8
7
6
5
4
3
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
f
g
h
5 0-0 Bg4
a
b
c
d
e
6 h3 Bxf3
81
C h e s s Prog ress
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
f
g
h
7 Qxf3 Qd7
a
b
c
d
e
8 d3 0-0-0
82
B eg in n in g with th e B a s ics
8
7
6
5
4
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2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
9 Be3 Bd6
To review, each notation needs to answer:
t
t
t
Which piece is moving? (B= Bishop, N = Knight, R= Rook, Q=Queen, K=King, _= Pawn)
I s it capturing anythin g ? (x = capture)
Where did it move? (a-h = file, 1-8 = rank; a4, e6)
With an understanding of chess notation and the basics of chess, you are now fully pre­
pared to play games, replay games, and study games. You h ave everything you need to play
a game of chess and learn the G ame of Kings.
Exercises
Write down the notation for the following sequence of moves (the first position is the
starting position, and each following diagram shows the position on the board after one
full move h as been m ade):
83
Ch e s s Progress
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#1
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B eg in n in g with t h e B a s ics
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#2
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#3
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C h e s s Progress
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#4
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Beg in n in g with t h e Bas ics
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#6
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#7
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C h ess Prog ress
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#8
For further practice, play a g ame while notating each move. Upon completion, replay
the g ame using your notation. Also, find notation for games (often available online by
searching for "PGN Famous Chess Games" in a search engine). Play through the games us­
ing only their notation as a guide. (PG N stands for "Portable Game Notation".)
88
Chap t e r Two
The F u n d a m e nta l
E l e m e n ts of C h e s s St ra t egy
Funda mental Elements of Chess
This section introduces the three elements of chess: Material, Position, and Time. These
three elements are the fundamental building blocks of all chess strategy.
Opposition
This section introduces the concept of opposition, which is one type of interplay between
material and position.
Critica l Squares and the Square of the Pawn
This section introduces the concept of a pawn's critical squares and the square of the pawn,
which are interplays of material, position, and time.
Pawn Structure
Pawn structure is central in determining the space of the chess board, so this section de­
fines several terms related to pawns in various positions on the board. It al so introduces
some fundamental structural and spatial elements.
Wea k Sq uares, Holes, and Outposts
This section defines and explain s weak squares, holes, and outposts, unique types of space
on the board, while also introducing some fundamental ideas related to attacking and de­
fending them.
Open and Closed Positions
This section revisits open and closed positions (introduced earlier in the board-space sec­
tion ) to introduce some basic ideas related to operating within each type of position.
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C h e s s Prog ress
Fundamental Elements of Chess
Every chess player must understand that there are three fundamental elements to chess.
All three h ave been mentioned in earlier sections, and here we will look at each one more
closely. The three elements of chess are:
1.
2.
3.
Material - the number and strength of a player's pieces
Position - the layout of the pieces on the board, and the space and tension they
create
Time - the number of moves required to execute any given manoeuvre
Materia l
Material is the number and strength of the pieces available to a player. Each piece has an
approximate value using a pawn as the base unit. Each pawn is worth, of course, 1 pawn.
Though the pawn is not worth much, players begin with 8 of them and, as you will discover
soon, they are tremendously important when looking at a board position . The minor
pieces, knights and bishops, are valued at 3 pawn s each. Depending on the board position,
a bishop can actually be more valuable than a knight or a knight can be more valuable
than a bishop. Rooks are worth 5 pawns each, and the queen is worth 9 pawns. The king is
invaluable since he cannot be traded or lost.
The table on the left shows piece value, while the table on the right shows some exam­
ple comparisons of pieces. For example, a rook is worth approximately a knight and two
pawns, while a queen is approximately worth a rook, bishop, and pawn.
Material Value
� = 1.
I. I. I.
tt:J =
I.
� = 1. I.
1:. = 1. 1. 1. 1. 1.
I. I. I. I. I.
'if =
� = Everything !
Approximate Comparisons
I. I. I. I.
ltJ = 1. 1. 1.
� = ...
: = ... + , I.
: + � = .t. + ...
'if = .i. +.t. + i
'if = ... + ... + .t.
'if + � = .i. + .i.
Material Value is helpful when deciding whether to capture pieces. For example, if a
player can capture a rook with a pawn that will immediately be recaptured, he h as traded
a pawn (1 pawn ) for a rook (5 pawns ) . This means he h as gained 5 points of m aterial (+5)
and lost only one (-1) for a total exchange balance of 4 points (+4). This player h as gained
material, whereas his opponent lost material.
One common trade is a minor piece (bishop or knight ) for a rook. This is referred to as
the exchange. The player who lost the rook (-5) and captured the minor piece (+3) is said to
have lost the exchange (-2 total ) . The player who traded the minor piece (-3) while captur­
ing the rook (+5) is said to h ave won the exchange (+2 total ) .
90
Th e Fu n da m e n ta l Ele m e n ts of Ch ess Stra tegy
This understanding can help guide a player's decisions. However, m aterial is only valu­
able if it can help capture space from the enemy king. A player with a m assive m aterial
advantage m ay yet be unable to win, depending on the position. A player that h as a mate­
rial deficit may still be able to win if his material is actively holding the enemy king's space.
Material is only the "stuff" a player uses in a position over time.
Position
The next fundamental element of every chess game is the board position. At any given
moment, black and white pieces are scattered across the board, holding and influencing
certain space. Some pieces hold a lot of space or territory, some pieces are actively attack­
ing, some pieces are defending, and some pieces are doing little or nothing at all . The com­
bination of pieces, their ability to m anoeuvre, and the board space they hold all form this
element called position.
In the diagram below, we can see that the m aterial is even. However, White h as huge
positional advantages. White's rook is holding cs and c7 in Black's territory. The rook's in­
fluence over c8 is minimal because Black h as c8 covered by both his rook and his bishop.
White h as a strong fight on c6 because White holds it three times (once with the rook, once
with the g2-bishop, and once with the bS-pawn), while Black only holds it once (with the
b7-pawn). White's bishops are both aiming at vulnerable squares in Black's territory as
well. Notice White's a- and b-pawns are both in Black's territory while also influencing rank
6 in Black's territory. White's kingside pawn s h ave a strong hold of Black's knight, keeping
it from moving into White's territory any time soon .
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Notice too that White's good bishop is his light-squared bishop because most of his
pawns are on dark squares. The light-squared bishop is "good" because it can move freely
around its own pawns while attacking Black's pieces. On the other h and, White's bad bish­
op is not too bad either because it still has a good deal of mobility and influence on Black's
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Ch ess Progress
Black's position. Because it is perched ready to invade Black's territory, it is h elping to
strengthen White's position.
Black's position, on the other hand, is weak for many of the above reasons, but also be­
cause its pawns are not advanced, its rook h as no hope for decent development, the knight
is blocked by White's pawns, and the bishop will have to waste moves while trying to find a
useful diagonal to hold.
This is a very simple study of the basics of what is called board position, but the basics
are all here. Though the material is even, White's positional advantage should be enough
to convert to a win if utilized properly. When considering trades and moves, always look
ahead to the position that will be created. Will the move result in a good or bad position for
you? Also, consider the position at hand: How can you improve your position or take ad­
vantage of your opponent's weak position ?
Time
The final fundamental element of every chess game is the element of time. What w e mean
by time is the number of moves it will take to execute any given m anoeuvre.
In the diagram below, we see that White would like to move his knight to cs (or as),
threatening checkmate with the queen move Qxb7#. The checkmate is a threat that exists
two moves in the future. However, White does not h ave time to move his knight because
he must defend against Black's rook attack at e1 (Rel#, back-rank mate). White's check­
mate will take two moves, but Black's checkmate will only take one. Therefore, White must
use his move to defend against Black's more immediate threat.
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This is a simple demonstration of how time affects the material and position. By ma­
nipulating the position and m aterial, Black h as worked his way into an advantage of time.
In this particular case, White must defend or else lose the game. This would be a tragedy
since the advantage is easily eliminated by moving either the g- or h -pawn, giving the
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Th e Fu n d a m e n t a l Ele m e n ts of Ch ess Strategy
white king an escape square, or by playing Qd1, Qc3, or Kf1, thereby protecting the e1square from attack by the black rook.
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#1
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#2
Another way to view Time is to see that, if you can force your opponent to defend an at­
tack, he must use a move to defend, so you get another move to do something like build an
attack. This is called gaining tempo or losing tempo. This is especially important in the open­
ing.
In #1 above, after 1 e4 dS 2 exds Qxds, White has given up a tempo by moving his e-pawn
twice. He can get that tempo back now by playing Nc3, attacking the queen. If the queen
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C h e s s Prog ress
flees to gS, as in #2, White can gain another tempo by playing Nf3, attacking the queen
again. Black will probably move the queen yet again, and White can use the extra time to
bring more pieces into the game, converting a time advantage into a positional advantage.
When a player m akes a move that forces his opponent to defend, he moves with tempo.
For example, in #3 below, if White plays Nf4, the knight would attack the black rook (Nf4
comes with tempo). Black would probably want to choose to move the rook, even if it is not
a part of his plan. After Black moves the rook, it is White's turn once again, when h e can
decide what he wants to do. He h as removed Black's ability to decide for him self what to do
on his move.
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Th e Fu n d a m e n t a l Ele m e n ts of C h e s s Strategy
Time is also based on whose turn it is to move. Sometimes, players end up in a position
where any move they m ake weakens their position; the player in this position would rather
not have to move at all and let his opponent make a move. This situation is called zug­
zwang ( German for "compulsion to move" ) . In #4 above, Black is in zugzwang. Black's only
move is g S , which will allow the white pawn to capture and then advance to g8 and pro­
mote. Black's h-pawn will be able to move, but not quickly enough to promote first.
Other times, a player wants to "give up" a move, or lose a tempo. In #5 below, with
White to move, White needs to keep the position exactly as it is so that Black is forced to
play ... Kf8, which allows White to play Rd8#. Therefore, White can waste a move with some­
thing like Rdl or Rd3 (the rook can move anywhere along the d-file except d7 and d8 )
which places Black in zugzwang and leads to checkmate.
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C h e s s Prog ress
The next concept dealing with time is the in-between move, or zwischenzug (German
for "intermediate move"). This is when a player decides not to react immediately but to
make an in-between move to gain some advantage. In #6 above, Black has just played ...h 6,
attacking the white bishop. Instead of reacting immediately, White can play Rac1 attacking
Black's queen and grabbing control of the open c-file. This zwischenzug allows White to
gain a tempo and grab a positional advantage.
One final concept of the element of time is called the initiative. The initiative is when a
player h as the advantage of being able to force his opponent to react constantly to his
moves. A player with initiative should try to keep the initiative by continuing to force his
opponent's decisions as long as he can. This allows the player to push his own plans for­
ward while preventing his opponent from doing so. If h e makes a non-forcing move, his
opponent may be able to grab the initiative himself and start pushing his own agenda.
As each player builds his position, each move needs to accomplish something produc­
tive. If one player can force his opponent to retreat, defend, or even just move the same
piece twice, that player can use his next move to accomplish a more productive aim like
take control of space, build an attack, or set a trap. This is the essence of time in chess.
Com bining the Elements of Material, Position, and Time
In the diagram below, we see that White h as a material advantage. White has a rook and a
pawn (6 points). Black has a bishop and a pawn (4 points). White also has a positional ad­
vantage because his rook is mobile and can attack m any squares at the same time. Black's
bishop is not free to move because it is defending the pawn at h2. Black appears to h ave
the advantage of time, though, because he is one move away from promoting the h-pawn.
If White moves his rook off the h-file, the pawn will promote, translating into a huge mate­
rial and positional advantage for Black. Black's advantage is minimal because he must de­
fend the pawn as long as the rook holds the h-file. Consequently, Black's best strategy is to
try to move his king towards the h i-corner to safeguard the promoting square. White's
strategy is to keep the black king away from the corner.
If White is to move, then, what is his best option ? How can White convert his material
and positional advantage into a strong move?
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Try Rh4. Now it's Black's turn to move. What are his options?
1. Promote the pawn . This results in the rook capturing the new piece (2 Rxh 1), and
White will enhance his advantage.
2. Play 1 ... Ka6 (the black king's only option to move as h e is blocked by the white king
and rook) which results in an immediate checkmate (2 Ra4#).
3. Move the bishop anywhere along the g 1-a7 diagonal . This results in the rook taking
the h 2-pawn, removing the promotion threat, and White will have rook and pawn versus
Black's bishop.
In this example, White used his material and position to put Black in zugzwang .
All chess strategy builds on these three fundamental elements o f chess: material, posi­
tion, and time. As you continue to read and learn about some basic strategic concepts,
these three elements will become clearer to you. However, h aving this basic understanding
of them now allows you to have a solid foundation in these fundamentals upon which to
build your understanding of chess strategy.
The three elements of time are helpful in m astering two of the most basic checkmates:
mating with a single rook and mating with a single queen.
In the diagram Rook Mate #1, the kings have reached a position opposite each other, and
White needs to push the black king back against the edge of the board. To accomplish this, he
should play 1 Rc6+, taking control of the space on the 6th rank and leaving the black king
with only d7, e7, and f7. When Black plays 1 ... Kd7 to attack the white rook, White plays 2 Kds
to protect it (Rook Mate #2). Black should then play 2 ... Ke7, trying to stay away from the edge
of the board. If White chases with 3 KeS, Black can simply return to d7, and the dance will
continue since Black can always step back and forth to avoid checkmate. Instead, White
should play 3 Rb6, wasting a move so that Black will eventually have to return to a king on
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Ch e s s Progress
king position where White can use his rook to push Black back another rank.
A likely continuation is: 1 Rc6+ Kd7 2 Kd5 Ke7 3 Rb6 Kf7 (Black does not want to play
3 ... Kd7 and be pushed back another rank) 4 Ke5 Kg 7 5 Kf5 Kh 7 6 Kg 5 Kg7 (Black h as run out
of squares to run away and thus is forced to move to g 7 and be forced to the edge of the
board) 7 Rb7+ Kf8 8 Kg 6 (Rook Mate #3) White moves to g6 so that if Black plays ... Kg8,
White could checkmate with Rb8#. As the black king runs towards the rook, White will
maintain this one-square offset in order to maintain the threat. Black continues 8 ... Ke8 9
Kf6 Kd8 10 Ke6 Kc8, 11 Rd7 Kb8 12 Kd6 Kc8 13 Kc6 Kb8 14 Re7 (wasting one more move to
force Black into zugzwang) 14 ... Ka8 15 Kb6 Kb8 16 Re8#.
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Rook Mate #l
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Rook Mate #2
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Rook Mate #3
Starting with Queen Mate #1, White should begin 1 Qc6+, and Black will play 1 ... Ke7.
White should then play 2 Kf5 (diagram #2), such that if Black plays 2 ... Kf7, White could play
3 Qd7+ and push Black back again. Black should continue 2 ... Kd8, tempting White to
stalemate with a move like 3 Kf6. However, White can use the queen to trap the black king
against the edge of the board with the winning 3 Qb7. Black's only move then is 3 ... Ke8.
White win s with 4 Ke6, seizing all three squares in front of the black king (diagram #3). If
4 .. Kd8, then 5 Qd7#; or if 4 ... Kf8, then 5 Qf7#.
.
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Queen Mate #1
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Queen Mate #2
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Queen Mate #3
Practice these two checkmates until you've mastered the pattern.
1 00
Th e Fu n d a m e n ta l Ele m e n ts of C h e s s S tra tegy
Exercises
List the material for each side.
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#3
Describe everything you can about the position for each side.
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#4
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#6
1 03
Ch e s s Prog ress
List all the moves with tempo for White and for Black.
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#7
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#8
1 04
Th e Fu n da m e n ta l E le m e n ts of C h e s s S t ra tegy
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#9
For further practice find famous g ames online, play through the openings looking at
how the players force tempo to gain position and/or material. As you play through the
middlegame, stop at various points and analyse the position as best you can. Also, practice
checkmating a black king (while avoiding stalemate) with the following various combina­
tions of white pieces: king-queen-rook, king-rook-rook, king-bishop-rook, king-knight-rook,
king-bishop-bishop, king-bishop-knight, king-queen, king-rook. At this point, you should
strive to make these types of checkmate an automatic process.
O pp osition
A good place to begin learning about strategy is in the simplest possible position : a board
with only two kings. This is where to start because, studying the interaction of two kings
on the board, we can understand the patterns that live at the core of every position.
Opposition is a relationship between two enemy kings separated by a single square.
This creates a buffer zone between them. This is called direct opposition.
Because a king cannot move into check, neither king can move into those opposing
squares. In diagram #1 below, neither the black king nor the white king can enter the cs,
dS, or es-squares. If one king wanted to make forward progress into the enemy's territory,
he would be unable to do so. However, because a player must always move, the king who
must move must abandon at least one of those squares, thereby allowing the opposing
king to advance. This is opposition. When two king s face off as in diagram #1 below, the
player who does not h ave the move is said to have the opposition.
1 05
Ch e s s Prog ress
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#1
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#2
Imagine the white king wishes to advance into Black's territory. If White h as the move,
then Black h as the opposition and can therefore block White from achieving its aim. White
could try moving, but at best can only move sideways. If White tries 1 Ke4, then Black could
sidestep as well, seizing the opposition again with 1 ... Ke6 (diagram #2). No m atter which
direction White goes, the black king can step in front of the white king again.
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Th e Fu n d a m e n ta l Ele m e n ts of Ch e s s S t ra tegy
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#3
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#4
However, if Black h as the move, then White has the opposition. Since Black must move
first, the black king must abandon one of those squares and allow White to move to the
Sth rank. For example, if Black plays 1 Ke6 ( diagram #3), White can play 2 Kcs. ( Or, if Black
played 1 ... Kc6, White could play 2 Kes . ) Black could then play 2 .. Kd7. If White wishes to ad­
vance further, he must play 3 KdS ( diagram #4), once again seizing the opposition. The pat­
tern could then repeat until the white king reaches the 8th rank.
...
.
Opposition can also be attained over a longer distance so that, when the two kings
meet, a player can establish direct opposition. When king s face off over a distance (on the
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Ch e s s Prog ress
same file), and when the two kings have an odd number of squares between them, the
player who does not h ave the move h as the opposition. Conversely, when the king s h ave an
even number of squares between them, the player who has the move h as the opposition.
In diagram #5, imagine that White's goal is to reach the 8th rank. Black's goal is to pre­
vent White from reaching the 8th rank. In order to achieve these goals, each player will
need to h ave the opposition. Since the kings h ave 6 squares between them, the player with
the move h as the opposition. If Black has the move, Black h as the opposition and can force­
fully keep White from ever reaching the 8th rank. If, however, White h as the move, the se­
quence could continue: 1 Ke2 Ke7 2 Ke3 Ke6 3 Ke4 and White would h ave seized the oppo­
sition. (Practice this on a board.)
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#5
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#6
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Th e Fu n d a m e n ta l Ele m e n ts of C h e s s S t ra tegy
When the kings are not on the same file, a player can try to take distant opposition by
creating a box with four matching colour corner squares. Notice in diagram #6 that the
two kings occupy dark squares, and drawing a box to connect them h as two dark squares
at the corners as well, f2 and d8. This trick will help players remember how to m aintain or
create distant diagonal opposition.
One way to practice distant opposition is to place to the kings randomly on the board
and set target squares for the white king ( always set two squares, one apart; f8 & h 8 or h 6
& h8, etc) . Then play with the white king trying t o l and o n one of the target squares, while
Black tries to block White from achieving his aim . Practice this exercise repeatedly until you
can automatically know how to grab the opposition and force your way through. Being
able to take the opposition is crucial to your ability to win in the endgame.
Exercises
Find the move for White and for Black that would take the opposition.
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#1
1 09
C h e s s Prog ress
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#2
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Find the move for White and for Black that would take the opposition.
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#4
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#5
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#6
Find the moves that allow White to reach the target squares (White to play).
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#7 - d8 or f8
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#8 - c8 or e8
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#9 - d8 or f8
For further practice, place the white king on a1 and the black king on a8; play a game of
opposition where the white king forces his way to either f8 or h8 and Black tries to stop it.
You can play the same game by placing the two kings randomly on the board and setting
target squares for each king to reach or block (always target two squares at the edge of the
board, one square apart).
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Critical Squares and the Square of the Pawn
Opposition is the simplest demonstration of understanding how time and m aterial work
together to create advantages. However, opposition is only a means of gaining space. In
and of itself, it means little. If, on the other h and, we add a single pawn to the king-versus­
king battle, we can begin to see how the opposition is a m eans to gaining space which can
then be used to convert material into a winning advantage.
In the event that a game reaches a concluding point where one player, White for this
demonstration, h as a king and a pawn and the other player, Black, h as only a king, it is im­
perative that White be able to promote the pawn to a queen or rook in order to win. To ac­
complish this, White must be able to take control of the promotion square of the pawn .
In diagram #1 below, White needs to be able to take control of the e8-square. Rather
than trying to calculate the moves necessary to take the opposition and keep it until reach­
ing e8, White can utilize an understanding of the critical squares of the pawn to make his
job simpler. If the white king can reach any one of the critical squares, he can then use op­
position to guarantee the pawn's promotion. Black's aim, then, is not to reach the critical
squares but to prevent the white king from reaching one of the critical squares using the
opposition to accomplish this defence.
While a pawn is on the 2nd, 3rd, or 4th ranks, the critical squares of the pawn are the
three squares directly in front of the pawn two ranks ahead. In diagram #1, since the pawn
is on e2, the critical squares are d4, e4, and f4. When the pawn advances to e3, the critical
squares become ds, es, and fS; when the pawn advances to e4, the critical squares are d6,
e6, and f6. However, when the pawn crosses the midline (enters the sth rank), the critical
squares are the three squares directly in front of the pawn one rank ahead. In diagram #2,
since the pawn is on es, its critical squares are d6, e6, and f6. When the pawn advances to
e6 (the 6th rank), its critical squares are d7, e7, and f7. And here we see that, when the king
reached the 7th rank ahead of the pawn, he holds all three squares leading to promotion:
e6, e7, and e8. Black h as no chance of stopping the pawn.
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#2
In diagram #2, since the white king holds e8, e7, and e6, White holds all the squares the
pawn needs to advance up the board to e8 where it can promote to a queen and eventually
a win for White; there is nothing Black can do to stop the inevitable.
Another way to remember this concept is that, in order to promote a pawn, the king
must reach the 6th rank ahead of the pawn with the opposition on the enemy king. If the
pawn reaches the 6th rank ahead of the king, even with the opposition, the enemy king can
force a stalemate ( see stalemate diagram #6 ) .
In order for the white king to grab the critical squares, h e will h ave to use the opposi­
tion and play perfectly. If White m akes a mistake and gives Black a chance to seize the op­
position, all can be lost.
If the two players ever reach a position like the Draw #1 diagram below, the g ame is
drawn. No m atter whose turn it is to move, Black can always keep opposition and prevent
the white king from reaching the critical squares of the pawn. A possible sequence of
moves is: 1 Kd3 Kd6 2 Kd4 Ke6 3 es Kd7 4 Kds Ke7 s e6 Ke8 6 Kd6 Kd8 7 e7+ Ke8. If 8 Ke6,
Black is stalemated. White's only other option on move 8 is to abandon defence of the
pawn ( say, 8 Kes ) which allows the black king to capture the pawn ( 8 ... Kxe7 ) and end
White's chances of winning. Therefore, if White h as a chance to take the opposition and
take control of the critical squares, he should not let this position occur.
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Draw #l
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Draw #l
So how can White get the win ? Starting with diagram #3 below, White's first goal is to
achieve king control of the critical squares, not to advance the pawn; therefore White
should play either Kd2 or Kf2, h eading for the critical squares. After 1 Kd2 Ke7 2 Ke3 Ke6 3
Ke4 (diagram #4), White has taken the opposition and occupies the critical squares. When
the black king steps aside, White should again advance to king to seize the next critical
squares that the pawn will need when it advances. If White were to advance the pawn, the
critical squares move up, and Black could seize the opposition, forcing the draw. After
3 ... Kd6 4 KfS Ke7 5 Kes Kd7, White should again step forward with 6 Kf6. Now Black cannot
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run after the pawn with 6 ... Kd6, because 7 e4 holds dS from the black king, boxing him out.
If 6 ... Ke8, White can play 7 Ke6 (diagram #5) and seize the opposition . After 7 ... Kd8 8 e4 Ke8
9 es, White h as the opposition . When the black king steps aside (say, 9 ... Kd8) White can
step up and seize control of the pawn's promotion square (10 Kf7), allowing the pawn to
promote and White to win .
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#3
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#4
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#5
Understanding the critical squares of the pawn is a tool of understanding that helps a
chess player find the right move without h aving to calculate the position, time, and every
move that leads to a win. This is the essence of learning the fundamentals of chess strat­
egy. Knowing these basic principles allows a player to know which positions will be win­
ning and steer the game in those directions.
Another tool for calculating the king and pawn endgame is the square of the pawn. The
square of the pawn is a way to calculate if an enemy king can stop a pawn from promoting
or capture it immediately after it promotes.
In diagram #6, the square has been m apped out. The square is made by drawing a
square from the pawn to the promotion square. If, in diagram #6, Black is to move, the
black king can enter the square, which means it will be able to reach the pawn and capture
(1 ... Kg6 2 cs Kf6 3 c6 Ke7 4 c7 Kd7 5 c8=Q+ Kxc8}. However, if it's White's turn to move,
White will push the pawn to cs and the square of the pawn gets smaller (diagram #7).
Black will then be unable to reach the square of the pawn, and White will be able to pro­
mote safely (1 cs Kg 6 2 c6 Kf6 3 c7 Ke7 4 c8=Q).
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#7
Using the square of the pawn can h elp you calculate the moves needed to promote your
pawn or to stop an enemy pawn from promoting.
Understanding the opposition, critical squares, and the square of the pawn allows us to
understand how material, position, and time work together to influence the outcome of
the most basic positions. We see in the critical squares demonstration that a pawn (mate­
rial) advantage can mean nothing if we don't h ave the opposition (time and position). We
also see that a pawn (material) advantage can mean little if the enemy king can enter the
square of the pawn (position and time).
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These fundamental elements continue to become more complex as we add more pieces
to the position, which is why it is so important to understand these ideas fully before we
start examining more complicated matters. Most of the time, strategy develops from a ba­
sic plan, such as promoting a pawn, and then works backwards to figure out how to make
that h appen. The ideas contained in the opposition and critical squares will be useful in
knowing how to m anoeuvre our pieces within those more complex positions to reach our
simple goal.
Exercises
Name the critical squares of each pawn.
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#1
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#2
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#3
Can the white pawn promote safely if White is to play? If Black is to play? How?
Can the black pawn promote safely if White is to play? If Black is to play? How?
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#4
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#5
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Which side is better if White is to move? How would you proceed?
Which side is better if Black is to play? How would you proceed?
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#9
For further study, practice king vs. king-pawn endgames from various positions, then
add a pawn to one side (king-pawn vs. king-pawn) and try again. Continue adding a pawn
to each side until you reach a king-8 pawns vs. king-8 pawns endgame. Be sure to try each
combination several times with several different starting positions. This will tremendously
enhance your understanding of using the king, pawns, and space to force a win or draw.
Pawn Structure
A major part, perhaps the most important part, of position is the pawn structure of any
given position. Pawn structure is the n ame given to the l ayout of the pawns on the board.
The pawns act together to blockade lines, create lines, hold regions, open regions, take
away space from pieces, and create space. The structure of the pawns determines the
structure of the position and therefore the ability of pieces to move around the board and
hold space of their own . The first step in understanding pawn structure is to define the
terms used in discussing pawn structure.
Pawn Structure (or Pawn Skeleton)
Pawn structure is simply the entire layout of all the pawns on the board. Sometimes, play­
ers refer to White's pawn structure or Black's pawn structure when they are referring only
to the pawns of one side.
Pawn Chains
A pawn chain is a diagonal line of pawns protecting one another. The strength of the pawn
chain {how likely it is to hold steady) depends upon the strength of the base pawn {the
pawn at the bottom of the chain).
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Backward Pawn
A backward pawn is one that is behind the pawns next to it and cannot move forward safe­
ly.
Pawn Islands
A pawn island is a series of pawns occupying adjacent files. A file without a pawn o n it
separates the pawn islands. For example, if White h as pawns on the a-, b-, and c- files, no
pawns on the d- or e-files, and pawns on the f-, g-, and h-files, White h as two pawn islands.
Generally, when pawns work together (and they can only do this from adjacent files), they
are stronger, therefore the fewer pawn isl ands a player h as, the stronger his pawn struc­
ture.
Isolated Pawns
An isolated pawn is a pawn without any friendly pawns on adjacent files (a pawn island
with only one pawn). For example, if White has an a-pawn, no b-pawn, but pawns on the
remaining files, the a-pawn is isol ated. Since an isolated pawn cannot work with any other
pawns, it is generally a weak pawn, vulnerable to attack.
Doubled Pawns
Doubled pawns are two pawns of the same colour on the same file. This can happen when
a pawn captures in front of another pawn. Generally, doubled pawns are difficult to de­
fend and restrict movement or other pawns and pieces (because a pawn cannot move until
the one in front of it unblocks its path). Doubled pawns can block a file since the other
pawns can't move as easily, and they block ranks because they simply take up space. Occa­
sionally, doubled isolated pawns occur, which is simply when doubled pawns h ave no
friendly pawn s on adjacent files.
Passed Pawns
A passed pawn is a pawn which can no longer be blocked or attacked by an opponent's
pawn; in other words, a passed pawn h as no opponent pawn in front of it nor does it have
an opponent pawn on an adjacent file. Since a passed pawn h as no enemy pawns to stop
it, it can move up the board more freely than other pawns, which makes the threat of pro­
motion greater. Therefore, an opponent will h ave to divert at least a minor piece to stop,
block, or capture the passed pawn . Generally, this makes passed pawns a great asset to a
position. A protected passed pawn is a passed pawn that is protected by a friendly pawn or
piece, which makes it even stronger than a regular passed pawn.
The diagram below can help illustrate the definitions of various pawn structures as well
as highlight some of their fundamental ideas, strengths, and weaknesses.
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White's pawn structure is stronger than Black's for a few key reasons. Before we exam­
ine the strengths and weaknesses, we should first examine the structure. Black h as a pawn
chain running from a7 to cs. White also h as a pawn chain, and it stretches from b3 to ds.
Both pawn chain s are fairly strong because their base pawns ( a7 and b3 ) are relatively safe
from attack; additionally, White has backward pawns at b3 and g 3 . White has two pawn
islands ( a- to d-file, and the f- and g-file ) while Black h as three pawn i slands ( a- to c-file, e­
file, and h -file ) . White has no isolated pawns, whereas Black h as one isolated pawn on the
e-file and doubled-isolated pawns on the h -file; note that Black's h-pawns are also doubled.
Finally, both sides h ave passed pawns. Black has a passed pawn on the e-file, since no
white pawns can block or capture it. White h as a protected passed pawn on the d-file, since
no black pawns can block or capture it and it i s protected by the c4-pawn.
Now to examine the strengths and weaknesses. Black's h-pawns are a weakness be­
cause they cannot work together. The white king ( after taking care of Black's passed pawn )
could march over to the h-file and capture those pawns without trouble. If White were to
play g4 and allow the h S-pawn to capture, then Black would undouble his pawns; White
should not allow Black to strengthen his pawns that way. White has a stronger passed
pawn because it is protected and cannot be taken at all, unless it leaves the safety of the
ds-square. Black's passed pawn, however, is very vulnerable to attack from the white king .
The black king will h ave a h ard time defending i t since h e would need t o reach the fs­
square to do so ( 3 moves away: ... Kf7-f6-fS ) , and White's king is only 3 moves from captur­
ing the pawn ( Ke2-e3-e4) . White's backward g 3-pawn is weak because it cannot advance
safely and it leaves the g4-square open to exploitation by Black. White also h as a backward
b-pawn, but that is a less serious weakness as Black h as no easy way to attack it.
Though the m aterial is equal, White clearly stands better because his pawn structure is
so much stronger. This is another example of how material (pawns and king s ) , position
(pawn structure ) , and time ( White's ability to reach the e4-pawn before Black can defend
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it) interact on the board. U sing this simple demonstration, we can begin to see how pawn
structure and the fundamental elements play such an important role.
However, is White still dominating the position if we add some pieces?
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The position becomes much less clear with these pieces added. The black knight on d6 is
doing a splendid job of blocking White's passed pawn, protecting Black's passed pawn on e4,
and preventing White from pushing fS. The black bishop and rook are actually working well
with the doubled h-pawns to hold space on White's kingside and are threatening to push the
h s-pawn to h4, breaking up White's king side pawns. The white knight is held captive be­
cause the f3 and g4-squares are held by Black's pawns. The white bishop is blocked behind its
own pawns and the black pawn chain; it will need to do quite a bit of manoeuvring to find an
active position, probably on the a1-h8 diagonal, and before it gets there, the black bishop will
probably be able to seize that diagonal first. The white rook is inactive, stuck behind the
blocked passed d-pawn, whereas Black's rook is doing a great job of putting pressure on
White's kingside pawns. Both sides have chances to break through with their competing
strengths, so the position is far from the clear win that it was without the pieces.
Of course, we could h ave added pieces anywhere on the board for this demonstration,
but we can easily see how Black's pawn weaknesses become far less weak when his other
pieces are placed well. We can also easily see how White's pawn advantages dissipate
when his pieces are placed poorly. In either case, it is the structure of the pawns that h as
determined the strength or weakness of the pieces by holding the space they can or do oc­
cupy, and therefore, the pawns are central to the position .
Here are some fundamental tips when thinking about pawn structure:
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A pawn weakness (isolated, doubled, backward pawn) is only a weakness if it can
be attacked by the opponent or it cannot be eliminated later. For example, an iso­
lated pawn out of reach to your opponent is not really that much of a weakness;
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t
t
doubled pawns are only a weakness if they remain doubled ( and sometimes not
even then ! ) . Trading off one of the pawns or undoubling them removes the
weakness, so the weakness was only temporary.
Passed pawns should be pushed up the board. The closer they get to promotion,
the stronger the threat and, therefore, the more your opponent will h ave to do to
stop it.
Rooks belong behind passed pawns so the rook can protect the pawn as it
marches towards promotion. When a rook gets in front of a passed pawn, it can
be very difficult to move that rook without losing the passed pawn.
Understanding basic pawn structure can help players understand how a position de­
velops and affects the material and space on the board.
Exercises
List all the features of the pawn structure.
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Describe h ow each pawn structure affects the lines (files, ranks, diagonal s), regions
(king side, queenside, black and white territory), and space of the board.
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#4
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#6
Describe the strengths and weaknesses of each piece (knight, bishop, rook, and queen)
as it relates to the space available based on the pawn structure.
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#7
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#8
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#9
For further practice, with the kings on their starting squares, h ave White set two pawn s
anywhere in his territory, then have Black set three pawns in his territory, then h ave White
place two more pawns in his territory and h ave Black place one more. Play the game with
both sides playing for a win or at least a draw. Try altering the number of pawns as you
practice this exercise; give one player a one pawn advantage, etc. The key is placing the
pawns initially, always alternate players placing pawns because this will force you to think
about the structures you are creating to combat your opponent's structures.
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Weak Squares, Holes and Out posts
The above structures related to pawns are only one aspect of h ow pawns affect the posi­
tion of the game. In order to understand fully how pawns affect the position, players must
be aware of the spaces created around the pawns.
Because pawns are worth only a single m aterial point, it is advisable to trade them off
for larger pieces in many situations. Therefore, the two capturing squares that a pawn
holds become space that an opponent piece would rather not occupy. To add a wrinkle of
time, a square that can be attacked by a pawn (if not now, then later) , is a risky square for a
piece to occupy, because when a pawn advances to hold the square and attack the piece,
that piece will most likely wish to move away from that square.
For the purposes of this demonstration, a star will represent a square held by two
pawn s, and a cross will represent a square held by one pawn. At the start of the game, each
square on the 3rd rank is held by two pawn s, one on its right, and one on its left. For exam­
ple, in diagram #1, b3 is held by White's a2-pawn and by White's c2-pawn. This continues
across to the g 3 -square. Only the a- and h-files are h eld by a single pawn (the b-pawn and
g-pawn, respectively) .
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#2
However, those are only the squares held by the pawns where they are at the moment.
Since they have the potential to move forward and grab control of squares further up the
board (thereby kicking away a piece on one of those squares), we can think of those
squares as being held as well. In diagram #2, we can see the potential of the pawns to hold
squares if they move forward one square.
We could imagine that the pawns h old space on the Sth rank too, except that Black's
pawns hold that space. When a pawn moves forward two squares to grab space in his op­
ponent's territory, it is space which can be challenged by an enemy pawn.
With this understanding in mind, one can begin to see that each pawn movement cre­
ates an empty space where that pawn once held sway over the squares it left behind. If
pawns on both sides of a square move forward, that square will become a sort of empty
space, unable to be defended or attacked by pawns. A weak square is one that h as been
weakened in some way by pawn advances. A hole is a square that h as no pawns on adja­
cent files, is not occupied by a pawn, and therefore can no longer be defended by a pawn.
Weak squares and holes in a player's position are vulnerable to attack - not in the same
sense that any material will be captured, but in the sense that an opponent may place a
powerful piece on that square, from which it will be difficult to remove.
Below, we see how a single pawn move changes the dynamics of the space being held.
By moving the e-pawn forward to e4, White h as left d3 and f3 with only one pawn to hold
them. These h ave been weakened by the e-pawn's advance. However, they are squares that
are too deep in White's position for Black to reach easily and are unlikely to become homes
for any of Black's pieces. On the other h and, as the game progresses, these weaknesses will
become more pronounced.
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#3
Notice, too, that the g-pawn now holds two weakened squares, f3 and h 3 . In a manner of
speaking, both are slightly weaker than, for example, d3. The c-pawn covers d3 and b3, but
b3 can be held by the a2-pawn if the c-pawn is called upon to capture on d3. Since the g­
pawn covers the two weakened squares and no other pawns can act as back-up to either one,
both f3 and h3 can be considered weaker than the other weak squares in White's position.
Diagram #4 below can h elp demonstrate a better understanding. First, since the c- and
e-pawns h ave both advanced two squares, d4 is a hole in White's position. Similarly, d3 is
weakened since it can no longer be defended by another pawn (demonstrating the weak­
ness of a backward pawn). Since the d-pawn rem ains, this would be an especially good hole
for Black to locate a piece, because a rook could not attack via the d-file. Also, since the b­
and f-pawns h ave been traded away, a2, a3, c2, c3, e2, and e3 are all significant weak­
nesses in White's territory as well. The squares b2, b3, f2, and f3 are also weak. With a
pawn structure like this, White will h ave to be vigilant in keeping the black pieces at bay.
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#5
An outpost is a weak square or hole in an opponent's position that is held by a pawn of
your own. In diagram #5 above, Black h as secured an outpost at d4 because his cs-pawn
holds the d4-square. Since White has no b-pawn, it will be exceedingly difficult for him to
weaken that central outpost. White, on the other h and, h as an outpost of his own on ds.
Weak squares, holes, and outposts become significant if an enemy piece can occupy
them. Minor pieces (knights and bishops) are particularly effective when occupying these
squares, because they won't be blocked by the enemy pawns and can only be removed by
another minor or m ajor piece. The deeper in a player's position the weak square or outpost
is, the more valuable it becomes.
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Th e Fu n d a m e n ta l E le m e n ts of C h e s s S tra tegy
Below in diagram #6, Black h as an outpost on dS and White has an outpost at d6.
White's outpost is on Black's 3rd rank, and Black's outpost is on White's sth rank. Since the
white outpost is deep in Black's territory, it will be a stronger outpost than Black's.
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#6
Below in diagram #7, knights occupy the two outposts. The black knight is strong, but
fairly far away the white king. This knight will be useful in supporting other pieces and
maybe leaping into an attack later in the game. On the other h and, the white knight is sit­
ting deep in Black's territory, holding the f7-square right in the black king position. The
white knight also holds c8 and e8, key squares on files that Black would look to utilize with
his rooks. Clearly, the white knight is stronger than the black knight.
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#7
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#8
Above, in diagram #8, the knights h ave been replaced with bishops. Here, the black
bishop is somewhat stronger because it is slicing into the white king position, holding the
g2-square which Black may be able to use for an attack later. The white bishop is holding
space near the king, but not as strongly as the black bishop. The white bishop, though, is
holding some key squares that the black rooks would like to use, b8 and f8. In both cases,
the minor pieces hold great influence when placed on the outposts, especially when they
can reach important space from that outpost.
Understanding how pawns create weak squares, holes, and outposts is critical in decid­
ing how to utilize pieces, where they will best be located, and threats to defend against.
Exercises
List the number of white and black pawns that currently hold or can potentially hold each
of the m arked squares.
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#3
List all of the weak squares, holes, and outposts for each side's territory.
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#5
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#6
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List a strong square for each player's minor pieces and describe a safe path for that
piece to reach that square (a path that doesn't put the piece under threat).
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#9
For further practice, with the kings on their starting squares, have each side set a speci­
fied and equal number of pawns on his first 5 ranks, alternating each player putting down
one pawn at a time. Then, h ave each player place one knight, one bishop, and one rook,
again alternating. Then, begin with White to play and have each side play for a win. Try
altering this activity with a various number of pawns and various combinations of pieces.
This type of practice will help you clarify how the pawns and pieces interact with the space
on the board.
O pen and Closed Positions
Weak squares, holes, and outposts are the single-square spaces created by various pawn
structures. The lines of the board are also greatly influenced by the pawn structure, and
based on the pawn positions, they are referred to as open and closed lines. Depending on
the overall openness of the lines and squares, positions can be referred to as open and
closed positions.
An open file is one without any pawns. It is open because no pawns block the file from
one side of the board to the other. These files can be very useful as lines of attack since they
reach directly into enemy territory. It is important that players try to control the open files
as best they can by h olding the squares on that file in their own territory, especially the
base square. In diagram #1 below, the e-file is the only open file.
A half-open file is one with a pawn (or pawns) of only one colour, meaning that only one
player h as a pawn on that file. If a player's opponent has the pawn on a h alf-open file, that
means the player h as a direct line of attack on that pawn and therefore anything on that
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C h e s s Prog ress
file. If a player h as the pawn on a half-open file, that means the player has a pawn to de­
fend or can use that pawn as a sort of blockade. In diagram #1 below, the c- and d- files are
half-open.
A closed file is one with pawns of both colours, meaning that the pawns block the file
from being used by either player. In order for a rook to use a closed file, it would h ave to be
in front of its own pawn. In diagram #1 below, the a-, b-, f-, g-, and h -files are all closed.
This means they are currently unavailable for use as lines of attack.
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In diagram #1, both players should hope to control the open e-file and h ave some control
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Th e Fu n d a m e n t a l E l e m e n ts of C h e s s Strategy
of the h alf-open files. Since rooks and queens are the pieces that utilize files, look at how they
can be used in diagram #2. Notice how White's rooks are placed on the files adjacent to the
isolated d-pawn. This gives the e1-rook tremendous power along the e-file since it can hold
the line as the isolated pawn moves up the board, attacking squares on the file. This is also
true of the c-file, making the isolated pawn a sort of power piece. Since the queen stands be­
hind the isolated pawn, the pawn is somewhat protected as it moves up the board.
Black, on the other h and, has a rook well placed on the h alf-open d-file putting pressure
on White's isolated d-pawn weakness. Black also h as the well-placed c8-rook behind the
pawn on the h alf-open c-file. This will allow Black to push the c-pawn up the board, re­
stricting White's d-pawn (the d-pawn will not want to capture on the c-file since that
would expose the white queen to attack).
Finally, notice how the bishops affect these files. The white bishop holds the base
square of the e-file (el), m aking it unlikely that Black will be able to control the open file. It
can also leap to e7 to influence the d8-square, limiting Black's ability to hold the d-file.
Black's bishop, however, is currently limited to holding the c8-base square.
In the previous examples, the open, half-open, and closed files are h eld or influenced by
rooks and minor pieces holding their base squares. The other lines on the board, diagonals,
are not usually referred to as open and closed since pawns don't tend to block them; how­
ever, the same idea applies. When a diagonal is occupied by pawns, that diagonal is not
useful to the bishops or the queen. Diagonal s are more dynamic, more prone to changing
over time, than files, since the pawns have the potential to move forward and unblock a
diagonal; a blocked diagonal doesn't always h ave to remain blocked and therefore m ay be
a good diagonal to locate a bishop on, as a threat of future activity. On the other h and,
when pawns are locked up (white pawn pushed up against black pawn), the blocked di­
agonal is more permanent.
In diagram #3 below, there are a num ber of pawns and m any of them have yet to move
forward. This means that the lines still have great potential to change. However, the posi­
tion as it exists is just as important. The h 1-a8 diagonal is fairly open, except for the e4pawn. The a2-g 8 diagonal is quite open. Other unblocked diagonals include: a4-e8, c1-h6,
h4-d8, f1-a6, h 3 -c8, h6-f8. The locked e-pawns are of particular importance, though. Since
the black d-pawn can push forward to capture or be captured by the white e-pawn, both
the a1-h 8 and the h 1-a8 diagonal s h ave great potential to change quickly.
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#4
Above, in diagram #4, several pieces h ave been added to the pawn position in #3. The
black pieces have a number of strengths worth mentioning. The black light-squared bishop
puts strong pressure on the h 1-a8 diagonal by supporting the ds-square for the pawn ad­
vance. The black dark-squared bishop appears to be blocked in by the es-pawn, but once
the black d-pawn pushes forward and eliminates the white e-pawn, then Black's d-pawn
can advance, and the bishop will be well placed to take advantage of the newly unblocked
diagonal. Black's rook is well placed as an attacking piece on the h alf-open file, putting
pressure on White's c-pawn.
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Th e Fu n d a m e n ta l Ele m e n ts of Ch e s s S tra tegy
The white light-squared bishop on b3 is well placed on the a2-g8 diagonal ; it puts pres­
sure on the black king position and supports the ds-square, resisting Black's desire to push
his pawn to dS. The white dark-square bishop is less well placed on the g 1-a7 diagonal;
since Black's pawns block that diagonal, it cannot make much use of that line. Conversely,
the bishop does have good use of the c1-h6 diagonal; it could move to g S, from where it
could control the h4-d8 diagonal and the important d8-square which Black would like to
use with his rook to support the d-pawn's advance. White's rook is placed on a closed file
and may wish to find a more active position on a h alf-open file.
Diagonals, in a manner of speaking, can be open or closed,. They are more dynamic but,
generally, an unblocked diagonal is a better post for a bishop than locating it on a blocked
diagonal, just as a rook is much more effective on an open or a half-open file.
There is one final note about pawn structure as it relates to bishops: the idea that a
pawn structure can m ake a bishop "good" or "bad". The location of friendly pawns and en­
emy pawns determine whether a bishop is good or bad. A bad bishop is one that h as all,
most, or m any friendly pawns on the same colour squares; a bad bishop also h as enemy
pawns on opposite colour squares. Conversely, a good bishop is one that h as friendly
pawns on the opposite colour squares and enemy pawns on the same colour squares. The
idea is this: if a bishop's own pawns are on the same colour squares, those pawns block the
ability of that bishop to m anoeuvre, and if a bishop's enemy pawns are on opposite colour
squares, then the bishop h as no targets to attack.
In diagram #5 below, Black h as a bad bishop and White h as a good bishop. Black's is bad
because it is a dark-squared bishop, all of Black's pawns are on dark squares, and all of
White's pawns are on light squares. This means that Black's bishop will be unable to ma­
noeuvre around the board, blocked in by his own pawns, and will not be able to attack any
white pawns. On the other h and, White's bishop is good because the white pawns do not
block its movement and the black pawn s are juicy targets. In this case, White will be able to
use his bishop to threaten Black's position (with 1 Bf6), after which the white king moves
forward into Black's territory. Working together, the white king and bishop should be able
to eliminate the pawns. Understanding the strength of the piece based on the position is
helpful when determining a strategy for the given position.
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Ch ess Prog ress
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#6
Above, in diagram #6, both bishops are demonstrating two important ideas. First, a bad
bishop can still serve an important purpose. Though both bishops might be considered
"bad", both are actually holding an entire pawn chain at bay. Not a single one of those
pawns is safe to move forward, because the bishops hold each of the squares they could
move to. The bishops can dance back and forth along their respective diagonals, always
preventing the pawn chain from advancing. Second, a bishop needs to hold the promotion
squares of its own passed pawn . Since White's bishop is a dark-squared bishop, it can
never hold the light square a8 to assist the a-pawn's promotion. The same is true for the
relationship between Black's bishop and pawns. Also, the white bishop holds the promo-
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Th e Fu n d a m e n ta l Ele m e n ts of Ch ess S t ra tegy
tion square of the g-pawn, thereby preventing it from promoting, and the same is true of
the relationship between the black bishop and the white pawn.
One final point to note in diagram #6 is that, even if a king could make it to the enemy
pawns, he could never capture them. The bishops have enough room to both protect their
pawns and avoid capture by a king, so they will never have to leave the defence of their
pawn. Since neither side will be able to make progress with his pawns, the game is effec­
tively a draw.
All these ideas, open, h alf-open, and closed files, blocked, unblocked, and potential di­
agonals combine to form an understanding of open positions and closed positions. Under­
standing how these ideas relate to pawn structures affect the space, lines, squares, and
therefore piece mobility is central to understanding how to make smart moves based on
strategic concepts.
An open position has an open pawn structure with many open lines and a lot of poten­
tial to change. The pawn structure in an open position usually became open either because
the pawns h ave not advanced very far, or because several pawns h ave been traded off.
A closed position has a closed pawn structure with most of the lines jammed by pawns,
with little chance for the pawn structure to change in the near future. The pawn structure of
a closed position usually became closed because, instead of being traded away, pawns have
advanced to lock against one another, leaving most of the diagonals blocked and files closed.
Diagram #7 below has an open pawn structure. Only four pawns h ave been traded (two
white and two black), but the lines remain open with several h alf-open files and a number
of unblocked diagonals. There is little potential for these pawns to become locked together,
so the structure is fluid, dynamic, and likely to shift.
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#7
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#8
Bishops tend to be stronger than knights in open positions because they can utilize the
open lines to manoeuvre quickly around the board, whereas a knight will h ave to make its
way slowly across the distances with its awkward, jumpy movement.
Diagram #8 reveals the comparative strength of the minor pieces in the open position.
Black's bishops are slashing through the centre of the board all the way to White's king
position (holding important lines reaching from one region to another), and White's bish­
ops cover much of Black's king side space. On the other h and, both knights will h ave to
make several moves (give up time) before they find themselves in a position to be useful to
their team. In this type of open position, both sides would like to find a way to trade their
weaker piece (knight) for an opponent's stronger piece (bishop).
Diagram #9 below h as a closed position where most of the lines are blocked by pawns
that cannot advance because they are obstructed by the opponent's pawns. All of the di­
agonals are blocked by pawns that will not move, unless the pawns in front of them are
captured. Only the a-file remain s open, so the possibility exists for a rook to slide in behind
this massive wall of pawns where it might be able to do some damage. Any colour bishop
would be fairly useless to either player, because even a good bishop would not be able to
reach the other side of the board to attack the pawns at the base of the structure. In fact, a
bishop stuck behind a wall like this could hinder that player because it takes up a square
and reduces the mobility of that player's pieces.
1 50
Th e Fu n d a m e n t a l E l e m e n ts of Ch e s s S t ra tegy
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#9
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#10
Knights tend to be stronger than bishops in closed positions because they can jump
over the pawns blocking the lines, whereas the bishop will be stuck to moving back and
forth behind the wall of locked pawns, likely never to escape its pawn prison.
Diagram #10 reveals the comparative strength of the minor pieces in the closed posi­
tion. White's knight is poised to jump to a4 where it will strike at Black's b6-pawn. Once
the knight successfully captures the b6-pawn, the white bishop will be able to enter the
black position on the aS-d8 diagonal. When the two minor pieces join with the rook, they
will be able to eliminate Black's pawn structure (material/position) quite handily. Black's
bishops, on the other h and, are relegated to total inactivity. In order to defend the b6
151
C h e s s Progress
weakness, the black dark-squared bishop would have to move e7-d8, behaving rather like a
knight, but it will be too late to stop the knight if White moves first. White's rook is in a
decent position behind the wall of pawns where it can hold White's base pawns secure and
protect the king. Black's rook is in a good position, but it cannot be successful without the
help of other pieces. The rook holds an important line, but not well enough to do anything
meaningful. In this type of position, Black would love to trade his worst bishop for the
white knight and hope to play for the draw by trading off the rooks. White, of course,
would wish to avoid this, gobble up the black pawns, and march his own pawns to promo­
tion, forcing Black to trade the bishops for a chance to stop them.
Below is a brief example of how to use all this knowledge of weak squares, holes, out­
posts, open position s, and closed positions when deciding on moves.
In diagram #11, White and Black are roughly equal. Material is equal : 7 pawns, 2 bish­
ops, 2 rooks, 1 knight, and a queen each. Position is nearly equal : White's rooks are on open
and h alf-open files, Black's rooks are connected and working on the h alf-open d-file,
White's bishops are poised to slice into the black queen side, Black's bishops are poised to
do the same, the queens are h anging back, ready to lend support where needed. White also
appears to h ave a large space advantage on the king side. However, when we apply our un­
derstanding of structure to the game, we see that Black's dark-squared bishop is bad,
White's light-squared bishop is bad, the knights will be valuable in the somewhat closed
game, the black knight is poised to jump to the d4-outpost which is not being covered by
any of White's pieces, and the white knight is poised to jump to the e6-outpost, a plan for
Black becomes clear.
If Black trades his bad dark-squared bishop for White's stronger knight, then Black's po­
sition can become just a little stronger.
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#11 {Black to play)
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#12
Looking at the position after l ... Bxcs 2 Rxcs Nd4 ( diagram #12), White is left with a bad
bishop and an enemy knight posted dangerously near his king . By trading a weak bishop
for a strong knight, Black's position h as improved. Finding this type of move and under­
standing its significance would be nearly impossible without an understanding of pawn
structure, the spaces created by the pawns, and the effect on the strength of the pieces.
To sum up, it is important to recognize pawn structures and the resultant spaces:
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Pawn struct u res: pawn chains, backward pawns, pawn islands, isolated pawns,
doubled pawns, and passed pawns;
Wea k sq u a res, holes, a n d outposts: squares influenced by pawn structures;
Open a n d closed fi les a n d d iagonals: lines influenced by pawn structures;
Open a n d closed positions: overall position as dictated by pawn structures.
Understanding how these structures and spaces affect the strength and weakness of
the pieces can help players form plans and select m oves that strengthen their positions
while simultaneously weakening their opponents. These are the fundamental concepts
that all strong chess players use to m ake decisions over the board. As your understanding
of the game progresses, so will your understanding of how to use these fundamental ideas
to your advantage.
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Exercises
List all the open, h alf-open, and closed files.
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#2
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#3
List all the open diagonals on the board longer than three squares.
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#4
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#5
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#6
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List a strong square for the white and black pieces and a potential path for reaching it
assuming no other pawns or pieces move.
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#7
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#8
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#9
For further practice, with the kings on their starting squares, h ave each player set a
specified and equal number of pawns in his first five ranks, alternating each player putting
down one pawn at a time. Then, h ave each player place one knight, one bishop, and one
rook, again alternating. Then, begin with White to play and h ave each side play for a win .
Try altering this activity with a various number o f pawns and various combinations of
pieces. This type of practice will help you clarify how the pawns and pieces interact with
the space on the board.
158
Cha pte r T h ree
Ap p ly i n g t h e E l e m e n t s
o f C h e s s St rategy
Principles of Exchanging Materia l
This section explores how to apply the elements of chess when choosing to exchange piec­
es. Understanding these principles can help players know how to convert material into po­
sition or time.
Funda mental Defence
This section establishes the five options for defence when a player's m aterial or position is
being attacked: escape, remove, block, defend, and counter. H aving these option s in mind is
h andy to prevent an instinctive reaction instead of a well-planned response.
Fundamental Tactics
This section introduces several of the most basic tactics that every chess player should have
in mind when competing throughout the game. Tactics introduced are: pins, skewers,forks,
discovered attacks, and removing the defender.
Fundamenta ls of Openings
The section explores how the elements of chess strategy apply in the first several moves of
a chess game. The interaction of material, position, and time are critical in this stage of the
game to help a player develop a winnable, or at least playable, position early on .
1 59
C h e s s Prog ress
Pri nciples of Excha ngi ng Materia l
With a solid foundation in m aterial, position, time, pawn structures, and space, it is time
to turn attention to applying all of those ideas in actual play.
As each game progresses, m aterial (pieces) will necessarily be exchanged, and it is im­
portant to understand how, where, when, and why to do this properly so the material can
be converted into a stronger position . Understanding piece value can be important knowl­
edge when con sidering exchanging m aterial, but it is incomplete. There are four principles
that can help guide players when deciding how, when, and where to exchange material.
Understanding these principles can help a player decide to offer an exchange, avoid an
exchange, or steer the game towards positions where exchanges will be beneficial to his
own position.
The four guiding principles are to exchange when :
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you h ave a material advantage
you h ave a spatial disadvantage
it will strengthen the position of your pieces
it will weaken the position of your opponent's pieces
Principle #1: Exchange when you have a material advantage
The first, and simplest, principle is that a player who has a material advantage should look
to exchange material; conversely, a player who is at a m aterial disadvantage should look to
avoid exchanging material.
This principle can be understood in purely materialistic terms, first, and also in posi­
tional terms. At the beginning of the game, both players begin with 8 pawns (8), 2 rooks
(10), 2 knights (6), 2 bishops (6), and 1 queen (9). This means each player begin s with a total
of 39 material points. If one player loses a single pawn, that player now has 38 material
points, and his opponent h as 39. This m akes the material ratio 38:39. This gives the player
with the one pawn advantage a very slight lead, only when considering the m aterial value
of the remaining pieces. However, this one pawn advantage may not translate into a
strong positional advantage, as we've seen in earlier demonstrations. That pawn may be
doubled, blocked, or unable to move m aking it less of an advantage than the material
points would indicate.
Consider how that balance shifts as more pieces are traded off. If the players trade off
all the minor pieces, the m aterial ratio becomes 26:27. lf those exchanges also pulled off 3
pawns from each side, the ratio is 2 3 : 24. 1f the major pieces are then traded off, the ratio
becomes 4:5; that is 4 pawns and a king versus 5 pawns and a king. The ratio is now much
stronger for the player with that single pawn advantage, and it is much worse for the play­
er with the one pawn disadvantage. Each trade made the gap wider and wider. If still more
pawns are traded off, say 3 more from each side, the ratio is now 1:2. The player with two
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two pawns h as a dominating position and will most likely be able to force the win . The
player with only one pawn will be very lucky if he can escape with a draw.
Of course, this all depends upon the position of the rem aining pieces. Assuming the
players did trade to a 1:2 endgame, the player with only 1 pawn m ay be able to force a
draw if he can trade his final pawn and get into a position to stop his opponent's final
pawn from promoting (as demonstrated in the sections on stalemate, critical squares, and
the square of the pawn). In this case, the material advantage can be neutralized. However,
the principle remain s a good principle since, as pieces are traded off, the player with the
material advantage has more or stronger pieces, giving that player more control over the
flow of the game. When the material advantage is more than a single pawn, this principle
is even more applicable, since simplifying to a draw is much less likely.
Diagram #1 below is a simple demonstration of this principle in action. Black h as
checked White's king, and White can either escape or block. White h as a material advan­
tage (1 pawn), so blocking the check with his own bishop and offering a trade is beneficial
to White's game (diagram #2). Exchanging bishops here would increase White's advan­
tage, while it would also increase Black's disadvantage. Understanding this principle helps
to guide the player's understanding of how to move and respond to threats.
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#1
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#2
Below (diagram #3) is another demonstration of exchanging m aterial; this time an at­
tack forces the exch ange of m aterial, leading to a winning position. White h as a one pawn
advantage and would like to play Re8+ and force the exchange of the rooks, but the black
bishop covers the e8-square. With this in mind, White initiates an exchange sequence by
capturing the bishop 1 Nxc6. Black is forced to recapture 1 ...bxc6. Then White can force the
exchange with checks: 2 Re8+ Rxe8 3 Rxe8+ Rxe8 4 Qxe8+ Qf8. This is the key move (dia­
gram #4); Black is forced to move the queen back to f8 and White can choose to capture the
c6-pawn or exchange the queens. Exchanging queens would be fine since the resulting
king-pawn endgame is winnable for White. His extra pawn will be enough to force the win .
Keeping the queens o n the board allows White t o capture yet another pawn and look to
exch ange the queens l ater.
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#3
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#4
White's m aterial advantage here allowed the m ore powerful pieces to force the ex­
changes that lead to a winning position for White. A great example of this principle.
Principle #2: Exchange material
when you have a disadvantage in space
The second principle is to exchange material when you have a disadvantage in space; con­
versely, if you h ave an advantage in space, you should avoid exch anging m aterial .
This principle is based on the mobility of pieces. When a player h as a cramped position
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C h e s s Progress
with very little space to manoeuvre, each piece within that cramped position takes up a
square that the other pieces might like to use. Therefore, exchanging equal material will
actually improve that player's position, giving the pieces room to move around and find
strong posts. On the other side of the board, the player who h as the advantage of space can
easily m anoeuvre his pieces to their best posts while enjoying the benefit that his oppo­
nent cannot easily respond to any threat. Therefore, this player would wish to avoid ex­
changes and thereby keep his opponent cramped.
In diagram #5 below, Black's entire army is distributed on his first three ranks save for
the dS-pawn. His f6-knight enjoys some open space but, in general, his position is very
cramped. White, on the other h and, enjoys a massive space advantage on the queen side.
Black would like to exchange some pawns, open up the game, and exchange material. If
he can achieve this, his bishops would be more free to move around. White, however,
wishes to keep as m any pieces on the board as long as he can, so that he can use his time
to build an unstoppable attack while Black bounces around looking for a way to make
something happen.
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#5
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#6
Diagram #6 shows the same position, except that two pawns and a minor piece h ave
been taken away from each side. The difference in mobility is dramatic. Black h as gained a
ton of space on his queens ide that h e can use to manoeuvre his pieces to strong posts.
White's spatial advantage h as disappeared with the exchange of equal m aterial.
This principle is based on the idea that material can be converted either to position or
time. In this case, Black converted 5 material points (1 minor piece and 2 pawns ) into an
improved position. On the other side of the board, White's desire to keep m aterial on the
board was based on the understanding that, for White, the best potential of his pieces
could be achieved before (time ) Black would be able to manoeuvre within his cramped po­
sition. Again, the elements of chess strategy dictate the gam e-play.
Principle # 3 : Exchange material when
it will strengthen the position of you r pieces
The third principle is to exchange when it will improve the position of your pieces; con­
versely, if your pieces are well positioned, you should avoid exchanging them.
This principle is again based on converting m aterial into position, but this time in a
very concrete way. When your pieces are not placed well, your position is weak, and your
opponent will attack those weaknesses. If a player can exch ange material in a way that
allows his pieces to take up stronger positions ( such as on an outpost, attacking a target,
etc ) , then the exchange is a wise choice. In contrast, when a player's pieces are well placed,
exchanging those strong pieces is a poor choice. Strong pieces should remain on the board
as long as possible to inflict as much damage as possible. If an opponent plays to capture
the well-positioned piece, the player should look to avoid the trade, or else defend it such
that another piece will recapture and m ake strong use of the post.
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Ch ess Prog ress
In diagram #7 below, the white knight would love to make use of the tremendous e6outpost, but it is currently guarded by the black g S -knight. White could play 1 Ne6, but af­
ter Black captures 1 ... Nxe6 and White recaptures 2 dxe6, White will h ave doubled e-pawns
and Black's position will be fine, since White's knight is not bearing down on his position.
White can avoid this weak exch ange by m aking a much stronger exchange, trading his
dark-squared bishop for Black's knight. White's f4-bishop is slightly cramped by Black's
pawn structure anyway, so it is a little weak. By exch anging it for the black knight, White
opens up the outpost for the knight to become very well positioned. After 1 Bxg s fxg s 2
Ne6, White has a tremendously powerful knight sitting on e6, attacking squares all over
Black's position ( c7, d8, f8, g 7, g s ) .
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#7
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#8
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In diagram #8, after the black queen has moved (2 ... Qb7) to avoid being captured by the
white knight, White may be tempted to take Black's f8-rook immediately, winning the ex­
change. However, following principle, White should avoid this trade. The knight is doing a
wonderful job holding squares in Black's position. If the knight is traded for the rook, White
will have gained material but will h ave lost hold of the outpost and the squares the knight
influences from that outpost. White should, instead, look to increase pressure on Black's
position, perhaps by taking the g S-pawn by Qxg s, threatening checkmate on g7. Black will
have to defend this threat, perhaps with g6. If Black ever moves to capture the knight
( ... Bd7 or ... Bf7), White can then capture the rook anyway; waiting to capture the rook al­
lows White to continue building the strength of his own position. This principle is a key
demonstration of the concept that well-placed m aterial is usually worth more than the
material value alone.
Principle #4: Exchange when it will
weaken the position of your opponent's pieces
The fourth principle is to exchange when it will weaken the position of your opponent's
pieces or eliminate strongly placed pieces from your opponent; conversely, if your oppo­
nent's pieces are not well positioned, avoid exchanging in a m anner that will allow them
to reach strong posts.
This principle is the same as the third principle, but from the other side of the board.
When your opponent h as a powerfully placed piece, it will be a thorn in your position as
long as it is allowed to remain. Also, if your opponent is capable of moving a piece into a
strong position (weak square, outpost, hole, etc), as soon as he does, that piece will become
a thorn in your position, so it would be advisable to exchange material if that does not al­
low this unfortunate event to take place.
In diagram #9 below, Black h as a very well-placed bishop on the e4-outpost. White
would like to exchange the d2-knight for that bishop. If Black recaptures ... dxe4, that would
close the centre pawns and White, in theory, would like to h ave kept his knight. Black can
also recapture with ... Nxe4. That would only trade a decent white knight for a strong black
bishop, while allowing Black to m ake his knight very strong on the e4-outpost. So White
needs to find a plan that prevents the knight from reaching e4 yet still removes the bishop
on e4. If White can accomplish these two goal s, his position will have g ained strength,
while Black's will h ave lost a lot of momentum .
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#9
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#10
U sing his knowledge of these principles, White can m ake the following exch anges: 1
Bxf6 Bxf6 2 Nxe4 dxe4 (diagram #10). White is left with a strong, mobile bishop without
constantly having to safeguard the piece posted on e4. Black h as no pieces that can reach
the d3-outpost, and his remaining bishop is not nearly as valuable as the two pieces that
were just captured. White h as succeeded in exch anging equal m aterial to reduce the
strength of his opponent's position, thereby strength ening his own position.
To conclude, the four guiding principles are to exch ange material when :
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A p p lying th e E le m e n ts of C h e s s S tra tegy
you h ave a material advantage;
t you h ave a spatial disadvantage;
t it will strengthen the position of your pieces;
t it will weaken the position of your opponent's pieces.
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Following these principles can h elp you understand why, how, where, and when to ex­
change m aterial to m ake your position stronger. It can also h elp you avoid making ex­
changes that will help your opponent build his position. All of the previous fundamental
ideas and structures bear on these principles. Use them wisely and you will dominate the
board.
Exercises
Should White trade pieces, why or why not?
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#2
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Should White trade pieces, why or why not?
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#4
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#5
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#6
Which piece should White trade and why?
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#7
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#8
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#9
For further practice, find and play through some high-level chess games. Each time the
players exchange m aterial, try to determine which principle (or principles) of trading was
(or were) used to initiate the exchange. Take this one step further so that whenever a
player moves a piece into tension with another, stop the g ame and consider whether you
believe the trade should occur and why; compare your predictions to the subsequent
moves.
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Fundamental Defence
Understanding the principles of exchanging material, the next step towards application is
to examine the basics of defence.
The first fundamental idea in defence is knowing when an attack must be defended.
Players must always defend checks and checkmate threats, but they must also know when
to defend other attacks. In the diagram below, Black has three attackers on White's d4pawn : the queen, the c6-knight, and the g7-bishop. White has only two defenders of the
d4-pawn : the queen and the f3-knight. Since Black h as more attackers than White h as de­
fenders, if Black h as the move, Black could capture the pawn knowing that he will gain ma­
terial . If White h as the move, White needs to make a decision about how to defend; h e can
either add another defender to balance the attacker-defender ratio, remove one of the at­
tackers, or choose another option. In any case, White must respond in some way to this
threat, otherwise Black will take the pawn for free.
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This method of counting attackers and defenders is a simple way to ensure that you al­
ways know when a defence must be considered. It can also h elp you to recognize when
your opponent's defence is inadequate to meet your threat allowing you to capture. Just
be sure to look out for a zwischenzug (in-between move ) ; remember, an opponent does not
always h ave to capture in the manner you want him to, and if your attention is only on
what you want to h appen, you may overlook a response that could stall your attack.
It is critical to understand how to respond thoughtfully to our opponent's moves rather
than reacting instinctively. Carefully considering each option and how its result will affect
the position is an important step in deciding on your moves. Earlier in the section on check,
these options were explored in brief with the king . When a piece is under attack, it h as two
additional options since it can be taken.
The five options for defending an attack are:
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Escape the attack by moving the piece;
Remove the attack by capturing the attacking piece;
Block the attack by placing another piece in the way of the attacker;
Defend the attacked piece with another; or
Counter the attack with an attack.
Choosing one of these five options is dependent upon several factors: the m aterial
gained or lost in the process, the position resulting from the move, the time gained or lost,
the strength of the attack, and/or the strength of the counter-attack. When two or more
options are equal, a player must choose the result that he prefers based on his own per­
sonal playing style and understanding of the resulting position. Reviewing each option
below will also act as an introduction for deciding on moves in general since the considera­
tions are similar. When deciding on an attacking m ove, for example, it will be helpful to
examine your opponent's options for defence prior to making your attacking move.
The diagram below will serve as the demonstration for weighing each defensive option.
The black bishop at fS is attacking the unprotected white knight on c2, and White must
decide how to respond.
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(White to play)
Option #1: Escape the attack by moving the piece
The first option White h as is for the knight escape the attack by moving away. This is sim­
ple enough, but White must first consider all the options where the knight might escape to
and how each square will be useful or h armful to his position. The knight can escape to al,
a3, b4, and d4.
The first step is to eliminate obviously poor choices, but only after careful consideration
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C h ess Prog ress
- after all, an obviously poor choice m ay not be so bad upon deeper inspection. Nal seem s
fairly obvious as a poor choice. The knight would move back into a corner, far away from
the action and h ave only one other square to move to once there, b3, from where the
knight would block the bishop and the rook. Na3 also seems clearly poor. Once on a3, the
knight's only moves would be to bl and back to c2, both squares that are held by the black
bishop. Both al and a3 can safely be ruled out as strong options for the knight.
After eliminating the obviously poor choices, the next step is to check other choices that
appear poor but m ay hold potential. Nb4 seems poor because it moves the knight away
from the action, though it does offer a pathway for the knight to reach the ds-square in the
centre. However, upon 1 Nb4 Nd6, White finds that both his rook and bishop are under at­
tack from the black knight. Surely, there must be a better escape.
The only remaining possibility for White is to consider moving the knight to d4. Nd4 of­
fers a strong option for defending this particular attack because it both removes the threat
of losing the knight and it creates an attack on the fS-bishop. Since that bishop is already
attacked once by the white rook, Black will need to respond in some way. Certainly, this is
an acceptable move, but White should continue weighing options in the hopes of finding
something even better.
Option #2: Remove the attack by capturing the attacking piece
White has only one way to remove the attacking bishop, by capturing with Rxfs. This leads
to a loss of material since White loses the exchange when Black recaptures ... Rxfs. That
isn't the worst possible outcome; White would still h ave the two active bishops and a
knight with chances to find an attacking position. However, the board is very open, and the
black rook will find many opportunities to apply pressure which White will be unable to
defend. In this particular case, White must continue looking for a better method of defend­
ing the attack again st his knight.
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A p p lying t h e Ele m e n ts of Ch e s s S t r a tegy
Option #3 : Block the attack by interposing a nother piece
White h as two ways to interpose pieces along the b1-h 7 diagonal : Bd3 and e4. The first op­
tion is to play Bd3 and block the attack. This is certainly a poor move as Black can simply
capture the interposed bishop with ... Bxd3, and White will h ave handed a whole bishop to
the opponent. The second option, e4, is much stronger. This interposes a pawn and attacks
Black's bishop at the same time. Pawn moves must be m ade carefully, but this one seem s
fine since it does not disrupt White's position; it does not block any diagonals from the
white bishops, nor does it block the rank for White's active rook. It also opens the e3-square
for the knight to use, should he choose to do so. This pawn move h as the added benefit of
forcing Black to respond to the threat. The black bishop would not retreat to e6 as White
would capture Bxe6, further disrupting Black's pawn structure and seizing the initiative.
The bishop cannot move to g4 or h3 since White's pawns hold those squares. Therefore,
Black would h ave to retreat to g6 or h 7, retreat back to passivity. This certainly appears to
be a strong option and can be added to the list of responses to con sider.
Option #4: Defend the attacked piece with another piece
White h as three ways to defend the knight: Kdl, Kd2, and Bb3. The first two both move the
king onto the h alf-open d-file and reduce the king's safety. If the king h ad to recapture on
c2, he would become an active piece, acting to block the black passed pawn. This wouldn't
be a bad thing at all, but Black does not h ave to capture the knight immediately. Black can
interpose the zwischenzug ... Nd6, attacking both the white rook and bishop at the same
time. White would then h ave three pieces under attack and his defence would become
even more difficult.
In order to avoid this uncomfortable position, White could instead play Bb3 to defend
the knight. The advantage is that White avoids the double attack on the rook and bishop
while al so defending the knight. There are several drawbacks to this response, however.
First, the bishop is currently doing a good job holding an important diagonal aimed at the
enemy king. If the bishop pull s back to defend the knight, it cannot do both jobs simulta­
neously. Should Black decide to capture the knight and White recaptures Bxc2, then the
white bishop has left behind an important diagonal. Black would also be able to grab the
e3-pawn for free since the knight defending it h as been captured (1 Bb3 Bxc2 2 Bxc2 Bxe3).
This results in a net m aterial loss for White. Though the bishop-knight trade appeared to
be materially equal, with the addition of a single tempo Black gains the pawn and thus the
position. This is an option to consider, but some other options previously considered are
stronger.
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Option # 5 : Counter the attack with another attack
Counter-attacks are based on a couple of key ideas. Firstly, the opponent will h ave to de­
cide whether to proceed with his attack or defend the new threat; and secondly, by attack­
ing the opponent, the player can gain a tempo that will be used l ater to manoeuvre out of
the present attack. In this position, White h as several counter-attacking options; we will
examine the following possibilities: Bxg 7+, Ras, Rb7, h4, f4, and Ba3.
First, Bxg7+ can easily be eliminated as a poor choice because White simply loses m ate­
rial, and Black's attack on the knight continues. White trades a bishop for a pawn and
gains nothing in the process. Next, the moves Ras and Rb7 threaten the black a7-pawn. Ras
ensures that the pawn is unable to defend itself by moving forward. However, both of
these moves can also be eliminated easily since White is only threatening a pawn while
Black threatens a whole knight. After Black captures the knight and White captures a
pawn, White h as again lost m aterial with no benefit to his position or attack.
Next, the moves h4 and f4 threaten the black bishop, a piece of relative equal value to
the threatened white knight. 1 h4 can be eliminated quickly since the gS-bishop can simply
capture the pawn with tempo (1 h4 Bxh4+ ) , forcing the white king to move and leaving the
threat on the white knight in place. 1 f4, on the other h and, h as its merits. If the g S-bishop
escapes to h4 with tempo, White could push g 3 and force Black again to decide how to re­
spond. If Black captures the knight, White will capture the bishop and the resulting posi­
tion would be unclear. The white pawns would be disrupted by capturing the bishop,
White would h ave the bishop pair against Black's bishop and knight, and Black still h as the
threat of playing Nd6 to attack both the rook and bishop. 1 f4 is worth considering, but
there are better moves.
Finally, White can respond with a counter-attack (1 Ba3 ) on Black's rook, a piece of
greater value than the white knight. This move also h as the benefit of defending the d6square where the knight threatens to intrude. By forcing Black to respond to the threat of
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losing material, White h as gained a tempo that he can use to move the knight out of the
attack or return to one of his other options.
After all this careful consideration, the strongest responses are:
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1 Nd4, escaping the attack and presenting a counter-attack at the same time
1 e4, blocking the attack and presenting a counter-attack at the same time
1 Ba3, attacking a stronger black piece and forcing Black to decide how to respond
Deciding on one of the above moves depends on your personal playing style and the
depth of your understanding of chess principles. There is not a single "best" move, though
one or two of the options certainly are stronger than the others. It is up to you and your
understanding to m ake the best decision possible, but only after a careful thought process
to arrive at your best option s. With this in mind, be sure to apply the fundamentals of
chess to arrive at decisions instead of hunting for the "best" move.
Exercises
List how many pieces attack and how many pieces defend the selected piece.
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#1 (e4-knight)
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#2 (b6-bishop)
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#3 (g4-bishop)
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List all the defensive moves that could be made for the selected piece.
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#4 (a1-rook)
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#5 (f3-knight)
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#6 (c4-bishop)
List all defensive options for White, choose one and explain why you chose it.
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#7 (dS-bishop)
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#8 (a1-rook)
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#9 (f2-rook)
For further practice, play a g ame to any random position, find a random position from a
game, or create a random position. Note every piece that is not defended. Then, note every
piece that is under attack and from which pieces it is attacked; and for each attacked piece,
list out all the defensive options and decide which response is best.
Another exercise: place a black king and one black m ajor or minor piece on the board.
Then, add a white king and a single white piece in a position where it attacks the black
piece. Continue adding white pieces until the black piece h as zero favourable options for
defence. Repeat this activity several times using different combinations of attacked and
defending pieces.
1 83
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Fundamental Tactics
A tactic is a device used to carry out a plan. In chess, a tactic is a way of seeing a move as
accomplishing a very specific goal. There are m any different tactics used in chess, and only
a few of them are presented here; the tactics discussed below are the most fundamental
that a player can use. There are many books written on the subject of tactics and tactical
ideas in chess, and it would be wise to study them when you are ready.
The Pin
In wrestling, a pinned player is one that cannot move. A pin i n chess is a position where
one piece is held again st a piece of greater value; it's where a piece of lesser value can't
move, or doesn't want to move, because it will expose a piece of greater value to capture or
attack. A pin is a valuable tool to use because it reduces the pinned piece's activity. A pin is
most forceful when a piece is pinned against the king because it cannot move at all, since
it would expose the king to check. This is called an absolute pin. Because pin s depend on
attacking along a line, only rooks, bishops, and queens can deliver pins.
In diagram #1, White's bS-bishop has an absolute pin against the knight on c6. Since
the knight cannot move, all the squares that it holds are available for use by the white
pieces. lf the white a4-rook moved to as, a7, b4, or d4, the black knight would not be al­
lowed to capture it.
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#1
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#2
In diagram #2 above, the position is a little different; this time, the knight is pinned
against a rook by the white rook. The knight doesn't want to move because White would be
able to capture the rook for free. This pin, however, is not absolute. Black could choose to
move the knight and let the rook be captured, if Black thinks it's a good idea to do so. There
are occasions when this h appens, and it is important that we are aware of the possibility.
In this particular case, Black can, and should, move the knight, 1 ... Nd4+. Since the knight
move puts the white king in check, White h as to defend the check, and Black will be able to
capture the white rook for free. Just when White thought he was winning the position, he's
lost a piece.
A pin is a strong tactic because, at the very least, it buys the player imposing the pin a
tempo (time). The pinned piece usually h as at least one move where it is unable (or unde­
sirable) to move. This means that the player can take advantage, either of the space
opened up (because the pinned piece temporarily does not hold that space) or/and by at­
tacking the pinned piece a second time. For example, in diagram #1 above, the best way for
White to play would be Ra6 or Rc4. This way, White guarantees he win s the piece because
the c6-square is attacked twice and only defended once by the black king. No matter what
Black does, the pinned piece will fall. If you can, always attack the pinned piece twice.
The pin is a tactic often employed early in the g ame. Since there are so many pieces on
the board, lined up so well, pins are commonly used as a method of gaining a square for a
friendly piece or for tying down an enemy piece. In diagram #3, after 1 e4 es 2 Nf3 d6 3 d4
exd4 4 Qxd4 Nf6, the black knight is attackin g the white e4-pawn. White has many options,
but one option is to pin the knight with the dark-squared bishop (S BgS), thereby releasing
the attack on the pawn.
Another very common pin in the opening is seen in diagram #4; after 1 d4 Nf6 2 c4 e6 3
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Nc3 Bb4, the black bishop is pinning the c3-knight against the king. This pin occurs in
many similar openings because it opens the e4-square for use by the black knight.
#3
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#4
A pin is always a pin, but it h elps to be aware of some more common pins. In diagram
#5 below, White's g 2-pawn is pinned against the king . It would like to capture the queen
but cannot because Black's g8-rook is pinning it. lf the white queen moves, Black's move
1 . Qxg 2 would be checkm ate, so, in a way, the white queen is pinned too. She is h eld to the
defence of the g 2-pawn with an indirect pin.
..
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#5
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#6
Finally, pieces can be pinned against pieces, as shown in the previous examples, but
pieces can also be pinned to squares. In diagram #6, the black bishop is pinned to the dB­
square. If it moves anywhere, White can play Rd8#. With this in mind, White could take
advantage and force m ate with the following sequence: 1 Ra8+ Rb8 2 Rxb8+ Bxb8 (forced) 3
Rd8#. If Black played 1 ... Bb8, then White can deliver checkmate immediately with 2 Rd8#.
The pin is an extremely common tactic used to carry out strategies in chess. That being
true, there are a few ways to end a pin. Below, the white e4-knight is pinned to the queen
by Black's b7-bishop. This example will be used to explain the ways to end a pin.
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Option #1: Escape the pin
Just as in defence of a basic attack, a player can end a pin by escaping. In the case of a pin,
this means moving the piece of greater value out of the line of the pin . In the diagram
above, White could end the pin by moving the queen off of the f3-square, maybe to g 3
where s h e will pin the black knight. It is important t o remember t o defend the pinned
piece before doing this, but in this case, White's d3-bishop defends the knight so all is well.
Option #2: Block the pin
A player can also end a pin by blocking, or interposing a piece. In the diagram above, White
could end the pin by playing 1 dS. This places a pawn between the bishop and the pinned
knight. A pin can also be ended by interposing a piece between the pinned piece and the
piece of greater value. Imagine the knight was on dS; White could then end the pin by play­
ing 1 e4, interposing a pawn between the knight and the queen and thus ending the pin .
Option #3: Remove the pinning piece
A player can also end a pin by removing or capturing the pinning piece. In the diagram
above, White has no way of capturing the b7-bishop, so this is not possible. However, the
option must be considered in all pins because sometimes we can simply capture the pin­
ning piece and thereby end the pin, making the pinned piece useful again.
Option #4: Attack the pinning piece
A player can also end a pin by attacking the square of the pinning piece in the hopes of
driving that piece away from the pin. In the diagram above, White can play Rxa7 attacking
the black bishop. If the bishop moves off the h 1-a8 diagonal, the pin has been broken, and
the white knight can be active once again.
1 88
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The pin is a powerful way of achieving a goal in chess. Pinning a piece can gain a
square, some space, or maybe just a move or two. In any case, it is a smart tactic with many
uses. Being aware of the pin and being aware of its defences can help sharpen our ability
to make plans and carry them out on the board.
Exercises
List all the squares where:
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wh ite bishop could pin pieces
a wh ite rook cou ld pin pieces
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#1
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#2
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#3
List the move for White that pins a black piece.
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#4
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#5
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#6
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Find the move for White that best takes advantage of the pin .
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#7
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#8
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#9
For further practice, find tactics training resources and practice " Find the Pin" and "Use
the Pin" exercises as often as you can. There are numerous tactics workbooks that will do
just fine. There are also numerous online resources that are great for building a regi­
mented practice schedule with built-in rewards. Also, try constructing your own find the
pin puzzles. Start by placing the pieces that can be pinned, then add opposing pieces. Cre­
ating your own puzzles will help you understand how to construct tactical positions.
1 93
Ch ess Prog ress
The Skewer
A skewer is based on the idea that a piece of greater value, when on the same line as a
piece of lesser value, can be forced off that line, exposing the piece of lesser value to attack
In a manner of speaking, the skewer is a way to attack through another piece. The most
powerful skewers are, again, the ones where the king is attacked. Since the king must de­
fend the check, these skewers cannot be stopped.
In diagram #1 below, White is in a tough position since Black has just promoted his h­
pawn. However, White can employ a skewer to win the game. If White plays Bc6+, the most
valuable piece, the king, must move away from the check The bishop can then capture the
black queen, after which there is nothing Black can do to prevent White from capturing the
black pawn and promoting his a-pawn.
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#1
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#2
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A p p lying th e Ele m e n ts of Ch ess Stra tegy
An example of a skewer without the king is seen in diagram #2. The two players are
locked in an equal battle, but White can turn the tables by skewering the rook and knight.
After 1 Bg2, the rook must move or be exchanged. When the rook moves, it will leave the
knight unprotected on ds. This will leave White with a rook and a bishop against Black's
rook. Now is a good time to point out that this outcome would not be wise for Black since it
is almost certainly a win for White. A better choice would be to defend the rook and only go
down the exch ange (1 Bg2 Nf6 2 Bxe4 Nxe4) . This way, Black h as a chance for a draw.
One famous example of a skewer is seen in diagram #3 below. White would love to
promote his b-pawn, but his rook is in the way and as soon as it leaves the defence of the
pawn, Black will capture. Here, the skewer becomes an important tactic. After 1 Rh 8 Rxb7 2
Rh 7+, White has skewered the king and rook, winning the rook (diagram #4) . When Black
escapes the check, White will be free to capture the rook and play for checkmate.
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#3
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#4
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Ch ess Progress
Exercises
List all the squares where:
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wh ite bishop cou l d s kewer pieces
a wh ite rook cou l d s kewer pieces
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#1
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#2
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#3
List all the squares where:
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wh ite bishop cou l d s kewer pieces
a wh ite rook cou l d skewer pieces
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#4
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#5
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#6
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Find the move for White that skewers a black piece.
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#7
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#8
1 99
Ch ess Progress
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#9
For further practice, find tactics training resources and practice "Find the Skewer" exer­
cises. Also, try constructing your own find the skewer puzzles.
The Fork
The next fundamental tactic is the fork. A fork is when a single piece attacks two points at
the same time. It is rooted in the element of time; a player cannot move two pieces at once
and therefore cannot meet two threats with a single move. Knights are particularly good at
forks, but every piece can deliver a fork.
In the Knight Fork diagram below, the knight has moved to attack both black pieces at
the same time. Since Black must defend the check, White will win the queen. In each of the
other examples, that same theme plays out. Each fork is attacking two pieces (three in the
case of the queen ) and Black cannot defend both ( or all three) at the same time, so Black
will lose m aterial in every situation.
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Knight Fork
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Bishop Fork
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Rook Fork
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Queen Fork
2 02
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Pawn Fork
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King Fork
2 03
Ch e s s Progress
Squares can be forked too. In each diagram below (where Black is to play), each white
piece is forking a checkmate square and a black piece, winning m aterial for White.
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One use of the fork early in the game is commonly referred to as the fork trick. In dia­
gram #1, after 1 e4 es 2 Nf3 Nc6 3 BbS Bcs, White can capture the black es-pawn. lt might
appear that the pawn is attacked once and defended once. Normally, White would not
want to capture the pawn since 4 Nxes Nxes loses a knight for a pawn, but the knight cap­
ture is indirectly defended by the tempo-gaining 5 d4, forking the black bishop and knight
( diagram #2). When Black defends one of the two pieces, White can regain the piece and
maintain m aterial equality. Black does have other options, but the point is that White can
complicate the game very quickly, m aking it difficult for Black to recover.
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#1
2 05
Ch e s s Prog ress
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#2
Another example of an early fork often comes on the f2- or f7-square. A protected
knight that captures on f2 or f7 attacks both the queen and the h -rook. When the opponent
defends the queen, the knight can capture the rook. These early forks are not often seen in
top-level play, but they can be a strong threat when the chance presents itself. Look for a
similar fork on c2 and c7, forking the king and a-rook.
Remember, the threat of a fork is often enough to force your opponent to defend the
square which can deliver the fork. Defending forks is often impossible, but it is wise to un­
derstand the defence of a fork prior to encountering one. When a king is forked he should,
if he can, move to defend the other piece in the fork, forcing at least an exchange of m ate­
rial instead of an outright capture. For example, in diagram #3, the black king and rook are
forked by the white knight on f4. The black king should move to f7, f6, or fs to defend the
rook; that way, when the knight captures the rook, Black can at least recapture on g6.
Since a fork is an attack based on time, the defence is also based on time. If the player
who h as been forked can find a move that gains a tempo, the fork can be broken. For ex­
ample, in diagram #4, the black rooks h ave been forked by the white bishop. However,
Black can escape the attack with a tempo-gaining move: 1...Rh 7+. White must defend the
check by moving the king, say 2 Kg2, and then Black will h ave another turn to move the c4rook out of the attack. In this case, both rooks were saved by regaining the tempo.
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#3
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#4
Exercises
List all th e squares wh ere:
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a wh ite b i s h o p co u l d atta c k two or m o re pieces
t
a wh ite roo k co u l d atta c k two or m o re p i eces
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a wh ite q ueen co u l d atta c k two or m o re p i eces
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a wh ite k n ight co u l d atta c k two or m o re p ieces
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a wh ite pawn co u l d atta c k two or m o re p i eces
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a k i n g co u l d l ega l ly atta c k two or m o re p ieces (i.e. without b e i n g i n c h eck)
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#1
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#2
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#3
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#4
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#5
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#6
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Find the move for White that forks black pieces.
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#7
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#8
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#9
For further practice, find tactics training resources and practice "Find the Fork" exer­
cises. Also, try constructing your own find the fork puzzles. Try con structing puzzles where
one player h as to sacrifice a piece to set up a fork.
Discovered Attack
The next fundamental tactic is the discovered attack. This is based on the idea of opening
up a line of attack against an opponent piece. It is rooted in the elements of m aterial and
time; if a line of motion or attack is blocked by a friendly piece, when that piece moves, it
will open up the line of attack, discovering an attack on the opponent.
In diagram #1 below, White can make a discovered attack by playing 1 Bb7+. Black will
have to defend the check (probably by capturing the bishop ) , and White will then be able to
capture the queen with the rook. In this case, the piece opening the line (the bishop ) is not
the piece delivering the goal of the attack. This example demon strates one of the key
strength s of the discovered attack: the ability to capture material because of time. Discov­
ered attacks can also be thought of as a double attack, because discovered attacks are often
attacking two pieces at once.
In diagram #2 below, we see another kind of discovered attack. White can open a dis­
covered attack on Black by playing 1 c4+. Black has to defend against the check from the
bishop by moving the king, and White can then capture the queen with 2 cxbs. This time,
the piece opening the line (the pawn ) is also the piece delivering the goal of the attack.
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#1
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#2
Another strength of discovered attacks is their ability to deliver double checks. In dia­
gram #3, White can deliver a powerful checkmate via a discovered double check. White
could play Nf4+ and try and capture the queen. However, a better move is 1 Nf6+ (double
check). The only way for Black to defend the check is to play 1 ... Kh8, since it is a double
check. White can then finish Black off with 2 Rxd8+ Qe8 3 Rxe8#.
Another example of a powerful double check is the famous smothered mate in diagram
#4. After 1 Nh6+, Black must move the king into the corner 1 .. Kh8, when White can finish
him off with 2 Qg8+ Rxg 8 3 Nf7#. All double checks depend on a discovery of some sort.
.
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#3
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#4
One final example of discoveries which is important to understand is the windmill.
Windmill attacks are based on repeated discoveries which allow one player to capture ma­
terial by repeatedly delivering check and discovered check. In the diagram below, Black is
down material by two knights and it looks like a lost game. However, Black h as a sharp tac­
tic up his sleeve. After 1 ... Rxg 2+ 2 Kh 1, anywhere the black rook moves, the c6-bishop will
check the white king. If the rook moves vertically and captures the knight, 2 ... Rxg 3+, White
must move 3 Kh 2. Black then repeats the attack: 3 ... Rg 2+ 4 Kh 1 (forced) , and continues tak­
ing play with 4... Rxd2+.
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#5
After the complete sequence 1 ... Rxg 2+ 2 Kh 1 Rxg 3+ 3 Kh 2 Rg 2+ 4 Kh 1 Rxd2+ 5 Kg 1 Rg 2+
6 Kh 1 Rxc2+ 7 Kg 1 Rg 2+ 8 Kh 1 Rxb2+ 9 Kg 1 Rg 2+ 10 Kh 1 Rxa2+ 11 Kg 1 Rxa1 12 Rxa1, the
players arrive at the position in diagram #6. White has been annihilated. In the process,
White has lost 3 pawns, 2 knights, 1 bishop, and 1 rook for the cost of only Black's single
rook. Black should go on to win this game easily. In this case, the tactic of the discovery was
used to great effect.
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#6
Discoveries are powerful tactics. From a defensive point of view, players should be aware
of the lines controlled by pieces, whether or not those lines are blocked. Just because there's a
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knight blocking that bishop now doesn't mean that knight won't move. Just because there's
a bishop blocking the rook doesn't mean it won't move. Just as a pin is when a piece is held
against another, a discovery is like releasing your own pin against your opponent.
Exercises
Find the best move for White that delivers a discovered attack.
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#1
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#2
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#3
Find the best move for White that delivers a discovered attack.
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#4
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#5
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#6
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How can Black defend against the possible discovered attack? (Black to play)
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#7
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#8
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#9
For further practice, find tactics training resources and practice "Discovered Attacks"
exercises as often as you can. Also, try constructing your own discovered attack puzzles
similar to those above. Creating your own puzzles will h elp you understand how to con­
struct tactical positions.
Removing the Defender
The l ast tactic we'll explore is called removing the defender. Often, when a player wishes to
execute a certain plan, he is impeded because of his opponent's defences. The piece that
the player wishes to capture m ay be defended, or the square that the opponent wishes to
utilize m ay be defended. Removing the defender is simply making a move that captures or
attacks the defender of the objective square.
In diagram #1 below, White would like to capture the black bishop on c3, but it is cur­
rently defended by Black's ds-knight. White can simply remove the defender of the bishop
in order to achieve his primary goal. After 1 BxdS+ Kxds 2 Rxc3, White h as exch anged his
bishop for the knight that was defending Black's bishop, allowing him to achieve his objec­
tive and capture the bishop.
In diagram #2, White would like to play Rd8#, but the d8-square is defended by Black's
b6-bishop. In order to achieve his objective, White could remove the defender of the dB­
square by capturing it: 1 Rxb6 Rxb6, after which White can deliver mate: 2 Rd8#.
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#1
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#2
It is not always necessary to capture the defender, sometimes we can just push it away
by attacking it. In diagram #3, White could capture the black es-rook immediately and ex­
change the bishop for the rook. However, if White can find a way to remove the defending
queen, White could gain the rook even more cheaply. After 1 cs, the queen can no longer
maintain her own safety and the defence of the rook, and the rook will fall.
Diagram #4 sees an example of when a square is defended. White would like to play 1
Nf6+ to fork the black king and queen. The f6-square is defended by the c3-bishop, so
White should first play 1 Rxc3, removing the defender of the forking square. The sequence
would be 1 Rxc3 Nxc3 2 Nf6+, followed by 3 Nxd7.
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Exercises
If White wishes to capture the selected piece, which black defender does White first h ave to
remove? How should White accomplish this?
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#1
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#2
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#3
Here, White would like to move a piece to a square that is defended. How should White
remove the defender of the objective square?
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#4
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#5
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#6
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How should White proceed?
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#7
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#8
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#9
For further practice, find tactics training resources and practice " Removing the De­
fender" exercises as often as you can. Also, try constructing your own removing the de­
fender puzzles similar to those above. Creating your own puzzles will h elp you understand
how to construct tactical positions.
Com bining Tactics
The fundamental tactics reviewed above are:
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Pins
Skewers
Forks
Discovered Attacks
Removing the Defender
Combining these fundamental tactics is one of the core concepts when playing a chess
game. Using these ideas and putting them together in various combinations will create the
plans you use to carry out your strategic aims.
22 7
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The diagram above illustrates one such combination. Strategically, White would like to
reduce Black's material advantage, so White must apply his knowledge of tactics to achieve
this aim . White should start with 1 Rh 8+, skewering the black king and rook. Black has only
one option : 1 ... Ke7. It appears that White could then capture the rook (2 Rxa8}; however,
Black h as a strong defensive response that relies on a queen fork. If 2 Rxa8, Black can play
2 ... Qg 1+, forcing the white king to the 2nd rank, after which Black can then play 3 Qg2+,
forking the white king and rook, regaining the material.
Since White cannot take the rook, he must look for a different plan. After 1 Rh8+ Ke7,
White can and should fork the black king and queen with 2 NdS+. Black now h as to re­
spond to this fork. If Black plays 2 ... Ke6, the black king is on the diagonal of the white
bishop, and White could continue with the discovered attack 3 Nxb6+, when the knight
captures the queen and will take the black rook on the next move. So Black cannot consider
2 ... Ke6 a good move (2 ... Kf7 h as the same problem). Black's only idea then is to play 2 ... Kd6.
Again, it would seem that White should be able to capture the queen straight away, 3
Nxb6; but that allows Black to capture White's rook, 3 ... Rxh8, leaving a complicated rook­
pawn vs. bishop-knight endgame that m ay end in a draw. Surely White can do better! Yes,
White can, again using a skewer. White plays 3 Rh 6+, skewering the black king and queen,
when White will be able to capture the queen without giving up any material of his own,
virtually ensuring the win.
Using the insight of tactics, calculating each move was easier, allowing White to see his
way to the clear win instead of fighting helplessly to a loss or mis-stepping into a draw.
Sometimes tactics will appear in a single-move form, but often players must use one tactic
to create the opportunity for another, just as White used a skewer to set up a fork while
dodging a fork, and threatening a discovered attack to set up yet another skewer to win
material . This is the essence of combining tactics in chess.
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Exercises
White to play; find the strongest tactical move and write out the continuation.
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#1
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#2
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#3
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#4
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#6
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#7
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#8
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#9
For further practice, find tactics training resources and practice exercises as often as
you can. There are numerous tactics workbooks available for purchase, and there are also
numerous online resources that are excellent for building a regimented practice schedule
with built-in rewards. Also, try constructing your own tactical puzzles similar to those in
this section. Creating your own puzzles will help you understand how to construct tactical
positions, a skill you should begin to apply in your g ames.
Finally, there are other tactics that players should be familiar with : overloading, deflec­
tion, double attacks, etc. As you progress in your g ame, it would be wise to learn, study, and
practice these tactics as well. The stronger a player becomes tactically, the stronger they
become as a chess player.
Fundamentals of O p enings
Having begun with the simplest possible position, an empty board, we h ave worked our
way methodically back to the most complex point of the game. At the very beginning of the
game, before either player h as m ade a move, all of the principles discussed throughout this
book hang in the bal ance, waiting to be played out on the board in a whirlwind in activity.
Each move m ade, from the first to the last, applies the fundamentals contained in this
book. Each opening move should be m ade with consideration for the m aterial that will be
exchanged, the position that will be created, and the time used to do so. Each pawn move
affects the structure of the board, which will affect the strengths, weaknesses, and possi­
bilities for all the other pieces. Each opening move is aimed at creating structures, setting
up tactical possibilities, creating and controlling space, defending space and m aterial, and
arranging to do all of the above within a specific timeframe of moves. As the g ame pro-
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Ch e s s Progress
gresses, the position will become progressively less complex, working its way back towards
the simplest position . In the opening, each player h as an infinite number of options for
influencing the game, and both players aim to end the game by eliminating all of their op­
ponent's options with checkmate.
Thousands upon thousands of books have been written on the concepts of opening the­
ory in chess. Most players eventually memorize a set repertoire of opening variations (series
of opening moves that are based on a single system). Each variation has certain ideas behind
it such as: controlling the c-file, isolating the opponent's d-pawn and then attacking it, clos­
ing up the centre while giving one player an advantage on the queen side, etc. Most openings
contain several of these types of ideas within them, and as players explore their resulting
positions, those ideas are refined and changed over time. For example, the King's Gambit (1
e4 es 2 f4) was once very popular among the highest level players in the world, but now it
has fallen somewhat out of fashion. That's not to say that players will not see this opening
played, but it does mean that the highest level players have studied it and decided not to play
it, either because it doesn't fit their playing style, or perhaps they believe it is an inferior
opening that leads to positional problems even if they play it very well.
It is a good idea for players to study openings in depth when they begin to progress in
their game; however, that is not the purpose here. Here, the purpose is to demonstrate the
fundamental principles that live at the core of all openings, and in such a way that any
player can form their own foundation from which they can go forward and learn from oth­
er available sources. This section of text is not designed to teach specific variations, only to
teach the guiding concepts behind all openings, so that students can take this knowledge
with them when they study openings in other resources. Having this foundation is enough
to guide a player's opening game; though as player's progress in tournament chess,
knowing specific variations will be very important. Additionally, h aving a firm conceptual
understanding of openings in general will help players who h ave studied specific
variation s, because when the opponent m akes a move out of the specific opening, the
player should be able to understand h ow to react.
Several fundam ental concepts will be explained below, so that any player can be famil­
iar with the term s. These concepts will then be put into a list of principles to consider when
making each opening move. Finally, several general ideas will be listed that can guide
players towards strong opening moves.
All openings revolve around the same fundamental concepts. First, players need to
move all their pieces into safe and useful positions; doing so is called development. A piece
that is developed (moved from its starting square) is positioned safely with opportunities
to move, attack, and defend. Developed pieces, therefore, control space; precisely which
space it is important to control is up to the player to decide, based upon the resulting posi­
tion from the first several moves. A developed piece should also h ave some sort of job. A
knight could control central squares, a bishop could attack along an important diagonal, a
rook could hold the base of a h alf-open file, etc. Pieces that have jobs to do are developed
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A p p lying t h e E l e m e n ts of Ch e s s S tra tegy
and useful; they also h ave options for movement and control; they h ave strong mobility. A
player that fails to develop his pieces well in the opening is doomed to a difficult game,
because he neither controls space nor has mobility, so he won't be able to react quickly to
the changing situation.
The diagram below demonstrates the difference between strong and weak development.
The white pieces are all out towards the centre, they're all controlling space, they all have
mobility with a lot of space options for moving or reacting, and White is ready to begin de­
veloping an attack. White has castled his king, placing it in a position of safety. White's rooks
have not found the best files yet, but they have free movement to get to any file that should
become a good position. Black, on the other hand, h as four undeveloped pieces and at least
one underdeveloped piece. The d8-queen, f8-bishop, g8-knight, and h8-rook are all undevel­
oped; none of them have moved, nor do they have open lines which would allow them to de­
velop on the next move. The c8-rook has moved, but not to a strong position; Black will
probably not see action on the c-file anytime soon, so this rook is underdeveloped.
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In this case, White h as a much stronger position. Since all his pieces are developed or
have the potential to develop to their best position, White will quickly be able to control
the situation (because White controls more space) or adapt to the situation as it changes
(because the white pieces are more mobile). Black, on the other hand, will not be able to
adapt (because the black pieces h ave limited mobility), nor will he be able to mount a
strong attack (because White controls so much space). If Black were to move forward with
an attack, he would soon find that he doesn 't h ave enough m aterial to sustain it.
Therefore, in the openings, players should strive to develop as many pieces to their best
positions as quickly as possible. This mean s that each player should look to move their
pieces out, to the best square possible, while also leaving room for those pieces to move
again. A player that develops well will have a strong starting point for the middlegame.
Secondly, players should pay attention to tempo and initiative in the opening. Since
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Ch ess Progress
White begins the game, White h as the advantage of tempo and initiative; whereas one of
Black's goals is to achieve equality and take back the initiative. The player who dictates the
course of the game has the initiative. When a player moves the sam e piece several times,
his opponent should look to use his moves to develop more pieces more quickly. When a
player uses a move to capture a pawn early, his opponent should look to use his move to
continue attacking that player (for instance, in a gambit: sacrificing a pawn to gain the
tempo and initiative).
Thirdly, players should pay attention to the space on the board. As discussed above in
the description of development, players attempt to g ain control of key space during the
opening. Most often, this involves controlling the centre of the board. When a player gets
himself into a cramped position, his opponent should look to maintain that pressure while
developing his own position. When a player places a piece on a square with nowhere else
to go, the opponent should look to trap it.
Fourthly, players should pay attention to the structures on the board. As pawns move
forward, the structure of the game takes shape. These structures will dictate the course of
the game and the moves that should be m ade. When a player creates a weak square, his
opponent should look to exploit it. When a player m akes a strong pawn chain cutting
through the centre of the board, his opponent should look to attack its base or work
around the pawn chain .
Finally, players should pay attention t o king safety. Often i n the openings, players look
to castle so that the king cannot be attacked easily. If a player fails to m ake his king safe,
his opponent can exploit that by gaining tempo and grabbing the initiative.
With all this in mind, it would be helpful to understand the principles that should guide
each move in the opening. The basic idea is this: every move should try to do as m any of
the following as possible, in order of importance:
t
t
t
t
t
Develop another piece to a useful position ;
Attack an enemy piece or square;
Defend a piece of yours that is under attack;
Prevent your opponent from developing, attacking, or defending ;
Prepare to develop, attack, defend, or prevent.
Developing pieces is a top priority as discussed earlier; a player with four pieces devel­
oped has an advantage over a player that only has top pieces developed. Attacking the oppo­
nent will help gain tempo or initiative. Defending a piece of yours is important to maintain­
ing material Gust remember that you can make a counter-attack first!). Preventing your op­
ponent from developing, attacking, or defending forces your opponent to develop his pieces
unnaturally, hopefully forcing him into a poor position. Preparation moves are those which
will allow you to develop, attack, defend, or prevent on your next move. All moves are pre­
paratory in nature, but in the openings we can think of them more specifically.
A move that develops a piece, attacks an opponent's piece, and prepares development
23 6
A p p lying th e El e m e n ts of Ch ess Strategy
for another piece would be a highly valuable move. A move that develops, for example, an
a- or h -file pawn without attacking, defending, or preventing the opponent from doing
what he wishes would be a very poor opening move indeed. U sing these guiding principles
can help you successfully navig ate any opening, even when you h aven't memorized a par­
ticular variation . Of course, a player m ay m ake a move that doesn't appear to be the
strongest, doesn't appear to do any of the above principles, but is still a strong move based
on the situation.
Looking at the two most common first moves for White can help players begin to un­
derstand how these principles apply.
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When White plays 1 e4, he accomplishes a great deal. White has a pawn occupying a cen­
tre square (e4) and attacking a centre square in Black's territory (dS ) . White has also prepared
to develop the light-squared bishop and the queen by opening up the f1-a6 and d1-h 5 diago­
nals. Since the kingside bishop can develop freely and the kingside knight is still free to de­
velop, White is close to castling. Since White's pieces will be able to develop quickly, the game
promises to be fairly active with pieces moving, attacking, and defending.
When White plays 1 d4, he also accomplishes a great deal . White h as a pawn occupying
a centre square ( d4) and attacking a centre square in Black's territory (es ) , preventing Black
from playing 1 ... es. White has also prepared to develop the dark-squared bishop by open­
ing the c1-h 6 diagonal. White will have to take a little more time developing his other piec­
es, since playing 1 d4 did not open up lines for the light-squared bishop or queen. This
mean s that White will h ave to use another tempo before those pieces can develop easily.
Playing 1 d4 signals that the opening will involve more preparation moves which can lead
to more complex position s where position is very important.
If we explore a series of moves (diagram s below) , we can begin to see these principles
unfold. After 1 e4, Black has responded to White's e4 by making an equal move, maintain­
ing the balance of the game. White follows by developing a knight towards the centre and
attacking Black's es-pawn (2 Nf3 ) . Black then follows by developing a knight towards the
centre and defending his es-pawn (2 ... Nc6 ) . White follows by developing a bishop and at­
tacking the black knight ( 3 BbS ) . Black responds by attacking the bishop and the bS-square
( 3 ... a6 ) . This opening is known as the Ruy Lopez, or the Spanish Opening.
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1 e4 e 5
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Below, we see another series of moves starting after 1 e4 es 2 Nf3 Nc6. On the third
move, White plays 3 Bc4, developing another piece, making way for castling, and preparing
an attack on Black's f7-square. Black responds by developing a bishop to a strong diagonal
and preparing to threaten the f2-square. This is called the Giuoco Piano, or Italian Opening.
White continues by playing c3, preparing to follow with d4 or b4 and attack Black's pieces.
Black responds by playing 4... Nf6, developing his second knight and attacking White's un­
protected e4-pawn . White then chooses to play 5 b4, attacking the black bishop instead of
defending the e4-pawn, and Black responds by defending the bishop with s ... Bb6.
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Below, after 1 d4, Black responded with a very common response, 1 ... Nf6, developing
the knight to f6 where it holds the e4-square and prevents White from pushing the e-pawn
to e4, alongside the d-pawn. White continues with 2 C4, attacking the ds-square, prevent­
ing Black from playing ... NdS, and preparing for the white knight to develop to c3 without
restricting the c-pawn from moving forward. Black responds by playing 2 ... g6, which pre­
pares to develop the bishop to g7 where it will attack along the a1-h 8 diagonal . White con­
tinues by playing 3 Nc3, adding another attacker to the ds-square, developing a piece, and
preparing to push the e-pawn to e4 after all. Black responds by playing 3 ... ds. This is an
interesting move: it attacks the c4-pawn, open s development for the c8-bishop, moves the
pawn onto a defended square, and prevents White from pushing either e4 or ds. Since the
black queen is open on the file behind the pawn, Black m aintains a two piece vs. two piece
tension on the dS-square. White might continue by developing another piece with 4 Nf3,
defending the d4-pawn and attacking the es-square. Black responds with 4... Bg7, develop­
ing the bishop to the a1-h8 diagonal, and preparing to castle. This is a common variation of
the Grunfeld Defence, and it plainly shows the preparatory nature of 1 d4 openings.
24 1
C h ess Progress
a
b
c
d
e
f
1 d4 Nf6 2 C4 g6
3 Nc3 dS
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8
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4 Nf3 Bg7
So, the basic principles of openings are to develop, attack, defend, prevent, and prepare
with every move. In fact, these principles could be extended to the rest of the game as well,
but the opening is the easiest place to see them in action . However, there are a few more
general ideas to keep in mind early in the game; adding these ideas to the principles above
will provide plenty of information to guide newer players in the openings. The general ide­
as we will discuss here are:
t
t
t
t
t
t
Start with a centre pawn (because you want to control the centre};
Develop your knights before your bishops (knights take longer to manoeuvre);
Try not to move the same piece twice in the opening {development is key!};
Castle early to protect your king (king safety};
Don't move your queen out too early (develop minor pieces first};
Connect your rooks to allow movement (they need to develop easily later on).
The first general idea is to start with a centre pawn. This is a good rule for beginning
chess players because starting with either the king's pawn or the queen's pawn controls
the centre of the board and opens up development quickly ( see the explanation of 1 e4 and
1 d4 above ) . There are openings that begin with flank pawns (1 c4 is known as the English,
1 f4 is known as Bird's Opening, 1 e4 cs is a common and strong Black response to 1 e4
called the Sicilian Defence, etc ) , but most of them are, in some fashion, aimed at control­
ling the centre of the board anyway. For beginning players especially, starting with a centre
pawn is the strongest way to open ( and most top-level players start this way, so they must
h ave good reason ! ) .
The second general idea is to develop the knights before the bishops. This is generally a
good idea because knights take longer to move across the board; therefore, it stands to
243
C h e s s Prog ress
reason that developing them early will help the player by h aving them ready at h and,
wherever conflict should arise. If it erupts in one part of the board, a knight sitting on its
home square won 't be much good, but a knight already developed can be brought to bear
on the conflict in a single move. The bishops, on the other h and, can easily dart from one
side of the board to the other. All this considered, developing the knights before the bish­
ops helps a player have more pieces better developed earlier in the game.
The third general idea is to try not to move the same piece twice in the opening. Every
single move in the game is critically important; in the openings, that is even more true be­
cause the first several moves create the environment of the board which will dictate the
course of the game. Every move in the opening needs to accomplish something concrete,
something that adds benefit to the player's position . If a player moves the same piece
twice, that player is now a move behind the opponent who has not moved a piece twice; in
a manner of speaking, the opponent has gotten a free move. This is how important the el­
ement of time is in the openings. If a player moves a piece a third time, then he h as given
his opponent a second tempo, a second move to make something h appen while the player
keeps moving the same piece. The opposite side of this is the attack. If a player can force his
opponent to move a piece a second time, then that player h as bought himself a tempo,
bought him self a move that he can use to further his development while his opponent is
busy moving a piece out of the attack.
The fourth general idea is to castle early. When a player's king sits in the open, the op­
ponent can find ways to put pressure on the king or on the player's position. The opponent
can use the king to create pins against pieces while building his own position. The oppo­
nent can deliver checks that will cost the player time to end. Instead of using moves to
build a position, the player will h ave to defend his king position. U sually, castling the king
early in the game avoids these kinds of pesky problems. It sometimes feels like a waste of a
tempo to castle, but spending that tempo early on saves tempo for later; it is always wise
invest in the long term .
The fifth general idea is to avoid moving your queen out too early. This is similar to the
idea of castling early. The queen is a very valuable piece, so when she is attacked players
usually h ave to use a move to defend her. If during the opening, a player moves his queen
out into the battle too early, she will quickly become a target for the opponent's attacks.
The player will then h ave to use tempo to pull her back or defend, and since the player's
other pieces aren't developed, his defensive option to counter-attack will most likely be
severely limited or even non-existent. Especially in the early portion of the game, the queen
is more effective as a threatening and/or supporting piece. She can threaten moves like
forks while supporting minor pieces on the front lines of the battle. If she becomes a target
for attack, then the queen is a liability instead of the strength that she should be. Keeping
the queen in supporting roles and safety throughout the opening is important so that she
is available to take on the active, powerful role she usually plays later in the game.
The sixth general idea is to connect your rooks; connected rooks are rooks on the same
rank without any pieces between them. In the opening, if a player h as developed all his
244
A p p lying th e Ele m e n ts of Ch ess Stra tegy
pieces and castled his king, the rooks will remain on the back rank, connected. This means
they support one another and both h ave free mobility to move to the best file, once one
becomes evident (an open or h alf-open file). When a player aim s to connect their rooks,
they will necessarily be trying to develop pieces and castle safely, so this general idea not
only helps the rooks find strong developing positions, it also helps players remember to
follow the other principles of openings.
To see all these principles in action, let's review one variation of Alekhine's Defence.
White begins by moving a centre pawn, 1 e4, and Black responds by developing a knight
and attacking the vulnerable pawn with 1...Nf6. White pushes 2 es, attacking the black
knight (although White h as moved a piece twice, losing a tempo, Black must defend the
knight and use a tempo of his own in the process, keeping time equal between the play­
ers). Black responds by defending the knight and moving it close to White's territory with
2 ... Nds. White continues by playing 3 d4, preparing to develop the dark-squared bishop and
taking more space in the centre, while strengthening the es-pawn which is slightly overex­
tended anyway. Black responds by playing 3 .. d6, preparing development of the light­
squared bishop, and attacking the advanced white e-pawn. At this point, both of White's
bishops h ave open lines for development, White's queen can develop, while the white
knights h ave yet to develop. Black h as a single piece developed and an open line for his
light-squared bishop only. Both sides h ave moved one of their pieces twice, therefore tem­
po is still equal. They h ave created tension in the centre (when two pieces attack each other
but have not yet captured) with the d6- and es-pawns. Black and White are an equal num ­
ber of moves from castling (Black must move twice t o develop the dark-squared bishop,
and White must move twice to develop the light-squared bish op and the kingside knight).
Quite a lot has been accomplished in only three moves.
.
a
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f
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1 e4 Nf6
245
C h e s s Prog ress
a
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e
f
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h
2 eS NdS
3 d4 d6
Instead of resolving the tension, White plays 4 c4, attacking the black knight in the cen­
tre and preparing development of the queenside knight (so that when the knight moves to
c3, it cannot be captured by the black knight). Although White h as moved yet another
pawn, he h as forced Black to move the knight a third time, gaining a tempo which White
will finally use to develop a piece. Black responds by defending the knight with 4 ... Nb6,
moving the knight back to a safer square while also creating an attack on the c4-pawn
which White will h ave to watch over. White continues by resolving the tension in the cen­
tre by capturing 5 exd6, and Black responds by recapturing s .. cxd6, opening a line for the
.
246
A p p lying th e Ele m e n ts of C h e s s Stra tegy
queen to develop. White finally develops a piece with 6 Nf3 and defending the d4-pawn.
Black responds with 6 ... g6, preparing to develop the dark-squared bishop to g 7 where it
will attack the d4-pawn.
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4 C4 Nb6
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5 exd6 cxd6
24 7
C h e s s Prog ress
a
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6 Nf3 g6
White continues by developing the light-squared bishop with 7 Be2, and Black responds
by developing the dark-squared bishop with 7 ... Bg7. Both sides h ave now prepared to cas­
tle, providing for their king safety. On move 8, both sides castle. On move 9, White contin­
ues with 9 h 3, controlling the g4-square, preventing Black from developing his bishop to
that square. Black responds by developing his second knight with 9 . Nc6, attacking the d4pawn a second time, though it is still defended twice. White's next two moves will be Nc3
and Be3, developing his l ast two minor pieces and preparing to connect the rooks. Black
will respond by developing his last minor piece.
..
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7 Be2 Bg7
248
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A p p lying t h e E l e m e n ts of Ch ess Stra tegy
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8 0-0 0-0
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9 h3 Nc6
Following the fundamental principles outlined above, any opening variation can be un­
derstood. U sing these principles in your own g ame will allow you to form your own under­
standing of openings. Nevertheless, it will be immensely beneficial to study opening varia­
tions themselves once you fully understand these principles. In the meantime, these prin­
ciples will be enough to get you started playing successful g ames of chess!
249
C h e s s Progress
Exercises
Decide on the next move for White and explain why you chose it.
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#1
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#2
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A p p lying th e E l e m e n ts of Ch ess Strategy
#3
Decide on the next move for White and explain why you chose it. Then decide on a re­
sponse for Black and explain why you chose it.
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#4
251
Ch ess Progress
8
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#5
8
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#6
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A p p lying th e Ele m e n ts of C h e s s Strategy
8
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#7
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#8
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Ch e s s Prog ress
8
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#9
For further practice, choose one opening for White and study it by watching videos
online, reading books about it, and by discussing it with players who play it often. Study
games of grandm asters who use that opening. As Black, choose one response to 1 e4 and
one response to 1 d4. Study the same way for these openings. Learning one or two open­
ings very well generally helps prepare you for other openings. However, it's a good idea to
review m any of the common openings so you at least h ave an idea of how they work.
254
Chapt e r F o u r
T h e R u l e s of C h e s s
The Basics
This section explain s the basic ideas of the rules of chess, what to do when a player breaks
the rules, and how players h andle the pieces while at the board. Included are explanation s
of: basis for the rules, how to apply the rules, beginning the g ame, touch move, touch take,
adjusting, and proper castling & promotion.
Clocks and Time Controls
This section explain s the use of the chess clock. Included are explanations of: different
types of clocks, time controls, how to use the clock properly, and time trouble.
Personal Conduct
This section explain s the rules of chess that dictate the behaviour of players. Included are
explanations of: rules about behaviour at the board, taking notation, claiming a win or a
draw, offering draws, resigning, and rules about spectator conduct.
Tournaments
This section explains the different types of chess tournament formats, how they are scored,
player ratings, player titles, and tournament section s.
255
Ch ess Prog ress
The Basics
The rules of chess h ave grown and changed over several hundred years, dating back to
games which bear only a slight resemblance to chess. However, since the mid-1800s, the
rules of the game h ave remained relatively unaltered. The rules of chess in the United
States are established by two m ain organizations: the World Chess Federation (FI DE) and
the United States Chess Federation (USCF). (Each country has its own national chess federa­
tion .) F I D E h as a set of rules that it calls The Laws of Chess, and most countries in the world
abide by those rules. The USCF has establish ed its own rule book with variations on the F I D E
Laws, and the U S C F rules apply only within the United States. Conversely, there are many
tournaments and competitions in the United States that choose to follow the F I D E rules
only; those competitions would not be sanctioned by the USCF.
In both cases, the rules of chess have been established to safeguard the purity of the
game. All of the rules, no m atter how miniscule, are aimed at en suring that the person
who plays the strongest game h as the chance to win based on the actual play without the
rules interfering. What follows here is a basic summ ary of the major rules that apply to all
chess games, rules that should be adhered to even in practice.
Rule Enforcement
The first concept to understand is that chess is unlike other sports, in that the players in
the game are the ones to enforce the rules. When an opponent breaks a rule, it is the re­
sponsibility of the player to call a controller (like an umpire for chess) or a director to the
game and inform that official that a rule was broken. No spectator, friend, teammate, or
coach can call for rule enforcement on a game, only the two players at the board can do so.
There are a few exceptions, such as when an official notices a rule h as been broken, but
even then, the official can only intervene on certain occasions, and on many occasions he
cannot intervene unless a player asks him to. In a few specific instances, a spectator can
inform a controller of a rule violation, but a spectator can never interfere with a game in
progress, even to point out a rule violation. This idea of self-enforcement reinforces the
idea that two players locked in battle over the chessboard must be fully aware of the game
at all times and are responsible for how that game is played.
Once an official h as been notified of the rule violation, it is up to him to enforce the rule
according to the set of rules in place for that competition. Penalties include warnings, time
penalties, forfeiture of the game, annulment of the game, disqualification from the com­
petition, etc. There are many possible penalties, all aimed at maintaining the integrity of
the game. For example, if a player moves his king into check, the opponent can call an offi­
cial, point out the illegal move, and a penalty will be issued. However, if the opponent does
not wish to have a penalty issued, he can simply remind the player that the move is illegal
and allow that player to correct the error. It is generally considered unsportsmanlike to do
this in official competitions; nevertheless, it can be done, and if neither player m akes an
official request, then the game continues without penalty. This allows the players to decide
on their own idea of purity in play.
256
Th e R u les of C h e s s
Handling the Equipment
At the beginning of the g ame, it is the responsibility of the player of the black pieces to
provide the equipment for the game. Pieces should be standard design (not figurines or
abstract pieces) and clearly contrasting colours (black/white, black/off-white, dark
brown/light brown, etc), while the board should h ave clearly contrasting colours that allow
the pieces to be seen easily. If a player is supposed to provide the equipment and fails to do
so, a forfeit penalty can be issued. Usually, when Black provides the equipment, White gets
to choose which direction the clock faces (thereby choosing which h and h e will use to press
the clock). In certain tournaments, though, the clocks must face a specific direction to
make it easier for official s to note a game's progress.
It is the responsibility of both players to ensure that the board is set up properly at the
beginning of the game (light square in the right-hand corner, pieces in the correct starting
positions). If players discover the board was improperly set up, sometimes the game is re­
started on a properly positioned board, and sometimes the g ame is transferred to another
board with the correct position; it depends on how many moves h ave been made to that
point. In either case, it is always a good idea to check the board for proper set-up prior to
making your first move.
It is customary to shake your opponent's h and when beginning of a g ame, and (depend­
ing on the type of chess clock being used) for Black to start the clock, thereby giving White
the first move. Depending on the competition, players will be asked to h andle the pieces
and press the clock with the same hand, ensuring that neither player gains a time advan­
tage by using both h ands and ensuring that a player cannot accidentally press the clock
too early. It is a good idea for players to make this a customary practice anyway, as once it
is a habit it will never be a problem.
Ma king Moves
Perhaps the most important set of rules is how players should handle the pieces when
making moves. The most basic of these rules is called touch move. Touch move says that
when a player touches a piece, h e must move that piece. Accidental bumps or brushes do
not apply here, but if a player grabs one of his own pieces that can legally move, the player
has to move that piece on that move. Touch take is the same concept, but applies when a
player touches an opponent's piece that can legally be captured, the player must capture
that piece. This also applies when a player picks up one of his own pieces and touches an
opponent's piece with that piece. For example, if a player picks up his bishop and touches
the opponent's queen (and the queen can legally be captured by that bishop), the player
must m ake the move bishop takes queen. Abiding by the touch rules ensures that both
players must be certain of their moves prior to making them on the board, and the touch
rules also prevent a player from grabbing a piece just to see the opponent's reaction. If
players were allowed to take moves back, the chess game would never progress. Players
should always practice using the touch rules so they can form the h abit. Every player even­
tually experiences a moment when he wishes to take a move back as soon as it is com-
25 7
Ch ess Prog ress
pleted, but this is part of the lesson of chess: plan well and move intentionally.
If a player wishes to adjust the pieces on the board without moving them, such as to posi­
tion a piece closer to the centre of a square, the player is allowed to do so when they have the
move by first announcing, "I adjust", or in French, "j'adoube". The player must clearly an­
nounce the intention to adjust prior to touching the piece; otherwise players could touch a
piece and then say "adjust", when they see that their intended move is not so wise.
Along with h andling pieces, castling and promotion require rules to ensure that a play­
er m akes the move h e intended. To castle properly, a player should first move the king two
squares to the king side or queen side and then move the rook. This is because moving the
king first clearly displays the player's intention to castle since the king can only move two
squares when castling. When players move the rook first, it could be ambiguous whether
they intended to castle or just move the rook. To promote a pawn properly, a player should
move the pawn to the 8th rank, replace the pawn with the appropriate piece, then press
the clock. This ensures the promotion is completed before pressing the clock.
Moves are said to be determined (meaning it cannot be changed) when a player lets go
of a piece. For example, if a player picks up his bishop, he must move that bishop; when he
places the bishop on a square and lets go, he cannot move it somewhere else. A player's
turn is considered completed only when he presses the clock. Until a player presses his
clock, that player still h as the move, and the opponent should not move.
Knowing these basic rules is imperative for any player to be comfortable playing com­
petitive chess.
Clocks and Time Controls
Until the mid-1850s, chess competitions used no clocks, and the problems became apparent
when players began to "out-sit" their opponents during games. In 1851, an international
group of chess players began to formalize all the rules, including time limits, which necessi­
tated the creation of the chess clock. A chess clock has two clocks, one for each opponent, and
when a player presses or "punches" a button on the clock, his clock stops running and imme­
diately transfers the control of the clock to his opponent. This allows competitors to set a spe­
cific amount of time for each player to play the game. This way, a player can take as long as
he wishes on each move, as long as they do not exceed the amount allotted for the entire
game. If a player runs out of time, he loses the game, so playing while also keeping in mind
the amount of time being used adds a new wrinkle to the competition.
Types of Clocks
There are two main types of chess clocks: analogue and digital.
Analogue chess clocks have two standard clock faces with a minute and an hour hand
that rotate around the face. When the minute hand nears the top, a redflag is lifted, and
when the minute h and hits exactly the 12:00 position, the flag falls, signalling that the player
has run out of time. These clocks have a plunger or button that the player pushes to stop his
clock and begin his opponent's. Analogue clocks were the standard type of clock used for
258
Th e R u les of Ch ess
most of chess history, but modem technology has made possible the digital chess clock.
Digital chess clocks work the same as analogue clocks: they h ave two clock faces and
two buttons that players press to transfer control of the clock. Digital clocks have made it
possible to create many different types of time control which were difficult or impossible
using analogue clocks. Instead of a flag falling when time runs out, digital clocks h ave a
variety of signals (each company and design offers different signals) from flashing lights,
flashing numbers on the clock face, and/or beeping or other sounds.
Proper Use of the Chess Clock
Clocks must be set correctly at the beginning of each game, and it is the responsibility of
both players to ensure this is so. After a player m akes a move on the board, he pushes the
button to stop his clock from running and to start his opponent's clock. It is customary that
players press the clock with the same h and they move pieces with; although is not always
required, it is recommended that players form this h abit just to avoid confusion l ater on. In
both sets of rules, players are urged not to press the clock with tremendous force, so play­
ers should get used to pushing the button normally, instead of smashing it down with gus­
to.
At the beginning of the round, clocks must be set up facing a certain direction, usually
at the discretion of the tournament organizer or of the player with the white pieces.
Time Controls
A time control is the arrangement of time on the chess clock. Many tournaments and com­
petitions will use a single time control for the entire game; for example, each player h as 60
minutes to play their entire game. Some formats will use multiple time controls for each
game; for example, in the first time control players must m ake 40 moves in two hours,
then in the second time control players must m ake 30 moves in one hour, then in the third
and final time control, players have 30 minutes to complete the rest of the game. If a player
runs out of time or fails to make the required number of moves within the time control,
that player loses the game.
Sudden Death is the simplest time control : this means that players h ave a certain
amount of time to play their entire game. For example, each player could have 45 minutes
on the clock, and the entire game must be played before time runs out. Some common
types of sudden death time controls h ave special names. For example, games of 30 to 60
minutes are called rapid games; g ames of 5 to 30 minutes are called blitz games, and
games of less than 5 minutes per player are called bullet games.
The invention of digital clocks allowed the creation of more flexible time controls. One
very common type of time control is Simple Delay. In a simple delay time control, when a
player presses the clock, the start of the opponent's clock is delayed by a certain amount of
time. If the opponent moves before his delay is up, his clock does not change. For example
in a game 45, delay 5 second time control, each time the clock is pressed, the opponent's
clock will not begin counting down for 5 seconds.
259
Ch ess Progress
Another common type of delay time control is the Bronstein Delay. Invented by Grand­
master David Bronstein, this time control is similar to a simple-delay time control. When a
player presses the clock, his opponent's clock begins running immediately; however, at the
end of his turn, the delay or the length of the turn is added back to his original time. For ex­
ample, if the delay is 5 seconds, and the player uses 6 seconds to move, 5 seconds will be
added back to the remaining time. However, if the player only uses 4 seconds to move, only 4
seconds will be added back to the remaining time. This method of delay ensures that a player
never h as more time to move than is on his clock. In a simple-delay game, a player's clock
could h ave 5 seconds, but the player actually has 10 seconds to move (because of the 5 sec­
ond delay); whereas in Bronstein Delay, that player would only have 5 seconds to move.
Another common type of delay time control is Fischer Delay, or Increment time. In­
vented by the 11th World Champion, Bobby Fischer, the length of the delay is added to a
player's clock when his opponent pressed the clock. For example, if a player h as 1 minute
remaining and the delay is 5 seconds, when his opponent presses the clock, that player
now h as 1 minute and 5 seconds. If a player moves within the delay time, that player can
actually accumulate time.
One less common, but interesting time control is called Hourglass. This is when both play­
ers start with an initial amount of time, and as one player's clock runs down (on his turn), the
time used is added to his opponent's clock. For example, if both players start with 1 minute,
and the White player uses 10 seconds for his move, when he presses the clock, the Black play­
er will have 1 minute and 10 seconds while White has so seconds remaining. This allows the
game to continue indefinitely, as long as neither player uses up all of his time.
Time Trouble
Time trouble (or time pressure) occurs when a player h as very little time left within the
current time control. In many time formats, this is when a player h as less than 5 minutes
remaining on his clock, either until the end of the game, or with several moves to make
before reaching the time control. Time trouble is important because there are often rule
changes in how players must move and m anage themselves once they enter time trouble.
For example, players can often forgo (stop) taking notation once they enter time trouble.
Rules regarding how soon a player must call an official often become shorter, as well. These
rule changes exist because a player in time trouble must rush their decision-making proc­
ess in the limited time remaining.
There are more versions of time controls and more rules surrounding the use of the
clock, but the ones described above are the most common; each provides its own unique
set of challenges and benefits. No matter which time control is involved, the use of the
clock adds an extra twist to the game of chess: players must play against the clock as well
as against their opponent.
260
Th e R u les of C h e s s
Personal Conduct
Chess is considered the Game of Kings, and the rules about player conduct follow that tra­
dition. Benjamin Franklin wrote a semi-famous essay entitled On the Morals of Chess,
where he l ays out the fundamental morality of chess etiquette (you can find this in Appen­
dix B). Players are expected to act with dignity and respect at all times and behave in a
manner that enables their opponent the same.
Behaviour at the Board
When players are engaged in a g ame, they are to be restrained in their behaviour, m aking
sure not to distract their opponent or other players in the area. They should be quiet and
focused on the board only. Players are generally expected to stay at the board, neither
standing up nor moving about the room, though they are often allowed to do both as long
as they are not gaining any information about their game from other people. Players are
not allowed to communicate with other people (players, coaches, friends, spectators, etc),
since that could influence their play and break the spirit of the competition ; players are
expected to play their own best game without help from others (gaining information
about one's g ame from someone else is called kibitzing). Players are expected to treat op­
ponents with respect at all times and can be penalized for insulting opponents or trying to
humiliate them .
Players are also expected to notate their games throughout the game (except when in
time trouble). They should take notation on and after each move, and falling behind in no­
tation can be penalized. Players should not notate ahead of the game, as this could be con­
sidered as analysis of the game, and a form of cheating, because a player could use the
written notation to aid his visualization the game ahead of the current position. Players
are expected to compete using their own mental strength without the aid of any tools such
as writing down future moves. Players are not allowed to use analysis software or de­
vices/computers to analyse positions for the same reason.
Claiming a Win or a Draw
Players are expected to claim win s and draws. When a player places another in checkmate,
it is customary to announce it by saying appropriately, "checkmate". Again, it is customary
to shake an opponent's h and when the game is over, though this is not required by the
rules. Once a checkmate is present on the board, the game h as been decided, even if the
players continue play. This is a common mistake with novice players or in fast-paced
games; but if the players discover later that a checkmate was present earlier in the game,
they should claim the win for the player who delivered mate.
In cases where a player claims a forced draw - a draw by repetition or insufficient ma­
terial - that player should claim the draw prior to m aking the move that forces the draw.
For example, if a player realizes that his next move will make the third repetition of posi­
tion, he should call an official to the g ame, make the claim of the draw, and then demon­
strate it by m aking the appropriate move.
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Ch e s s Progress
These rules are simply to ensure that the games progress smoothly, with little or no ar­
gument after the fact about who is the appropriate winner.
Offering Draws
Since draws can be agreed upon by players, there are several rules regarding the proper
method of offering a draw and the proper method for accepting or refusing such an offer.
To begin, a draw should not be offered or accepted too early in the game (for example,
within the first 10 moves), as this could lead other players to believe that such a draw was
predetermined by the players involved to g ain some sort of advantage.
The proper method of offering a draw is to make a move, offer the draw, then press the
clock. This ensures that the draw has been offered during one's own turn and not done as a
tool to distract the opponent from making his move. The offer of the draw then stands un­
til the opponent either accepts the offer or m akes a move on the board. The opponent can
then consider accepting the draw as part of his turn. The opponent can reject the draw by
saying so or by m aking a move on the board and pressing the clock.
If a player m akes an offer of a draw inappropriately, the offer is still valid and can be ac­
cepted. For example, if it is not a player's move, but he asks if the opponent would be will­
ing to agree a draw, this i s considered an offer and can be accepted immediately. However,
when a player m akes an improper offer of a draw that is rejected, it can also be penalized
with a time penalty.
There are several rules about the proper offer of a draw in, for example, the USCF rule­
book, but it is simpler to learn and follow the proper procedure, thereby avoiding any com­
plications that arise from improper offers.
Resigning
Sometimes a player realizes his position is lost and no longer wishes t o continue the game.
In this case, that player can resign the game, and should do so using the proper method.
The proper method is to state clearly, "I resign". Once stated, a resignation cannot be taken
back. Again, shaking h ands is common, but shaking h ands by itself does not mean that a
player resigns the game. It does happen occasionally where a player extends his h and, in­
tent on resigning but spots an escape from the poor position while doing so. Unless that
player h as said, "I resign", h e can legally continue playing the game. One other tradition of
resigning i s to tip the king. Thi s means that a player lays down his king as an act of surren­
der. However, this by itself does not signify a resignation of the game either. If the player
h as not stated his intent to resign, that player may continue playing; though of course he
must move the king due to the touch-move rule.
Spectators
As soon as a game is finished, a player becomes a spectator. Spectators are expected to
avoid distracting or influencing games in progress. Therefore, rules about spectators are
simple and specific.
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Th e R u les of C h e s s
Players that have finished games should immediately remove (or replace) the equip­
ment. Players should not engage in a discussion or analysis of their game while still in the
game room, and removing the equipment immediately ensures this. Discussing games
could distract other players in the room or give those players insight into the game they
are still conducting. Therefore, players wishing to discuss g ames, or play extra games,
should move to the skittles area - a place where players can relax between rounds, play
games, talk with other players, eat, etc.
Spectators observing games should always do so in silence, since a player in the game
could overhear any discussion or analysis of the game and use that information to their
benefit (again, this would be considering kibitzing).
Spectators are forbidden from interfering in games in any way, including the enforcing
the rules. If a spectator notices that a rule is being broken, h e cannot notify the players of
the rule violation. For example, if a spectator notices that a player's king is in check and the
players do not seem to be aware, the spectator is forbidden from notifying the players of
the error. The best the spectator can do is to notify an official - but even then, the official
cannot interfere until a player involved in the g ame notifies the official himself. The spec­
tator must also be very careful not to tell the official too loudly, lest telling the official is
overheard by the players of the game.
A pure chess game is the competition between the mental strength of each player. All
the rules of conduct are based on the foundational concept of ensuring the integrity of the
competition, that is between the abilities of the two players themselves without outside
influence.
Tournaments
Chess tournaments are the heart of competitive chess in the world today. There are thou­
sands of tournaments held each year, several of which have gained prestige due to the
strength of the players taking part.
Types of Tournaments
Chess tournaments are organized according to several different formats.
Swiss System
The Swiss system is the standard format for chess tournaments. In this system, the field of
players is divided into a top half and bottom h alf, and then the two h alves play against
each other, with the top of the top h alf playing against the top of the bottom h alf. For ex­
ample, if there are 24 players in a tournament, the #1 ran ked player would play the #13
ranked player, and the #2 ranked player would play the #14 ranked player, etc. This is for
the first round. In the second round, all the players with one win are grouped into two
halves and paired accordingly, all the players with one draw are grouped into two h alves
and paired accordingly, similarly all the players with one loss. In the third round, each score
group (according to the points each player has accumulated with each win and draw) is
2 63
Ch ess Progress
divided and paired. This continues for each round of the tournament with players being
grouped according to their overall tournament performance up to that round. The idea
behind this format is that, after the first round, each player will face only those who have
performed at a similar or equivalent level in the tournament; and in particular, players
competing for the prizes will be paired again st each other in the final round.
Round Robin
A round robin tournament is one where each player plays against each of the other players
in the tournament. A Double Round Robin is where each player plays against each of the
other players twice, usually once as White and once as Black. This is often used for smaller
tournaments or top-tier tournaments.
Elimination
An elimination tournament is rare for chess but is standard for m any sporting events.
Players are sorted according to rank prior to the tournament and then, when players lose,
they are eliminated. The winners of each round face off against the other winners, and a
tournament winner is decided by the last player standing; that is, the player who wins in
the final round.
Team Tournaments
Team tournaments involve players forming a team of multiple boards; for instance, a 4board team is a team with 4 players, an 8-board team has 8 players, etc. A team 's strongest
or highest-rated player usually plays on the first board, and a team's second strongest
player plays second board, etc. Each team competes against other team s, the first boards
play against each other, second boards play against each other, and so on. At the end of the
tournament or m atch, the score on all the boards for each team is added up, and the team
with the highest total score is the winner.
Sometimes each board is given a weighted score. For example, first board can be worth
10 points, the player who win s the round earns 10 points for the team, and the player who
loses does not score any points; if the players draw, each player earns S points for the team .
In this example, second board would probably be worth 9 points with 4% points for a
draw. Again, the team with the highest points total at the end of a round is the winner.
There are variations of team format, as well. In some team tournaments, all players are
paired individually (but will not play against other members of their team ) , and at the end
of the tournament, the individual scores are totalled to figure a team total score. The team
with the highest score total win s the tournament.
Scoring a nd Tie-Breaks
Both the Swiss system and round robin tournaments are decided by the number of win s a
player (or team ) has; outright win s (such as checkmating an opponent or when the oppo­
nent resigns ) are usually scored with 1 full point, draws are scored as V2 point, and losses
are scored as o points. For example, if at the end of a seven-round tournament, a player has
2 64
Th e R u les of C h e s s
3 wins (3 x 1 3 ) , 3 draws (3 x Vz 1 Vz), and 1 loss, that player h as 41/2 points for the tour­
nament. The player with the highest points total wins the tournament, and the remaining
tournament standings are determined by each player's points total.
So what h appens when one or more player h as the same points total ? Occasionally, tied
players face each other in a play-off, usually with a faster time control than in the rest of
the tournament. However, in most events, tie-break systems enter the equation.
There are several tie-break systems in use, and the goal of most of them is to determine
which players faced more difficult opposition and give those players a higher tie-break total,
moving them ahead of players that faced weaker opposition. In some cases, one tie-break
system will still leave two or more players tied, so a secondary tie-break system is used - and,
if necessary, a third and fourth tie-break. For example, the primary tie-break might be the
Median system, the secondary might be the Modified Median system, and so on. Occasion­
ally, depending on the type of tournament, the director may choose to use alternate tie­
break systems or reorder the systems for each level. Common tie-break systems are explained
below, but there are several more that could be used, and information can be found about
the different systems in rulebooks, online, or by asking a tournament official.
=
=
Solkoff
The Solkoff tie-break system is very straightforward. The tournament scores of a player's op­
ponents are added together. For example in a 4-round tournament, if a player's opponents'
scores were 4, 3, 2, and 1, that player's Solkoff tie-break score would be 4+3+2+1 10.
=
Median
Another common tie-break system is the Median system. In this one, a player's opponent's
tournament scores are added together Gust as in the Solkoff tie-break), except that the
highest and the lowest scores are discarded. For example, using the above example, that
player's Median tie-break score would be S (3+2; 1 and 4 are ignored because they are the
highest and the lowest scores).
Modified Median
In the modified Median system, players with less than a SO% winning ratio (those who
score less than h alf of the total possible tournament points) h ave only the lowest score dis­
carded from their tie-break total, and players with more than a SO% winning ratio h ave
only the highest score discarded. Using the same example, if the player scored 2Y2 points
(or more), then only the 4 is discarded, so the modified Median tie-break total is 6 (3+2+1);
if the player scored 1Y2 points (or less), then only the 1 is discarded, so the modified Median
tie-break total is 9 (4+3+2).
Cumulative
The cumulative tie-break system relies only on a player's performance, not on the oppo­
nents'. A player's tournament score for each round is added together. For example, if the
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C h e s s Prog ress
player in the above examples lost the first round, won the second round, won the third
round, and drew the fourth round, his cumulative tie-break score would be 0+1+2+2% =
5V2. Or, if that player won the first round, won the second round, lost the third round, and
drew the fourth round, the player's cumulative tie-break score would be: 1+2+2+2V2 = 7%.
This system benefits players who win early in the tournament, on the basis that they are
likely to h ave faced more difficult opposition in subsequent rounds.
Ratings and Titles
Players are given ratings based on their performance against other players and those play­
ers' own ratings. When a player defeats an opponent, his rating will go up. The amount of
increase will depend upon the strength of the opponent defeated. For example, if a 1200rated player defeats an opponent rated 12 50, the player's rating will go up by a small
amount. If that 1200-rated player defeats an opponent rated 1600, that player's rating will
go up by much more; whereas if a 1200-rated player defeats an opponent rated only 1000,
the player's rating will go up only slightly, since the win is the expected outcome. A draw
against a higher rated opponent will result in that player's rating going up as well. The
converse is also true: if a 1200-rated player loses to a 1600-rated opponent, that player's
rating will drop, but only slightly since the loss was the expected outcome; whereas if the
1200-rated player loses to a 1250-rated opponent, the player's rating will drop by a larger
amount; and if the 1200-rated player loses to a 1000-rated opponent, the player's rating
will drop by an even l arger amount. The exact formula for how much a player's rating rises
or falls depends upon the organization under which the competition is played. The USCF
and FIDE h ave slightly different formulas, and therefore players h ave separate USCF and
F I D E ratings, depending on the specific competitions.
Both the USCF and FIDE award players certain titles based upon their rating and specific
competitive accomplishments called norms. FIDE awards the titles: International Grandmas­
ter to players rated above 2 500 who accomplish several strict norms; International Master to
players rated between 2400 and 2500 who accomplish specific norms; FIDE Master to players
rated 2 300 or higher who accomplish specific norms, ; Candidate Master to players rated
above 2200. FIDE players rated below 2 200 are titled as category players, based upon groups
of rating s below 2200. The USCF awards the titles: Senior Master to players over 2400 who
accomplish certain norms; National Master to players rated above 2200 who accomplish cer­
tain norms; Expert to players rated over 2000; and Class titles to groups of ratings for each
200 rating points below (Class A = 1800-1999, Class B = 1600-1799, etc) .
Tou rnament Sections
Tournaments are frequently divided into separate sections based upon players' ratings. An
Open section is open to players of all rating s who wish to compete against players of all
ratings. The rest are usually divided into "Under-" sections. For example, an Under-1600
section allows all players rated under 1600 to participate, while an Under-1400 section al­
lows for all players rated under 1400. Often, players can "play up" in a higher section; for
266
Th e R u les of Ch ess
example, if a player rated 1392 wished to compete in the Under-1600 section, he would
most likely be allowed to do so. Players are never allowed to "play down"; for example, a
player rated 1401 would not be allowed to compete in the Under-1400 section. Within each
section, only those players registered for that section will compete again st one another.
This helps ensure that players compete again st players of similar ability throughout the
tournament (unless that player enters the Open section or plays up ) ; and that they h ave
good, entertaining g ames that challenge their abilities, without either being completely
crushed by a much stronger opponent or playing g ames that are too easy against oppo­
nents too far below their strength.
This chapter has only summarized the most common and important rules, so that play­
ers can understand the concepts and compete with a general level of comfort. It is gener­
ally a good idea to understand the rules of the game prior to competing, and this chapter
provides a good foundation. Understanding how these rules impact on one's game-play
will occur over time, but the next chapter includes some considerations that a player
should m ake while competing.
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C h a p te r F ive
Ove r t h e B o a rd
Analysing a Position and Forming a Plan
This section explains a method for analysing positions during actual play, which will help
players form a strategic plan for their game.
Choosing and Making a Move
This section explain s a method for arriving at a move, and a process of thinking that play­
ers can consider prior to making the move on the board.
Using the Clock
This section explains a method for managing time during games, and how to use the clock
as a strategic tool in a player's game.
Move by Move
This section explains how to apply all the fundamentals of chess to each move while play­
ing the game, and includes a sequence of actions players can take on each turn that will
ensure rigorous application of strong chess.
Maintaining Presence
This section explains the importance of psychological conditions during chess games, and
includes methods players can use to ensure that they perform at their peak throughout a
game.
After the Cia me is Over...
This section explains a method of what to do at the end of a chess game, in order to ensure
full preparation for the next game.
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O v e r t h e B o a rd
Analysing a Position and Forming a Plan
Many novices begin playing chess by trying to "think ahead". I, too, began playing chess in
this manner. Our thought processes go something like this: "If I move my pawn there, I will
attack his knight. Then, he'll move his knight there, and I can move my bishop over there.
Then, he'll move this piece over there ... " This thought process quickly becomes frustrating
because, very often, opponents refuse to move where we thought they might and we can
only visualize a certain number of moves ahead. Players stronger than ourselves appear to be
magicians or computing m achines who must be able to calculate dozens of moves ahead.
However, that is not always the case. Certainly, the ability to calculate ahead in the game
with this type of thinking is a useful skill, but it can be exhausting and should be used only
for specific reasons and situations. Over the years, learning more and more about the fun­
damentals of chess, I found that my thinking process grew and changed into something
much different. This book is one result of that change in my own thought process.
As I taught other players the g ame, I found myself hoping to change their thought proc­
esses as well. When I read chess books about openings or strategies, I tried to memorize
variations, but my own growth in chess came when I began to read other authors who ex­
plained the ideas behind those variations. Once I began to understand the ideas behind the
openings, I understood that I need not calculate every move, only certain moves in order to
decide on a move I wanted, or to check the move I wished to make so as to be certain I
wasn't stepping into some tactical trap or blundering away m aterial.
This type of thin king h as already been demonstrated in the section on basic defence.
What follows here is a method of analysing a position in order to arrive at a strategic plan .
Once a player h as a larger plan in mind, the search for moves t o carry out that plan begins.
Instead of calculating several moves, a player's thought process becomes: "My pawn posi­
tion is weak, so I should look for a way to strengthen it or move it forward. My opponent's
king is very exposed; can I find a way to attack it? My opponent is very cramped; can I find
a way to m ake it even more cramped? My opponent's queen and king are on the same di­
agonal ; can I find a pin or a skewer in order to win material ?" These thoughts are based on
the fundamentals of chess rather than on raw calculating power. This is the kind of think­
ing process that the strongest chess players use before they begin calculating variation s.
Every chess player should develop their own method of analysing positions and forming
plans. What is explained below is a method that has worked well for me in my own game­
play, and it h as also worked well for my students. It is effective because it is simple and
l asting. As players learn and understand more about each layer of the analysis, their own
analyses and plans become stronger, even though the method remain s the same.
This method of analysis is based upon understanding the material, position, and time
elements of any given chess position. Once a game has reached a point beyond the memo­
rized opening variation, the player should form a plan based on the actual position (not
based solely on what the player wants to do). The position should inform the player's deci­
sion to form a plan. A worksheet can be found in Appendix E which can be used when prac­
ticing this method of analysis. The method will first be explained and then demonstrated
using an example position.
2 69
C h e s s Progress
1. Material
The first step towards understanding a position will be to look at the m aterial value of both
sides. A player should know how many pawns, knights, bishops, rooks, and queens each
player h as, while understanding the difference between the material of each player. For
example, a player with the white pieces should start by simply counting the m aterial value
of both the white and the black pieces. Let's say that in a given position, White sees that
Black h as 3 pawns, 1 knight, and 1 rook, while White h as 4 pawns, 1 knight, and 1 rook. In
this example, White now knows that he h as a 1 pawn advantage. White's usage of this
knowledge will depend upon his understanding of the fundamentals of chess; as that
knowledge grows, he will be able to make stronger use of this information. Based upon his
knowledge of the principles of trading and his knowledge of critical squares, square of the
pawn, and opposition, White m ay now begin to consider a plan of trading all the material
in an attempt to exploit the single-pawn advantage. Nevertheless, White should continue
assessing the situation in order to be sure that his chosen plan is a strong plan and to try
and find what could be an even stronger plan .
As a side-note, it is usually wise to analyse the position fully prior to deciding on a single
plan, since players should hope to find the strongest possible plan in order to force a win.
2. Pawn Structure
After first counting and comparing the m aterial value of both positions, White should con­
tinue by analysing the pawn structure of both sides. White should note the number of
pawns, the number of pawn islands, whether the pawns are advanced, doubled, isolated,
or backward, which squares are controlled by pawns, which squares are weak, holes, or
outposts. By consciously looking at and thinking about the pawn structure of both sides,
White m ay be able to discover a strong outpost where he could locate a knight or a bishop.
White might also discover a hole in his enemy's camp where he can create an outpost or
locate a piece. Since White is also analysing his own position, he might discover that he h as
weakened an important square and should find a way to shore up that weakness. For ex­
ample, White may notice that the f6-square in Black's camp is weak and look to move a
knight there; or White might note that his own f3-square h as no pawns protecting it and
therefore try to find a way to protect th at square using his bishop.
3. Board Position
After analysing the pawn structure and the resulting squares, White should think about
the status of the board position. White should note the space that is controlled or held by
each player, which files are open, half-open, or closed, whether the centre and flanks are
closed or open, whether certain diagonals are clogged with pawns or clear of them, and
which lines or spaces may be useful in attack or defence. For example, White might notice
that the a1-h 8 diagonal is free of pawns and it bears down on the enemy king, so he might
wish to locate his bishop on that diagon al. Or, White may notice that the d- and e-files are
both closed while the c-file is open, so he m ay look to relocate his rooks to that file.
2 70
O v e r t h e B o a rd
These first three steps are aimed at forcing the player to understand the nature of the
position. Just because a player wishes to put his bishop on the long diagonal doesn't mean
that it is a good idea. By starting with an analysis of the material present and the structure
of the position, the player can then begin to understand the position of his pieces and look
for ways to improve them, or to understand the position of his opponent's pieces and then
exploit the weaknesses of that position.
4. Position of the Minor Pieces
Having analysed the structure of the position, White should now tum his attention to the
strength of his minor pieces. White should note the location and strength of that location of
each of the knights and bishops on the board. For example, White might notice that Black's
knights are both centrally located, making his own position uncomfortable because the
knights cover so much space. This would lead White to look for a way to push those knights
off the centre squares or trade his inferior knights for these strong knights. Or, White might
notice that his bishops are blocked in by his pawns, which would lead White to look for ways
to open up those bishops. Or, White may notice that his knight is ready to leap into an attack­
ing position while Black's knight has no good squares to go to. This would mean that White
notices that his knight is stronger than Black's knight, and White could then look for ways to
make use of his knight while keeping Black's knight under lock and key. Or, again, White
might notice that he has two bishops while Black has two knights. This would lead White to
decide to trade off pawns in an effort to make the game more open, since White knows that
bishops tend to be stronger than knights in open games.
s. Position of the Major Pieces
H aving analysed the strength and weakness of the minor pieces, it's time for White to tum
to the rooks and the queens. White should next note the location and strength of each rook
and queen . For example, White might note that Black's rooks are blocked in by his minor
pieces while White's own rooks are connected and able to move freely along the back rank.
This would allow White to move his rooks to take control of a key file (noted earlier when
analysing the board position ) , while Black doesn't h ave the time to thwart that effort. Or,
White m ay notice that his own queen is stuck behind his pawns and h as no open lines,
leading White to look for a stronger square to locate his queen so that she can h ave more
flexibility and influence.
6. King Safety
Finally, White should tum his attention to the safety of each king. Having analysed the
board, the pawns, and the position of each piece, White should now be able to determine
whether his own king is safe and whether Black's king can be threatened. White should
note where the kings are, whether and how the space around each king is held, by what
pieces nearby space is held, and what pieces can check the king on the next move. It m ay
be possible to discover what pieces can check the king in two moves, which could help
White notice tactical possibilities against each king .
C h e s s Progress
7. Assess the Position
The first six steps allow White to analyse the position methodically on the board. Now,
White should start to form a plan. This begins by summarizing the important information
gained through the analysis. The player should summarize the strengths and weaknesses
for both sides. This may involve listing similar features of the position more than once. For
example, White may h ave an outpost on f6 which would be listed under White's strengths.
The f6-square should then be listed as a weakness for Black. The player should note strong
pieces, weak pieces, important files/ranks/diagonals, and important squares.
8. List Ideas for Planning
Having analysed the position and summarizing the strengths and weakness for each side,
the player should then begin to compile this information into a list of ideas that each side
would use in their plans. For example, White m ay h ave a strong outpost and a knight, and
the idea for planning would be to manoeuvre the knight to the outpost. Or, the player may
have noticed that he h as more space on the kingside where his opponent's king h as its de­
fence, so the idea might be to pull his opponent's pieces away from the defence of his king.
Players should note anything that could be useful in defensive or offensive planning for
both sides, because in forcing oneself to understand how the opponent might plan him­
self, that player m ay notice things that he n eeds to defend before carrying out an attacking
plan.
9 . Make a primary plan
Having done all this work it is now time to formulate a plan. For example, the player might
make a plan such as the following: attack the queen side pawns with my own pawns and
minor pieces in order to draw Black's pieces away from the defence of the king, easing the
attack on my king while also weakening his king position, then use my major pieces to at­
tack on the half-open e-file. This should be a plan that is strategic in nature with some
ideas for specific moves. It doesn't need to be a long-term plan, it might just be a plan fo­
cused on a single task like eliminating a strongly posted enemy knight or manoeuvring a
knight to a specific square. In either case, this plan should be based on the information
gleaned from the analysis of the position and the resulting summ ary.
10. Make a back-up plan
Having developed a primary plan, it is always a good idea to develop a secondary, or back­
up, plan. The idea isn't so much to know what to do no m atter what h appens on the board;
the idea is to h ave a stronger understanding of the position so that any move the opponent
makes will not completely destroy the player's peace of mind.
11. Calculate and Decide
Now is the time to calculate. Only after understanding the position on the board and what
ideas should be applied should a player begin to calculate. A player should look for 2 to 4
2 72
O v e r t h e B o a rd
moves that would accomplish strategic goal s (such as creating an outpost, manoeuvring a
knight, trading a bad bishop, etc). Then, once the player h as chosen 2 to 4 strong moves, he
should examine each one and try to consider what his opponent's responses might be. This
is where the player starts to use his imagination to envision his possible move on the board
and try to see if his opponent h as a tactical respon se or what the position would look like
after that move is made. This is where the player should consider each of the possible
moves and decide on the move he wishes to make. There is more on this process in the next
section, Choosing and Making a Move.
Having followed this process, a player should be able to arrive at strong strategic moves
at any point throughout the game. Not every move will require this kind of in-depth analy­
sis, but going through this rigorous process at critical points in a game will help players
understand what is going on with each move of the game. Players will begin to understand
that moving this knight to this outpost is a strong goal, or that the opponent m ade a mis­
take in trading off a good bishop for a bad bishop. Understanding the strategic flow of the
game will h elp players make moves according to the actual positions that arise, instead of
just making moves based on raw calculations and assumptions. Playing chess with the un­
derstanding of strategic goals is really what chess is all about, and, hopefully, this will pro­
vide more enjoyment of the game.
Having reviewed the method, let's follow the process using the position below. It's
Black's turn to move, so the analysis will follow from the perspective of a player with the
black pieces.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Black to play
1. Material
White: 6 pawns, 1 knight, 1 bishop, 2 rooks, and a queen.
Black: 5 pawns, 0 knights, 2 bishops, 2 rooks, and a queen.
h
C h e s s Prog ress
Comparison: White h as an extra pawn. Black h as two bishops versus White's bishop and
knight.
2. Pawn Structure
White: two pawn isl ands, no isolated pawns; the f4-pawn is standing alone.
Black: three pawns islands, with two isolated pawns on the a- and c-files.
Comparison: White is a pawn up and has a slightly stronger pawn structure; there is ten­
sion between the a4-pawn and the b3-pawn, so Black could eliminate one isolated pawn
immediately; White's f-pawn is weaker than Black's f-pawn.
3. Board Position
White h as more kingside space with the advanced f-pawn.
The d- and e-files are both open; the b-file is h alf-open.
Black h as an outpost on d4, but it is a weak outpost as the c-pawn is isolated and under
threat.
The centre is open, and the queen side pawns h ave the possibility to change quickly.
The h 1-a8 diagonal is open to the black bishop, and the a1-h 8 diagonal is open for White to
utilize.
The h 2 -b8 diagonal contains a battery, but the white f-pawn currently blocks it.
The b1-h 7 diagonal is open and aimed at the black king .
4 . Position of the Minor Pieces
White: the h 2 -knight is stuck far away from the action, but may be able to m anoeuvre into
a stronger position later. White's bishop is stuck behind a blocked pawn and will h ave to
retreat before it can get to a better diagonal.
Black: the dark-squared bishop is attacking White's f-pawn, has the queen behind it, but
h as no options to move, except for backwards towards the king .
The light-squared bishop is o n a strong diagonal, aimed at the enemy king, but i t also h as
no options for movement except to retreat.
Comparison: both black bishops are well positioned, but have few options should they come
under attack; Black's minor pieces are comparatively stronger than White's minor pieces.
s. Position of the Major Pieces
White: the a-rook is behind the queenside pawns, and the f-rook is behind the f-pawn; the
queen is out in the open, unsupported by any other white pieces.
Black: the rooks are dominating the queen side, holding strong files that can be opened,
though they are not currently on open files; the queen is holding a battery on the diagonal
(with the bishop) and holding the b8-square, supporting the rook.
Comparison: Black's rooks are strong and can be made stronger; White's rooks are con­
nected, but currently placed on closed files; White's queen is loose while Black's queen is
well placed, performing two jobs.
2 74
O v e r t h e B o a rd
6. King Safety
White: the king is under attack by Black's light-squared bishop, and the diagonal battery
( queen and bishop) is aimed towards the king, though it is currently blocked by the f4pawn.
Black: the king is under attack by the white queen, though she is un supported by other
pieces.
Comparison: Black's king is safer at the moment, and Black h as the ability to threaten the
white king position .
7. Assess the Position
White's strengths: connected rooks, extra pawn, potential knight development.
White's weaknesses: threatened king position, weak minor pieces, unsupported queen.
Black's strengths: two bishops aimed at the enemy king, strong rooks, potential to
strengthen the rooks further.
Black's weaknesses: a pawn down; battery aimed at a well-protected pawn .
8. List Ideas for Planning
White h as an extra pawn .
Black has the two bishops versus bishop and knight.
Tension on the a- and b-pawns.
Strong open files in the centre.
Black's rooks should be made stronger by opening files or moving to open files.
Black's queen-bishop battery is aimed at the white king position.
White's king is under threat, Black's king is safe.
g. Make a primary plan
Black should look to even up the material in order to eliminate that weakness, while also
opening up files for the rooks.
10. Make a back-up plan
Black should look to m anoeuvre a rook to an open file and eliminate the f-pawn, opening
lines aimed at the white king.
11. Calculate and Decide
1.. . axb3
Starting with the trade of pawns, play would probably continue 1 .. . axb3 2 axb3 Rxal 3
Rxal Rxb3, leaving the m aterial equal with Black's rook attacking White's bishop, forcing
White to defend and giving Black time to improve the queen, perhaps by moving it to b7,
creating a stronger battery aimed at White's g-pawn which is only defended by the king.
2 75
Ch ess Progress
1 Qb7
Moving the queen over to a stronger battery, attacking White's king position, specifi­
cally the g-pawn. This will force White to defend the g-pawn and give Black time to im­
prove another piece or resolve the pawn tension.
...
1 Qe7
Moving the black queen off the battery that was aimed at a protected pawn and into a
position where she attacks the unprotected white bishop and places her on the open file.
White is forced to respond to the threat which gives Black time to create another threat.
...
1 Re8
Moving the rook to an open file, maintaining the tension on the queen side pawns while
attacking White's unprotected dark-squared bishop. This will force White to respond, giv­
ing Black time to improve another piece.
...
Personally, I would choose the first option, equalizing material and creating the tempo­
gaining attack on White's bishop at the same time. I see it as the strongest option because
it is completely forcing. Moving the queen (either to b7 or e7) is also strong, but it gives
White an opportunity to improve his pieces while defending the threats. The fourth option
of moving the rook is also okay, but again, it gives White the chance to improve his pieces
while defending the threat. I personally feel it is stronger to take the chance to equalize
material immediately so that we don 't lose th' opportunity.
Again, this is just one method for analysing a position and forming a strategic plan. But
whether you wish to follow this method or develop your own, it would be wise to practice
it rigorously and often. In this way, you can train yourself to think methodically about the
demands of the position. You can learn to base your ideas on the position on the board and
on accomplishing specific strategic goals. As you learn and understand more about each
aspect of the analysis, your analysis becomes stronger. For example, as you learn to recog­
nize and understand more about pawn structure, your analysis of the pawn structure will
improve, and therefore your analysis of the position will become stronger. Or, as you learn
more about the strengths and weaknesses of knights, your analysis of the position of the
minor pieces will improve. In this way, the method of position analysis and planning can
remain the same while you grow and changes in your development.
Also, as you practice this kind of analysis, you will be training yourself to think about
the position on the board at a deeper level. You will grow a sort of "chess intuition" based
on the understanding you develop as you analyse positions. The most important thing to
remember is that decisions should be based on your understanding of the position, not
some arbitrary string of possible moves and responses.
2 76
O v e r t h e B o a rd
Choosing and Making a Move
Personally, I 've made moves fully convinced that they were strong moves, only to discover
that I'd walked right into a forced mate. It's a devastating feeling, but I also know that
every mistake is an opportunity to grow as a player. I can look at each mistake as an oppor­
tunity to learn something. For example, in my fifth-ever competitive tournament, I walked
in confident of my ability to have a strong perform ance that day; I h ad been studying an
opening variation and been practicing my tactics. I began the first round feeling confident
and strong . The game quickly became very complicated due to the opening my opponent
played. I saw him going in for a bishop sacrifice against my king, but I h ad calculated that I
should be able to survive the attack, and actually come out a pawn ahead in m aterial. Then
I blundered. I pushed the wrong pawn and as soon as I let it go, I saw that my move would
allow him to force a checkmate in two moves. My heart dropped, and as h e moved his
queen, beginning the sequence, I knew the game was over.
It took me a good ten minutes to regain my composure. After a little breather, I decided
that maybe it was time to find a new method of considering moves, find a process that
would force me to double check my moves so that this didn't h appen again, or at least so it
would h appen less frequently. Up to that point, I h ad blamed my mistakes on being a new
tournament player. Since this was my fifth tournament, and I had worked so hard to pre­
pare for it, I knew that my mistake was in not h aving a process for selecting moves and
checking them before I m ake a move on the board.
Analysing a position in order to form a plan can lead players to an array of moves that
accomplish specific goal s, but how should a player decide which move actually to m ake on
the board? How can a player avoid m aking a move with confidence, only to discover that
they've stepped into a fork or, worse, a mate? All players go through a necessary learning
curve when it comes to the process of deciding on moves, and even then, mistakes h appen.
There are a num ber of resources available to players who wish to develop a process for
choosing moves. It can be difficult to wade through them all, especially since the goal is to
h ave a process that works for you, not for the person writing it. I would like to present
some of the most common features of these thought processes so that you can develop
your own process, something that works for you.
t
The first feature common to most decision processes is that they are a process. By
this, I mean that most (if not all ) strong chess players have, at some point, devel­
oped a series of steps that they go through in their minds prior to making a
move. As they practice this process, it becomes second nature to them. For exam­
ple, a player might have a mental checklist of 5 things they think about before
making a move. The player across the board might h ave a checklist of 10 things,
or the player next to him might h ave only 3 things. The key feature is that a men­
tal checklist will help players ensure that they look for certain things or consider
certain other things prior to making a move.
Ch ess Prog ress
t
t
t
t
t
t
2 78
The second feature common to most decision processes is that they almost all in­
clude a blunder check. Usually, what this means is that, prior to making a move, a
player will decide what it will be, imagine that move played on the board, and
then analyse the imagined position to see if the opponent has any tactical ideas
from that position. For example, in that game I described earlier, h ad I done a
quick blunder check after deciding on my move, I would probably h ave seen that
moving that pawn allowed my opponent to force checkmate in two moves. This
would h ave led me to look for a different move, one that did not end the game
immediately. Usually, a blunder check is one of the final steps in the decision­
making process. This way, the last thing a player considers prior to m aking the
move is to force them selves to be sure it's not an error. Some players do several
blunder checks throughout their thin king process, so that they don't h ave to
scrap an entire line of thought when they find a blunder in their current consid­
eration s.
Another common feature in most decision processes is con sidering the oppo­
nent's last move � Many players begin their process by considering why their op­
ponent m ade their l ast move and by con sidering how that move changes the dy­
namics of the position. This can be a very strong way to begin thin king about a
move because, if a player has a thorough, analytical understanding of the posi­
tion, that player can gain much information by simply considering wh at has just
changed. For example, if the opponent moved a pawn, does that free up a rank,
file, or diagonal ? Does it make a bishop stronger or weaker? Does it help or re­
strict a knight? Considering how the previous move changed about the position
can help a player begin to consider how to respond.
Another common feature is the threat check. Many players begin their thought
process by simply looking for threats on both sides. Is anything of mine being
threatened? Is anything in my opponent's camp being threatened? Taking a
moment to evaluate whether anything is threatened will certainly help a player
know what needs to be done on the next move.
Another common feature is the tactics check. Many players include a process to
check for unprotected pieces, passed pawns, open back ranks, pins, skewers,
forks, discoveries, overworked pieces, etc. Players look for opportunities either to
create these tactics or to see if they're there and just need to be noticed.
Most thought processes also include some sort of position analysis. We've cov­
ered one version of a position analysis in the previous section, but on most
moves this kind of in-depth analysis is not necessary. Instead, players can just do
a quick survey of positional features: pawn structure, piece location, control of
space, king safety, etc.
Finally, most thought processes include players choosing two or more candidate
moves (possible choices to move) which are then analysed for their strength s and
weaknesses.
O v e r t h e B o a rd
My own process for thinking about moves is:
.t
.t
.t
.t
.t
.t
.t
Consider my opponent's last move;
Check for tactics and threats;
Positional analysis;
Find and analyse candidate moves (2-3);
Select a move;
Blunder check;
Play the move.
This process works for me, and I usually move through it very quickly. Checking for tac­
tics has become quicker and easier for me as I practice tactics worksheets, workbooks, and
online resources. My understanding of position is always growing as I study other books
and resources, so my analyses of positions is getting stronger (and faster, depending on
the position) all the time. On some moves, this process is lightning quick; at other times, I
h ave to work my way through each step methodically.
Usually, after the opening, when my opponent makes a move I don't expect or don't
understand, I stop and do an analysis of the position and then move through my checklist
prior to moving . I take my time working through the threat and tactics check, and I'm care­
ful to choose my next move wisely. After that, I can make several moves fairly quickly until I
am again confused by something my opponent does. I do, however, still go through this
mental checklist on each move, because I want to avoid as m any blunders and missed
chances as I can.
Using the Clock
Playing casual, untimed games of chess is very different than playing a timed game. When
the clock is added, things change dramatically. The amount of time you might want to
spend contemplating the position or a certain move needs to be limited. The amount of
time you would use to calculate an endgame position can be severely curtailed. In either
case, the clock adds an extra layer of complexity that should be considered when forming
an overall game strategy.
Budgeting Clock Time
One way that players should use the clock is to m anage their time. By this, I mean that
players should budget their overall time according to phases of the game. Each player
should allot a certain amount of time to their opening, to their middlegame (the strategic
and tactical portion of the game leading to the endgame), and to their endgame (the por­
tion of the game where most of the pieces h ave been traded and the remaining part is
about simplifying to a conclusion). For example, in a round of Game/60 (sixty minutes per
player for the entire game), one player might wish to allow himself 10 minutes for the
opening, 30 minutes for the middlegame, and 20 minutes for the endgame. Of course, this
2 79
Ch ess Progress
would just be a goal and time usage would be flexible. If that player found himself in a
complicated middlegame, h e might need to use more time there, but he must be sure to
leave himself time to calculate the endg ame.
The reason most players develop a "time budget" is that, when they don't, they find
themselves making critical mistakes because they don't h ave time to analyse and calculate
properly. This can cause a player to throw away a winning position. Using that time to cre­
ate the winning position early on was great, but as the game progresses, they m ay not
h ave enough time remaining on their clock to find the path to winning, while their oppo­
nent may be able to think deeply and throw complications into the game.
There are several different recommendations for how to budget your time. Your own
time m anagement will depend entirely on your ability/skill and the overall time control of
the game you are playing. Generally (and I do mean generally), the opening should not take
a very l arge portion of time, especially as you study and learn various openings. The first 515 moves can be memorized variations, or at least moves made on your understanding of
opening concepts. (Of course, it is wise to be careful during this phase of the g ame as well;
making moves mechanically without thinking could easily lead to a player blundering
away a piece or getting stuck in a bad position.) So, the amount of time budgeted to open­
ings should generally be fairly small. Players will want to spend a l arger portion in the
middlegame, especially on the move when the game leaves the opening variation that a
player knows. This is the mom ent when a player should take the time and try to compre­
hend what is going on in the game and form a plan. Throughout the middlegame, players
will want to re-evaluate their plan and adjust according to the changes in the position. This
will necessitate taking more time to accomplish, so a player should allow them selves the
time to do this. Finally, as the game gets nearer to a conclusion and as the position be­
comes less complicated, analysis and calculation will become easier and require less time.
Nevertheless, it is important to leave enough to do the necessary calculation, so that a
player can be sure to find the best possible plans and moves to achieve the win (or draw).
The key concept in budgeting time is not necessarily to h ave a pre-planned amount for
each portion of the game. The key concept is to be a ware of the dock throughout the g ame
and not to waste time, knowing that you will need enough to accomplish certain tasks
along the way. The converse is also true; players should be aware that they do h ave time on
their clock and should not always be in a rush to make moves when there is time to think.
Often, I find that novices rush themselves, not taking the time to allow themselves to cal­
culate and use all of their chess ability on each move.
Using The Clock as a Strategic Weapon
Another way that players use the clock is as a strategic weapon. For example, if a player
understands a position that his opponent seems to struggle with, he can try to m ake his
moves more quickly, forcing the opponent to use more and more of his own time, adding
pressure to the opponent's game. As the pressure builds, it is more likely that the opponent
will crack and make a mistake which the player can then take advantage of.
2 80
O v e r t h e B o a rd
I used this strategy with great success early in my competitive career. I had blundered a
whole rook to my opponent by move 7, and I knew that I probably would not be able to win
after that. So, I changed my strategy to play for a draw by looking for ways to keep pawns
on the board and hopefully leave my opponent with only a single minor piece advantage.
Since this strategy was easy to calculate, I could m ake my moves fairly quickly, taking only
seconds off my clock with each move. I forced my opponent to do all his thin king on his
own time. When he was down to just 5 minutes remaining, I still h ad 40 minutes on my
clock. Both of us had 6 pawns each, while he h ad a bishop and a rook against my single
bishop. I knew that he could force the win, but I was hoping that he wouldn't be able to
work it out in the time he h ad left. I h ad spent several moves dancing my bishop back and
forth, m aking it clear to my opponent that he would have to trade his rook for my bishop,
leaving him with only a bishop. I m ade my move and offered a draw, hoping the time pres­
sure would be enough to convince him to accept. When h e did accept, I breathed a sigh of
relief, knowing that I h ad pulled off a h alf-point that should h ave been a total loss. I'm sure
he could h ave forced the win with his remaining bishop, but because he was also playing
against the clock, he knew that I would be able to m ake it difficult for him and possibly
force him to blunder or lose on time. After we left the game room, we set up the ending
position on another board, and we worked out how he could h ave forced the win . It didn't
really take him much effort to find it, but we both wondered whether he could h ave done it
in the 5 minutes remaining on his clock.
It is important to think of the clock as a strategic element of the g ame. If your clock is
running low and the position is still very complicated, it might be wise to try and simplify
the position a little bit to speed up your thinking process. If your opponent's clock is run­
ning low, it might be wise to try and m ake the position as complicated as you can, unless
your opponent blunders and you can force the win easily. Players who ignore the clock do
so at their own peril. As your experience playing competitively with a clock grows, you will
get a stronger feel for how to best m anage and use the clock; the trick is to do so con­
sciously and not let the clock take over your g ame.
Move by Move
At this point, anyone can understand that playing a game of chess involves many different
thought processes and l ayers of understanding . In my experience, I've found that the
strongest players h ave a system they use on every move in order to ensure peak perform­
ance. Strong players develop a routine for each move much like a basketball player might
develop a routine for shooting free throws or a baseball player might develop a routine for
each at-bat. Developing a routine for each move h elps a chess player maintain an auto­
matic rhythm to the game which usually leads to a stronger performance. Utilizing this
routine can reduce the number of blunders or missed opportunities, reduce stress, and
m ake the game much more enjoyable. This doesn't h ave to be a long, drawn-out routine,
just a simple procedure for making each move in order to m aximize your performance us­
ing all of your skills.
281
Ch ess Prog ress
Some novices h ave a difficult time with notation because they originally learned to play
without taking notation. This is an example of how important a player's routine is: when
they must add something to that routine, it can dramatically affect their game-play. Once
notation h ad become instinctual for me, I actually found it useful in my routine because it
forces me to stop my thought process about the game and transfer my thinking into a very
concrete realm ("wh at was that move, and how do I write it down ?"). Doing this allows my
mind a very brief moment of refreshment from which I can return to the position with a
fresh mind. Below, I describe a rhythm that h as worked well in my experience, and I will
share some variations that you may consider as you develop your own move-by-move rou­
tine. A h andy card I 've used is in Appendix D; I used this card early on when I needed to re­
mind myself to follow these steps with each move. When the routine became automatic, I
stopped using the card.
1. Think
When my turn begins, the first thing I do is work through my thinking process. I consider
my opponent's move and h ow it has affected his position, my position, and the game as a
whole. I do a little analysis (or a lot of analysis) to figure out what's going on. Then I check
for threats and tactics. Then I select candidate moves, analyse each a little bit so I can de­
cide which I think is best. Then I blunder check that move and make a final decision.
2. Make the Move
Next, I physically m ake the move on the board. I do so deliberately and without hesitation.
Personally, I can't allow myself to second-guess my thought process. When I h ave done that
in the past, it usually results in me making a snap decision to play something else, and this
new move is usually a blunder. Once in a great while when I do this, it's because I h ave un­
consciously spotted a blunder and avoid it. But this is the exception. Nowadays, I make the
move and simply live with the results; I place my trust in my earlier thinking process. This
has the advantage of forcing me to be careful and deliberate. Many players do things dif­
ferently than I do. The key is to find a routine that works for you.
3. Press the Clock
After making the move on the board, I immediately press the clock. My habit is to move and
press the clock right after. In friendly games when I don't use a clock, I find myself pressing
the clock that isn't there because this routine is so embedded. Since this has become auto­
matic, I almost never forget to press the clock and lose time that way. Many novices who are
unused to playing with a clock forget to press it and can run s, 10, 15 or more minutes before
they realize they've forgotten. Then, their time is gone, they're nervous and anxious about
their mistake, etc. So, making this move-clock routine an automatic process eliminates the
problem (for the most part). It still happens occasionally but much less often now.
282
O v e r the B o a rd
4. Notate Correctly
After pressing the clock, I notate my move. I force myself to take a quick second to be sure
that I correctly notate the move I 've made. This forces me to shift my mind into a concrete
mode. It gives me a little breather, a single moment to stop thinking about the g ame, the
variations I 'm considering, the tension of the g ame, and think about something very sim­
ple: how to notate correctly the move I've just made. Then, as I return to the game, I'm just
a little bit more refreshed and ready to dive back into the thin king process.
s. The Opponent Moves
While my opponent considers his move, I spend the time analysing the position . I try not to
anticipate his move because, when I do that, I get caught in a trap of thinking : "If he moves
there, then I 'll do this, and if he moves here, I 'll do that." And, as discussed earlier, this is a
sure-fire way to lead myself off a chess cliff. Another effect of guessing at my opponent's
move is that I get nervous. I might spot a strong move that my opponent could m ake, a
blunder I 've just made, or a better move that I could've m ade. My nervousness tran slates
into body l anguage that might tip off my opponent. When I 'm staring at a certain part of
the board, for example, my opponent might realize that there's something to find there
and begin looking there himself. Instead of this mess of problems, once I 've made my move
I let it go and spend my time waiting by analysing what's actually on the board. This way,
when my opponent does move, I can quickly understand what that move has accomplished
or changed, and then I can begin my own thought process.
6. The Opponent Presses the Clock
I continue analysing the position while my opponent moves, and I don't stop until I hear
him press the clock. I do this for several reasons. One reason is that, should my opponent
forget to press the clock, I don't want to give him any indication that he h as done so. I want
to let his clock run as long as it can, using the clock like a weapon once again . It feel s a little
underhanded to do this, but it is a part of the game and I'm a competitive guy. Another
reason I do this is because my opponent m ay wish to offer a draw or give some indication
that he regrets his move. I want to allow my opponent his full time to consider his move
should there be a delay between his moving and his pressing the clock.
7. Notate the Opponent's Move
As soon as my opponent presses the clock, I notate his move. Again, this is an automatic
process, since every time my opponent or I press the clock, I notate the move. This means
that, for each of us, the sequence is simple: move-clock-notate. In between is the thinking
and analysis. Each time action h appens on the board, my mind gets a little mini-vacation
simply to consider what just h appened and how to notate. Then I dive back into the rou­
tine for the next sequence. Once I h ave notated my opponent's move, I start thinking about
my moves, and I'm back on step one of this routine.
283
Ch ess Prog ress
Rigorously applying this routine has h elped my game by freeing my mind to think care­
fully about each move that I m ake and each move that my opponent makes. This is the rou­
tine that works for me, but I 've found it important that each player establish a routine that
works for him. My routine may not work for you. Your routine may not work as well for
your friend. The important concept is to establish a routine and m ake it automatic. Once it
becomes automatic, you won't be so concerned with the clock or with the notation, and
you'll be able to focus on what's important: playing the best game you can.
Maintaining Presence
The final element of the chess g ame that deserves attention is the psychological game. At
any given point in a chess career, every player begins to compete against themselves,
against their own state of mind. When m any players begin playing chess, their minds are
consumed with simple things, like trying to remember how the pieces actually move or
trying to figure out if there's a fork on the board. This is just like a baseball player; when
the baseball player begins playing, he tries to remember to complete each motion in his
batting swing. It can also be related to learning how to drive. Young drivers are consumed
with checking their blind spot, checking their mirrors, holding their h ands properly on the
steering wheel. Before long these early processes become automatic. Just as an experi­
enced driver checks his mirrors without h aving to think about it, chess players begin seeing
moves automatically and they think less and less about these types of things. As this proc­
ess takes over, the psychological part of the game becomes more and more important.
The question is this: if I know how to play, and I understand tactics, then how is it that I
will sometimes still fall into these basic blunders? Losing a game because my strategy
didn't work out is one thing, but blundering a piece on move 7 ... Why does that h appen ?
The answer is that the gam e of chess is not simply about what you know or what you
h ave learned, it's also about being able to apply that knowledge in the stress of competi­
tion; and often, players make mistakes. In one game, two very high-ranked grandmasters
were playing a blitz game of chess, and a checkmate existed on the board for two full
moves. That means that a grandmaster missed a checkmate and his opponent failed to
defend against it for two full moves ! It h appens, and it's a comforting idea that it h appens
to every player. So why does it h appen and how can we stop it from h appenin g ? I wish I
h ad a solution. If I h ad a perfect solution, I'd be much higher rated than I am now! Never­
theless, in this section, I will share some tips that I h ave learned over the years that have
helped me and helped my students avoid such blunders, though they have not solved the
problem completely.
Physica l Blockades
For me, the trick to performing at my best is to maintain presence. This might sound a little
Zen - and in a way it is, but it works for me. In the heat of a game, I often find myself get­
ting very anxious; if I 'm winning, my heart starts racing with excitement, and if I 'm losing, I
find myself either depressed or panicking. In either case, my body chemistry starts working
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against me. Whether I'm excited or panicking, my body immediately goes into a stress re­
sponse: fight or flight. Essentially, my body reacts as if I'm in danger, as if I'm being at­
tacked by a bear. The thing is, there is no bear. The entire stress response is mental .
When the human body goes into a stress response, several thing s h appen . First, the
body starts releasing various hormones into the blood stream, such as adrenaline. These
hormones set off a chain reaction of events, few of which are beneficial for strong chess
performance. One physical reaction is the change in blood flow. Capill aries, veins, and ar­
teries open up, allowing blood to flow more freely to the muscles. This makes evolutionary
sense; as more blood flows to the muscles, the body becomes more capable of running or
fighting. The downside is that less blood flows to the brain, the main organ needed for a
strong chess performance. When you walk into a competition, you can actually see this
effect. Some players bounce their legs, others tap their fingers or pens, others can't stop
moving; all these reactions are often cause by the body reacting to the imagined threat.
In other sports, such as basketball or baseball, this response is favourable because it
helps the athlete physically perform at a higher level. In chess, however, these reactions can
be problematic and distressing . For example, as blood flow leaves the brain, it also leaves
the stomach. A chess player may feel a knot, or lump, in their belly. This feeling takes a
player's focus off of the game, distracting them from their thought processes. Personally,
when I'm reacting, one of the first signs is that I start tapping my legs. I 've learned to take
these physical manifestations as a sign that I need to recapture my presence. If I 'm fully
present in the game, I should be able to avert these negative physical reactions because I
know there is no real threat. At worst, I will lose the game, but that's not really so bad. I'm
not getting eaten by a bear, after all. Later in this section, I will describe a couple of tech­
niques I use to regain my presence, thereby reducing the negative effects of my body's
natural stress responses.
Mental Blockades
Aside from the physical reactions that accompany playing an exciting game of chess, there
are mental reactions that I must also contend with . This h appens on both sides of the
game. When I'm winning, for example, I tend to get caught in a mental trap of arrogance. I
stop working so hard to find the best moves; I start assuming that I 've got the game all
wrapped up and I don't h ave to think about my moves. I start to act arrogantly, as if I can't
m ake a mistake. Of course, this usually ends when I blunder a piece or two, reminding me
that I'm still in the middle of a chess game. Sometimes, I get that sense that I'm winning
even when I'm not. I may be up a pawn and focus on that m aterial difference, and I start
ignoring positional factors. When I review the gam e later, I discover that my arrogant
sense of winning was completely an illusion. If only I had put those emotions aside and
focused on what was actually occurring, I would h ave been able to play a better game.
On the other side, when I 'm losing I generally h ave one of two reactions: either I fall into
a downward spiral of loss, or I panic and start making desperate moves to try and regain
equality or even an advantage. In a way, the l atter reaction is good because I 'll start to look
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at moves that I would not otherwise consider. I 'll calculate improbable sacrifices, combina­
tions, etc, which I would never even consider in a situation where I was winning. It's good
to do this, but the problem is that when I 'm down, l 'll look at them, consider them, see that
they're bad, then m ake them anyway. I 'll throw away a piece hoping that my opponent will
blunder in the ensuing chaos. Sometimes it works. More often it doesn't, and I only take a
slightly bad position and make it terrible.
The other reaction, getting stuck in a mentality of loss, h as no plus points. If I find my­
self assuming that the game is lost, I stop looking for ways to come back or regain equality
and start just making reflexive moves. I 'll catch myself blundering a piece immediately af­
ter I 've blundered a piece. I am so thrown off by one mistake that I m ake another and an­
other until I really find myself in an unsalvageable position. I often refer to this as the
downward spiral.
Perhaps the most difficult aspect of chess is accepting mistakes as part of the game.
Chess players learn to discover a mistake of their own and accept it simply as yet another
turn in the game. The trick is to work with the position that exists on the board, not the
position that you wish was on the board.
Maintaining Presence
There's no rhyme or reason to why I react this way mentally when I find myself winning or
losing, it's simply a fact. I find that I perform at my peak when I'm able to stay in the mo­
ment, m aintain my sense of presence, fully understand that I'm in a chess g ame, making
one move at a time. All those physical and mental reactions kick in when I forget that each
move is important and that the consequence of losing a g ame is nothing more than a sta­
tistic on my record. In fact, I actually don't mind losing games because it mean s that I h ave
an opportunity to improve my g ame; it may not be a great feeling at the time, but I know
that I can turn a loss into something positive.
So how do I maintain presence? How do I keep my mind from running away with my
performance? There are two m ain steps in my personal process: (1) I h ave to recognize
when I am losing presence; and (2) I have to do something to regain my composure. After
discussing these, I 'll briefly describe some ways to avoid these issues in the first place.
First, recognizing that I am mentally or physically leaving the moment was difficult at
first, but as I've paid attention to myself over the years, I 've developed a stronger sense of
what I'm feeling throughout a chess game. This involves a certain amount of self­
awareness which may be easy for some players and more difficult for others. As I stated
before, I notice the physical m anifestations first: a tapping foot, a bouncing leg, my fidgety
h ands, my pounding heart, or even shortness of breath . As soon as I recognize that my body
is reacting in this way, I immediately take action to regain my composure. Once a drop of
adrenaline hits my bloodstream, it's going to take some for it to work its way out. If I don't
act immediately, my reaction is only going to get worse and worse and, consequently, so
will my game-play. Often, recognizing these physical symptoms is easy by the way other
players look at me. If they're looking at me with an annoyed expression, it's usually be-
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cause I'm tapping a pencil or making some noise; this alerts me to the fact that I'm tapping
my pencil or whatever the case m ay be.
Recognizing my frame of mind is often more difficult. I can get wrapped up in a mental­
ity of winning or losing for quite a long time before I recognize it. One clue that I'm not
mentally present in my game is when I start calculating variations rather than thin king
analytically. When I catch myself thinking, "When I move h ere, my opponent will move
there, and then I'll move here ... " I know I'm in trouble. Sometimes my analysis is good, but
if I'm aware that I'm only calculating variations without h aving done some analysis be­
forehand, I know that I'm mentally stuck in a winning or losing mode. I usually find that
I'm only calculating, say, one variation of a king-pawn endgame where I 'm up a pawn, or
that I'm calculating a way to grab a piece when I'm down a piece. In either case, this is one
hint that I need to stop my thinking and regain composure. Another clue that I'm not men­
tally present in my game is that I analyse the same variation over and over. I'll find myself
looking at the same bad sacrifice 4, 5, or 6 times, each time calculating the exact same
variation and coming to the exact same conclusion . Not only am I wasting time, but I real­
ize that I 'm not working through my thought process, and it's probably as a result of not
being fully present in my game.
Techniques
Once I recognize that my thought processes are no working properly, I need to stop what
I'm doing and regain presence; I need to re-establish my routines and methods. This is ac­
tually quite easy once I've recognized the problem.
Some simple techniques to regaining presence are simply to look away from the game,
stand up, drink some water, use the restroom, etc. The idea of these methods is to disengage
from the game, if only for a few moments. Sometimes, that's all it takes to refresh the mind.
Simply disengaging from the mental struggle of analysis and calculation and doing some­
thing else for a couple of seconds gives the mind a mini break. When the mind returns to the
analysis and calculation, it's refreshed. Standing up, moving around, splashing water on your
face, all these have added physical benefits. Standing up and stretching forces the blood in
your body to flow. When players sit at a board for long periods of time (as can happen with a
long time control), the body naturally slows down its circulation, and moving around can
help change that. If you're excited and your heart is pounding, a physical change in posture
can release your body from the spell of excitement. Looking away from the board is like look­
ing away from the screen in a scary movie; it has the mental effect of reminding you that the
movie (the chess board/game) isn't really real, it's just an illusion. The game, of course, is real,
but the threat that you sense, the threat that your body reacts to, is not real. Simply looking
away and reminding yourself that you're in a room full of players, you're in a place of fun,
can help tremendously in calming yourself down.
Another technique that I use is visualization. I close my eyes and try to imagine a calm­
ing place. I don't open my eyes and resume my gam e-play until I can sense things in that
place. The key for me is to feel the place I imagine. For example, sometimes I imagine being
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in the woods with my wife and children. I imagine small details like the leaves on the trees,
the breeze on my face, the sounds of the birds, the laughter of my children, or the smell of
the forest. Once I 've fully imagined myself in that place, it's almost like I 'm mentally there,
and it calms me. This is a more in-depth version of looking away from the board. Since I
can't possibly think about the g ame and imagine the sights, sounds, and smells of the for­
est, my mind is forced to disengage from the game. And I know that once I can smell the
trees or feel the breeze, I 'm ready to return to the chess g ame. When I reopen my eyes, I
find that I look at the board, the game, and my opponent with fresh eyes and fresh insight.
All of a sudden the position doesn't seem so complicated, the game doesn't seem so daunt­
ing, and I start noticing thing s that I h ad earlier missed. I spot a fork that I didn't see be­
fore, I notice an outpost I can m ake use of, etc. Whatever, this technique works very well for
me, and I h ave found that it works well for my students. One student of mine visualized a
specific fishing location that h e loved, another student visualized playing videogames. The
image or location visualized doesn't m atter, what does m atter is that players visualize it
fully before returning to the game. It seems that there needs to be a point where the mind
releases the game to enter the imagination, so that upon returning it is refreshed and
ready to once again tackle the demands of the chess game.
Another technique I use is to focus on my breathing. I use this as a kind of preventative
measure to maintain my presence. By focusing on my breathing throughout, I keep a little
bit of mental concentration outside the chess game. Since breathing is so natural, there's
always a part of my mind that is relaxing, taking it easy by focusing on the easiest thing in
the world, breathing. This translates into a more relaxed state of mind, and I'm less likely
to get carried away with the game. It has the added benefit of physically calming me.
When my breathing gets shallow, I'm not giving my brain the oxygen it needs, and my per­
formance will suffer accordingly. By staying focused on my breathing, I can usually main­
tain my mental presence throughout a game.
Preventative Tech niques
Completely preventing mental lapses at the board is impossible, but many of the concepts
already presented can h elp. H aving a m ove-by-move routine, developing a thought process
for each move, developing an analysis technique, and m aking these routines automatic
will go a long way towards preventing mental l apses in your games. Part of preventing
these l apses is simply to become comfortable with competitive chess, and that only comes
with experience. Acquire this experience by playing in as many competitions as you can.
Finally, players can prevent mental l apses by being prepared for competition. This is the
same as being prepared for any important event: get plenty of sleep, eat a hearty and
healthy breakfast, snack between rounds with healthy food, and rest the mind between
rounds.
Many players h ave many different techniques, these are just a few. I 've picked up ideas
and techniques by talking with other players, and you can do the same. The key ideas are to
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stay focused on the game while not letting your physical or mental states interfere with
your chess performance. Staying present in the game is important because if you're too
focused on a possible win, you m ay not deal with the situation in front of you; similarly, if
you're focused on a possible loss, you may miss the opportunity to turn things around. The
fact is that chess is a mental game and maintaining your mental presence is just as impor­
tant as the moves you m ake on the board. Ignore that fact at your own peril.
After the Game is Over...
After all the effort, all the work, all the routines, what i s a player t o do when the game i s
over? I never expected games of chess t o affect me the way they do. A s m y games h ave got­
ten more and more intense, I find that I need to de-stress afterwards. As my desire to im­
prove my chess game grows, I find that I need to h ave a routine of study that follows each
game. The ideas presented below are just my personal tips and routines that I use to ac­
complish those two goals. Many players have variations of these routines, many do not. I
present them here simply as a m atter of generosity.
De-Stressing
The first time I played a really great game of chess came after the first several months of
studying. I attended a local chess club and, for the first time, was engaged in a game where
I actually h ad a chance to defeat this opponent. Until this point, whenever I attended the
club, I was consistently beaten by l arge margins. I h ad walked into the first club meeting
thinking I was pretty good, only to discover that I still had a long way to go to achieve even
a description of average. In this game, finally after months of learning, I h ad managed a
close game up one pawn . My heart was pounding, my hands h ad a minor tremble as they
moved the pieces, and my breathing was rapid; I h ad never imagined that a game of chess
could create these kinds of physical reactions. In the end, I won, but I could not play an­
other game that night. I was a physical mess, and I struggled to understand how this game
h ad engaged me so completely. This is something non-chess players often don't under­
stand or don 't believe can happen, but it does. For me, the excitement h asn 't faded either;
in fact, it h as only grown more intense over time and as my understanding of the game
increases.
Since my body reacts to the excitement so completely, I need to de-stress after each
game. When I fail to do so, I'm physically and mentally exhausted before I even begin the
next game. So, I've developed a mini-routine after each game. This routine is a signal to my
brain and my body that the game is over and it's time to begin the unwinding process; it's
a subconscious trigger that I've taught myself.
First, of course, I shake h ands with my opponent and congratulate him or her on a good
game (whether I win, lose, or draw). I try to resist the urge to begin discussing the game
immediately. Often, when games end, my opponents want to talk about a key position or
momentarily discuss a particular move or two. If I begin doing this right away, even if only
for a second, it's like the game h asn't ended, and my mind will continue racing and my
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heart will continue pounding. instead, I try very hard to be polite and refuse to engage; my
mind and body need to know that the g ame is over. I can accomplish this with the next
part of my routine.
Second, I reset the board to the original starting position ready for the next round, or
pack up the equipment. In tournaments where equipment is provided, this is often the
request of the tournament director, anyway. In tournaments where the players provide
equipment, this h as the added benefit of ensuring that all the pieces are packed properly. I
like my chess sets. In fact, I h ave a sort of obsession over them, and it would hurt me to lose
a pawn or a queen because I failed to make sure all the pieces were there when packing the
equipment away. I'm also a very thrifty person and would h ate to spend $2 for a new piece
and $8 in shipping. In tournaments, boards can be very near each other, and I want to
make sure that my pieces return to my set. It's common courtesy to help another player
ensure the same thing. I don't sit and stare at the final position, discovering things I
could've or should've done. I don't leave the position on the board as some sort of gloating
triumph over a defeated opponent. Like a Buddhist Mandala sand painting, immediately
after working on this piece of art, I pack it up and put it away. It's a forceful way of remind­
ing myself that it was just a game and that it's now over. Personally, I need that reminder.
When I first started playing chess seriously, a game would end, and I would want to puzzle
over it for hours and hours. I would torture myself with what could h ave been, or I would
revel in my victory to the point of inflating my ego unnecessarily. Now, this simple little
ritual is one way of keeping me, and the game itself, humble.
Third, I review the notation. After leaving the game room, if I h ave time, I set up a board
and replay the game using my copy of the notation. Sometimes, my opponents sit with me
for this and we discuss the g am e briefly, but I try very h ard not to analyse. Notice that I said
I review the notation, not that I review the game. At this point, my goal is simply to be sure
my notation is correct so that I can analyse the game l ater, if I choose to do so. I do this
right away because the game i s fresh in my mind, so if I 've made a notation error, I have a
much greater chance of being able to correct it then. Sometimes, if I 've stopped taking no­
tation during time trouble, I can go back and notate the final moves of the game. I need to
have correct notation because, after a long day of chess and a night's sleep, if there is a no­
tation error, I may not be able to remember or figure out the move, and then I feel I've lost
an opportunity to learn from my game. That hurts more than losing . Sometimes during
this step, I 'll notice moves I could've or should've made, or notice errors that I have made. I
work very h ard not to allow myself to analyse these moves straight away; that will be done
days or weeks l ater when I can really devote myself to learning from the error or missed
chance. Doing it at once will only get my emotions running again, and anything I analyse
will only add to my current mental state. By this I mean that if I 've lost the game, I 'll proba­
bly only see my mistakes and be unable to see the positive things I accomplished. Or, if I've
won, I'll only see my opponent's mistakes and miss opportunities to learn from the mis­
takes that I've made. Analysis is for later. For now, this simple step of double-checking my
notation is procedural, and it calms me down because there's no pressure to improve upon
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my moves, there's no pressure to analyse, I 'm simply replaying the game and fixing the
notation if necessary. The pressure is gone because I know that I'll return later and get
more out of the analysis then.
At this point, having shaken my opponent's h and, reset and/or packed up the equip­
ment, and reviewed my notation, I've done everything I'm going to do for that game at the
moment. This three-step routine triggers a calming effect and begins the process of releas­
ing me from that particular game. Now, especially if there are more games to follow, I give
myself a break from chess. If it's nice out and I h ave enough time before the next round, I
take a walk outside. If I can't go outside, I walk around the building or room. In either case,
I try to stand up and move around for at least a few minutes. After sitting in a tense posi­
tion for the length of a chess game, I need to give my body a little exercise, get the blood
flowing again. This begins a rest period between g ames. After I 've got the blood flowing, I
do something to disengage my mind from chess. Sometimes I read a book, sometimes I
find a spot to sit or lie down while listening to music, and still other times I just have
friendly conversation with other players. Whatever it is, I h ave a brief period of time where
I try not to let myself think about, or talk about, chess. I need my mind to disengage from
chess so that, when I begin the next game, I can start it afresh. I find that if I don't h ave this
rest period, it's as if, instead of two separate games, I'm playing a single game. If I do this
for an entire day of competition, it's as if I 'm playing a single game over the course of the
day instead of individual games. When that h appens, I'm completely worn out by the end
of the day, and my last game is not nearly as good as my first. Sometimes, I don't h ave time
between games to take a rest period, and there's not much I can do about it, but as long as
I complete the first three steps of my routine, my mind is able to separate the games, and
it's like I 've h ad a rest anyway.
Studying games
Studying one's own games can h elp in many different ways. Over the years, I've figured out
a few ways for studying that have helped me and my students make our efforts more ef­
fective.
First, I always put some time between the game and my studying. I try to wait at least
two days before I really sit down and analyse. H aving this time between the game and the
analysis of it helps me to let go of my ego. When I analyse a game the same night it was
played, I 'm still emotionally tied to the game, and my analysis is unclear. After a little bit of
time has passed, I find it easier to look at the game as if it's not mine. I can then analyse it
with the same open mind that I would analyse an historical g ame or a student's game. In­
stead of looking for ways I could h ave done this or that, I look at what actually did h appen
in the game. This frees me to be honest about the positions and the moves. On the other
h and, I don't want to wait too long before analysing a game because it's important that I
do remember what I was thinking and why I m ade certain moves. This way, when I find an
error or a missed opportunity, I can reflect on my thought process when I made the mis­
take. I can take an honest look at what I was thinking and begin to change that thought
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C h e s s Progress
process. For example, if I missed an opportunity to gain an advantage because I was fo­
cused on accomplishing a single manoeuvre, I can then recognize that I need to be focused
on the whole game on each move. The next time I find myself focused on accomplishing a
specific manoeuvre, I'm more likely to review the entire position before making that move.
Second, my first analysis of a game is based on principles. I leave the computer chess
engine off. I do this for two reasons: (1) I need to train my mind to think in chess, to think
creatively, and constantly using a computer will train me to think like a computer (and I 'm
not a computer, so that won't ever work). I can't use a computer when I 'm playing games,
so relying on computers too much will actually harm my chess. (2) I want to understand
the flow of the game prior to doing more in-depth analysis. If the game was a battle of
bishops, I want to try and understand the strategic flow leading up to that battle and how
the prior moves created advantages or disadvantages for each side. I find that, when I use a
computer, I miss this understanding because I'm just looking at each move and how it
changes the score of the position. When doing this first-run analysis, I play through the
game move by move, taking note of strategic changes and tactical chances. Each pawn
move changes the structure, each material trade affects the balance of power, and each
tactic creates strategic advantages. If, during the game, I felt as if there were tactical possi­
bilities, I reach that position and hunt for them. I play through variations to see if they
work out well. I al so try to note what I was thinking about or trying to accomplish at vari­
ous points in the game. Overall, the first time through a game, I 'm aiming for a big-picture
overview of what h appened and what might have h appened. Often, this is all the analysis I
need in order to learn how I could have improved my play.
Lastly, if I want to delve deeper into a game, I employ a computer. I begin by using a ref­
erence database to analyse my opening moves, looking especially at where the game left
the opening book. I 'll use the engine as a guide to understand where the power shifted
throughout the game. I'll watch the position score for large fluctuations. When there's a
large shift in the score, I look back at the position and try to understand strategically what
has occurred. I 'll also watch the position score to find missed opportunities. I'll often find
that I made a strong move but h ad a tactical combination that I missed. In cases like that, I
take the position right before that move and analyse it, hunting for clues that I might be
able to look for in the future. That way, the next time I see those kinds of clues, I'm more
likely to pause and start hunting for tactical possibilities. Another way I use the computer
is to employ the database. I 'll play through the openings, and when my game leaves the
opening book, I'll select a game from the database that continues on a stronger path . I'll
play through that game, trying to understand why that game continued as it did, looking
for ideas that I can incorporate into my own game-play.
Often, throughout this process, I'll work with a partner. Hopefully, it's a stronger player
than I am, but any serious chess player will do. A different set of eyes always offers a differ­
ent perspective that can help me grow as a player. No m atter who it is, the simple act of
discussing a game forces me to think about it differently. It's one thing for me to think
about my games in my own h ead, but it's quite another for me to h ave to put those
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thoughts into sentences that m ake sense to another person . Often, just as I 'm trying to
explain a certain move, I'll notice the error in logic as it's coming out of my mouth . On the
other h and, when that person offers their perspective or asks a question, it forces me to
con sider alternate possibilities that I would not con sider on my own .
There is one final thing that I would like to mention about how I study my own games.
After a period of time, I amassed a l arge collection of games that I could study. I use a da­
tabase program to store my own games because I can then sort them easily. This helps be­
cause I can start looking for pattern s in my game-play that I could or should change. For
example, I can look at all the games I 've pl ayed using a certain opening. Then, within those,
I can look for common patterns between those games, the mistakes I m ake, or even just the
types of positions that arise from that opening. The program I use has some helpful ana­
lytical features, too. One allows me to look at how I use my pieces on the board. With just a
click or two, I can see that I use my light-squared bishop often while neglecting my dark­
squared bishop. Or, I see that I use one knight more than another. Or, I can see that my
king side rook never moves beyond 2 or 3 squares, etc. This type of analysis of multiple
games is extremely helpful to me. When I play games after analysis, I notice these gaps in
my thin king and try to adjust. For example, I might look for ways to make better use of the
king side rook or the dark-squared bishop.
When a chess game finishes, that can be the end. However, it can also be the beginning
of a process of growth and learning. The ideas presented above can help you get the most
out of each game. Reducing stress after each game can be an important factor in main­
taining a calm state of mind; it's important to consider doing this, no m atter how you ac­
tually do it. Studying your own games is a great way to improve your game, and as you get
better, you'll probably find your excitement grows. As my experience in competitive chess
h as increased, I've found these tips important. My students, too, found these ideas helpful,
even if they didn't always follow through on them .
Conclusion
The goal of this book h as been to provide new chess players everything they could possibly
need to know about chess in order to enjoy the game, play competitively, and continue
learning from other resources. Each of the fundamentals presented here has volumes writ­
ten about it elsewhere. Hopefully, you've gained enough knowledge to pick up any other
chess resource you can find and learn from it with relative ease. If your chess goals are
more conservative, hopefully you've gained an appreciation and an enthusiasm for the
game that you did not h ave before. In either case, if you've mastered the concepts pre­
sented here, you should h ave enough knowledge to play the game skilfully while you grow
as a player. I hope that you enjoy the game as much as I do and continue to play. Mastering
the skills of chess is a boundless pursuit; for some, it's a hobby; for others, it's a way of life.
Wherever you fall on that spectrum, thank you for reading and may the chess gods be kind
to you.
293
Ap p e n d i ces
A: Continuing Study
This appendix gives a few words on how players can continue their study of chess, once
they've mastered th e fundamentals contained in this book.
B: Benjamin Franklin's On the Morals of Chess
This appendix contains Benjamin Franklin's essay, On the Morals of Chess. It is a brief look
at the benefits of chess and etiquette that should attend each game.
C: Fundamental Principles of Chess
This appendix combines all the fundamental principles discussed throughout the book in a
single list.
D: Notation Tip-Sheet & Order of Operations
This appendix contains two small tip-sheets that can be used for practice by players still
learning the game.
294
A p p e n dices
A p pendix A: Continuing Study
This book h as been designed to help players build a complete foundation in all aspects of
the game. Knowledge you have gained by working this book should be practiced over and
over again. If you find yourself struggling over something in particular, try revisiting the
relevant section of this book or working on more of the exercises until you have remas­
tered that aspect of the game. It will probably benefit your chess to revisit these lesson s
again after a certain period. I find that I must relearn chess lessons 3 or 4 times before they
really start to make a strong presence in my games.
After mastering the fundamentals presented h ere, players should h ave the ability to
learn from their own games. You should be able to realize where you went wrong in losses,
or where your opponents went wrong in your wins. It is always a good idea to practice with
any player willing to compete; however, if you find yourself winning game after game,
challenging yourself with more difficult opponents is probably a good idea. Reach out and
find those local chess clubs with people who h ave been playing all their lives. Find those
competitions which go beyond just the local chess player. Challenge yourself to play
against opponents far better than you. Only through challenging play can we hope to im­
prove.
Once you have a firm grasp and understanding of the lessons and principles provided
here, you should probably begin studying at a more advanced level. Books are a great re­
source to learn from, since you can dig into the m aterial at whatever pace suits your needs.
There are countless books about chess tactics and strategy. Choose one aspect of chess and
begin exploring. You can easily find books about openings, endgames, tactics, attacking
strategy, defensive strategy, reading your opponent's play, and the list goes on and on.
These resources should be quite accessible to you with the understanding you h ave built
by working through this book. Begin studying aspects of the game you find intriguing.
I strongly recommend studying endgames in detail. Endgames often offer lessons
which can be applied throughout the game, and they are usually easier to grasp since the
positions are less complicated. One fringe benefit of studying endings is that, as each
game progresses, the closer it gets to the endgame, and you will be approaching your com­
fort zone. Many players study openings in great detail, and they fail to realize that, once
the opening is over, they've left their comfort zone and must struggle with the rest of the
game. As you study the endgame, you will learn the skills you need to play a strong mid­
dlegame and then close the g ame in the end.
On the other hand, studying a number of opening variations is necessary to help you to
improve your chess, by allowing you to reach solid positions that can then be approached
using the strategic lessons you've just learned.
Another great way to learn is to play and study with a more advanced player who is
willing to teach you and show you aspects of each move, position, or game which you may
not have noticed.
The computer is another great tool for improving your g ame. There are a number of
chess tutorial program s which offer not only competition but education in chess. Com295
C h e s s Progress
puters are very challenging because they are methodical and not prone to fatigue like your
human competitors. But beware: learning from computers may make you mechanical in
your own thinking which can actually hurt your chances to improve.
Fin ally, never be afraid to lose. You can always learn from every game, and we tend to
learn more when we lose because we want to know what we did wrong, where we failed to
succeed.
No matter how you study beyond this book, these are the fundamentals which will be
used. For now, before you begin studying further, be sure to practice, and try using these
concepts on your own. Develop your own feel for these elements before you try and grasp
someone else's understanding of the game. Developing your own style is the only true way
to ever really find a love for the g ame and dominate all opponents in your path .
Appendix B:
Benjamin Franklin's On
the Morals of Chess
Whatfollows is an essay Benjamin Franklin wrote on the benefits of chess and the eti­
quette that should attend the playing of chess. It is presented here as a basic thesis which the
author believes every student should know. Franklin 's words are his own.
The game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement. Several very valuable qualities of
the mind, useful in the course of human life, are to be acquired or strengthened by it, so as
to become h abits, ready on all occasions.
1. Foresight, which looks a little into futurity, and considers the consequences that may
attend an action; for it is continually occurring to the player, 'If I move this piece, what will
be the advantages or disadvantages of my new situation ? What use can my adversary
make of it to annoy me? What other moves can I make to support it, and to defend myself
from his attacks?
2. Circumspection, which surveys the whole chessboard, or scene of action; the relations
of the several pieces and situations, the dangers they are respectively exposed to, the sev­
eral possibilities of their aiding each other, the probabilities that the adversary may make
this or that move, and attack this or the other piece, and what different mean s can be used
to avoid his stroke, or turn its consequences against him.
3. Caution, not to m ake our moves too hastily. This h abit is best acquired, by observing
strictly the laws of the game; such as, If you touch a piece, you must move it somewhere; if
you set it down, you must let it stand. And it is therefore best that these rules should be
observed, as the game becomes thereby more the image of hum an life, and particularly of
war ...
And lastly, we learn by Chess the h abit of not being discouraged by present appear­
ances in the state of our affairs, the habit of hoping for a favorable change, and that of per­
severing in the search of resources. The game is so full of events, there is such a variety of
296
A p p e n dices
turns in it, the fortune of it is so subject to sudden vicissitudes, and one so frequently, after
long contemplation, discovers the means of extricating one's self from a supposed insur­
mountable difficulty, that one is encouraged to continue the contest to the last, in hopes of
victory from our own skill, or at least of getting a stalemate from the negligence of our ad­
versary...
If your adversary is long in playing, you ought not to hurry him, or express any uneasi­
ness at his delay. You should not sing, nor whistle, nor look at your watch, not take up a
book to read, nor make a tapping with your feet on the floor, or with your fingers on the
table, nor do anything that may disturb his attention. For all these things displease; and
they do not show your skill in playing, but your craftiness or your rudeness.
You ought not to endeavour to amuse and deceive your adversary, by pretending to
have made bad moves, and saying that you h ave now lost the game, in order to make him
secure and careless, and inattentive to your schemes: for this is fraud and deceit, not skill
in the game.
You must not, when you have gained a victory, use any triumphing or insulting expres­
sion, nor show too much pleasure; but endeavour to console your adversary, and make him
less dissatisfied with himself, by every kind of civil expression that m ay be used with truth,
such as "you understand the game better than I, but you are a little inattentive"; or "you
play too fast"; or "you h ad the best of the g ame, but something happened to divert your
thoughts, and that turned it in my favor."
If you are a spectator while others play, observe the most perfect silence. For, if you give
advice, you offend both parties, him against whom you give it, because it may cause the
loss of his game, him in whose favor you give it, because, though it be good, and he follows
it, he loses the pleasure he might h ave had, if you h ad permitted him to think until it h ad
occurred to himself. Even after a move or moves, you must not, by replacing the pieces,
show how they might h ave been placed better; for that displeases, and may occasion dis­
putes and doubts about their true situation . All talking to the players lessens or diverts
their attention, and is therefore unpleasing.
Lastly, if the game is not to be played rigorously, according to the rules above men­
tioned, then moderate your desire of victory over your adversary, and be pleased with one
over yourself. Snatch not eagerly at every advantage offered by his un skillfulness or inat­
tention; but point out to him kindly, that by such a move he places or leaves a piece in
danger and unsupported; that by another he will put his king in a perilous situation, etc.
By this generous civility (so opposite to the unfairness above forbidden) you may, indeed,
h appen to lose the game to your opponent; but you will win what is better, his esteem, his
respect, and his affection, together with the silent approbation and goodwill of impartial
spectators.
29 7
Ch ess Prog ress
A ppendix C: Fundamental Princi p les of Chess
The Board
The board h as several l ayers that offer different and unique perspectives:
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Squares;
Lines (files, ranks, diagonals);
Regions (queen side and king side, white territory and black territory); and
Space {the centre, centre files, flanks, open vs. closed, piece-controlled squares).
The Pieces
King
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Moves one square in any direction not occupied by a piece of his own colour;
Captures by moving to the square occupied by an opponent's piece;
Cannot move into or through check.
Rook
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Moves along files and ranks as far as it is not blocked by a piece of its own colour;
Captures by moving to the square occupied by an opponent's piece;
Works best with a lot of space on open or half-open files.
Knight
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Moves in an " L" shape to any square not occupied by a piece of its own colour;
Captures by moving to the square occupied by an opponent's piece;
Works best when near the centre with a lot of open squares to move to.
Bishop
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Moves along diagonals as far as it is not blocked by a piece of its own colour;
Captures by moving to the square occupied by an opponent's piece;
Works best with a lot of space on open or potentially open diagonals.
Queen
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Moves along ranks, files, and diagonal s as far as it is not blocked by a piece of her
own colour;
Captures by moving to the square occupied by an opponent's piece;
Works best with a lot of space on open or h alf-open files, useful ranks, or open or
potentially open diagonals.
Pawn
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298
Moves forward 1 or 2 squares on its first move, 1 square forward after that, can­
not move backwards;
A p p e n dices
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Captures by moving diagonally one square;
Works best with other pawns of its own colour;
H as the ability to capture en passant;
Can promote to any piece when it reaches its 8th rank.
Castling
Move the king two squares towards a rook, then move the rook to the square the king
skipped over. Castling is not allowed if:
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there are pieces in the way;
the king or the rook (the one being castled) has moved;
the king is in check; or
the king must move through or into check.
The End of the Game
Check is when a piece attacks the enemy king, taking control of the square that king occu­
pies. The player in check needs to end the check immediately by:
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Escaping the check by moving the king out of the attack onto a square that is not
held by an enemy piece;
Removing the check by capturing the attacking piece returning the king's square
or squares to him; or
Blocking the check by putting a piece in the line of attack (interposing a piece),
blocking the attacker's ability to hold the king's square.
If the player in check cannot escape, remove, or block the check, the king is in Checkmate
since he h as no space left to occupy and will therefore be captured.
A Stalemate is when a player h as no legal moves, but the king is not under attack. In a
checkmate, the square occupied by the king is held by an opponent's piece, but in a stale­
m ate, the king still h as one square, the square he occupies.
A Draw is when no resolution can be reached. There are four types of draws:
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agreement, where both players agree that a checkmate will not be reached and
agree to the draw;
insufficient material, where neither player has enough power with his remaining
pieces to deliver a checkmate;
threefold repetition; and
perpetual check.
299
Ch ess Progress
Notation
Each move notation needs to answer:
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What piece is moving? (B= Bishop, N = Knight, R= Rook, Q=Queen, K=King, _= Pawn)
Is it capturing anything? (= move, x = capture)
Where did it move to? (a-h = file, 1-8 = rank; a4, e6)
Materia l
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Pawns = 1 point;
Knights = 3 points;
Bishops = 3 points;
Rooks = 5 points;
Queen s = 9 points;
Try to avoid trading pieces where you will be left with a negative material balance;
Trading a bishop or knight for a rook is called "winning the exchange".
Position
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Pieces that control more space and are more mobile are stronger;
Pieces that work with other pieces are stronger;
Pieces working alone are weak;
The player who controls the space on the board controls the g ame.
Time
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Each move must count, the player with the initiative is pushing the pace of the
game;
Tempo can be gained or lost by attacking or defending;
Zugzwang and zwischenzug use time like a weapon .
Opposition
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3 00
When the kings face each other directly, the player who does not h ave the move
h as the opposition ;
When an odd number of spaces exists between the kings on the same file, the
player who does not h ave the move h as the opposition;
When an even number of squares exists between the kings, the player who h as
the move h as the opposition;
To take long distance and/or diagonal opposition, move to a square that makes a
box with 4 like-coloured squares.
A p p e n dices
Critical Sq uares & Square of the Pawn
.t
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.t
On ranks 2, 3, and 4, the critical squares are the three squares two ranks ahead;
On ranks 5 and 6, the critical squares are the three squares one rank ahead;
In order to promote a pawn, the king needs to reach one of the critical squares;
In order to promote a pawn, the king must reach the 6th rank ahead of the pawn ;
To prevent an opponent from promoting a pawn, the king needs to prevent the
opposing king from reaching the critical squares;
For a pawn to promote safely, the enemy king cannot be allowed to enter the
square of the pawn;
To prevent a pawn from promoting, the king must be able to enter the square of
the pawn.
Pawn Structure
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A pawn chain is only as strong as its base pawn;
Backward pawn s tend to be weak; they are overworked;
The fewer pawn islands a player h as, the stronger his pawn structure;
Isolated pawns are lonely targets to be attacked;
Doubled pawns block each other, block lines, and are difficult to defend;
A pawn weakness is only a weakness if it can be attacked;
Pawn weaknesses should be pushed up the board;
Passed pawns should be pushed up the board;
Protected passed pawns are dangerous weapons;
Rooks belong behind passed pawns.
Weak Squares, Holes, and Outposts
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Squares are only as strong as the pawn s and pieces that can hold them;
Every pawn move leaves space in its wake;
A hole is a great place to l and a piece;
An outpost is a great strength when utilized properly;
The deeper in enemy territory an outpost is, the stronger it is;
The closer to the action an outpost is, the more valuable it is.
Open and Closed Positions
.t
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.t
Open Files contain no pawns - rooks can make strong use of open files;
Half-Open Files h ave a pawn of only one colour on it - rooks can make strong use
of h alf-open files;
Closed Files have pawns of both colours - rooks h ave little mobility on closed files;
301
Ch ess Progress
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Open Diagonals are unblocked by pawns - bishops have mobility on these diago­
nals;
Blocked Diagonals are blocked by pawn s - bishops have little mobility, but they
may offer potential;
Good Bishops h ave open diagonal s and targets to attack with few friendly pawns
on the same colour squares;
Bad Bishops h ave blocked diagonal s, few targets, and h ave m any friendly pawns
on the same colour squares;
Open Positions have an open pawn structure with many open lines and a lot of
potential to change;
Closed Positions h ave a closed pawn structure with most of the lines jammed by
pawns and little chance for the pawn structure to change;
Bishops tend to be stronger than knights in open positions;
Knights tend to be stronger than bishops in closed positions.
Exchanging Materia l
Exchange m aterial when :
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you have a material advantage;
you have a spatial disadvantage;
it will strengthen the position of your pieces;
it will weaken the position of your opponent's pieces.
Defence
The five options for defending an attack are:
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Escape the attack by moving the piece;
Remove the attack by capturing the attacking piece;
Block the attack by placing another piece in the way of the attacker;
Defend the attacked piece with another; or
Counter the attack with an attack.
Consider each option then select the option that will result in the most favourable position
or put the most pressure on your opponent.
Pins
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A pin is when a piece of lesser value is "held" again st a piece of greater value;
Only rooks, bishops, and queens can deliver pins;
The value of the pin is based on the value of the piece it is pinned to;
An absolute pin is when a piece is pinned against the king;
A p p e n dices
:t
:t
:t
A pinned piece no longer control s space or threatens pieces;
Beware a pinned piece that can move with tempo;
Options to defend again st a pin are:
Escape the pin;
Block the pin;
Remove the pinning piece;
Attack the pinning piece.
Skewers
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:t
A skewer is when a piece of greater value is attacked and must move, opening an
attack on a piece of lesser value behind;
Only rooks, bishops, and queens can deliver skewers;
Beware placing pieces on the same lines which can be vulnerable to skewers.
Forks
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A fork is when one piece attacks two or more pieces simultaneously;
Squares can al so be threatened in forks;
Rooks, bishops, queens, knights, pawns, and kings can deliver forks; knights are
particularly good at forking pieces;
Beware squares from which an enemy can attack two pieces at once;
To escape a fork, look to move with tempo.
Discovered Attacks
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:t
:t
A discovered attack is when one piece moves, opening a line of attack on another
piece;
All pieces can open lines for rooks, bishops, and queens to discover attacks;
Beware of pieces blocking rooks, bishops, and queens with lines for attack.
Removing the Defender
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Removing the defender means to attack or capture a piece defending another
piece or square;
Look for ways to remove the defender of objectives;
Be aware of overworked defending pieces.
Com bining Tactics
Use tactics to set up other tactics to carry out your strategic plan.
3 03
C h e s s Prog ress
Openings
The five actions each opening move should strive to achieve are:
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Develop a new piece towards the centre of the action;
Attack an opponent's position;
Defend an attacked piece or square;
Prevent the opponent from developing, attacking, or defending;
Prepare to develop, attack, defend, or prevent.
General ideas to guide your opening moves:
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Start with a centre pawn (because you want to control the centre);
Develop your knights before your bishops (knights will take longer to develop);
Try not to move the same piece twice in the opening (development is key!);
Castle early to protect your king (king safety);
Don't move your queen out too early (develop minor pieces first);
Connect your rooks to allow movement (they need to develop easily l ater on).
Rules
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3 04
Players must call officials when rules are violated;
Black usually provides the equipment;
Players must ensure the board is set up properly prior to beginning the game;
Once a piece is touched, it must be moved;
If a piece in hand touches an enemy piece, it must be captured;
To adjust a piece, players must announce their intention prior to touching the
piece;
Adjusting pieces is only allowed on a player's own turn;
When castling, move the king first;
A move is determined when a player lets go of the piece;
A move is completed when a player presses the clock;
Players must en sure the clock is set properly prior to beginning the g ame;
Sudden Death is when players h ave a specific amount of time to play their re­
maining moves;
Simple Delay is when there is a specified delay before a player's clock starts run­
ning;
Bronstein Delay is when the time of the delay is added back to the player's clock
at the end of the turn, up to the original clock time;
Fischer Delay (Increment) is when a certain amount of time is added to the play­
er's clock on each turn ;
Hourglass is when time comes off one player's clock and adds to the other;
A p p e n dices
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Time Trouble is when a player has less than 5 minutes remaining on his clock, ei­
ther until the end of the game, or with several m oves to m ake before reaching
the time control;
Some rules, notation, and h andling equipment change during time trouble;
Players are to be reserved, never distracting other players;
Players are expected to remain at their g ames, though some movement is generally allowed;
Players cannot discuss the g ame or receive assistance (kibitzing);
Players must claim a draw prior to making the move that leads to a forced draw;
When players offer draw, they should move, offer the draw, then press the clock;
Repeated offers of draw can be considered unsportsmanlike;
Players can refuse a draw verbally or by m aking a move;
Any attempt to find out if a draw is possible can be considered an offer of a draw;
To resign, players should clearly state their intention to resign;
Spectators should be quiet and reserved when observing games;
Spectators are forbidden to give assistance or information to players in any form;
Spectators can notify officials of rules violation s, but cannot notify players.
Tournaments
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Swiss System - Each player is paired in each round against an opponent with an
accumulated points score as close as possible to their own;
Round Robin - Each player plays every other player;
Elimination - A loss means a player is eliminated from the tournament;
Team Tournaments - Multiple players play to earn team totals;
Scoring - Win 1 point, Draw % point, Loss o points;
Tie-Breaks - Various systems, dependent on player performance and opponent
performance;
Ratings - change proportionally to the strength of the opponent and the out­
come of the game.
=
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=
Analysing a Position and Forming a Plan
Strategic plans should always arise from the position o n the board; h ave a methodical rou­
tine for analysing positions, one is listed below:
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Material
Pawn structure
Board position
Position of the minor pieces
Position of the m ajor pieces
King safety
3 05
C h e s s Progress
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Assess the strengths and weaknesses of the position
List ideas to keep in mind for planning
Make a primary plan
Make a back-up plan
Choose candidate moves, calculate, and decide.
Choosing and Making a Move
Use a routine for each move, doing so h elps avoid blunders:
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Consider my opponent's last move;
Check for tactics and threats;
Positional analysis;
Find and analyse candidate moves (2-3);
Select a move;
Blunder check;
Play the move.
Using the Clock
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Always be aware of the clock!
Budget clock time;
Small amount of time for the opening;
Large amount of time for the middlegame;
Reserve enough time for the endgame;
Use the time that you h ave to m aximize your performance;
The clock can be used as a strategic weapon.
Move-by-Move
U sing a routine for each move will make the process automatic, freeing your mind to focus
on making strong moves; develop a routine that works for you:
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Think about your own move;
Make the move on the board;
Press the clock;
Notate your move correctly;
Consider analysing the position while your opponent thinks and moves;
Wait for your opponent to press the clock;
Notate your opponent's move correctly;
Repeat...
A pp e n dices
Maintaining Presence
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When your body reacts to stress, your biology works against you;
When you become emotional, your mind shuts down;
Players can become mentally stuck in winning or losing mindsets;
A player's mentality can become a self-fulfilling prophecy;
Develop methods for recognizing your physical and mental stress levels;
Disengaging from the game can refresh the mind and body;
Visualization can help players disengage from the stress of the game;
Focusing on breathing can help players m aintain a constant presence;
Being prepared for competition i s one way to prevent lapses over the board.
After the Game is Over...
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De-stress yourself!
Develop a routine that will become a subconscious trigger to relax:
Shake h ands
Reset the board and/or pack it up
Double check the notation
Rest!
Studying games later can be greatly beneficial ;
Wait for a period of time prior to analysing your own games;
Analyse without computer help first;
U se computers to help you see what you didn't before;
Studying with a partner i s greatly beneficial.
307
Ch ess Progress
A ppendix D:
Notation Ti p -Sheet & Order of O perations
Notation Tip-Sheet
Basic Questions that each notation should answer:
1. What piece is moving? (B=Bishop, N = Knight, R= Rook, Q=Queen, K= King, _= Pawn)
2. 1 s it capturing anything? (_=move, X=capture)
3. Where did it move to? (a-h = file, 1-8=rank; a4, e6)
4. Did it place the king in check? L =no check, +=check, ++ or # = checkmate)
s. if another of the same piece moved there, which file or rank did it come from ?
(file if on the different files, rank if on different ranks)
P moves:
B moves:
Q moves:
N moves:
R moves:
K moves:
Move
e4
Bc4
Qd4
Nc6
Rel
Kg 2
Capture
exds
Bxc4
Qxd4
Nxh 8
Rxes
Kxh 2
Check
e7+
Bc4+
Qd4+
Nf2+
Re8+
Ke3+
Both
exf7+
Bxc4+
Qxd4+
Nxf2+
Rxe8+
Kxe3+
Special moves
e8=Q promotion, exd6(e.p.) en passa nt
(pieces on same file) (pieces on same rank)
Nfe8
N6bS
Rhes
R8es
o-o short castle
o-o-o long castle
Order of Operations & Notation Tip-Sheet
1. Think
a. Opponent's Move? (What did my opponent just accomplish ?)
b. Analysis ... (What threats and tactics exist? What is the position ?)
c. Candidates? (What are my candidate moves?)
d. Best? (What's my best move?)
e. Double Check {Will that move lead to a problem, tactical or otherwise?)
f. Decide (Decide on the right move)
2. Make the Move
3. Press the Clock
4. Notate Correctly
s. The Opponent Moves
6. The Opponent Presses the Clock
1. Notate the Opponent's Move
8. Repeat ...
308
A p p e n dices
A n swe rs to Exe rc i ses
The Board
1. sta r - dS; cross - g S
2 . stars - b-file (b1-b8); crosses - h 3-c8 diagonal (h 3, g4, fS, e6, d7, c8)
3. stars - rank 3 (a3-h 3); crosses - aS-d8 diagonal (aS, b6, c7, d8)
4. sta r - square b3; b-file, rank 3 (White's 3rd rank, Black's 6th rank), d1-a4 diagonal, a2-g8
diagonal ; White's queenside flank
cross - square f7; f-file, rank 7 (White's 7th rank, Black's 2nd rank), h 5-e8 diagonal, a2-g8
diagonal ; Black's kingside fl ank
s. sta r - square g2; g-file, rank 2 (White's 2nd rank, Black's 7th rank), f1-h 3 diagonal, h 1-a8
diagonal ; White's kingside flank
cross - square dS; d-file, rank 5 (White's sth rank, Black's 4th rank), a2-g8 diagonal, h 1a8 diagonal ; centre square, black territory, queen side
6. sta r - square e6; e-file, rank 6 (White's 6th rank, Black's 3rd rank), a2-g8 diagonal, h 3 -c8
diagonal; Black's territory, kingside, centre file
cross - square eS; e-file, rank 5 (White's 5th rank, Black's 4th rank), a1-h 8 diagonal, h2b8 diagonal ; centre square, black territory, king side
7. square g 2 ; g-file, rank 2 (White's 2nd rank, Black's 7th rank), h 1-a8 diagonal, f1-h 3 di­
agonal; White's kingside flank; holds the g-file and rank 2, 4 squares in Black's territory, 10
squares in White's territory
8. square d4; d-file, rank 4 (White's 4th rank, Black's sth rank), a1-h 8 diagonal, g 1-a7 di­
agonal; centre square, white territory, queenside; h olds c2, b3, bS, c6, e6, fs, f3, e2, 4
squares in Black's territory, 4 squares in White's territory
9 . square a3; a-file, rank 3 (White's 3rd rank, Black's 6th rank), c1-a3 diagonal, a3-f8 diago­
nal ; White queen side flank; holds c1-a3 and a3-f8 diagonal s, 3 squares in White's territory,
4 squares in Black's territory.
The Pieces
1. The knight can move to b4, b6, c7, e7, f4, e3. It can capture on f6.
2. The bishop can move to bl, c2, e4, fs, g6, h7, c4, bS. It can capture on a6.
3. The rook can move to c3, d3, e3, g 3 , fl, f2, f4, fs, f6. It can capture on f7.
4. The queen can move to b3, b4, b6, b7, a4, c6, d7, e8, as, cs, dS, es, fs, a6, c4, d3. It can
capture on b8 and g s .
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Ch e s s Progress
s. The pawn can move to e6. It may be able to capture en passant at f6.
6. The pawn can promote on f8. It can capture and promote on e8.
1. The black rook can move to a8, b8, d8, e8, c7, c6, cs, c4, c3, c2, cl. lt cannot capture any
pieces. The white king can only move to fl. It can capture on d2.
8. The black knight can move to b4, a7, d8, e7, es. It can capture on d4. The white knight
can move to b4, cs, es, f4, e1. It cannot capture any pieces
9 . The black bishop can move to e8, e6, fs, g4. It can capture on h 3 . The white knight can
move to g S, h2, g l, el. It can capture on d4 and es.
Endga me
1. Check to the black king : white queen to c6, ds, e4, or e8; queen takes knight on a6; white
knight to f4 or cS; white rook to h6 or el.
Check to the white kin g : black knight to b4; black bishop to a4; black rook to f2; black
queen to h 2 or captures on d3.
2. Check to the black king : b2-pawn to b3; white rook captures on b4; white knight to d6 or
e3; white queen to g4, e2, e4, fl, or dS.
Check to the white king : black rook to dS; black queen to d7, d6, ds, e2, or el; black
knight to f2.
3. Check to the black king : white queen to f7 or captures on d2; white bishop to cs or h4;
white rook to f8 or h 2 .
Check t o the white king : black bishop t o as o r e3; black rook t o bl o r c 6 ; black queen to
g6; black king (discovered check from the black queen on g l) to f3, e2, el, fl, g 2, or g 3 .
4. White t o play - queen t o f8; Black t o play - bishop t o bS o r d S , queen t o c 7 o r a6.
s. White to play - rook to h8; Black to play - rook to dl.
6. White to play - pawn takes en passant on f6; Black to play - queen to hl.
1. Stalemate - queen to d6; checkmate - queen to b8.
8. Stalemate - bishop to b7; checkmate - bishop to bs.
9 . Stalemate - h 3 -bishop to e6; checkmate - queen to fs or h3-bishop to g2.
Notation
1. Bxbs Re6
2. Rd8+ Bf8
3. Rxc8 Rf6
4. Rxc7 Rxc7
s. Qxc7 Qxg 2
6. Rdl Rxf2
1. Be2 Rxe2
8. Nxe2 Qxe2
Fundamental Elements of Chess
1. White - 7 pawn s, 2 rooks, 1 knight, 1 bishop (23 points).
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A p p e n dices
Black - 7 pawns, 2 rooks, 1 knight, 1 bishop (23 points)
2. White - 6 pawns, 2 rooks, 1 bishop, 1 queen (28 points)
Black - S pawns, 1 rook, 2 bishops, 1 knight, 1 queen (28 points)
3. White - 6 pawn s, 2 rooks, 1 bishop (19 points)
Black - 6 pawns, 1 bishop, 1 queen (18 points)
Answers will varyfor #4 -6, some key positional elements a re described below:
4. White - the white bishop is on open diagonals; the white knight is under attack and
holds bS together with the bishop; the c-rook is on an open file, and the f-rook is blocked by
the f-pawn but can move laterally.
Black - the black bishop is attacking the white knight and is under attack by the pawn;
the black knight is holding important central space; the black rook is on an open file and
the f-rook is blocked by the f-pawn but can move l aterally.
s. White - both rooks are holding the centre open files; the bishop is on the same diagonal
as the queen and h as movement back towards the king; the queen is supporting the bish ­
o p and h as a lot of free movement.
Black - the black rook is stuck in a corner but h as lateral movement; the queen doesn't
h ave much mobility but is supporting the light-squared bishop; the knight is under attack
and holding central space; the light-squared bishop is under attack on the same diagonal
as the king; the dark-squared bishop h as a lot of mobility and is under attack.
6. White - the rooks are lined up (forming a battery) on the e-file; the bishop is blocked,
though all the black pawns are targets on light squares; all the pawns are on dark squares.
Black - the black bishop has a lot of targets, no black pawns block it; the queen is semi­
mobile though it currently has no job.
1. White - NbS; Black - Bxc3, Ne4.
8. White - Bxe6+, Bxc6, Qxcs; Black - Bxds, Nas, Nes, Bb4, Bxf2+.
g. White - Re6+, Re8; Black - Qa8+, Bf2.
Opposition
1. White 2. White 3. White 4. White s. White 6. White 1. 1 Ke2
8. 1 Kd1
9. 1 Kf1
Ke4; Black - Kes
KdS; Black - Kc6
Kg 3 ; Black - Kc6
Kd6; Black - Kc2
Kb6; Black - Kfs
Ke2; Black - Kc7
Critical Squares and the Square of the Pawn
1. black a7-pawn - as, bS; white c3-pawn - bS, cs, dS; black dS-pawn - c3, d3, e3; white e2pawn - d4, e4, f4; white fs-pawn - e6, f6, g6; black g4-pawn - f3, g3, h 3 .
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C h e s s Progress
2. black as-pawn - a3, b3; black b4-pawn - a3, b3, c3; black c3-pawn - b2, c2, d2; white d3pawn - cs, dS, eS; white e4-pawn - d6, e6, f6; white fs-pawn - e6, f6, g6.
3. white b4-pawn - a6, b6, c6; white c6-pawn - b7, c7, d7; black e6-pawn - d4, e4, f4; black
f7-pawn - es, fs, g s .
4 . The white pawn can promote safely i f White has the move: 1 g 6 Kd6 2 g7 Ke7 3 g8=Q. It
cannot promote safely if Black has the m ove: 1 ... Kd6 2 g6 Ke6 3 g7 Kf7 4 g8=Q Kxg8.
The black pawn cannot promote safely if White h as the move: 1 g6 b4 2 g 7 b3 3 g8=Q b2
4 Qb3 b1=Q S Qxb1. But it can promote safely if Black has the move: 1 ...b4 2 g 6 b3 3 g7 b2 4
g8=Q b1=Q, and since both players have a queen, they will likely draw.
s. The white pawn can promote safely if White has the move: 1 f7 Kd6 2 f8=Q. It cannot
promote safely if Black h as the move: 1 ... Kd6 2 f7 Ke7 3 f8=Q Kxe8.
The black pawn cannot promote safely if White h as the move: 1 f7 KdS 2 f8=Q Kes 3 Qf3
and the white queen will be able to capture the pawn with the aid of the white king . Nor
can the black pawn promote safely if Black h as the move: 1 ... Kd6 2 Kc4 Ke6 3 Kd4 Kxf6 4
Ke4 Kg6 S Kf3 KfS 6 Kg 3 and White keeps the black king at bay, unable from reaching the
critical squares of his pawn.
6. The white pawn can promote safely if White has the move. 1 g4 cs 2 g S c4 3 g6 c3 4 g 7 c2
S g8=Q+. It cannot promote safely if Black h as the move: 1 ... Kb7 2 g4 Kc6 3 gS Kd6 4 g 6 Ke6
S g7 Kf7 6 g 8=Q+ Kxg 8.
The black pawn cannot promote safely if White h as the move. 1 g4 cs 2 g S c4 3 g6 c3 4
g 7 c2 S g8=Q+ Kb7 6 Qg 2+ (forking the black king and pawn) 6 ... Kb6 7 Qxc2. Nor can it
promote safely if Black has the move: 1 ... cs 2 Kg 1 c4 3 Kf1 c3 4 Ke1 c2 s Kd2 c1=Q+ 6 Kxc1.
7. 1f White has the move, White is better: 1 Kf4 Ke6 2 Kg s Kf7 3 KfS (taking the opposition
and the critical squares) 3 ... Kg7 4 Ke6 Kf8 S f4 Ke8 6 fs Kf8 7 Kf6 Kg8 8 Ke7 Kg 7 9 f6+ Kg8 10
f7+ Kg 7 11 f8=Q+ and White will win.
If Black h as the move, neither side is better because Black can force the draw: 1 ... Kes
(taking the opposition and critical squares).
8. If White has the move, White is better: 1 eS+ fxes+ 2 Ke4 bS 3 b4 a6 4 a3 Ke7 (Black is
forced to leave the defence of the es-pawn) S Kxes Kf7 6 f4 Ke7 7 g4 Kf7 8 gS and White
will win, since Black will be forced to leave the defence of his e6-pawn to stop the white g­
pawn from promoting at once.
If Black has the move, White is still better due to his extra pawn : 1 ... es+ 2 Kc4 a6 3 a4
Kc6 4 b4 bS+ S Kb3 Kd6 6 as Ke6 7 Kc3 Kf7 8 Kd3 Ke7 9 f4 exf4 10 gxf4 Kd6 11 Kd4 and Black
is forced to abandon the defence of one side of the board. so White will be able to promote
at least one pawn.
g. If White has the move, White is better: 1 h 6 a2 2 h 7 a1=Q 3 h8=Q+, skewering the black
king and queen. Black must respond to the check by moving the king off the diagonal, after
which White will capture the black queen and then win with king-queen vs. king .
If Black h a s the move, Black is better: 1 . . .a 2 2 h6 a 1 = Q 3 h 7 Ke4, opening the a1-h 8 di­
agonal so the black queen now prevents the white pawn from promoting, and Black will
soon capture the pawn and then force the win .
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A p p e n dices
Pawn Structure
Answers in this section may vary. The responses provided below include many of the key ele­
ments that should be considered when noting pawn structure and its influence on material.
1. White h as 2 pawn islands (pawns on the c- to h-files and 1 isolated a-pawn ) , a pawn
chain (e2-d3-c4) , no backward, doubled or passed pawns.
Black has 2 pawn isl ands ( a-b-c files and e-f-g-h files ) ; the c-pawn will be difficult to
connect because of the advanced white a-pawn.
2. White h as 2 pawn isl ands ( a-b files and e-f-g files ) ; the a- and b-pawns are connected;
the f-pawn is backward.
Black has 2 pawn islands ( doubled and isolated pawns on the b-file and another island
on the e-f-g files ) ; the f-pawn is backward.
3. White h as 2 pawn isl ands ( a-b-c files and f-g files ) ; the b-pawn is backward, and the f­
and g-pawns are connected.
Black has 3 pawn islands ( a-b files, f-g files, and an isolated passed pawn on the d-file) ;
the a- and b-pawns are connected, and the f- and g-pawns are also connected.
4. The pawn structure leaves the b-file and d-file h alf open and open diagonal s on much of
the board. The king side is free of pawn clutter, but that m ay change. The queen side h as a
lot of pawn activity that can change. White h as more queen side space since his queen side
pawns h ave advanced further and restrict Black's queenside.
s. The pawn structure leaves the c-, d- and h-files open and the a-file h alf-open. Many of
the diagonal s are blocked. The king side is cluttered with pawns that will probably not
change, while the queen side h as pawns that m ay shift but are currently stuck in place. Nei­
ther side has a spatial advantage.
6. The pawn structure leaves the e- and h-files open and the c- and d-files h alf-open. The
a1-h 8 and b1-h 7 diagonal s are open, the rest are fairly blocked. Black h as a slight kingside
space advantage and White has a l arge queenside space advantage.
7. White's bl-rook is on a good file because there are no white pawns obstructing it, and
it's attacking the black b7-pawn . The fl-rook is blocked in, but it will be more mobile once
the queen moves. The white g2-bishop is well placed on an open diagonal and it also at­
tacks the b7-pawn. The d2-bishop h as a lot of mobility along the c1-h6 diagonal though the
knight blocks the el-aS diagonal. The c3-knight is currently obstructed by the black pawns,
but it can m anoeuvre behind them after moving to a4 or e4. The queen can move along the
d1-a4 diagonal, but otherwise is currently blocked in by White's pawns.
Black's b8-rook is on a good file because it defends the b-pawn and is prepared to be ac­
tive once the b-file opens. The f8-rook is currently blocked, but that can change l ater. The
black d7-bishop h as one diagonal to move along, and is blocked by the black e-pawn. The
e7-bishop h as one good diagonal and can m anoeuvre to stronger diagonal s if required. The
c7-knight is obstructed by black pawns and White's pawns. The black queen is blocked by
black pieces, but not by pawns.
8. White's rook is on a good open file, and it h as full l ateral mobility along the back rank, so
it can easily reach the open c- and h -files, or lend support on the h alf-open a-file. White's
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C h e s s Progress
bishop is a "good" bishop, but it is not currently well positioned; its best diagonal would be
the g 1-a7 diagonal where it would target the unprotected b6-pawn. In order to be more
effective, this bishop needs to be activated. The white knight is currently in a poor position;
it is attacking the unprotected bS-pawn, but other than that it h as no good squares. The
knight should look to post on the dS- or fs-square, ds being better because, from there, the
knight could also target Black's f-pawn. The white queen is currently stuck behind the
white pieces, but she's supporting the a-pawn. The queen could improve by finding a more
active line to occupy, perhaps the a2-g 8 diagonal.
Black's rook is on a good open file, and it has much mobility along the back rank to
reach the other open files or lend support if needed. The black bishop is a "bad" bishop, but
it is on its best diagonal, putting pressure on White's pawns. The black knight is ready to
leap into a post on d4 or f4 where it will control much of the space around White's king.
The black queen is currently positioned to attack White's pawn along the a-file, but other­
wise it is currently blocked from being fully mobile.
g, White's rook is poorly positioned behind a blocked pawn structure, though it has full mo­
bility along the back rank, so it can easily move to a stronger position. The white bishop is on
a strong open diagonal, but it has no good targets (it aim s at a6, which is protected) . The
white knight is near the side of the board and has little forward mobility. The white queen
has full mobility along the 2nd rank and is supporting the bishop on the b1-h7 diagonal; al­
though she is blocked from moving forward, she is in a strong supporting position.
Black's rook is on a strong open file and h as full mobility along the back rank to reposi­
tion, if necessary. The black bishop is slightly cramped and but h as the potential to find a
stronger position since the a4-e8 diagonal is open. The black knight is awkwardly posi­
tioned with no prospects for repositioning strongly within the next several moves; al­
though it is centrally placed, the pawn structure prevents it from finding a better position.
The black queen is on an open file, potentially vulnerable to tactics, though she can easily
reach the open long diagonal ( a1-h8 ) .
Weak Squares, Holes, a nd Outposts
1. bS - 1 white pawn, 1 black pawn currently holds, none can potentially hold; b4 - 1 black
pawn currently holds, none can potentially h old; e4 - 1 white pawn currently holds, 1 more
white pawn can potentially hold and 1 black pawn can potentially hold; es - no pawns cur­
rently hold, 2 white pawns and 1 black pawn can potentially hold.
2. d6 - no pawns currently hold, 1 white pawn can potentially hold; d3 - no pawns currently
hold, 1 black pawn can potentially hold; e6 - no pawn s currently hold, 1 white pawn can
potentially hold; e3 - no pawns currently h ol d, 1 black pawn can potentially hold; f4 - 2
black pawns currently hold, no other pawns hold or can hold; fS - 2 white pawns currently
hold, no other pawns hold or can hold.
3. c6 - 1 black pawn currently h olds, 1 white pawn can potentially hold; c7 - no pawns cur­
rently hold, 1 white pawn can potentially hold; d4 - no pawns currently hold, no pawns can
potentially hold; d3 - no pawns currently hold, no pawns can potentially hold.
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A p p e n dices
4. White: weak squares - d4, e3, f3; holes - a3, a4, b3, b4, c3, h3; outposts - b6.
Black: weak squares - bs, c6, ds, eS; holes - b6, d6; outposts - b4.
s. White: weak squares - all squares in White's territory h ave been weakened; holes - a4,
b3, c3, c4, d3, d4, e3, f4, g 3 , h3, h4; outposts - fs.
Black: weak squares - all squares in Black's territory h ave been weakened; holes - a6, c6,
d6, dS, e6, fS, g6, h 6, h S; outposts - c4, f4.
6. White: weak squares - all squares in White's territory h ave been weakened; holes - a3, a4,
b3, c3, c4, d3, d4, e3, g3, h 3, h4; outposts - b6, d6, h s .
Black: weak squares - all squares i n Black's territory h ave been weakened; holes - b6, d6,
e6, es, f6, fs, g6, h6, h S ; outposts - bs, c4, e3, g 3 , h4.
7. white knight - best square is b6 by way of Na4-b6; white dark-squared bishop - best
square is anywhere on the a1-h8 diagonal by Bc3 ( after Na4) ; white light-squared bishop ­
is already well positioned; black knight - best square is b4 by way of Ne8-f6-g4-eS-c6-b4;
black dark-squared bishop - best square is f6 by Bf6; black light-squared bishop - best
square is c6 by Bc6.
8. white knight - best square is ds by NdS; white bishop - best square is e3 by Be3; black
knight - best square is d4 by Nd4; black bishop - best square is d6 by Bd6 ( after Nd4) .
g. white knight - best square is fS by Nd4-f5 ( d4 is covered, but there is no other safe route ) ;
white bishop - best square is fs by BfS; black knight - best square is bs by Ne7-b5 ( after
Kc8 ) ; black bishop - best square is c6 by Bc6.
Open and Closed Positions
1. open files - g; half-open files - c, e, f, h ; closed files - a, b, d.
2. open files - e; half-open files - c, d, f, g; closed files - a, b, h .
3. open files - d ; half-open files - b , c , e; closed files - a , f, g, h .
4 . a3-f8, c1-h 6, dl-h S, h4-d8, h 3-c8.
s. c1-h 6, a4-e8, aS-d8, d1-a4, el-aS, h 3 -c8, h4-d8.
6. c1-h 6, dl-h S, h 3 -c8, h4-d8.
7. white knight - f6 by Nf3-h 2-g4-f6; white bishop - f3 by Bf3; black knight - c4 by Nd8-b7aS-c4; black bishop - gS by Bd8-g S.
8. white knight - dS by Nb4-dS; white bishop - b4 by Bd2-b4; black knight - cs by NcS; black
bishop - fs by Bfs ( after Ncs ) .
g. white knight - dS by Nf1-e3-d5; white bishop - e3 by Bc1-e3 ( after Nfl ) ; black knight - d4
by Nd7-f8-e6-d4; black bishop - e6 by Bd7-e6.
Principles of Trading Material
1 . Yes, White should trade pieces since White is u p a pawn and a knight. Trading the rooks
h ere helps White to increase his advantage.
2. Yes, White should trade the bishop for the knight because the knight is strongly placed,
influencing White's position . Trading the bishop for the knight would eliminate this
strongly positioned piece and trade it for White's bad bishop.
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C h e s s Progress
3. Yes, White should trade the bishops. White is currently very cramped and trading the
equal bishops will leave White with a little more space to m anoeuvre.
4. No, White should not trade the knights. Material is equal and h aving the extra piece on
the board will allow White to put more pressure on Black's position. Try 1 Nf6, attacking
Black's e8-rook.
s. No, White should not trade queens immediately. It would be better to offer the trade on
c4 with 1 Qc4+. If Black replies 1...Qxc4+, White can recapture with 2 bxc4, moving the
passed pawn onto the same file as the rook battery, creating a serious problem that Black
must defend. This m akes White's slight m aterial advantage stronger.
6. Yes, White should trade the bishops. This will remove the defender of the e6-outpost and
allow the white knight to occupy that outpost without being threatened by Black.
1. White should trade bishop for knight (1 Bxe4). This removes a powerful black knight
from the centre of the board, and it also sets up a tactical shot to win material : 1 Bxe4 Bxe4
2 Bf6 (attacking Black's queen and forcing him to defend) 2 ... Be7 (this blocks the rook from
defending on e4; but 2 ... Qd7 would be m et by 3 Nb6, forking queen and rook) 3 Nxe4, pick­
ing up an extra piece and defending the f6-bishop a second time.
8. White should trade the knights on f6. Since the white bishop also h olds f6, Black is forced
to take back 1...gxf6. In making this trade, White forces Black to weaken his pawn structure
while also allowing the white bishop to become more active. If White were to trade the
bishop for the knight, White would have to play a knight vs. bishop ending in which the
pawns will likely be traded, leaving the board more open, favouring the bishop. If White
fails to trade the material, Black will be able to move his knight to a strong outpost at ei­
ther g4 or c4 (after Nd7-b6) with a stronger g ame.
9 . White should trade the h4-bishop for the knight on f6. Black will be forced to recapture
with 1...exf6. That leaves White with a protected passed d-pawn. Moreover, after 2 Re1
Black will be forced to surrender the bishop for nothing or give White two connected
passed pawns after 2 ... Bxc6 3 bxc6, with an easy win in either case. If White were to trade
the c6-bishop for Black's e8-bishop, Black would have the chance to protect against White's
d-pawn (1 Bxe8 Kxe8 2 d6 Nd7).
Fundamenta l Defence
1. 2 pieces attack (black rook and bishop); 3 pieces defend (d2-knight, rook, and d3-pawn).
2. 3 pieces attack (white bishop and both rooks); 3 pieces defend (b8-rook and the a- and c­
pawns)
3. 4 pieces attack (black queen, bishop, knight, and rook); 4 pieces defend (h 3-pawn, both
white knights, and the queen)
4. The rook cannot escape since it is blocked in by the a2-pawn and the b1-knight; White
can remove the es-bishop with the f3-knight; White can block the attack by Nc3, Nd4, Qc2,
or Qc3 ; White can only defend the rook by playing Qb2 or Qc3, blocking the attack and de­
fending the rook, but also placing the queen in danger; White can counter by playing N g S
which threatens a checkmate (Qxh 7#).
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A p p e n dices
s. The white knight can escape with NgS, Nh4, Nd2, or Ne1; White cannot capture the e4bishop to remove the threat; White cannot block the attack since there is no space between
the attacker and attacked piece; the knight is already defended by the g 2-pawn, but White
can defend it again with Rc3, allowing White to recapture with the rook and keep the pawn
structure intact; White can counter with Rxcs+ (checking the king and attacking the rook)
or Nd2 (attacking the bishop).
6. The bishop can escape to bS, d3, e2, or f1; Black could remove the attack by capturing on
b3; Black cannot block the attack since there is no space between the attacker and attacked
piece; the bishop is already defended, but Black can defend the bishop again with Qbs or
Qb4; Black can counter with 1...d4; after the pawn exchanges, the bishop can then also es­
cape to dS or e6.
7. The bishop can escape to b3, c4, c6, e4, or e6; White cannot remove the attacking knight;
White cannot block the attack; White can defend the bishop with 1 c4, 1 Rd1, or 1 e4; White
can counter with 1 Bxb7, 1 Bxf7+, 1 e4, 1 g4, 1 Nd4, or 1 Nh4. I would move to escape the
attack with 1 Bc4 which also protects the threatened e2-pawn. Taking on b7 is tempting,
but it would open up another file for the black rooks to use which isn't so appealing at the
moment (it would give White something else to h ave to defend again st).
8. The rook cannot escape the attack; White cannot remove the attacking bishop; White can
block the attack with 1 Bb2, 1 c3, 1 Nc3, 1 d4, or 1 NeS; White cannot defend the rook;
White's only counter is to play 1 Bgs. I would play 1 BgS. With so few options, counter­
attacking might buy White enough time to move the bishop and the knight, allowing the
rook to escape along the back rank. White should h ave been more careful in making open­
ing moves so as not to reach this prickly position in the first place. White's best defence
would h ave been to be on guard earlier.
g. The rook can escape to a2, b2, c2, d2, e2, f3, g2, or h2; White cannot remove the attacking
pawn; White cannot block the attack; the rook is already defended once by the f1-rook and
cannot be defended a second time; White could counter with 1 Rxf4+ or 1 Rg 1 (preventing
the pawn from capturing on f2 because doing so would expose the black king to check). I
would play 1 Rg1, pinning the g 3-pawn against the black king. The rooks need to maintain
their position at the bottom of the board to prevent the black pawns from promoting, and
this might be the best way. After stopping the capture, White's best defence is to push his
own passed pawns forward, forcing Black to defend against a promotion as well.
The Pin
1. bishop - a1, a2, a3, b2, b3, b4, c3, d4, f4, g3, gS, h 2 , h4; rook - as, a6, bs, c6, c7, c8, e1, e2,
e3, e4, f1, f2, g 1, g2, g3, g4, gs, h6.
2. bishop - a3, a4, as, b4, bs, c6, gs, g6, h4, h s, h6; rook - as, a6, a8, bs, b8, c8, d1, d2, d3, d4,
es, fs, g s, h s .
3 . bishop - d 3 , d6, f3, g2, h 1; rook - b1, b 2 , b 3 , b S , b6, c8, d7, e 7 , f7, g 1, g2, g 7 , h7.
4. 1 Re1
s. 1 Bf6 or 1 Ba3
31 7
C h e s s Progress
6. 1 Qc4
7. 1 e4 or 1 Rd1
8. 1 Qxfs
9. 1 RfS
The Skewer
1. bishop - a2, a6, b3, c4, d7, e4, f3, fs, g2, h 1, h6; rook - b8, cs, es, e7, e8, fS, g 6, g 7, g8.
2. bishop - d8, e3, es, e7, f2, g 1, g 7, h8; rook - a4, b4, c4, d1, d2, d3, f4, fs, f7, g6, h6.
3. bishop - a4, b8, c7, d6, e8, f6, h8; rook - a7, b8, c1, fs, g s , g8, h s , h7.
4. bishop - a4, bs, c1, ds, e4, g 2 ; rook - a4, a7, b4, b7, c4, c7, c8, d6, e6, f1, f2, f6, g 3 , g4, g6,
h 3, h4, h6.
s. bishop - a2, b3, b8, c1, c3, c4, c7, d4, d6, e4, f3, f4, f6, g 2, h 1; rook - a2, a7, b7, c7, d7, e1, e2,
e3, e4, e7, fs, f6, f7, g s , g6, h s, h6.
6. bishop - a4, aS, b1, bs, b7, c8, d4, e3, f2, g1; rook - a2, as, a7, b2, bs, b7, c3, c4, c7, d6, d8,
e6, f6, g 6, h 1, h4, h6.
7. 1 Rh8+
8. 1 Bf3
9. 1 Bd7+
The Fork
1. bishop - bS, c2, c4, c6, d1, dS, d7, e4, e6, f7, g 6, hS; rook - a3, as, a7, aS, b4, bS, b6, b8, c3,
c7, d3, d7, e3, e4, e6, e7, f4, fs, f7, f8, g3, g4, g S, g 7, h 3, h4, hS; queen - a1, a2, a3, as, a6, a7,
aS, b1, b2, b4, bs, b6, b8, c2, c3, c4, c6, c7, c8, d1, d3, d4, ds, d7, e2, e3, e4, e6, e7, f4, fs, f6, f7,
f8, g2, g 3 , g4, gS, g6, g 7, h 1, h 2 , h 3 , h4, h S, h8; knight - as, cs, d2, d4, d6, f6, g S ; pawn - f7;
king a3.
2. bishop - a4, c2, c4, c6, d1, d3, d7, e2, e4, e8, fs, f7, g4; rook - b4, b6, cs, c6, d3, d6, e3, es, fS,
f6, g 3 , g S, h 3 , h6; queen - a4, as, a6, b1, b2, b4, b6, b7, c2, c4, cs, c6, c8, d1, d2, d3, d4, d6, d7,
e1, e2, e3, e4, es, e8, f1, fs, f6, f7, g2, g 3 , g4, g s , g 7, g8, h 1, h 3, h 6, h 7, h8;
knight - cs, c7, d2, d4, es, e7, f4, f6, f8, g S, g 7, h4; pawn - C4, fS; king - none.
3. bishop - b6, b8, c3, d3, d4, dS, d6, e2, e4, e6, h S; rook - a2, a3, a4, as, a6, b3, b4, bs, b6, b7,
c2, c3, cs, c6, d7, e2, e3, e4, e6, e7, f2, f4, fs, f6, g2, g3, g4, gS, g7; queen - a1, a2, a3, a4, as,
a6, a8, b1, b3, b4, bS, b6, b7, b8, c1, c2, c3, cS, c6, d3, d4, dS, d6, d7, e2, e3, e4, e6, e7, e8, f1,
f2, f4, fs, f6, g 1, g2, g 3 , g4, g s , g 7, g8, h2, h s , h7; knight - bs, c6, d2, d3, d6, g s , h4, h8; pawn ­
b6; king - c3, f4.
4. bishop - as, bs, c4, cs, c7, c8, d1, d2, d3, d4, ds, d6, d8, e1, e3, es, f2, f6, f8, g 3, g4, g s, h6;
rook - a2, a3, a4, a7, b2, bs, b7, c2, c4, c6, c7, d4, d6, e3, e4, es, f2, f3, f6, f7, g2, g 3 , g4, g6, h2,
h 3, h 6, h7; queen - a1, a2, a3, a4, as, a7, b2, bs, b7, b8, c1, c2, c4, cs, c6, c7, c8, d1, d2, d3, d4,
ds, d6, d7, d8, e1, e3, e4, es, f1, f2, f3, fs, f6, f7, f8, g 1, g 2, g 3 , g4, g s, g6, g8, h2, h 3, h s, h6,
h 7, h8; knight - a2, a4, c1, cs, c6, c7, c8, d3, d4, ds, fs, g 2, g6, h S ; pawn - f6, g3; king - b2, g4.
s. bishop - a4, as, c2, c3, c4, c7, d3, d4, d7, d8, e3, e4, es, f6; rook - b2, b4, b8, c2, c3, c4, cs, c8,
d3, d4, d6, d8, e2, e3, e4, es, e8, f2, f3, f6, f8, g2, g3, g4, g 6, g 8, h2, h 3, h4, h s , h6; queen - a2,
318
A p p e n dices
a4, aS, a6, a8, b1, b2, b4, b7, b8, c1, c2, c3, c4, cS, c7, c8, d1, d3, d4, d6, d7, d8, e1, e2, e3, e4,
es, e7, e8, f1, f2, f3, f6, f7, f8, g 1, g2, g 3 , g4, g6, g7, g8, h 1, h2, h 3 , h4, h s, h 6, h7; knight - as,
a7, b4, c3, c4, cs, c7, d4, d6, d8, e3, e4, e7, f3, f7, g 6, g7, h3; pawn - c4, e4; king - a6, b7, g4,
g6.
6. bishop - b3, b7, c6, d1, d3, d7, e4, e6, e7, fs, g4, g6, g7, g8, h3; rook - a2, a3, as, a6, a7, b8,
c3, c4, cs, c6, c7, d2, d3, d4, d6, d7, d8, e2, e8, f2, f4, fs, f7, g 3 , g4, g s, g6, g 7, g 8, h 2, h 3, h4,
h S, h6, h8; queen - a1, a2, a3, as, a6, a7, b2, b3, b4, bS, b7, b8, c3, c4, cs, c6, c7, d1, d2, d3, d4,
d6, d7, d8, e2, e4, es, e6, e7, e8, f2, f4, fs, f7, g 3 , g4, g s, g6, g7, g8, h 1, h 2, h 3, h4, h s, h 6, h8;
knight - b4, b6, c3, c7, d4, d7, e1, e3, e7, f4, g S, h4; pawn - b7; king - g 3 , g6.
1. 1 Nf6+
8. 1 Qas
9. 1 Bf4
Discovered Attack
1. 1 e7+
2. 1 Bf7+ or 1 Bf3+
3. 1 NhS+
4. 1 dxe7#
5. 1 Bxh7+
6. 1 es
7. The threatened discovered attack is for White to play NcS+, exposing the queen to attack
by the rooks. Black could defend against this threat by moving the queen. To this end any
of es, e7, dS, g8 and h 3 are okay, but not e8, dS or fs due to the forking Nd6+. Alternatively,
Black could move the king, also defusing the threat since Ncs would no longer be check.
8. The threatened discovered attack is for White to play 1 NeS+, exposing the e8-rook to
attack by the bishop. Black could defend against this attack by moving the rook along the
back rank, with a8 being the most logical square. Alternatively, h e could move his king
away from the threatened check, perhaps to g 7.
g. The threatened discovered attack is for White to play 1 fxg S+, exposing the f8-rook to
capture by the white rook-rook battery. Black can defend against this by pushing 1 ... g4,
creating a second passed pawn on the king side. If White forces the issue with 2 fS (again
threatening the discovery), Black can escape the skewer with 2 ... Kg7. Now the discovery
h olds no threat because it does not come with check, and Black answers 3 fxg6 simply with
3 ... Rxf2+ 4 Rxf2 Kxg6, after which his outside passed pawns will win the game with careful
play by Black
Removing the Defender
1. White will h ave to remove the g 7-bishop; he can do this by first playing 1 h 6, attacking
the bishop and forcing it to abandon defence of the knight or be lost itself.
2. White will h ave to remove the b7-pawn; he can do this by first playing 1 Nxb7 which also
attacks the rook If Black plays 1 ... Rb8, to attack the knight, White can still capture 2 Bxc6 as
319
C h e s s Progress
this will protect the white knight (now on b7) at the same time.
3. White will have to remove the g4-knig ht, which he can do by first playing 1 Bxg4+.
4. White would like to play 1 Bd5+, forking the king and rook. White should first remove the
defender of d5 by playing 1 Rxe7. After 1 ... Bxe7 2 Bd5+, followed by 3 Bxa2, White's extra
pawns will prove decisive.
s. White would like to play 1 Rd8#, delivering a back-rank mate. White should first remove
the defender of the dB-square by playing 1 Qxb6.
6. White would like to play 1 Ne5+, forking the king and queen. White should first remove
the defender of the e5-square by playing 1 Bxg4.
7. 1 Rxe8 (removing the defender of the g 7-square). If Black takes the rook on e8, White can
deliver checkmate with 2 Qxg7#. If Black instead defends against checkmate, White can
retreat or exchange the rook, h aving gained a knight in the process.
8. 1 Qxg 6 (removing the defender of the h 8-square). If Black takes the queen on g6, White
can skewer the black king and queen with 1 Rh8+, regaining the m aterial he just sacrificed
on g6 and thereby winning a piece.
9. 1 Rxb5 (removing the defender of the d7-square). If Black captures the knight with
1 ... Nxb5, White can fork the black king and queen with 2 Nd7+. If Black escapes the fork
(perhaps 1 ... Kg7), White has simply won the bishop and should go on to win the game.
Combining Tactics
1. 1 Qh4 (threatening m ate on h7 and bishop-takes-rook) 1 ... Qh 5 2 Bxb5 Qxh4 3 gxh4 axb5
and White h as won the exchange.
2. 1 Rxg 5 wins a piece for nothing, because 1 ... hxg 5 would allow 2 Qh 3+ (forking king and
rook) 2 ... Kg 8 3 Qxc8+ (another fork, this time of king and knight) 3 ... Kh 7 4 Qxc6, winning
easily.
3. 1 Rc6+ Kd5 (not 1 ... Kxc6 because of 2 Ndxe5+ fxe5 3 Nxe5+ Kd5 4 Nxf7 and White is just a
piece up) 1 ... Kd5 2 Rxa6 and White has won a pawn.
4. 1 Ne4 (opening a discovery on the black queen and threatening a fork on f6) 1 ... Bb6
(Black tries to counter-attack) 2 Qc3 Bxd4 3 Qxd4 and Black must lose material.
s. 1 Nd6+ (double check on the king) 1 ... Kb8 2 Rxb7#.
6. 1 Nf6+ Bxf6 (forced) 2 Qxg 6+ (exploiting the pinned f7-pawn) 2 ... Bg7 (forced) 3 Qh 7#.
1. 1 Nf6+ (double check on the king) 1 ... Kh 8 2 Nf7# (or 2 Ng6#).
8. 1 Bh6 (attacking the rook, and exploiting the fact that 1 ... Nxh6 would remove Black's
defence of the e7-square, allowing the white knight to fork king and queen) 1 ... Re8 (pro­
tecting the e7-square and escaping the threat) 2 Bg7 (attacking the trapped h 8-rook)
2 ... exd5 3 cxd5 Qc7 4 Bxh 8 with a winning position for White.
9. 1 Rxe7 Kd8 (if 1 ... Nxe7 White can force checkmate by 2 Qxd7+ Kxd7 3 Bf5+ Ke8 4 Bd7+
Kd8 5 fxe7# or 4... Kf8 5 Bxe7#) 1 ... Kd8 2 Rxd7+ Kc8 (now if Black takes the rook then 3 Bf5+
Ke8 4 Bd7+ Kd8 5 Bxc6+ wins) 3 Rd8 Kxd8 (3 ... Rxd8 releases the pin on the white g-pawn,
allowing simply 4 gxf3) 4 Bf5+ Qxd1+ 5 Qxdl+ and White is winning.
320
A p p e n dices
Fundamentals of Openings
Answers in this section may vary... There are always several different moves that a re accept­
able in the opening. The solutions given below a re strong moves with some explanation. Your
answers may be different; what's important is that you 've selected moves based on the prin­
ciples of openings. Chances are, ifyou follow principle, your move is probably good. Of
course, after a little research you mayfind that you r move steps into a tactical problem or
isn 't strong for long-term strategic reasons, but every player begins learning about openings
byfirst making mistakes. Following the principles will help you develop a strong sense of
opening play while you move through a process of learning particular variations.
1. 1 Nc3 is one strong option here because it develops another piece, blocks the e1-a5 di­
agonal preventing Black from checking the white king, and moves a knight before a bishop.
Note that 1 Bxh 6 (attempting to weaken the black pawn structure following ... gxh 6), would
not be good because Black could first answer with 1...Qxb2, attacking the white rook in the
corner.
2. 1 Qc2 is one strong option here because it develops the queen, defends the C4-pawn, and
prepares for development of the white knight and bishop, as well as clearing the back rank
for the development of the rooks to the central files.
3. 1 Be3 is one strong option here because it develops the bishop, defends the knight, and
prepares to connect the rooks. Be3 also prepares to develop the queen to d2 where the
bishop and queen will form a battery along the c1-h 6 diagonal, possibly aiming to trade
the dark-squared bishops with Be3-h6.
4. 1 Bd3 is one strong option here because it develops the bishop, prepares to castle, and
prevents Black from playing ... Ne4, exploiting the pin on the white knight on c3.
l...ds is one strong response because it develops a pawn to the centre, attacks White's C4pawn, adds another attacker to the €4-square, and prepares the development of the Black's
light-squared bishop.
s. There are several strong options for White in this position ...
1 c3 is a strong option here (and my personal favourite) because it prepares for White to
build a strong centre by pushing the d-pawn to d4. It also prepares for the light-squared
bishop to retreat to c2 where it will work with the dark-squared bishop to control a l arge
swath of space on the king side. At first glance, this move might appear to block in the dark­
squared bishop and the queenside knight, but after d4 and the resulting exch anges, these
pieces will be freed up to move into the action.
l...ds is a strong response to 1 c3 because it immediately attacks White's centre, pre­
venting White from pushing d4 immediately. l...ds also attacks e4 while preparing the de­
velopment of Black's light-squared bishop which can look to pin the f3-knight from g4.
True, White can win a pawn with 2 exds Nxds 3 Nxes Nxes 4 Rxes, but after 4 ... c6 (defend­
ing the knight on dS), followed by ... Bd6 (attacking the white rook), Black h as a very active
game and can look to l aunch an attack before White has a chance to develop his queenside
pieces.
6. 1 Bh4 is a strong option in this position . It removes the bishop from attack and main-
321
Ch ess Progress
tains the pin on the f6-knight, which mean s the bishop stays active. Since all of White's
minor pieces are developed, maintaining the strength of the pieces should be good
enough. Trading the bishop for the knight with 1 Bxf6 is also okay; however, this is a com­
mittal move which leaves White with a single bishop and two knights versus Black's two
bishops and single knight. This is why I prefer 1 Bh4 to trading.
1...Bg4 is a strong response to 1 Bh4. It attacks the f3-knight by placing it in a pin, devel­
ops the light-squared bishop, and prepares to connect the rooks. There are other possibili­
ties, but I prefer 1...Bg4 h ere because it continues to develop pieces and complicate the po­
sition. The more complicated the position, the stronger my opponent must be in order to
meet my challenge. If I offer a trade (1...Be6, for example), White can exchange his bad
bishop for Black's good bishop. The trade eliminates these two pieces, m aking the position
slightly more simple and slightly more in White's favour. Another idea is to push l...g s, at­
tacking White's bishop again; however, this opens up tactical possibilities for White since
the black king is now much more exposed. Personally, I like to keep my king safe until later
in the game; with so m any pieces left on the board, it would be difficult to see my way
through the tactical complications. These are the reasons I personally choose simply to fol­
low principles and develop the light-squared bishop.
1. 1 Be3 is a strong option here because it develops the bishop, attacks the b6-knight, pre­
pares to develop the queen, and prepares to connect the rooks. This developing move gives
the dark-squared bishop strong mobility along two diagonals: c1-h6 and g 1-a7. It also
leaves open the possibility for the queen to move to d2 or c1 and form a battery, or for the
queen to develop to c2 or b3 where she will perform other tasks.
1...Be6 is a strong response to 1 Be3 because it, similarly, develops the light-squared
bishop, prepares for the queen to develop, prepares to connect the rooks, and prevents
White from developing the queen to b3.
8. 1 Nb3 is a strong option here because it develops the knight to a stronger square, attacks
Black's bishop, defends the d4-square (making 3 defenders of that central square), and pre­
pares to place a piece on the d4-square which can no longer be attacked by a black pawn.
Noticing that d4 is now an outpost is critical in making the choice to play Nb3. Though the
white knight is moving a second time, Black is forced to defend the bishop, so the tempo is
regained. When playing Nb3 with tempo, White is also gaining the strength of the d4-square.
In this case, breaking the principle of moving a piece twice is well worth it.
1...Bb6 or 1...Bd6 are both strong responses to 1 Nb3. Black must defend the bishop, so
retreating it to one of these two squares is ideal. Playing ... Bd6 places the bishop on a
strong diagonal aimed at the white king (attacking the king position), while preparing to
create a battery with the black queen. Playing ... Bb6 m aintains the bishop's position on the
g 1-a7 diagonal while preventing the white knight from moving to as. In fact, ... Bb6 ensures
that Black h as some control over every forward square for White's c3-knight. Playing ... Bb6
also h as the added benefit of watching over the d4-square; whereas ... Bd6 admits defeat on
that square, conceding it to White while m aking a strategic decision to pursue White along
other lines. In this event ... Bd6 assumes that Black can attack White in ways that render the
322
A p p e n dices
d4-post relatively unimportant since Black can just work around it.
9. 1 BbS+ is a strong option here. White has succeeded in getting more of his pieces devel­
oped more quickly than Black, and White can keep the initiative by playing actively. Check­
ing the black king ignores the threat on White's c3-pawn for the moment in favour of forc­
ing Black to respond to the tempo-gaining BbS+. This is a common idea in openings: a
player who gains a lead in development can best capitalize on this advantage by playing
actively.
Black cannot defend with 1 ... Nc6 because White could just take the knight with 2 Nxc6
bxc6 (or if 2 ... Qxbs then 3 Qd8#) 3 Bxc6+, forking the black king and rook.
If Black defends with 1 .. Bd7, White can keep up the pressure by taking on f6 (2 Bxf6),
Black must respond with 2 ... gxf6 (otherwise h e loses material), when White can defend the
light-squared bishop with 3 Qb3, thus adding a second defender to the bishop which is
currently attacked twice. This ensures that if Black captures with ... Bxbs, White can recap­
ture Nxbs, threatening a fork (NC7+) which forces Black to defend the C7-square. By taking
on f6, White h as succeeded in affecting the black pawn structure, ensuring that the black
king cannot castle safely in either direction (since the queen side is already wide open).
If Black defends with 1 ... Nbd7, White can again continue 2 Bxf6, aiming to weaken
Black's pawn structure. In this case, Black can try to grab the initiative with 2 ... Qxc3+ which
forces White to play 3 Kfl, and Black h as succeeded in eliminating White's chances of cas­
tling . After capturing 3 ... gxf6, Black's castling doesn't look so good either, but Black h as
succeeded in sticking White with the same problem and does currently h ave an extra
pawn. Here White might continue with 4 h4, aiming to develop the king's rook unusually
via h 3 .
This final opening position is rather complicated, but i t shows very well how tempo and
initiative come into play in the openings, something that newer players tend to forget or
ignore. Again, following the principles can h elp any player wade their way through any
opening, no m atter h ow complex it might appear at first glance.
.
323
G l o s s a ry
Adjust - when a player adjusts a piece on the board, not making a move. The player must
announce his intention to adjust the piece prior to touching it.
Analysis - often refers to breaking apart a position, a series of moves, or a game into man­
ageable portions.
Attack - 1. when one piece is threatening another piece, when one piece can take another
on its next move; 2. when one player h as several pieces working together to work against
his opponent's position.
Battery - when two pieces are acting on the same line: two rooks on the same file, a queen
and bishop on the same diagonal, etc.
Bishop - a minor chess piece resembling a bishop's h at, moves diagonally over the board.
t
t
Bad Bishop - a bishop that is blocked in by its own pawns on its own colour squares
and has few enemy pawns on the same colour that it can target for attack.
Good Bishop - a bishop that is not blocked in by its own pawns and h as enemy
pawns on the same colour squares that it can target for attack.
Block (Interpose) - when a player moves a piece in a line of attack, blocking that attack.
Blunder - to make a glaring error; such as losing a piece for no trade in material.
Candidate Moves - moves that a player will consider prior to making a final decision re­
garding which move to play.
Castling - a special move using the king and rook: the king moves sideways two squares
and the rook moves to the square the king skipped over.
324
G l o s s a ry
Centre - the four central squares on the board: e4, es, d4, dS; "the centre" often refers to
these four squares and the squares immediately surrounding them.
Check - when a king is under attack.
1
1
Double Check - when two pieces are simultaneously attacking a king .
Perpetual Check - when one player can place the opponent king in check re­
peatedly without end.
Checkmate - when a king is under attack and the player cannot end the attack.
Chess Board - the 64 alternating light and dark squares on which the game of chess is
played.
Counter-attack - when a player is under attack and, rather than defend, attacks his oppo­
nent.
Critical Squares - the squares a king needs to reach in order to ensure protection of a pawn
all the way to its promotion square.
Development - the amount and quality of chess pieces on the board; whether the pieces
h ave moved, from their starting squares, to a location where they are influencing the
game.
Diagonals - lines of connected squares moving diagonally across the board.
Discovered Attack - an attack that is opened up by a piece moving off of a line of attack.
Draw - when a chess game cannot reach a definitive conclusion; a tie.
1
1
1
by Agreement - when a player offers a draw to the opponent and the opponent
accepts, thereby declaring the game as drawn.
by Insufficient Material - when neither player has sufficient m aterial ever to de­
liver a checkmate.
by Threefold Repetition - when the exact same position is repeated on the
board three times, these repetitions need not be contiguous.
Endgame - the portion of a chess game where the conclusion of the game is imminent.
Files - lines of connected squares running vertically across the board, from one side to the
other; named with lowercase letters.
325
Ch ess Progress
Closed File - a file containing pawns of both colours.
Half-Open File - a file containing a pawn (or pawns) of only one colour.
Open File - a file containing no pawns.
1
1
1
Flanks - the sides of the board away from the centre, usually referred to as the king side or
queen side flanks.
Fork - when a single piece attacks two opposing pieces simultaneously.
Hole - a square that h as no pawns of a certain colour holding it, nor can have any pawns of
that colour hold it.
Initiative - when one player's moves force the opponent to respond.
Kibitz - giving or receiving advice, suggestions, or insight about a game in progress.
King - the main chess piece; moves one square in any direction, usually has a crown with a
cross on top of it; the goal of the chess game is to capture all of the space that the king holds.
Kingside - the e-, f-, g-, and h-files; the four files on the same side of the board where the
king starts.
Knight - a minor chess piece; moves in an "L" shaped motion; usually resembles a horse.
Lines - a series of connected squares.
Major Pieces - the rooks and the queens, the stronger pieces on the board; stronger be­
cause they can transverse the entire board.
Material - chess pieces and their strength .
Material Value - an approxim ate point calculation based on the strength of the piece:
Pawn 1 Bishop & Knight 3 Rook 5 Queen 9
=
,
=
,
=
,
=
.
Middlegame - the portion of the game after the opening moves (which are often memo­
rized and based on theory) and before the endgame (where the conclusion of the game is
near at h and.
Minor Pieces - the bishops and the knights, the weaker pieces on the board; weaker be­
cause, although they can move across the board, they are restricted in some way: bishops
are limited to only one colour square and knights are restricted by their short moves.
326
G l o s s a ry
Mobility - the ability of a chess piece to move around the board.
Move - when a player h as taken a piece from one square and placed it on another.
t
t
t
Completed Move - when a player h as moved a piece and completed his turn by
pressing the chess clock.
Determined Move - when a player h as moved a piece, removed his h and from
the piece, but h as not yet completed his turn by pressing the clock.
Have the move - when it is a player's turn to m ake a move on the board, that
player is said to "have the move".
Notation - the recording of chess moves, based on the names of the pieces and the co­
ordinates related to the files and ranks.
Opening - The beginning portion of the game, when players are developing their pieces
and preparing their position for attack and defence in the middlegame.
Opposition - when the two king s are one square apart, the king who does not h ave the
move has the opposition because that player can prevent the other king from advancing.
Outpost - a square on the board that h as no pawn s of one side holding it, nor able to hold
it, while a pawn of the opposing side does; for instance, if no white pawns hold or can hold
the c4-square, but a black pawn does, then the c4-square is an outpost for Black.
Pawn - the smallest piece on the chess board; each player begins with eight of them, one
on each square of the player's second rank; pawns move forward one square at a time ­
except on the first move, when they can advance two squares - and they capture one
square diagonally forward.
t
t
t
En Passant - a special pawn move used to capture an enemy pawn advancing
two squares (on its first move) through the pawn 's capturing square; for in­
stance, a black pawn advancing from f7 to fS might be captured en passant on
f6 by a white pawn on es.
Promote - a special pawn ability, such that when a pawn reaches its 8th rank,
that pawn can promote to a minor or a major piece.
Underpromote - when a player promotes a pawn to something less that a
queen.
32 7
C h e s s Progress
Pawn Structure - the l ayout of the pawns .
.t
.t
.t
.t
.t
.t
Backward Pawn - a pawn that is behind the pawns next to it and cannot move
forward safely .
Double Pawn - when two pawns of the same colour occupy the same file .
Isolated Pawn - a pawn with no pawns of the same colour on adjacent files .
Passed Pawn - a pawn with no enemy pawns holding any space in front of it .
Pawn Chain - a series of pawns hol ding each other via their diagonal capturing
squares .
Pawn Island - a group of pawns on adjacent files.
Pin - a position where an attacked piece is on the same line of attack as a piece of greater
value, making the piece of lesser value unwilling or unable to move.
Position - the layout of the chess pieces on the board; a player's position is the layout of his
chess pieces and the influence of the opponent's position on his own .
.t
.t
Closed Position - when many pawns are locked together, unable to move for­
ward, blocking lines .
Open Position - when pawns are not locked together, h ave been traded, or are
dynamic, leaving the lines open.
Queen - a major chess piece with a crown on top; moves in straight lines along ranks, files,
or diagonals.
Queenside - the a-, b-, c-, and d-files; the four files on the same side of the board where the
queen starts.
Ranks - lines of connected squares running horizontally across the board; named with
numbers 1-8.
Player's Rank - the distance of the rank from the player's perspective (1st rank is clos­
est, 2nd rank is next, 3rd rank is next, etc).
Ratings - a numeric system designed to predict the playing strength of players, and thus
predict the likely outcome of a game between two players.
Removing the Defender - a tactic where a player attacks, captures, or otherwise forces a
piece defending his target to move away, thereby allowing the player to accomplish his
goal.
Resign - when a player forfeits the game.
328
Gloss a ry
Rook - a m ajor chess piece, often resembles a castle tower; moves in straight lines along
ranks or files.
Skewer - a tactic where an attacked piece is on the same line as a piece of lesser value; the
piece of greater value is forced to move away, exposing the piece of lesser value to attack.
Skittles - skittles games are unofficial games played at a tournament, or casual games be­
tween players; the skittles area is the area at a tournament where official games are not
being conducted, an area where players can relax, play games, analyse games, practice, or
converse between rounds.
Spectator - a person who is not involved in a chess g ame; an observer of a game.
Square of the Pawn - the imaginary box created by the square of the distance a pawn h as
to travel to reach promotion.
Square - each individual playing space on the chess board; h alf are light and half are dark.
Stalemate - a final position where one player h as no legal moves to m ake, and without the
king being in check; scored as a tie.
Tactic - a method of using pieces in specific ways to accomplish certain goals.
Tempo - a h alf-move; one player's turn.
Tension - when two pieces attack each other.
Territory - the first four ranks for each player; white territory consists of ranks 1, 2, 3, and 4,
and black territory consists of ranks 5, 6, 7, and 8.
Tie-Break - a system used to calculate which player h as performed better, and therefore
finished higher, between two players with the same competition win /loss score.
Time - the calculation of how many moves a player will use to accomplish a certain goal.
Time Control - the amount of time allotted to the player on the chess clock prior to begin­
ning a game of chess (including any delay or bonus time settings).
t
t
Blitz - a game of less than 15 minutes.
Bronstein Delay - a specific type of delayed time control that adds back a cer­
tain amount of time at the end of each turn.
329
C h e s s Progress
t
t
t
t
t
t
Bullet - a game of less than 5 minutes.
Fischer Delay (Increment) - a specific type of delayed time control that adds a
certain amount of time at the end of each turn.
Hourglass - a type of time control that m aintains an exact amount of time
traded between the players on each move.
Rapid - a g ame of less than 60 minutes.
Simple Delay - a specific type of delayed time control that delays the start of
the clock at the beginning of a player's move.
Sudden Death - a type of time control that begins with a specific amount of
time, and all remaining moves must be m ade in that time or else the player
loses the game.
Time Trouble - when a player h as less than 5 minutes of time remaining on his clock, either
until the end of the game, or with several moves to make before reaching the time control.
Touch Move - a rule stating that when a player touches a piece, he must move that piece
and cannot change pieces.
Touch Take - a rule stating that when a player touches an opponent's piece that can
legally be captured, he must capture that piece.
Tournament - a competition whose goal is to determine a single best player as winner.
t
t
t
t
Elimination - a tournament style where, when players lose, they are eliminated
from the tournament.
Round Robin - a tournament style where each player plays every other player,
one round at a time.
Swiss System - a tournament style where players are grouped and paired in
each round according to their accumulated points thus far in the tournament.
Team a tournament style where players compete as part of a team group for
an overall team score.
-
Weak Square - a square that h as a reduced strength due to a pawn no longer being able to
hold the square.
Zugzwang - when a player h as the move but would rather not, because every possible
move weakens or damages his position.
Zwischenzug - an in-between move; a move that can be played prior to m aking an antici­
pated move such as a capture.
330
In dex
Adjust 2 5 8, 324
Analysis 261, 263, 269, 324
Attack 19, 24, 29-38, 44, 50-54, 61-62, 67, 89, 91-97, 125-127, 13 3-138, 143-147, 150, 159,
162-166, 174-179, 183-185, 188, 194, 200, 205-207, 212-249, 269-277, 285, 324
Backward Pawn 125-127, 135, 153, 3 2 8
Bad Bishop 91, 147-148, 153, 2 7 3
Battery 274-276, 324
Bishop 3 7-38, 75, 90, 91, 147-148, 1 50-153, 300, 302, 3 24
Blitz 259, 284, 329
Block 52, 61, 159, 175, 177, 188, 324
Blunder 269, 277-286, 324
Bronstein Delay 260, 304, 329
Bullet 2 59, 330
Candidate Moves 278, 279, 282, 3 24
Castling 3 3 -34, 77, 239, 243-245, 2 5 8, 299, 324
Centre 20-21, 2 3 8, 243, 245, 325
Check 30-3 1, 34, 51-53, 61, 77, 299, 325
Checkmate 30-31, so, 54-62, 77, 98-100, 299, 325
Chess Board 14-24, 3 2 5
Chess Pieces 29-41
Clock 2 58-260, 279-284
Closed File 2 1-22, 301
Closed Position 22, 143-153, 301
Completed Move 3 2 7
Counter-attack 178, 3 2 5
Critical Squares 114-120, 3 2 5
Cumulative Tie-Break 265
Defend 174-179, 302
Determined Move 327
Development 234-249, 325
Diagonals 15-16, 3 7, 145-153, 298, 325
Discovered Attack 159, 212-216, 303, 3 2 5
33 1
Ch ess Progress
Double Check 53, 213
Doubled Pawn 125, 153, 301, 328
Draw
by Agreement 66, 299, 3 2 5
by Insufficient Material 6 7 , 261 299, 3 2 5
by Threefold Repetition 69, 299, 3 2 5
Elimination 264, 3 0 5 , 3 30
En Passant 42-44, 77, 299, 3 2 7
Endgame 3 2 5
Escape 52-53, 1 7 5 , 188, 302
Files 14, 2 1-24, 75, 143, 298, 3 2 5
Fischer Delay (Increment) 260, 3 30
Flanks 2 1, 298, 3 2 6
Fool's Mate 60
Fork 200-207, 303, 326
Four Move Mate 60
Good Bishop 91, 147, 302
Half-Open File 2 1, 143, 301
Hole 13 3-138, 301 , 326
Hourglass 260, 304, 330
Initiative 96, 236, 3 2 6
I solated Pawn 125, 1 5 3, 274, 301, 328
Kibitz 261, 263, 305, 3 2 6
King 29-30, 3 3-34, 50-65, 105-109, 271, 275, 298, 299, 3 2 5
Kingside 1 8 , 2 9 8 , 326
Knight 3 5-36, 75, 200, 298, 300, 3 2 6
Lines 14-16, 23, 143, 326
Major Pieces 3 1, 38, 271, 274, 305, 326
Material 66, 90, 160-168, 270, 326
Material Value 90, 2 70, 326
Median Tie-Break 265
Minor Pieces 3 5, 37, 90, 271, 274, 305, 326
Mobility 2 3 5, 3 2 7
Modified Median Tie-Break 2 6 5
Norms 2 6 6
Notation 7 5 - 8 3 , 283, 3 2 7
Open File 21, 143, 301
Open Position 22, 149-150, 302
Opening 2 3 3-254, 3 2 7
Opposition 105-109, 114-120, 300, 327
Direct Opposition 105
332
I n dex
Outpost 13 3-138, 152-153, 166-168, 301, 3 2 7
Passed Pawn 12 5-128, 153, 301, 3 2 8
Pawn 40-45, 298, 3 2 7
Pawn Chain 41, 124, 126-127, 153, 301, 3 2 8
Pawn Isl and 125, 1 2 6 , 153, 301, 3 2 8
Pawn Structure 124-128, 149, 153, 2 70, 274, 301
Perpetual Check 66, 70, 299
Pin 184-189, 302, 328
Planning 269-276, 305
Position 91, 300, 328
Prepare 2 3 6, 304
Presence 2 84, 286, 307
Prevent 2 3 6, 304
Promote 44, 77, 299, 3 2 7
Queen 38-39,5 5-56,62, 75, 90, 99-100, 243, 298, 300, 328
Queenside 18, 23, 298, 3 2 8
Ranks 14-15, 23, 298, 3 2 8
Player's Rank 14, 3 2 8
Rapid 2 59, 330
Ratings 266, 305, 3 2 8
Remove 52, 1 7 5 , 176, 188, 299, 302, 303
Removing the Defender 2 20, 303, 3 2 8
Resign 2 6 2 , 305, 3 2 8
Rook 3 1-34, 75, 90, 9 8 , 298-300, 329
Round Robin 264, 305, 3 3 0
Scoring 264, 305
Simple Delay 2 59, 304, 330
Skewer 194-195, 228, 303, 329
Skittles 329, 329
Smothered Mate 59, 213
Solkoff Tie-Break 265
Space 19, 23, 124, 134, 163, 298
Spectator 2 56, 262, 305, 329
Square of the Pawn 114-120, 301, 3 2 9
Squares 14-23, 298, 329
Stalemate 62-65, 70, 299, 329
Sudden Death 2 59, 304, 330
Swiss System 263, 305, 3 3 0
Tactic 184-233, 329
Team 264, 305, 3 30
Tempo 93, 244-245, 300, 329
Ch ess Prog ress
Tension 245-246, 329
Territory 19, 23, 91, 298, 329
Tie-Break 264-266, 305, 329
Time 90, 92-96, 126, 300, 329
Time Control 2 5 8-260, 305, 3 2 9
Time Trouble 260, 3 0 5 , 3 3 0
Titles 2 6 6
Touch Move 2 5 7, 330
Touch Take 2 5 7, 330
Tournaments 263-264, 330
Underpromote 44, 3 2 7
Weak Square 13 3-138, 301
Zugzwang 95, 300, 3 30
Zwischenzug 96, 300, 330
334