The Complete compeNdium of
Jain Temples Part I
Dr UDAY DOKRAS
Srishti Dokras, ARCHITECT.
INDO NORDIC AUTHOR’s COLLECTIVE
1
The Complete compeNdium of
Jain Temples-I
Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Horoscope Consultant Hindu Temple expert and ASTROLOGER
Srishti Dokras, ARCHITECT.
Visiting Architect Dubai,Australia & USA
Indo Nordic Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN, Tampere FINLAND and Nagpur INDIA
2
The Complete compeNdium of
Jain Temples
PART I
MichhaMiDukkadam
Because of our carelessness and lack of knowledge, we are sure we have made few
mistakes and might have hurt your feelings knowingly or unknowingly. Please
accept our sincere apology. MichchhaMiDukkadam. Please let us know about our
mistakes.udaydokras@gmail.com
Indo Nordic Author’s Collective. STOCKHOLM.SWEDEN
3
The Complete compedium of
Jain Temples
Part I
First Edition 2021
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Cost US $150. I N R 1500/- Euro 120
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Introduction 7
The Concept of God in Jainism Pravin K. Shah,Jain Study Center of North Carolinan 8
FOREWORD 12
Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture11
PART I INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I ,Architectural Commonality in different faiths in South Asia, by Julia A. B.
Hegewald 14
CHAPTER II- Temples Architecture of India 21
CHAPTER III-Introduction to Jain Architecture - Smt. Mamta Jain, 27
Ten Elements for East Window Architectural Ensemble of Jain Meeting Hall,John Guy 39
CHAPTER IV-Unique architecture and styles of JAIN TEMPLES 43
CHAPTER V-COSMOLOGY OF THE JAIN TEMPLE 85
Samavasarana In Jainism, 87
MANDALA ELEMENTS OF JAIN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE 93
MANDALA:Religious meaning 86
MANDALA AND HINDU & JAIN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE 96
Ranakpur Jain Temple Mandalas 99
Types of Jain Puja 105
THE PERFOECT EXAMPLE OF A HINDU TEMPLE AS A MANDALA ANGKOR WAT 112
Mandala in Meenakshi temple Madurai with biggest GOPURAMs in the world
Temple Structure 113
The Vastu Purush Mandala is a cosmic geometrical wond 125
PART II 128 Quintessential Architectural Characteristics of the Chaitralayas
CHAPTER VI- Quintessential Architectural Characteristics of the Chaitralayas- Jain
“Temples 130
TEMPLES OF JAIN RELIGION 136
Murtipujaka or 'image-worshipping 136
Proximity of Jain Temple Architecture to Hindu temples 137
Four sided form: Jain temple architecture 138
SYNTHETIC CHARACTER OF JAIN ARCHITECTURE 138
THE MEANING OF JAIN TEMPLES 139
Jain Vastu Shastra-Vriksharnava Shastra 141
The column-beam-corbel 142
Syādvāda, 142
Polygons 143
Similar mathematical ratios used elsewhere in ancient times: 4:6:9 Ratio 144
CHAPTER VII Jain Temples and their structural symbolism 155
CHAPTER VIII-JAIN Maṇḍapa-line temples- Julia A. B. Hegewald 158
Spatial layout of maṇḍapa-line temples 162
PART III- TEMPLE STRUCTURE AND ARCHITECTURE 169
CHAPTER IX- Elements of Indian temples 170
Vesara:. 171
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Dravida- 171
The term Shikara 171
Kalasa172 Jagati 172
Kalasa 172
Mukha —sala) 172
The doors of the temple 172
Pranala or water chute Taluka. 172
A Chandrasilis (Moon-Stones) Chandrasila—173
Canton Pillars 175
Tulasi 176
Diya Stambh 176
CHAPTER X Prakara 178
CHAPTERXI-The Jagatī or Vedī (Plinth) 188
CHAPTER XII-Sanctum sanctorum” or Garbagriha 200
Torana, also referred to as vandanamalikas 202
Garbagriha 205
Chandraprabhu Jain temple 207
CHAPTER XIII-MANDAPA or PORTICO 212
Porch 219
CHAPTER IX-Pillars of Jain Temple 223
IMPORTANCE OF LINES, DOTS IN JAIN ARCHITECTURE 223
The Grammar of Lines 224
Straight lines and rectilinear 232
The original architectural designs did not have any curved 232
The vertical line 232
Sacred Space in Ancient Indian Architecture:Form and Meaning by Ashish
Nangia 232
Equilibrium, instability, and load 242
Extensions 245
Foundations 245
Pillars of 15th century CE Jain temple of Ranakpur 252
Mysterious Pillar Placement 259
How Marble was polished in ancient times 268
CHAPTER X-Shikhara or Vimana of Jain Temples 272
Buddhist and Jain Architectural Developments 29
CHAPTER XI- THE GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE 290
Symbolism in Hindu Temple Architecture and Fractal Geometry – ‘Thought Behind Form’
Tanisha Dutta 314
6
I
N T R O D U C T I O N
Palitana Jain Temples/Jain Temple complex, Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, before 862
Jainism as an old religion in India has contributed to the architecture of India. Jain Art and
architecture developed during different period are seen in various parts of the country as well as
in Maharashtra. Different rulers rule the area in different period of time, as well as people from
different parts of the country migrated to Maharashtra during different periods of time. With
this, various types of architecture like cave architecture, various types of temple architecture
were developed from the 5th century to the 21th century, in almost all parts of Maharashtra.
These are developed as Jain
Tirtha Kshetras with tangible and intangible aspects associated with it and also they have
religious, historic, associational and cultural values attached to it. This book aims at
understanding various types of Jain architecture developed in Maharashtra from cave
architecture to temple architecture. It focuses on understanding the basic terminologies used in
Jain temple architecture. The study also focuses on the type of architecture developed in
different periods along with the architectural features and material used for construction. An
attempt is made to understand, changing character of Jain temple architecture as a religious
structure during this period. From the study it was found that, due to the change in social,
economic and political conditions, the Jain architecture developed with new concept and new
features.
Jain architecture developed in Maharashtra from 5th century and from then the architecture type,
it's planning, and material is also changed. This change is clearly noticed in all above examples
from Ellora caves, Anjaneri temples to recently constructed Shirdi temple. When divided into
regions, Marathwada and Western Maharashtra shows maximum development of Jain
architecture from ancient times, while Khandesh shows minimum and Konkan area shows no
development of Jain architecture. Vidarbha shows development of Jain architecture except cave
architecture. But with the change in time, new temples are getting built in all regions of
Maharashtra including Konkan. And they are constructed by using modern material, techniques
and planning concept.findings.Jain architecture changes from place to place and time to time.
7
Jain caves are seen in Western Maharashtra, Khandesh and Marathwada region constructed from
5th century to 13th century. Gajapnatha is a combination of cave temple as well.
There are 10 Jain temples in the city of Nagpur, Maharashtra State,India.Here in this book,
we study in details the architecture, art and infrastructure of 2 of the Jain Temples in
Nagpur. Both modern. We also travel to Ramtek to look at the 450 year old Rock temple of
Digambar Jains.This compendiummis divided into two parts due to its length and complexity.
The Concept of God in Jainism
Pravin K. Shah
Jain Study Center of North Carolina
Jainism believes that universe and all its substances or entities are eternal. It has no beginning or
end with respect to time. Universe runs own its own accord by its own cosmic laws. All the
substances change or modify their forms continuously. Nothing can be destroyed or created in
the universe. There is no need of some one to create or manage the affairs of the universe. Hence
Jainism does not believe in God as a creator, survivor, and destroyer of the universe.
However Jainism does believe in God, not as a creator, but as a perfect being. When a person
destroys all his karmas, he becomes a liberated soul. He resides in a perfect blissful state in
Moksha. He possesses infinite knowledge, infinite vision, infinite power, and infinite bliss. This
living being is a God of Jain religion.
Every living being has a potential to become God. Hence Jains do not have one God, but Jain
Gods are innumerable and their number is continuously increasing as more living beings attain
liberation.
Jains believe that since the beginning of the time every living being (soul) because of its
ignorance, is associated with karmas. The main purpose of the religion is to remove these karmas
which are attached to the soul and become liberated soul.
There are many types of karmas. However they are broadly classified into the following
eight categories: Mohniya karma
It generates delusion in the soul in regard to its own true nature, and makes it identify itself with
other external substances.
Jnana-varaniya karma
It covers the soul's power of perfect knowledge.
Darasna-varaniya karma
It covers the soul's power of perfect visions.
Antaraya karma
It obstructs the natural quality or energy of the soul such as charity and will power. This prevents
the soul from attaining liberation. It also prevents a living being from doing something good and
enjoyable.
Vedniya karma
It obscures the blissful nature of the soul, and thereby produces pleasure and pain.
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Nama karma
It obscures the non-corporeal existence of the soul, and produces the body with its limitations,
qualities, faculties, etc.
Gotra karma
It obscures the soul's characteristics of equanimity, and determines the caste, family, social
standing, and personality.
Ayu karma
It determines the span of life in one birth, thus obscuring soul's nature of eternal existence.
While travelling on the path of spiritual progress, a person destroys all eight types of his karmas
in the following sequence:
First Mohaniya (delusion), then Jnana-varaniya (knowledge), Darasna-varaniya (vision), and
Antaraya (natural qualities) all three together. At this time, he attains keval_jnan and he is known
as Arihant. Arihant is also known as Tirthankara, Jina, Arhat, Kevali, or Nirgantha.
Lastly the remaining four karmas namely Vedniya (pleasure and pain of the body), Nama (body),
Gotra (social standing), and Ayu (life span) are destroyed. At this time, he attains total liberation
and he is known as Siddha.
The first four karmas are called Ghati karmas because they obscure the natural qualities of the
soul. The last four karmas are known as Aghati karmas because they do not affect the qualities of
the soul, but they are related to the physical body of the soul. Once a person destroys all his
Ghati karmas, he will definitely destroy all of his Aghati karmas before his death. No fall back
can occur after the destruction of Ghati karmas.
Arihant:
9
When a person destroys his four Ghati karmas, he attains keval-jnana. He has regained the
original attributes of his soul, which are perfect knowledge, vision, power, and bliss. He is
omniscient of the past, present and future forms of all entities (living and nonliving beings) of
the universe. He is still a human being. He remains in the state of blissful condition for the rest of
his life. Arihants are classified into two categories:
 Tirthankar
 Ordinary-kevali
Tirthankar:
Immediately after attaining keval-jnana, if a person establishes the four-fold religious order of
monks, nuns, sravaks (male laypeople), and sravikas (female laypeople) is known as
Tirthankar. He preaches the Jain philosophy, religion, ethics, conducts to his followers.
Jainism believe that Twenty-four Tirthankars are born during each descending and ascending
part of the time cycle in this region (Bharat Kshetra) of the universe. No two Tirthankaras exist
at the same time. Generally a Tirthankara is born when the religion is at its depression state. The
new Tirthankar revives the same Jain philosophy. He gives a different form to the religion
practice depending upon the time, place, and the social behavior of the human society.
Example:
Lord Mahavir preached five great vows, while Lord Parshva preached four great vows. The vow
of celibacy was included in the non-possession category by Lord Parshav.
Ordinary_kevali
The only difference between Tirthankara and ordinary-kevali is that the latter does not establish
the religious order. He remains in the state of perfect blissful condition for the rest of his life
after attaining keval_jnan.
In the religious scriptures, the name Arihantas and Tirthankaras are interchangeably used
because ordinary-kevalis do not play any active roles in the religious order. Tirthankar is also
known as Jina, Arihant, Arhat, Arhant, or Nirgrantha.
Tirthankara:
Founder of four-fold order of monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen.
Jina:
One who has conquered his, inner passions such as desire and hatred.
Arihant:
One who has destroyed his inner enemies such as greed, anger, desire, and hatred.
Arhat:
One to whom nothing can be secret.
Arhant:
A spiritual acquirement leading a man to the state of an Arihant.
Nirgrantha:
A religion of One who has gotten rid of all knots or attachments.
Siddha
Both the Tirthankara and ordinary-kevali destroy the remaining four Aghati karmas at the end of
their present life. After their nirvan (death) all of them are known as Siddhas. They are totally
free and liberated. They are free from the birth and death cycle. They do not possess body. They
do not feel pleasure and pain, or joy and sorrow. They live in an ever-lasting blissful condition at
the top of the universe (Lokakas) known as Moksha.
10
The quality and attributes of all siddhas are same. However, they still maintain their unique
identity and form.
Example:
Lord Mahavir's soul as a siddha possesses the same qualities as of Shri Gautam Swami or Shri
Bahubali's soul. However their souls remain unique individual and have different forms.
Jain Gods:
Both Arihants and Siddhas are considered Gods of Jain religion. Arihats are perfect human
beings and preach the Jain religion to the people during their remaining life. After death they
become Siddhas. All Siddhas are perfected souls, living for ever in a blissful state in Moksha.
Question
In the Namokar Mantra we pray to the Arihants (Tirthankara) first and then to the Siddhas
second. Even though the Siddhas are perfected souls, have destroyed all (both Ghati and Aghati)
Karmas, and are at the highest spiritual stage. While the Arihantas have destroyed only four
Ghati Karmas and are at a lower (thirteen gunasthan) spiritual stage.
Answer
It is because Arihants after attaining keval-jnana (after destroying four ghati-karmas), establish
the four fold order of Jain religion. They preach the Jain philosophy, ethics and conduct. They
explain the path of liberation and the qualities of the perfected soul or Siddhas. Without the
teachings of Arihantas we would not have known Siddhas or liberation. For this reason we pray
Arihantas first and Siddhas second.
The Four-Fold order
Monks and Nuns (ascetics):
They practice self-control and have given up all desires and earthly possessions become the
spiritual practicer and teachers. They follow strictly five great vows (maha-vrats).
Sravaks and Sravikas (lay followers):
They are not required to renounce the world, but are expected to discharge household duties by honest
means and live a progressive pure life. They follow the twelve vows of lay people.
H e who knows the internal, knows the external and he who
knows the external, knows the internal. 7657 |
The Saman Suttam 19:257 In
this spirit we seek blessings for our AUTHORSHIP from all the Tirthankars.
Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Srishti Dokras, ARCHITECT.
Visiting Architect Dubai,Australia & USA
11
FOREWORD
Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple
architecture
Jainism vs. Hinduism
To outsiders, Hinduism and Jainism can often look very similar. The thousands of years Jains
and Hindus have lived among each other in India provided ample opportunity for mutual
influence. In fact, extended families can often have both Hindus and Jains as members. Let's take
a look at each of them before we highlight their similarities and differences.
Hinduism
As far as scholars can ascertain, Hinduism likely began before 2,000 B.C.E. when civilization
arose in the Indus Valley, but adherents claim their faith has always existed. Hindus believe in
the cycle of creation and destruction in all things and that God is a creator and destroyer with
many forms. Hindu gods are manifestations of this greater God that, in essence, is one with all
existence. They believe in karma as a spiritual force that binds with the soul through a person's
12
actions and that it continues with the soul from one life to the next through reincarnation.
Because life is often filled with suffering, they seek to step off the wheel of reincarnation to
reach paradise. For Hindus, when the soul is liberated from the cycle of death and rebirth, it
merges with the essence of God and becomes infinite.
Jainism
At one point, scholars believe Jainism developed out of Buddhism or as a reaction against
Hinduism. Today, after extensive research, they believe Jainism significantly predates Buddhism
while there remains much debate on whether Hinduism and Jainism developed around the same
time. However, the most recent of the 24 Great Teachers in Jainism, Mahavira, lived around 500
B.C.E. and set forth many of teachings still seen in Jainism today. He strongly opposed
Hinduism, its rituals, and the caste system, a social stratification based on inherited status.
Jains believe in extreme non-violence, going so far as to eat a strictly vegan diet and covering
their mouths to avoid inhaling a bug. They believe in karma and reincarnation, but believe a
person can reach liberation through enlightenment, freeing themselves from the cycle of
reincarnation and living forever in a paradise called moksha.
Similarities & Differences
The similarities between Jainism and Hinduism are, on the surface, numerous and likely come
from thousands of years of close contact. Both religions believe in reincarnation, the cycle of
rebirth into a new life after death in a previous one, and karma. Both practice vegetarianism and
meditation. Finally, both believe that a soul can be liberated from the cycle of death and rebirth
to live on in a paradise. However, on closer examination, even these similarities are quite
different in practice. Let's make that closer examination now.
Reincarnation and Karma
Jains and Hindus believe very different ideas about reincarnation and karma. For Hindus, karma
is an essence of transgressions to atone for or blessings to receive in the next life. For Jains,
karma is a kind of particle that attaches to the soul during each life. This means that while the
Hindus try to do the right things to atone for a spiritual debt, Jains follow practices intended to
purify the soul of a polluting force.
With these words I wish the authors well and seek blessings for their journeys ahead.
Kerry Penny
Contemporary British Artist UK
.
13
CHAPTER I
Architectural Commonality of Temples associated with
different faiths in South Asia
Contributed by Julia A. B. Hegewald
http://www.jainpedia.org/themes/places/jain-temples.html
Temples associated with different faiths in South Asia often share architectural elements and
display styles common in a region and historical period. Although Jain temples frequently share
the architectural and artistic elements found in temples of other religions, they are distinctively
Jain. Their religious buildings are specifically adapted to Jain spiritual ideas and ritual practices.
There are three striking features of Jain religious buildings. Firstly, there is usually more than
one shrine in a temple. Next, most are surrounded by additional buildings that form part of the
religious building. Lastly, temples are frequently clustered together to produce temple complexes
or ‘temple-cities’.
A Jain temple may be referred to by many different names. Terms for ‘temple’ used in early
Jainism were sometimes unclear because activities such as teaching, worshipping and residing
did not have special areas and often happened in the same place. As buildings and rooms in Jain
temples became dedicated to certain purposes over time, so the terminology became more
precise. The term used in the present day varies according to the region of India and the local
language. Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient
times Buddhist religious architecture. Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all
religions, and regional and period styles are generally similar. The basic layout of a Hindu and
most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary for the main murti or cult
images, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more larger mandapa halls.
The earliest survivals of Jain architecture are part of the Indian rock-cut architecture tradition,
initially shared with Buddhism, and by the end of the classical period with Hinduism. Very often
numbers of rock-cut Jain temples and monasteries share a site with those of the other religions,
as at Udayagiri, Bava Pyara, Ellora, Aihole, Badami, and Kalugumalai. The Ellora Caves are a
late site, which contains temples of all three religions, as the earlier Buddhist ones give way to
later Hindu excavations.
There is considerable similarity between the styles of the different religions, but often the Jains
placed large figures of one or more of the 24 tirthankaras in the open air rather than inside the
shrine. These statues later began to be very large, normally standing nude figures in the
kayotsarga meditation position (which is similar to standing at attention). Examples include the
Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments and the Siddhachal Caves, with groups of statues, and a
number of single figures including the 12th-century Gommateshwara statue, and the modern
Statue of Vasupujya and, largest of all at 108 feet (32.9 meters) tall, the Statue of Ahimsa.
Regional differences in Hindu temples are largely reflected in Jain ones, except that MāruGurjara architecture or the "Solanki style" has become to some extent a pan-Indian, indeed pan14
global Jain style. This is a particular temple style from Gujarat and Rajasthan (both regions with
a strong Jain presence) that originated in both Hindu and Jain temples around 1000, but became
enduringly popular with Jain patrons, spreading to other parts of India and the global Jain
diaspora of the last century. It has remained in use, in somewhat modified form, to the present
day, indeed also becoming popular again for some Hindu temples in the last century. The style is
seen in the groups of pilgrimage .
Jain temple or Derasar is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Jain
architecture is essentially restricted to temples and monasteries, and secular Jain buildings
generally reflect the prevailing style of the place and time they were built. There are numerous
different words among Jains for a temple. Those which derive from early texts, such as the
Jain Āgamas, can be quite vague. In the first centuries CE, the same term could be used to
describe cave temples and also the residence of an ascetic and a religious school, as the functions
were not clearly separated. Only during later centuries did a more precise set of terms develop,
when buildings were put up for specific purposes and followed distinctive layouts. These terms
describe and clearly distinguish among the individual buildings and their various roles.
A Jain temple is frequently called by the Sanskrit word caitya and its Prakrit version ceia, which
can also be used to describe a religious icon. An alternative word is the Sanskrit balānaka –
balāṇaya in Prakrit – which appears to describe only part of a temple structure. An expression
common throughout the south of India is paḷḷi. This can be used for a temple, the lodgings of
a nun, a cave and even a school. Another example of a word for a Jain temple that has other
meanings is vihāra, which can mean both a temple and a monastery.
In modern terminology, Jain temples in the south of India, particularly in Karnataka, are referred
to as basadi or basti. Terms commonly used in the north are typically compound phrases
consisting of jina before a word meaning ‘house’, ‘residence’, ‘seat’ and so on. This results in
words such as jinā-laya and jina-mandir, and terms such as jinā-yatana, jina-gṛha and jinaprāsāda. In Gujarat in particular, and anywhere else the Gujarati community has migrated, Jain
temples are usually called derāsar or daherāsar. These are derived from the Sanskrit devagṛhāvasara. Common modern derivatives are dherī and dehrā.
Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient times
Buddhist architecture. Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions, and
regional and period styles are generally similar. For over 1,000 years the basic layout of a Hindu
or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary for the main murti or cult
images, over which the high superstructure rises, then one or more larger mandapa halls.
Derasar is a word used for a Jain temple in Gujarat and southern Rajasthan. Basadi is a Jain
shrine or temple in Karnataka. The word is generally used in South India. Its historical use in
North India is preserved in the names of the Vimala Vasahi and Luna Vasahi temples of Mount
Abu. The Sanskrit word is vasati, it implies an institution including residences of scholars
attached to the shrine.
15
.
Hindu Temple silhoutte
Temples may be divided into Shikar-bandhi Jain temples, public dedicated temple buildings,
normally with a high superstructure, typically a north Indian shikhara tower above the shrine)
and the Ghar Jain temple, a private Jain house shrine. A Jain temple which is known as a
pilgrimage centre is often termed a Tirtha.
The main image of a Jain temple is known as a mula nayak. A Manastambha (column of honor)
is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. It has four 'Moortis' i.e. stone figures
of the main god of that temple. One facing each direction: North, East, South and West.
Architecture
Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. The earliest survivals of Jain
architecture are part of the Indian rock-cut architecture tradition, initially shared with Buddhism,
and by the end of the classical period with Hinduism. Very often numbers of rock-cut Jain
temples and monasteries share a site with those of the other religions, as at Udayagiri, Bava
Pyara, Ellora, Aihole, Badami, and Kalugumalai. The Ellora Caves are a late site, which contains
temples of all three religions, as the earlier Buddhist ones give way to later Hindu excavations.
There is considerable similarity between the styles of the different religions, but often the Jains
placed large figures of one or more of the 24 tirthankaras in the open air rather than inside the
shrine. These statues later began to be very large, normally standing nude figures in the
kayotsarga meditation position (which is similar to standing at attention). Examples include the
Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments and the Siddhachal Caves, with groups of statues, and a
number of single figures including the 12th-century Gommateshwara statue, and the modern
Statue of Vasupujya and, largest of all at 108 feet (32.9 meters) tall, the Statue of Ahimsa.
16
In recent times, the use of murti images has become controversial within Jainism, and some
smaller sects reject them entirely, while others are selective in terms of which figures they allow
images of. In sects which largely disapprove of images, the religious buildings are far more
simple.
Following the regional styles in Hindu temples, Jain temples in North India generally use the
north Indian nagara style, while those in South India use the dravida style, although the north
Indian Māru-Gurjara style or Solanki style has made some inroads in the south over the last
century or so. For example, the Mel Sithamur Jain Math in Tamil Nadu has a large gopuram
tower, similar to those of local Hindu temples.
Charactistics of the original Māru-Gurjara style are "the external walls of the temples have been
structured by increasing numbers of projections and recesses, accommodating sharply carved
statues in niches. These are normally positioned in superimposed registers, above the lower
bands of mouldings. The latter display continuous lines of horse riders, elephants, and
kīrttimukhas. Hardly any segment of the surface is left unadorned." The main shikhara tower
usually has many urushringa subsidiary spirelets on it, and two smaller side-entrances with
porches are common in larger temples. Māru-Gurjara architecture or the "Solanki style" is, a
particular temple style from Gujarat and Rajasthan (both regions with a strong Jain presence) that
originated in both Hindu and Jain temples around 1000, but became enduringly popular with Jain
patrons. It has remained in use, in somewhat modified form, to the present day, indeed also
becoming popular again for some Hindu temples in the last century. The style is seen in the
groups of pilgrimage temples at Dilwara on Mount Abu, Taranga, Girnar and Palitana. Inside the
temple, the Māru-Gurjara style features extremely lavish carving, especially on columns, large
and intricately carved rosettes on the ceilings of mandapas, and a characteristic form of "flying
arch" between columns, which has no structural role, and is purely decorative. Most early
temples in the style are in various local shades of pink, buff or brown sandstone, but the Dilwara
temples are in a very pure white marble which lightens the style and has become considered very
desirable.
Later, with Dilwara in the lead, surrounding the main temple with a curtain of devakulikā
shrines, each with a small spire became a distinctive feature of the Jain temples of West India,
still employed in some modern temples. These are fairly plain on the outer walls, and often
raised on a very high platform, so that the outside of larger temples can resemble a fortress with
high walls.[9] However the entrance(s), often up high, wide steps, are not designed for actual
defence, even though medieval Muslim armies and others destroyed many Jain temples in the
past, often permanently.
While, before British India, large Buddhist or Hindu temples (and indeed Muslim mosques) have
very often been built with funds from a ruler, this was infrequently the case with Jain temples.
Instead they were typically funded by wealthy Jain individuals or families. For this reason, and
often the smaller numbers of Jains in the population, Jain temples tend to be at the small or
middle end of the range of sizes, but at pilgrimage sites they may cluster in large groups - there
are altogether several hundred at Palitana, tightly packed within several high-walled compounds
called "tuks" or "tonks".Temple charitable trusts, such as the very large Anandji Kalyanji Trust,
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founded in the 17th century and now maintaining 1,200 temples, play a very important role in
funding temple building and maintenance.
Parts of a Jain temple/Dome of the Vimala Vasahi-Image by olderock1 – Rakhee © CC BY-NC-ND 2.0
Jain temples demonstrate designs and styles found in many religious buildings constructed for
other South Asian faiths. Despite this and the influence of local and historical
fashions, Jain temples can often be easily identified because they reflect and support
Jain religious beliefs and practices. These unique characteristics include having more than
one shrine in a temple and, secondly, several separate, smaller temples or shrines grouped around
the central building.
The majority of Jain temples in India consists of three core building elements:
image-chamber – garbha-gṛha
hall – maṇḍapa
porch.
Though these elements vary in number and relative proportions in various temples, all Jain
temples are built on a platform. This physically raises the temple above the surrounding land and
creates a distinct sacred area. High walls surround the temple compound, further marking off the
holy ground of the temple from the ordinary concerns of the householder.
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Shrine, hall and porch of a temple
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The temple’s sanctum is the focal point of the building and may house a statue of a sacred figure
or abstract religious element, such as the eight auspicious symbols, the siddhacakra, the cosmic
person, yantras and sacred syllables or mantras. In many cases, the shrine holds large numbers of
sacred objects. Most temples throughout India have several shrines. These are connected to a
hall.These halls can have side walls and be closed or may simply have pillars, which leave the
sides open. Most halls have a pillared interior because the columns are needed to support the
ceiling. Temple halls create an approach to the shrine and house more religious statues and ritual
equipment. Halls are used for rituals, the recitation of sacred texts and for larger gatherings that
involve singing hymns and performing dances.Porches are very small, simple halls that provide
access to shrines and maṇḍapas.
A fourth element may lie between the image-chamber and its hall. The small vestibule –
antarāla – is a space in which worshippers can stand and gaze at the icon or follow rituals
conducted within the shrine.In certain temple types, these elements can become exaggerated. In a
courtyard temple, for instance, the shrine is usually very wide and spacious and there is an open
court in addition to the halls. In a hall-type temple, one major hall acts as the main temple
element and the shrine is often not clearly separated, but only indicated by the pavilions or altars
raised above the ground at one end of the open hall.
For Jains: Garbhagṛiha refers to a type of gṛha located in the vyantara cities of Jambūdvīpa,
according to Jain cosmological texts, such as the Tiloyapannatti. The vyantaras represent a class
of Gods (devas) comprising eight groups of deities that wander about the three worlds
(adhaloka, madhyaloka and ūrdhvaloka). Jambūdvīpa sits at the centre of madhyaloka (‘middle
world’) is the most important of all continents and it is here where human beings reside.
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CHAPTER II
Temples Architecture of India
Temples Architecture of India
Indian Temple architecture was characteristically Hindu temple architecture for many centuries
till other Buddhista and Jain forms emerged forging a distinct identity of their own. The Temple
has many varieties of style, though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same. Hindu
temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way
of life cherished under Hinduism. Influenced by early Buddhist structures such as the stupa, the
first Hindu temples were built from rock-cut caves. Then, with the arrival of Gupta architecture
in the 4th to 5th century CE, the first free-standing Hindu temples were constructed with features
such as towers and projecting niches.The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are
described in Shilpa Shastra. Shilpa Shastra mentions three main type of temple architecture Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style and the Vesara or Mixed style.
Basic features of Indian Temples
The form and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function as
the place where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his progress to spiritual
knowledge and truth, his liberation it calls moksha.
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Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum)
 It literally means womb-house and is a cave like sanctum.
 In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.
 Later it grew into larger chambers.
 The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of
much ritual attention.
Mandapa
 It is the entrance to the temple.
 It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that
incorporate space for a large number of worshippers.
 Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa,
Mandapa and Mahamandapa.
Shikhara or Vimana
 They are mountain like spire of a free standing temple.
 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
 Shikhara has a curving shape while Vimana has a pyramidal like structure.
Vahana
 It is the mount or vehicle of the temple s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj
which is placed axially before the sanctum.
Amalaka
 It is a stone disc like structure crowning the top of the North Indian style shikhara.
Kalasha
 Wide-mouthed pot or ornamental pot-design decorating the shikhara in North Indian
temples.
Antarala (vestibule)
 Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple s main hall
(mandapa).
Jagati
 It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.
Types of Hindu temples
Temple architecture evolved slightly differently in a different region. Shilpa Shastras mentions
three main type of temple architecture. Three main styles of temple architecture are the Nagara
or the Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style and the Vesara or Mixed style. But at the
same time, there are also some regional styles.
 Nagara (in North India) is associated with the land between the Himalayas and Vindhyas.
 Dravida (in South India) is associated with the land between the Krishna and Kaveri
rivers.
 Vesara style as an independent style was created as a hybrid of Nagara and Dravida
styles. It is associated with the land between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna.
Nagara style
The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as Nagara.
Nagara style was developed regionally each region manifesting its own particular qualities. For
example, various sub-styles of Nagara architecture are found vis- -vis Odisha School, Solanki
School, and Khajuraho School etc.
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In Nagara style, it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform with
steps leading up to it.
Unlike South Indian temples it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or
gateways.
The three main distinctive features of Nagar style is Shikhara (Curvilinear tower),
Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum), Mandapa (Entrance Hall)
While the earliest temples had just one tower or shikhara, later temples had multiple
Shikharas.
The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.
Examples - Dashavatara temple (Deogarh), Vishwanatha temple (Khajuraho), Lakshman
Temple (Khajuraho), Jagannath Temple (Puri)
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Subdivision of Nagara temples based on the type of Shikhara
There are many subdivisions of Nagara temples depending on the shape of the shikhara.
Rekha-Prasadatype or Latinatype This type of temple has square shikhara at the base and its
walls curve slowly inward towards the top. They are mainly used to house the main garbhagriha.
Phamsana type - Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than Latina ones. Their
roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre of the
building, unlike the Latina ones which look like sharply rising tall towers. Phamsana roofs do not
curve inward. Instead, they slope upwards on a straight incline. Phamsana design is used for the
mandapas.
Valabhi type - These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber. The
edge of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the bamboo or wooden wagons that would have
been drawn by bullocks in ancient times. They are usually called wagon vaulted buildings .
Dravida Style
Dravida style of temple architecture became popular in South India. Dravida style of temples
was developed dynastically, however the major features of these temples remained common
across the dynasties.
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Unlike the Nagara temple, the Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as a gopuram.
The shape of the main temple tower known as Vimana is like a stepped pyramid that
rises up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of North India.
In the South Indian temples, the word Shikhara is used only for the crowning element at
the top of the temple which is equivalent to the amalaka and kalasha of North Indian
temples.
In the Dravida style temples, one will generally find sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or
the door-keepers guarding the temple.
It is common to find a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the
complex.
Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower or located as
distinct, separate small shrines beside the main temple.
Unlike Nagara style, at some of the most sacred temples in South India, the main temple
in which the garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers.
Examples - Shore temple (Mahabalipuram), Brihadesvara temple (Thanjavur),
Meenakshi Temple (Madurai)
Sub-divisions of Dravida temples based on shapes
There are basically five different shapes:
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Square, usually called Kuta or caturasra
Rectangular or shala or ayatasra
Elliptical or vrittayata also called gaja-prishta or elephantbacked
Circular or vritta
Octagonal or ashtasra
It must, however, be remembered that this is a simplistic differentiation of the subdivisions.
Several different shapes may be combined in specific periods and places to create their own
unique style.
Vesara Style
In the mid-seventh century, a distinct style of temple architecture grew in Karnataka region
under the patronage of Chalukya rulers. The temples in this region follow a hybridised style
which combines the features of both Nagara and Dravida styles.
 Vesara is a distinct stylistic tradition of Indian Hindu temple architecture primarily used
in the Deccan and Central India, between the Vindhyas and the river Krishna
 Vesara style does not have an independent origin of its own and said to be an outgrowth
of Dravida style.
 The Vesara style contains elements of both Dravida and Nagara styles. For example,
Nagara and Dravida temples are erected side by side in Badami.
 Historians agree that the Vesara style originated in what is today Karnataka. According to
some, the style was started by the Chalukyas of Badami. Therefore, it is also known
as Chalukya style or Karnataka style of temple architecture. It was further improvised
by Rashtrakuta and Hoysala dynasties.
 The height of these temples was reduced compared to its Nagara and Dravida
counterparts. The height of the temple tower over the sanctum is usually shorter than the
Vimanas in Dravida temples. They can be referred as miniature Vimanas. The shape of
these towers was pyramidal in profile.
 Vimana was crowned by a circular shikhara above the neck.
 Examples - Badami temple, Durga Temple (Aihole), Virupaksha Temple (Pattadkal),
Keshava Temple (Somnathpur)
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CHAPTER III
Introduction to Jain Architecture
Jain Architecture and Temples
- Presented by - Smt. Mamta Jain, Delhi
The contribution of Jain art to the mainstream art in India has been considerable. Every phase of
Indian art is represented by a Jain version and each one of them is worthy of meticulous study
and understanding. The great Jain temples and sculptured monuments of Karnataka, Maharashtra
and Rajasthan are world-renowned. The most spectacular of all Jain temples are found at
Ranakpur and Mount Abu in Rajasthan. Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.), Ellora, Badami and Aihole
also have some of the important specimens of Jain Art.
Jain architecture cannot be accredited with a style of its own, for in the first place it was almost
an offshoot of Hindu and Buddhist styles. In the initial years, many Jain temples were made
adjoining the Buddhist temples following the Buddhist rock-cut style. Initially these temples
were mainly carved out of rock faces and the use of bricks was almost negligible. However, in
later years Jains started building temple-cities on hills based on the concept of mountains of
immortality.
Compared to the number of Hindu temples in India, Jain temples are few and spaced out. The
latter used to tear down their older, decaying temples and build new ones at the same site. On the
other hand Jain temples had a certain militant aura around them, probably because of plunderers
who may have carried away riches. Surrounded by embattled walls, the Jain temples are divided
into wards in a manner similar to fortified cities with parapets and niches to repel armed
aggression. Each ward in turn was guarded by massive bastions at its ends, with a fortified
gateway as the main entrance. The reason being that Jain temples are the richest temples in the
world, surpassing even Mughal buildings in terms of grandeur and material wealth.
The temple-cities were not built on a specific plan; instead they were the results of sporadic
construction. Natural levels of the hill on which the `city’ was being built accommodated various
levels so that as one goes higher so does the architecture and grandeur increases. Each temple,
though, followed a set pattern, styles, designed on principles of architecture in use during the
period. The only variation was in the form of frequent Chamukhs or four-faced temples. In these
the image of a Tirthankar (fordmaker) would face four sides, or four Tirthankars would be placed
back to back to face four cardinal points. Entry into this temple would be from four doors. The
Chamukh temple of Lord Adinath is a characteristic example of the four-door temple. Built in
1618AD on the site of an older structure, it houses a 23 sq feet cell chamber. One doorway leads
out to the assembly hall in front while the other three have porches leading into the main
courtyard.
Interior Layout of Jain Temples
26
Usually the exits lead into a series of columned chambers into the central halls of the temple.
These columns, standing around for no apparent purpose, might make the place seem like a
mindless labyrinth, but on closer scrutiny it becomes evident that there is a style and method in
it.
Simply put, these are temples within a temple, divided into sanctums and surrounded by a range
of chapels and shrines, and the maze of columns act as a defense against plunderers. The
principle impression gathered from these temples is the variety of their sections but in harmony
with each other. The pointed spires above each dome is different, yet it signifies the position of a
chapel, hall or any other chamber inside.
The contribution of Jains towards art and architecture was specially important in view of the
magnificent artistic creations, particularly in the forms of images, temples and paintings, spread
all over the country and covering a time span in continuity from the earliest through the modern
times.The Jain art with profuse variety changes innovations and embellishments (barring Jina
images) has never been monotonous also. The Indus Valley civilization (c. 2300-1750 BC) is the
earliest civilization of India. The figures on some of the seals from Mohen-Jo-Daro and also a
male torso from Harappa remind of the Jina images on account of their nudity and posture,
similar to kayotsarga-mudra, which is exhibited more emphatically in Lohanipur torso. But
nothing can be said with certainty until the Indus Valley script is deciphered finally. The earliestknown Jina image, preserved in the Patna Museum, comes from Lohanipur (Patna, Bihar) and is
datable to c. third century BC The nudity and the kayotsarga-mudra, suggesting rigorous
austerity of the image were confined only to the Jinas. The two early bronze images of
Parsvanatha, differently dated by scholars from 2nd century BC to 1stcentury AD are in the
collections of the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai and Patna Museum. These figures provided
respectively with the five- and seven-hooded snake canopy are rendered as sky-clad and standing
in the kayotsarga -mudra. 1st century BC, bearing the figure of Parsvanatha, seated in dhyanamudra in the centre, is in the collection of the State Museum, Lucknow ( J. 253).The rendering of
the Jinas in dhyana-mudra (seated cross-legged) and the representation of srivatsa in the centre of
their chest appear for the first time in the Sunga-Kusana sculptures of Mathura.
The Gupta period (4th century to 600 AD) Jain sculptures are reported from several sites, like
Mathura, Rajgir, Kahaum, Nachna, Durjanpur (Vidisha), Varanasi, Chausa and Akota. The
images of Rsabhanatha, Ajitanatha, Candraprabha, Puspadanta, Neminatha.
The Jain art and literature thrived most vigorously between the 10th and the 15th century AD
The period saw the building of a very large number of Jain temples with exquisite sculptural
carvings. During the period the new forms and iconographic features (excepting that of the Jinas)
of various deities were formulated and gradually the number of arms and thereby the attributes
increased to make the most of the manifestations more as the specimens of codified texts. The
parikara(surrounding) of Jina images also developed with the figural depictions of Navagrahas,
Sarasvati, Laksmi and diminutive Jina figures. Besides, the usual astapratiharyas and the yaksayaksi figures were also carved. The angularity and flexion along with embellishments and
ornamentation were other distinct features of medieval Jain sculptures. Parsvanatha and
Mahavira Jinas were carved during the period.
The art and architecture of the Jains have the main objective to maintain, preserve and glorify the
culture extensively. They also glorify the devotees too internally with psychological bliss. Jains
realized that true art represents the spirit of true religion. Besides its religious value, it has been
27
taken as a treasure of the country. That is why many Jain art centers have become tourist
attractions now.
The Jains could feel proud of their rich cultural heritage since the earliest times. It has a religious
orientation in its art in varied forms. Being predominantly idolaters, they have good iconography
and icon making art. They could make the victor's icons of different sizes, materials, (wood,
stone, metal, marble etc.) and postures (seated or standing). They could carve icons out of stones
also. All icons have been made according to dimensions with attractive meditating faces of
victors expressing the idea of successful withdrawal from worldly life. There are many idols of
international accreditation one of Bahubali at Shravanbelgola in Karnataka (983 AD) and Lord
Rishabhdev ar Barvani in Madhya Pradesh state need special mention for their magnificence and
heights. The icons are worshipped only after consecration ceremony lasting for seven days with
high pomp and show. This ceremony has a large frequency for the last quarter of this century.
Jain icons are found ever since 400 BC in different parts of India. They are most numerous.
Seeing a number of different icons in any museum, one can judge about the development of
iconography with respect to material and aesthetic beauty. Palitana is one of the best center for
variety of idols. Formerly, all Jina idols were made nude and without identification marks, but
later they had the marks like lion (Mahavir), hooded cobra (Parshvnatha) and bull (Rishabhdeva)
etc. sometimes with or without eight auspicious symbols on both sides of identification marks.
The images of many lesser deities were also incorporated later in this art. They included
demigods and the like.
Footprints are also a specialty of Jain art to make one remember to follow the path led by the
Victors.. Marked and adored images were also made for sectional identification later. This idol
making art is a highly creditable one in Gujarat and Rajasthan states of India.
The temple making art is also superb in Jain architecture. Currently, one can distinguish the
regional temples by their architectural designs in west and central part of the country. These
temples are places of worship where Jina idols along with demigods and goddesses are kept on
stone or marble made altar under aesthetic beauty. Many temples have fine decorative art of
surprising nature such as at Khajuraho, Deogarh, Mt. Abu, Ranakpur etc. The temples sometimes
have a magnificient tope in front of them such as at Hastinapur, Mathura etc. Many temples have
free standing pillars called vanity-subduing pillars again a speciality of the Jains in religious
field.
Excellent Jain architecture and sculpture can also be seen in the rock-cut caves found in Mathura,
Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. A number of rock-cut caves have been discovered in
Udaigiri and Khandagiri, twin hills in Puri District of Orissa and in Ellora in Maharashtra.
Excavated mainly as retreats for Jain ascetics, they belong to the first century and second century
BC. The eighteen Udaigiri and fifteen Khandagiri caves differ in plan from the rock-cut viharas
of the Buddhists. The Jain viharas here do not have the assembly or prayer hall surrounded by
cel1s nor a sanctuary like the Buddhist viharas. Excavated at different levels, the cells are narrow
with low ceilings. There are no niches in the walls. The cells are small and plain, in keeping with
the rigorous asceticism of Jain monks. Some of the cells have shelves cut across the walls. The
doorways are small and one has to bend or crawl to enter a cell. In some of the cells the floor is
raised at the rear end to serve as a pillow. Some cells have low raised platforms for beds. The
lay-out of the cells is such that they get sufficient light - the cells opening on to a verandah. The
Udaigiri caves are double-storeyed and have a courtyard in front.
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The largest and finest of the Udaigiri caves is Cave 1 called the Rani-Gumpha or Rani cave.
(Gumpha the local word tor cave). The Rani-Gumpha is important for its heavily sculptured
friezes. The architecture of the cave is simple, having been excavated on three sides of a
quadrangle. The roof of the verandah projects outwards like an overhanging cornice (eave).
Pillars have been cut to support the roof giving the caves an effect of structural houses. The right
wing of the lower storey has one cell with three small entrances and a pillared verandah. Two
armed dwarapalas stand guard on either side of the verandah. Though the pillars have collapsed,
the capitals with sculp¬tured bulls and lions are to be seen intact. The entrances to the cells are
arched with motifs of the lotus and creepers coming out of the mouths of animals. The back wall
of the verandah is covered with a frieze of elaborately carved figures. The left wing has three
cells and the main wing has four cells. The doorways of all the cells are decorated with
sculptured pilasters and arches. Carved friezes depicting the reception of a king returning
victorious from a battle adorn the rear walls of the verandahs. In the upper storey also, the plan is
the same - with four cells in the main wing and one cell each on either side. Each cell has two
doorways with curved arches and engraved pilasters Symbol, auspicious for the Jains are carved
in the space between the arches. The workmanship in the upper storey is superior to that of the
lower. On the whole the figures are shown in easy natural poses with their faces in various
profiles and moods. The designs on the pillars are similar to those used in Buddhist caves. The
inscriptions on the cave walls give valuable information about the rulers and dynasties of that
period. The cave is a good exhibit of the water supply system at the time. As there was no
worship of images then, there is no Jain thirthankara in the original carving. Figures of
thirthankaras carved on the walls of the cells are a later addition to the Khandagiri caves which
were redone in about the 11th and 12th centuries A.D. to serve as sanctuaries.
Wall paintings are also found in many temples and caves representing religious stories, tenets
and prominent incidents of Victors lives, mother's dreams, legendary scenes, miniature painting
and palm leaf or paper decoration (manuscripts) which has also been an art of respect. The
exquisite samples of this art are found in many Jain manuscript libraries. Wood carving has also
been an art. It seems some of these arts have been declining considerably.
Jain Architecture in Indian History
The Jains have been amongst the foremost in contributing to the field of art and architecture
since early days. The images of Tirthankara Risabhadeva and the figures of standing or seated
nude Yogis found inscribed on some terracotta seats, relics of the prehistoric Indus Valley
Civilization, discovered at Mohenjodaro, as well as nude Harrappan red stone statue are almost
equally old. The latter is remarkably akin to the polished stone torso of a Jana image from
Lohanipur (Patna), which is ascribed to the Mauryan times (4th c. B.C.) King Kharavel of
Kalinga, as the Hathigumpha inscriptions speaks, reinstalled the Jain image which had been
taken away by Nanda to Magadha in (4th c. B.C.) During the Satavahana period (60 B.C. to 225
A.D.) Mathura and Saurastra were the main centers. The earliest Mathura sculpture represented
by Kankalitila where from Ayagaptta, Stupa, images, and other Jain cultural material are
recovered. Gandhara art and Mathura art belong to Kusana period (First B.C. to 2nd A.D.) in
which Jainism flourished to Mathura and the Ardhaphalaka sect, Yapaniya Sangha and Nagara
art came into existence.
In Gupta Period
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Gupta period (4th to 7th C.A.D.) is said to be the golden period of ancient Indian Culture.
Harigupta, Siddhasena, Harisena, Ravikirti, Pujyapada, Patrakesari, Udyotanasuri and other
Jaincaryas have been in existence during the period. Karnataka, Mathura, Hastinapur, Saurastra,
Avanti, Ahicchatra, Bhinnamala, Kausambi, Devagumpha, Vidisa, Sravasti, Varanasi, Vaisali,
Pataliputra, Rajagraha, Campa etc. were the main Jain centers of art and architecture. After the
Gupta period, Kakkula, Vatsaraja, and Mahendrapala were the Jain kings in the Pratihara
dynasty. King Mona, Navasahasanka and Bhoja were followers of Jainism. Dhanapala,
Amitagati, Manikyanandi, Prabhacandra, Asadhara, Dhananjaya etc. had contributed to the
literary field during the same period. Chittod was the capital of Paramaras where Kalakacarya
and Haribhadra devoted their lives for he development of Jain art and architecture. During
Candela dynasty, Khajuraho, Devagadh, Mahoba, Madanapur, Canderi, Ahar, Papora, and
Gwaliar became famous for their Jain art. Some important inscriptions, Toranas, images and
other sculptural material are found in Tripuri.
As mentioned earlier, Bihar has been a prominent state since very early days with regard to Jain
culture. It is the Parinirvanabhumi of so many Tirthankaras and is enriched through Jain statues,
relics, sculpture etc. at Radiograph, Melinda, Parsvanatha hill, Simbhabhumi, Barabar hill, Patna,
Pavapuri etc. The earliest Jain images are recovered in Bengal from Surohar and Mandoil of
Mathura style. The images of Jain Tirthankaras found in Udisa at Udaigiri-Khandagiri, and some
other places such as Keonjhar, Mayurabhanja, Jaipur, Cuttack are very beautiful from artistic
point or view.
In Gujarat and Rajasthan
Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since an early time. Satrunjaya, Girinar,
are Siddhaksetras of Jainism. Rastrakutas and Calukyas, Pratiharas, Paramaras, Cauhan and other
dynasties patronized Jainism and its art and architecture. Hemacandracarya was a court poet of
Jayasimha and Kumarapala. Vastupala and Tejapala who were ministers of Baghelas of Solanki
branch built a large number of Jain temples at Girinar, Abu, Satrunjaya, etc. They are also found
in large number at Ranakapur, Udaipur, Sirohi, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Jaipur, Alwar and so many
places. The existence of Jainism in Punjab and Sindh can traced out long before the Christian
era, from the sites of Mohanjodaro, Harappa, Taksasila, Simhapur, Sindhudesh, Lahore etc.
In Maharashtra
The inscriptional history of Jainism in Maharashtra starts with the Parle inscription of first c.
A.D. that commences with "Namo Arihantanam". Keljher, Pavanar, Nagpur, Bhandara, Remtek,
Akola, Karanja, Achalpur, Latur, Bhadravati etc. are main Jain ancient sites with archaeological
remains. Sirpur is famous for its artistic decoration. Malakhed was found inhabitant when
Padaliptacarya visited in about 1st c. A.D., Jain caves are found at Ellora, Nasik, Dharasiva,
(Osmanabad) etc. Pratishthanpur, Belgaon, Kolhapur, Ehol, Alaktakanagara, Kunthalgiri,
Ardhapur, Kandhar Karanataka (Karad), Mahimagiri, Vatapi, Meghuni etc. have been main
centers of Jainism where huge and magnificent Jain temples idols and inscriptions are found.
Mrgesavarvarman's in inscription (450-478 A.D.) states that a huge donation was made to
Digambaras, Svetambaras, Kurcakas and Yapaniyas. Belagaon and Kolhapur were also ruled
over by Silaharas of Konkana who built their huge Jain temples like Adataraditya, Satyavakya,
Candraprabha, Ratta, etc. Vatapi, Ehol, Meguli were also Jain centers of this period when
Pulakesi First, Kirtivarman, and Ravikirti constructed Jain temples.
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In Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesa has been a stronghold center of Jainism. Acarya Kundakunda (1st c. A.D.), the
spiritual leader of the time hails from Kondakunda situated on the boarder of Andhrapradesha.
King Vishnuvardhan of Calukyas, Akalavarsa, Amoghavarsa, and Krashnaraja of Rashtrakutas,
Bhima, Ganga Vijayaditya, Durgaraj etc. of Vengis, Tailapa, Vikramaditya of Badami Calukyas,
some kings of Velanatichoda period patronized Jainism by way of constructing temples, Vasadis
and Vidyapeethas. Some of them, afterwards, were occupied by Virasaivaitas and Lingayatas,
who have been great destructors of Jain monuments and the community as well. 176. Jainism in
Karnataka goes back at least to Bhadrabahu and Candragupta Maurya who migrated to South
India via Ujjain with twelve thousand disciples due to severe calamity and famine into he North.
Simhanandin, the Jaincarya, established Gangavadi dynasty. Jainism was its state religion for
about seven hundred years during which hundreds of Jain monuments were erected by the kings.
Pujyapada, Prabhacandra, Jinasena, Gunanandi, Patrakesari, Puspadanta, Vidyanada,
Anantavirya, Joindu etc. get the patronage of the dynasty. Of the kings the name of Racamalla
Satyavakya may be specially mentioned under whose reign Camundaraya, his great minister
erected the colossal statue of Gomatesvara Bahubali, the unparallel statue in the world. After
Rashtrakutas Jainism got set back. One Vasava murdered his master Vijjala, the Kalacuri Jain
king and perished Jainism and its adherents. He established an independent sect named
Lingayata and persecuted the Jains. From Jain archaeological standpoint, the main sites are
Mangal, Nandidurga, panditarahalli, Candrasala vasadi, Aarapur, Arkettar, Sarangipattam,
Halebid, Kelasaur, Aihole, Marol, Honwad, Honnur, Kalholi, Mulguna, Lakkundi, Nagire,
Billigi are the main places where the Jain monuments are richly available.
In Tamilnadu
Jainism entered in Tamilnadu most probably from Kalinga in about 4th c. B.C. Visakhacarya
proceeds to Cola and Pandya countries with the entire Munisangha. It can be supported by the
caverns containing beds carved out in the rock found in hills and mountains around the
Pudukottai, Madura and Tinnevelly and rock-cut sculptures and inscriptions in the hills of the
north Arcot district which indicate the existence of Jainism in Tamil Nadu in 3rd c. B.C. Kanci
was one of the important seat of learning in South India. It was the capital of Pallvas who were
mostly Jains in early centuries. The inscriptions of Jinakanchi refers to some prominent
Jaincaryas of the city like Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, Jinacandra, Pujyapada, Akalanka,
Anantavirya, Bhavanand, mallisena etc. The North and South Arcot region is very rich from Jain
archaeological standpoint. Pancapandava, Trirumalai, Vallimalai, Vidal, Villipuram, Chinglaput
may be specially mentioned. Sittanavasal, Narttamalai, Tenimalai, Bommamalai, Malamala,
Samanar Kudagu, etc. have been the Jain centers since last two thousand years. Most of these
places have paintings, and sculptures of Sittanavasala tradition, which may be compared with
Ajanta and Sigirya. Some of the rock-cut temples like Samanar Kudagu have been converted into
Visnu temples.
In Madurai
Madurai was the capital of Pandyas who took their favorable attitude towards Jainism. Its
neighboring hills Annaimalai, Nagamalai, Alagarmalai, Muttupatti, Eruvadi, etc. are very rich
from Jain sculptural and painting standpoint. It is a land of origin of Samgama literature.
Tirukurala, Tolkappiyam, Naladiyara, Cintamani, Silakppadikaram, Nilakesi, Manimekhalai,
31
Kurala etc. are the Jain epics of early period. Pujyapada, Vajranandi, Aryanandi, Patrakesari etc.
were the prominent Jaincaryas of the period. Afterwards Jainism was patronized by the Kadamba
kings. In Tinnevelly region the Kalugumallai, Tiruchcharanattumalai, Nagarajaswami temple
belonged to Jains but they are under the control of Vedicas. Thus the survey of Jainism in South
India gives and apparent picture of its position that it was there popular during the period of
Tirthankara Mahavira or even earlier to him. The popularity augmented gradually and
Digambara sect became the prominent one. During about 11th c. A.D., Vaisnavism, Alawara and
Lingayatas came into existence and stood against Jainism that caused a serious blow to its
propagation. The devotees of Sambandara, Tirunavukkarasata, Appara, Mukkanti, Tirumalasai,
Tirumangai Vira-Saivas committed heavy atrocities on Jain society, temples, sculptures and
Vasadis. Their massacres took place and the Jain centers were converted into Saiva or Vaisnava
temples. Some places like Pillaiyarapatti and Kunnakkundi, Arittayatti, Nartamallai, and
Kulugamalai, Tiruccirapalli, Virasikhamani, Kudumiyamalai, Dalavaura, Siyamangalam and
Mamamdura can be cited in this respect. All this can be evaluated as follows.
Jain images, Ayagapttas, Stambhas, Toranas, Vedicas etc. were excavatd from Kankalitila in
Mathura belonging to Kusana period. The Stupa made of bricks is called Devanirmita Stupa. The
symbols are not traceable on these images, the Sarvatobhadra Pratimas. The names of Kaniska,
Ruviska and Vasudeva are inscribed on these images. The unique Jain image of Sarasvati may
also be mentioned in this context. The Chausa bronzes, in some Jain images in Lucknow and
Patana museums, the Jain remains at Vaibhara hill Rajagiri and the bronzes of the Akota hoard
are also belonging to this period. Some auspicious symbols like Phana, Srivats, a Purnaganata,
Svastika, Vardhmanaka, Matsya, Nandyavarta etc. are also inscribed on one of the Parsva
images. The image of Jivantasvami may also be referred to the period. Then the crystallized
forms of the iconography were transferred to rocks on hills like Vaibhara hill, Udaigiri hills in
Sanchi and Udaigiri, Kalagumalai in South. Afterwards, the iconography became fixed.
In other words it can be said that the Jain iconography was developed during the Gupta period in
4th century A.D. Decoration on Padpitha, Dharmacakera, Paramesthis, Gandharva Yugala,
Navagrahs, Triratnas, Bhamandala, and Astapratiharys were included as the symbols of Jain
images. However, all the symbols could not be decided in the early Gupta period. The images of
the period can be viewed in Mathura museum, Vesanagar, Budhicanderi, Deogarha, Rajagiri,
Kumarahara, Vaisali and other places. Some more images of the Gupta period are found in
Udaigiri, Vesanagara, Nacana (Patana) etc. with somewhat more decorated forms. Some of the
bronzes of the Akota hoara, particularly the image of Jivantasvami in Kayotsarga pose bearing a
crown, Bhujabandha, Kundala, Kangana, and the image of Ambika decorated with ornaments
and Yaksa-Yaksis are the representative images of the period. Sasanadevatas, Drum-player, a
pair of elephants etc. were also included in the symbols.
In late Gupta period these symbols were more developed and in about 8th-9th c. A.D. all the
symbols, Yaksa-Yaksis, Sasnadevidevatas, were fixed. Afterwards, Ksetrapalas, Dikpalas,
Navgrahas, and Vidyadharas were also placed around the Jana images. Tantrism entered into
Jain iconography in about tenth century A.D. and as a result, the Yaksa-Yaksis etc. got their due
place on the pedestal or around the Jain images with more decorative sculptural surroundings.
Sandy stone is widely used in about twelfth century along with black and white marble. The
bronze images are also popularly available of the period. In the fourteenth century the
development of Jain iconography stagnated and the decline started. This can be understood
through perspective of iconographical peculiarities of Tirthankaras and their associates.
32
Temple art is of three types, Nagara, Vesara and Dravid. In Niagara style, the Garvagraha is
quadrangular and its summit (Sikhara) is circular with Kalasa. It is used in Punjab, Himalaya,
Rajasthan, Madhyapradesa, Udisa and Bengal. The Sikhara becomes flat in Vesar style, which is
found in Madhyabharat, and the temple gets the form of pillar in Dravidian style. The earliest
Jain temple is found at Lohanipur (Patna) of Maurya period. Then the temple art is available
from the seventh century onwards. Painting has also been one of the best methods for expressing
the ideas. Jain Architecture - ENCYCLOPEDIA OF JAINISM
Impact of Jainismas an transtheistic religion : Jainism is a transtheistic religion prescribing
non-violence toward all living beings; it originated in the Indian subcontinent in the 6th century
BCE. Not the founder Mahavira (c. 540–468 BCE) but one who propogated the religion was
born into a royal family but renounced worldly life to become an ascetic and establish the central
tenets of Jainism. Jainism found favor with the merchant classes and also with several powerful
rulers. Chandragupta Maurya (born c. 340 BCE, ruled c. 320–298 BCE), the founder of the great
Maurya Empire, had succeeded in conquering almost the entire Indian subcontinent; however he
abdicated his throne at the age of 42 to become a Jain monk. Samprati, also an emperor of the
Maurya dynasty and the grandson of Ashoka the Great (304–232 BCE) also became a Jain. Both
Chandragupta and Samprati were responsible for spreading Jainism in southern and eastern
India.
Jain Architecture
Modern and medieval Jains built many temples, especially in western India. The earliest Jain
monuments were temples based on the Brahmanical Hindu temple plan and monasteries for Jain
monks. For the most part, artists in ancient India belonged to non-denominational guilds who
were prepared to lend their services to any patron , whether Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain. Many of
the styles they used were a function of the time and place rather than the particular religion.
Therefore, Jain art from this period is stylistically similar to Hindu or Buddhist art, although its
themes and iconography are specifically Jain. With some minor variations, the western style of
Indian art endured throughout the 16th century and into the 17th century. The rise in Islam
contributed to the decline of Jain art but did not result in its total elimination.
The changes in economic life during the seventh century BC, such as the growth of towns and
the rapid development of trade, were linked to religious and philosophical speculation. The
conflict between the established Hindu orthodoxy and the aspirations of the newly emergent
groups in the towns gave rise to various heterodoxies, from determinism to materialism.
However, only two of these ‘sects’ were to endure, namely Buddhism and Jainism.
Jaina ideas can be traced back to the seventh century, though it was Mahavira who formalized
the philosophy of what was to be known as Jainism in the sixth century. Mahavira, most likely
born around 540 BC, was a Kshatriya of high Licchavi tribal birth. At the age of 30, he
renounced family life and proceed to live, for the next 12 years, as an ascetic. He abandoned
even clothes to go naked
Jainism is atheistic in nature as the existence of God is irrelevant to its doctrine. The Jains
postulate the existence of a soul for everything, including non-living things. The vow of nonviolence, or ahimsa, was of paramount importance to the Jaina, since even the unconscious
killing of an insect while walking or breathing was a sin. (Orthodox Jain monks can still be
33
observed wearing a net over their mouth, and they gently sweep the street as they walk to remove
insects from their path, lest they should inadvertently crush them.) The purification of the soul
was conceived as the purpose of living. Contrary to what the Upanishads or Hindu philosophical
The Consecration of Mahavira. Gujarat, 1404. Miniature from Jaina manuscript, the Kalpasutra. 7×10 cms.
Collection: British Museum, London. Mahavira is the figure on the left; here he is shown decked in jewelery, but
teaching about his hair.
texts suggests, Jains were inclinced to believe that this purification could not be attained by
knowledge, but only through living a balanced life.
Mahavira’s teaching was confined to the Ganges valley and until the third century BC remained
an oral tradition. The emphasis on non-violence prevented farmers from being Jains, since
cultivation involved killing pests. However, Jainism spread among the traders and thus came to
be associated with the spread of urban culture. Even today, Jains are associated with business,
but they are also prominent in learning, and many of the most notable publishing houses in India,
such as the renowned Indological booksellers Motilal Banarsidass, are owned and managed by
Jains.
In later years, Jainism moved to western India, where even today there are around two million
Jains. Gandhi was deeply influenced by Jain religious thought and practices, and his advocacy
34
of ahimsa, and his frequent recourse to fasting, owes a good deal to the Jaina philosophy.
Jainism also spread to parts of Mysore in South India, a testament of which is the gigantic statue
of a tirthankara (one of the 24 great Jaina teachers) at Sravanbelagola in near proximity to
Mysore.
In later centuries, Jainism would undergo many changes. The strict rule against possessing
property enforced by Mahavira was interpreted to mean only landed property. The Jains also
divided into the orthodox Digambara (sky-clad, i.e, naked) sect and the more
liberal Shvetambara (white-clad) sect. Important places of pilgrimage were to develop among the
Jainas, among which Mt. Abu in Rajasthan and Sravanabelogola are prominent.
Jainism has influenced and contributed to many artistic spheres in India, such as painting,
sculpture, and architecture. Modern and medievial Jains built many temples, especially in
western India. The earliest Jain monuments were temples based on the Brahmanical Hindu
temple plan and monasteries for Jain monks.Among the earliest Jain monuments are the
Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Orissa, carved out as residential blocks for Jain monks
during the reign of King Kharavela of Kalinga (193–170 BCE)..
Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
Among the earliest Jain monuments are the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, located near the
city of Bhubaneshwar in Orissa, India. These caves are partly natural and partly manmade and
were carved out as residential blocks for Jain monks during the reign of King Kharavela of
Kalinga (193–170 BCE). The caves bear inscriptions and sculptural friezes depicting
Tirthankaras, elephants, women, and geese.
Jain Sculpture
Jain sculpture is characterized most often by nude representations of saviors or deities in
meditative postures. A Buddhist image can be in one of several mudras. However the Jain
tirthankara images can only be in one of the two format. In Padmasana, the statues of a Jina and
a Buddha can be similar. The Buddha statue has folds of the cloth on the upperbody, with cloth
behind the left arm, where as the Jina statue is without clothes, unless it is a Shwetambara image
which shows a fan-like dhoti folds. Jain sculptures or Jain idols are the images
depicting Tirthankaras (teaching gods). These images are worshiped by the followers of Jainism.
The
sculpture
can
be
of
any
of
the
twentyfour
tirthankaras with.imagesdepicting Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha, or Mahāvīra being more popular.
Jain sculptures are an example of Jain art. There is a long history of construction of Jain
sculptures. Early examples include Lohanipur Torsos which has been regarded to be from
the Maurya period, and images from the Kushan period from Mathura.
Jain art is stylistically similar to Hindu or Buddhist art, although its themes and iconography are
specifically Jain.Common themes in Jain painting and sculpture are the Tirthankaras , or saviors;
the yakshas and yakshinis, or supernatural guardian deities, and symbols such as the lotus and the
swastika, which represent peace and well-being.Ayagapata is a type of votive slab or tablet
associated with worship in Jainism; the slabs are decorated with objects and designs central to
Jain worship such as the stupa , dharmacakra, and triratna.The colossal monolithic statue of
Bahubali, carved in 981 CE out of a single block of granite and standing 57 feet high, is one of
the most sacred pilgrimage sites for Jain worshipers.
35
Themes within Jain Sculpture
For the most part, artists in ancient India belonged to non-denominational guilds who were
prepared to lend their services to any patron , whether Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain. Many of the
styles they used were a function of the time and place rather than the particular religion.
Therefore, Jain art from this period is stylistically similar to Hindu or Buddhist art, although its
themes and iconography are specifically Jain. With some minor variations, the western style of
Indian art endured throughout the 16th century and into the 17th century. The rise in Islam
contributed to the decline of Jain art but did not result in its total elimination.
Jain iconography mostly has a sage in sitting or standing meditative posture without any clothes.
Popular themes and icons in Jain art include the Tirthankaras (Jain saviors, or human beings who
achieved the ultimate spiritual salvation and served as role models for
The Two Jain Tirthankaras, British Museum: This sculpture represents two Tirthankaras, or founders of
Jainism. On the left is Rishabha, who was the first of the 24 tirthankaras. On the right is Mahavira, the last of
those 24, who consolidated and reformed the religious and philosophical system.
36
society), yakshas and yakshinis (supernatural male and female guardian deities), and holy
symbols such as the lotus and the swastika, which symbolized peace and well-being. Figures on
various seals from the Indus Valley Civilization are similar to Jain images: nude and in a
meditative posture. The earliest known Jain image is in the Patna museum, dated approximately
to the 3rd century BCE. Bronze images of the 23rd Tirthankara, Pārśva, can be seen in the Prince
of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the 2nd century BCE.
A sandalwood sculpture of Mahāvīra was carved during his lifetime, according to tradition. Later
the practice of making images of wood was abandoned, with other materials being substituted.
Jain Siddha Bahubali, Entwined with Forest Vines/ To RIGHT Enthroned Jina, Probably
Neminatha
37
Jain Svetambara Tirthankara in Meditation/ RIGHT Jain Digambara Tirthanhara Standing in Kayotsarga
Meditation PosturSvetambara Enthroned Jina, with Attendant Yaksha and Yakshi BELOW
38
Ten Elements for East Window of an Architectural Ensemble from a Jain Meeting Hall
John Guy
Department of Asian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Jainism is the least well known of India’s traditional religions even though it has an ancestry that
antedates Buddhism and rivals Hinduism in its claim to be India’s oldest continuously practiced
faith. Its modern historical founder is Mahavira, a near contemporary of the Buddha
Shakyamuni. Yet Mahavira is claimed as but the most recent of twenty-four tirthankaras, literally
“ford-crossers” whose pure and indestructible souls (jiva) have journeyed from the realm of the
phenomenal world (samsara) to a place of spiritual liberation (moksha), free of perpetual
reincarnation. The Jain faith is based on the worship of these twenty-four liberated souls,
venerated as the jinas, those perfected beings who have achieved victory over samsara and who
serve as role models to guide the faithful on the proper path to liberation.
In devotional practice, Jainism mirrored more closely the rites and rituals of Hinduism than did
Buddhism, though it remained wedded to the shared vision of a faith premised on moksha. The
conceptual basis for the jina’s image is the pan-Indian ideal of the yogic ascetic (1992.131). This
39
image informs many religious icons in early Indian art, and respect for the wandering meditative
mendicant is the oldest stream running through religious practice in the subcontinent. This
ancient practice, celebrated in the Vedas, equates the acquisition of superior knowledge
([spiritual] “wisdom”) with the pursuit of advanced forms of meditation, austerities, and a
withdrawal from the material comforts of the life of a householder. Those who attain such a state
are respected and revered.
For the Jains, meditation in a seated yogic posture was the predominant form assumed by the
jinas. A secondary and uniquely Jain form, and undoubtedly also of great antiquity, is the
standing posture of “body abandonment” (kayotsarga), in which the mendicant stands erect with
his arms pendant but unsupported by the body. This physically exacting pose is the most extreme
expression of Jainism’s central premise, the concept of ahimsa, “nonviolence” to all living
creatures. To maintain complete immobility was to ensure no harm to any creature, however
small.
The pantheon of deities worshipped in Jainism consists of a hierarchy descending from the
twenty-four perfected beings to a galaxy of secondary gods and goddesses, the most important of
whom is Indra (Shakra) in whose heaven the jinas reside, and Saraswati, the goddess of
knowledge and learning. The nature-spirit deities, the yakshas (male) and yakshis (female), who
peopled the early landscape of the subcontinent before the coming of the new religions, serve as
protective presences and guardians. Most prominent among these are Dharanendra,
the nagaraja who protects Jina Parshvanatha, the twenty-third tirthankara, and Ambika, the
embodiment of maternity and fecundity. A vast cast of knowledge goddesses, vidyadevis,
oversee the enactment of ritual, and an array of celestial musicians (gandharvas) and dancers
(apsaras) celebrate the jinas in their heavens.
This cast is somewhat limited when compared to mainstream Hinduism and has generated a
similarly constricted repertoire of imagery, sculpted, painted, and woven. Within these
conceptual constraints, however, Jain religious imagery tracks the mainstream stylistic and
technical innovations of Indian art.
Jainism had an established place in the art of early India from the beginnings of the appearance
of figurative religious imagery. At the outset of Jain image making, it may be assumed that male
Jain mendicants renounced all material encumbrances, including clothing. From its origins in
Bihar, eastern India, Jainism spread along the Gangetic basin and became an important presence
at Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, the southern capital of the Kushans. Certainly the numerous
sandstone sculptures of jinas from the early centuries A.D. found in this region are, without
exception, naked. The total absence of garments distinguishes the jinas from the otherwise
similar images of Buddhas, as does the prevalent use in this formative period of
the shrivatsa symbol on the chest, a lakshana (auspicious mark) denoting the jina’s status as
a mahapurusha (“great man”). Similarly, the famous bronze Jina Rishabhantha of the third
century A.D., from the Chausa hoard, Patna, is among the earliest known Jain bronzes and
represents the jina standing naked in the kayotsarga posture of immobility, the predominant
theme in early Jain metal imagery.
The oldest Jain image in the Museum’s collection also happens to be the earliest known
representation of the subject in Jain art, that of Bahubali, a perfected being (siddha) who attained
jina-like status in the Jain canon while never being claimed as a tirthankara (1987.142.339). This
diminutive icon—only 11 centimeters high—is part of a tradition that inspired the largest rockcut icon in the subcontinent, the 18-meter Bahubali at Shravana Belgola, in Karnataka, which is
40
ritually lustrated in the Mahamastakabhisheka festival, celebrated on a twelve-year cycle, most
recently in 2006.
The Deccan was the stronghold of the Digambara (“sky-clad,” i.e., naked) sect of Jainism, and
further south, in Tamil country, Jainism prospered, attracting patronage from Pandyan and other
rulers throughout the first millennium. Most images from that region depict jinas as fully
committed renunciants, the “sky-clad.” A tirthankara standing in body-abandonment meditation
typifies the style of the late first millennium (1995.423). The figure is austere in its plainness,
completely lacking in “adornment” (alamkara), a virtue in Hindu sculpture but seen by
Digambara Jains as counter to the vows of renunciation so core to advanced practitioners. The
slightly attenuated arms are an allusion to the protracted observance of body-abandonment
penance. The short hair curls are an anomaly, as they mimic the Buddhist convention (of the
curls left after cutting off the hair with a sword) rather than the required Jain practice of plucking
out one’s own hair. The extended earlobes share a common ancestry, denoting a personage who
once wore heavy jewelry, implying that all jinas were of high birth. Images of tirthankaras
standing in body-abandonment are among the most understated and beautiful of the period, and
so successfully embody the essence of the doctrine of renunciation of the material world.
Jainism had progressively spread from its birthplace in Bihar westward to its future heartland in
Gujarat and Rajasthan. One of the clearest demonstrations of the success of this transplanting of
Jainism from eastern to western India is demonstrated by the so-called Akota hoard of Jain
bronzes. Spanning from the late fifth to the tenth century, this large cache of sixty-eight copperalloy images was secreted away for safety and lost from memory until its chance discovery prior
to 1951 at the ancient city Ankottaka (present-day Akota) in Gujarat. This hoard provided the
earliest coherent group of Jain icons of this period, chronicling the rise of Jainism in western
India. The enthroned jina, probably Neminatha (2008.279), is clearly related to this “Akota
school” and may be accepted as belonging to the same cultural milieu and style group.
Jain Kalpasutra manuscript: This illustration is from a Jain Kalpasutra manuscript, 1470—
1500 CE. It uses opaque watercolor and gold on paper.
41
CHAPTER IV
Unique architecture and styles of JAIN TEMPLES
Jain temples are known for their unique architecture and styles since centuries. Since Jainism
flourished in different kingdoms at different times and so you can find adorable diversity in
temples of Jain faith.
i would like to mention some of the most beautiful and unique temples of Jain community which
are worth visiting.
A. Old constructions.
1. Jain temple of Ranakpur :- one of the largest jain temple in the world and is
masterpiece of art. It's unique architecture amazed and inspired almost every other
temples known for its marvel carving across India be it of any faith.
2. shravanbelgola :- Gommateshwara statue of lord Bahubali is a world famous and is
largest monolithic statue. Temples atop hill and at the base of the hill inside
shravanbelgola village are so peaceful and reflects unique ancient Karnataka
architecture styles Of southern India.
3. Jain temples of khajuraho:- an UNESCO world heritage site, jain temples of khajuraho
are known for their different style and architectur.
4. Jain temples of mountabu:- temples of dilwara or mount abu are wonderful
masterpieces of marble art. Undoubtedly one of the most amazing temples of Indian
history.
apart from mentioned above some temples of various tirthas as parasnath hills ( a.k.a sammed
sikhar ji) , palitana, sonagiri are among the most beautiful one’s.
B. New constructions.
1. jain temples of chandni chowk , Delhi:- popular Jain temple of the north, made of red
stone this temple stands right in front of redfort in DelhI, the gold foil work and
hospital of birds is not to miss.
2. jain temples of hastinapur :- this city holds some of the most amazing newly
constructed Jain temples of modern India, regularly visited by all sects of Jainism.
apart from these some of the other interesting temples are as follows:1. thousand pillar Jain temple of moodbidri.
2. golden Jain temple of falna.
3. bhadreshwar jain temple.
4. Nakoda ji jain temple.
5. manilaxmi jain temple.
6. mahaveerji jain temple, Mahavir ji town, Rajasthan.
7. kundalpur, mangitungi, pushpgiri digambara jain temples.
8. Hathisingh (Ahmedabad) , jain dadabari mehrauli, and sankhswar temple of
shwetambar sect.
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almost all jain temples are just beautiful, you'll not find anything that is copied, they are clean,
well maintained and at par peacefuL. They have spectacular works of stone , marble, gold and
glasS. once you enter you'll not feel like leaving those mandapam for hours.The Panchasara
Parshvanath Jain Derasar is one of the largest groups of more than 100 Jain temples, a reminder
of Patan’s role as center of Jainism during the Solanki Era. The temples have sophisticated and
intricate stone carvings and white marble floors that are characteristic of Jain architecture. The
Kapur Mahetano Pado is also worth visiting, where the stone temple has a wooden interior.
Panchasara Parshwanath temple is a Jain temple located in Patan, Gujarat.
the most prominent ruler of the Chavda dynasty established the territory of Patan in 746 CE and
built the Panchasara Parshwanath temple with main idol of Parshvanatha brought
from Panchasar village.
During the rule of Chaulukya dynasty (or Solanki dynasty), Patan was a major pilgrimage centre
of Jainism. There are more than 100 temples in the region. The temple was rebuilt in the 16th17th century after destruction by Muslim invaders.
This temple is one of the largest temple in Patan. The temple is dedicated to Shwetambar sect
of Jainism. The temple is built with white marble with rich stonework with sacred
carvings.[9][8][10] The central idol is an 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) tall marble idol[11] of Parshvanatha is
completely covered in parikara with image of Padmavati holding 2 lotuses in upper hand, noose
in right and goad in left hand. In Shvetambara tradition, idols tends to derive their name from a
geographical region, the Pañcásar Parshvanath is one of 108 prominent idols of Parshvanath
idols.[13] The temple also houses an idol of Vasupujya in padmasan position sitting on big lotus
with long stalk. The idol has images of yakshi and yaksha on both sides and the sculpture is
covered with foliage of Chaitya tree to commemorate the penance of Vasupujya. The temple also
houses idols of Jain monk Kakkasuri, Devachandrasuri and Yashodevsuri.
Hemachandrayacharya Jain Gyan Mandir is an ancient library built by Hemachandra. The
collection includes a number of ancient palm-leaf manuscripts.
The temple also houses a paper manuscript of Parshvanathacaritra.
The Dilwara Temples or Delvada Temples are a group of svetambara Jain temples located
about 2 1⁄2 kilometres from the Mount Abu settlement, Rajasthan's only hill station. The earliest
were built by Vimal Shah and supposedly designed or at least financed
by Vastupala, Jain minister of Dholka. They date between the 11th and 16th centuries, forming
some of the most famous monuments in the style of Māru-Gurjara architecture famous for their
use of a very pure white marble and intricate marble carvings. They are a pilgrimage place for
Jains, and a significant general tourist attraction Although Jains built many temples at other
places in Rajasthan, the Dilwara temples are believed to be the most impressive.
Māru-Gurjara architecture and Hindu temple architecture
The five Dilwara Temples are among the most famous Jain temples. The Vimal Vasahi is much
the earliest, constructed by 1031, with the Luna Vasahi by 1230, and the others at intervals
between 1459 and 1582. All are in a very white marble that adds greatly to their effect, and
remain in use. The oldest and largest two have large amounts of intricate carving even by the
standards of the style, reaching a peak in the Luna Vasahi temple. The main buildings of the first
43
three named are surrounded by "cloister" screens of devakulikā shrines, and are fairly plain on
the outer walls of these; in the case of the Vimal Vasahi this screen was a later addition, around
the time of the second temple. These three have an axis from the sanctuary through a closed, then
an open mandapa to an open rangamandapa, or larger hall for dance or drama.[6] Surrounding
Patan
the main temple with a curtain of shrines was to become a distinctive feature of the Jain temples
of West India, still employed in some modern temples.
In later temples in the Māru-Gurjara style, a very pure white marble like that at Dilwara came to
be regarded as highly desirable, even essential. In modern times, when the style has become
popular in other regions of India, and with Hindu and Jain communities in other countries, local
Rajastani marble is often carved and transported to the new building.
The temples have an opulent entranceway, the simplicity in architecture reflecting Jain values
like honesty and frugalityThe ornamental detail spreading over the minutely carved ceilings,
44
doorways, pillars, and panels is considered to be remarkable. It is said that workmen were paid in
gold according to the weight of marble powder scraped off.
Dilwara
Dilwara
5 Temples
The temple complex is in the midst of a range of forested hills. There are five temples in all, each
with its own unique identity. All the five temples are enclosed within a single high walled
compound. The group is named after the small village of Dilwara or Delvara in which they are
located. The five temples are:
1. Vimal Vasahi, dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankara, Shri Adinatha
2. Luna Vasahi, dedicated to the 22nd Jain Tirthankara, Shri Neminatha.
3. Pittalhar, dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankar, Shri Adinatha.
4. Parshvanath, dedicated to the 23rd Jain Tirthankara, Shri Parshvanatha.
5. Mahavir Swami, dedicated to the last Jain Tirthankara, Shri Mahaviraswami.
6.
Among the five marble temples of Dilwara, the most famous are the Vimal Vasahi and the Luna
Vasahi temples.
Vimal Vasahi Temple
The Adinatha or Vimala Vasahi Temple is carved entirely out of white marble and was mostly
built in 1032 by Vimal Shah, a minister of Bhima I, the Chaulukya king of Gujarat. The outer
45
mandapa is an addition of the next century. The temple is dedicated to Lord Rishabha. The
temple stands in an open courtyard surrounded by a corridor, which has numerous cells
containing smaller idols of the tirthankaras. The richly carved corridors, pillars, arches, and
'mandaps' or porticoes of the temple are simply amazing.
The ceilings feature engraved designs of lotus-buds, petals, flowers and scenes from Jain
mythology. The figures of animal life, life journey from dream to incarnation of tirthankars are
carved. There are 59 devakulikas(small shrine) facing the main image of Rishabhanatha. There
are 7 additional cells are found, 1 cell houses image of Ambaji and 2 cells of Munisuvrata. The
mulnayak idol of Rishabhanatha is finally carved with attendant deities and images of 4
tirthankar carved, giving the idol name Saparikar Panchtirthi.
The Navchowki is a collection of nine rectangular ceilings, each containing carvings of different
designs supported on ornate pillars. The Gudh mandap is a simple hall after stepping inside its
heavily decorated doorway. The Gudh mandap, houses two idols of Parshvanatha
in Kayotsarga position. Installed is the idol of Adi Nath or Lord Rishabdev, as he is also known.
The mandap is meant for Aarti to the deity. The ceiling has carvings of horses, elephants,
musician, dancers and soldier. The Hastishala (Elephant courtyard) was constructed by
Prithvipal, a descendant of Vimal Shah in 1147-49 and features a row of elephants in sculpture
with the members of the family riding them.
Luna Vasahi
Intricate carvings of Luna Vasahi
The Luna Vasahi or Neminatha temple is dedicated to Lord Neminath. This magnificent temple
was built in 1230 by two Porwad brothers - Vastupal and Tejpal - both ministers of a Virdhaval,
the Vaghela ruler of Gujarat. The temple built in memory of Vastupal & Tejpal's late brother
46
Lunig was designed after the Vimal Vashi temple. The temple has a similar structure as Vimala
Vasahi but the richness of the carving inside is even greater. The main hall or Rang mandap
features a central dome from which hangs a big ornamental pendant featuring elaborate carving.
Arranged in a circular band are 72 figures of Tirthankars in sitting posture and just below this
band are 360 small figures of Jain monks in another circular band. The Hathishala or elephant
cell features 10 marble elephants, polished and realistically modelled. One of the special feature
of temple is the two niches of Derani(wife of younger brother) and Jethani(wife of older
brother), the wife of Vastupal and Tejpal. Both of the niches have the image of Lakshmi with
sculptures of Sambhavanatha and Shantinatha respectively. This temple dedicated to Shri Nemi
Nathji, 22nd Jain Tirthankara. The statue of Shri Neminath Ji composed of a black marble
temple, which has a main hall called Rang Mandap, in which 360 small statues of Jain Tirthankar
are made of marble.The idol of Shri Nemi Nathji’s black marble has been amazingly seen among
360 small statues of Jain Trishankar in a hall named Raga Papa. The pillars of this temple
constructed by Maharana Kumbh of Mewar.
The Navchowki features some of the most delicate marble stone cutting work of the temple. The
ceilings of the temple depicts scenes of the life of Neminatha with image of Rajmathi (who was
to marry Neminatha) and Krishna. The Gudh mandap features a black marble idol of the
22nd Tirthankara Neminatha. The Kirthi Stambha is a big black stone pillar that stands on the
left side of the temple. The carvings of devkulikas and Chakreshvari in the ceiling of temple is
also noteworthy. The Kirti Stambha(pillar of pride) was constructed by Maharana Kumbha
of Mewar. The remaining three temples of Dilwara are smaller.
47
Scene depicting the marriage of Aristanemi, from Luna Vasahi
Scene depicting the marriage of Aristanemi, from Luna Vasahi (Temple of Neminatha) part of the Dilwara temples of
India. Located about 2½ kilometres from Mount Abu, Rajasthan's only hill station. These Jain temples were built by
Vastupal-Tejpal, a Jain laymen, between the 11th and 13th centuries AD (Photo by: Universal History Archive/Universal
Images Group via Getty Images)
Pittalhar
Pittalhar Temple
This temple, also called the Adinatha temple, was built by Bhima Shah, a minister of Sultan
Begada of Ahmedabad, between 1316-1432 AD. A massive metal statue of the first Tirthankara,
Rishabha Dev (Adinath), cast in five metals, is installed in the temple. The main metal used in
this statue is 'Pital' (brass), hence the name 'Pittalhar'. The name of the temple is also mentioned
in an inscription dating back to 1432, found in Digambar shrine in Dilwara complex.
There are a total of 107 images in the main shrine. The Shrine consists of a main Garbhagriha,
Gudh mandap and Navchowki with idol of yakshi Chakreshvari and yaksha Gomukha on both
sides.] It seems that the construction of Rangmandap and the corridor was left unfinished. The
old mutilated idol was replaced and installed in 1468-69 AD weighing 108 maunds (four metric
tons) according to the inscription on it. The image was cast by an artist 'Deta' which is 8 ft
(2.4 m). high, 5.5 ft (1.7 m). broad and the figure is 41 inches (1,000 mm) in height. In Gudh
Mandap on one side, a big marble Panch-Tirthi sculpture of Adinath is installed. Some shrines
(devakulika) were constructed in 1474 and 1490, before construction was abandoned.
48
Dilwara Jain temples constructed by Vaastu-Tejpal, Jain Sutrasans. Dilwara Temples are
considered one of the world’s most beautiful Jain pilgrimage sites. It reflects Jain values in
architecture, like honesty and conscience. There are five temples in Dilwara temples, each of
which has its own distinctive identity. Dilwara Temple 2.5 kilometers from Mount Abu of
Rajasthan. The only hill station of Rajasthan. Located at an altitude of 1220 meters above sea
level.
Situated between the lush green hills, Dilwara Temple the most beautiful pilgrimage spot for the
Jains. Built by Vastuppal Tejpal between the 11th and the 13th centuries, this temple famous for
its excellent use of marble and complex carvings on every hook and corner. From the outside, it
looks quite frightening but, once you enter in, you will go to the heels, with beautiful designs and
patterns on the terrace, walls, arches, and pillars. Dilwara Temple has five identical temples,
such as Vimal Vasahi, Luna Vasahi, Pitallahar, Parsvnath, and Mahavir Swamy Temple, which
are dedicated to Lord Adinath, Lord Rishabh Bho, Lord Neminath, Lord Mahavir Swami and
Lord Parshvanath respectively. Each of these temples has a color palette, a central chamber, a
sanctum sanctorum, where God resides and Navchoki a group of nine heavily decorated terraces.
Some other mantras bounding structures include kirthi columns and elephants. With its
simplicity and penance, the temple tells you about Jain values and principles.
Not just worship place, Dilwara temple an ideal center of architectural wonders. Its beauty
certainly creates magical magic that will attract you here again.
49
Overview
Five Dilwara Jain Temples
Vimal Vasahi Temple (Shri Adi Nath Temple)
Vimal Vasthi Temple made of white marble. This temple built in 1031 AD and made by
Vimalsh, who was the minister of Bhimdev I of Gujarat, Chalukya king and Solanki Maharaja of
Gujarat. “This temple first dedicated to Jain Tirthankar Rishab Dev.
The oldest temple in all the other temples of the complex and dedicated to the first Jain
Tirthankara Shri Adinath Ji. Built-in 1031 by Vimal Shah, the ruler of Gujarat’s Solanika ruler.
Inside the temple are small images of Jain saints, in which there are special art pieces of art
carving on marble. Outside of the temple, there an open courtyard surrounded by all the corridors
and decorated with marble carved stones. The “Good Pavilion”, which a hall decorated with
many images of Shri Nath, is another attraction of this temple.
Pittalhar Temple (Shri Rishabh Ji Temple)
The Pittalhar temple built by Bamashah of Rajasthan, a minister of Maharana Pratap. This
temple first dedicated to Jain Tirthankar, Rishab. In it, there a large cast metal statue of Rishabh
Dev, which earlier Jain Tirthankar. Main metal used. In this statue, there “Pittal” and hence the
name of this temple is ‘Pithalhar’.
Shri Rishabhdevji Temple constructed by Bhim Shah, who a minister of the Gujarat Dynasty.
This temple is known as Pithalahri / Pithalahar Temple because it is known as Pithalahri /
Pithalhar Temple. Pistol (brass metal) is used in the construction of most of the idols in this
temple. There are also Guddu Mandapa and Navchauki.
50
Image
Khartar Vasahi Temple (Shri ParshwanathTemple)
The Kharatar Mandir constructed by Mandalak and his family in 1458-59. This temple has a
three storey building. Highest of all temples in Dilwara Temple There the highest temple in all
51
Mandar temples in Shri Parshvanath temple. Construction of the temple with four big pavilions
1458-59 AD Between the Mandika tribe. The temple wonderful carvings on marble pillars.
Image Source
Mahavir Swami Temple
Mahaveer Swami Temple, the last Jain Tirthankar, dedicated to Mahavira. A small temple built
in 1582 and dedicated to Lord Mahavir, 24th and the last Tirthankara of Jain. This Jain temple
dedicated to Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankar of Jain. Built-in 1582. A small temple relative
to other Jain temples. The painted pictures of Por in his walls are a wonderful work of Sirohi’s
craftsmanship. This magnificent work completed in 1764.
52
Shri Parshvanatha Temple
Parshvanatha Chaumukha Temple
This temple, dedicated to Lord Parshvanath, was built by Sangvi Mandlik and his family in
1458–59. According to popular belief, masons offered free remaining stones of Vimala
Vasahi and Luna Vasahi to add the marble since the temple was built by grey stone. It consists of
a three-story building, the tallest of all the shrines at Dilwara. Not all the tower remains. On all
the four faces of the sanctum on the ground floor are four big mandapas housing a Choumukha
idol of Parshvanatha. On the first floor, the Chaumukha idol the front iconography is
of Chintamani Parshvanath, second Magalakar Parshvanatha and third Manoratha-Kalpadruma
Parshvanatha all are depicted with hood of nine cobras. The image of fourth image of
Parshvanatha is illegible.[45] In the corridor there are images of 17 tirthankaras and paintings of
flowers. There is depiction of 14 dreams of mother of tirthankars had before their births.[45] On
the second floor, the Chaumukha idol is of Sumatinatha, Parshvanatha, Adinatha and
Parshvanatha. The idol of Goddess Ambika is also present. On the third floor, the Chaumukha
idol is of Parshvanatha.The outer walls of the sanctum comprise ornate sculptures in gray
sandstone, depicting Dikpals, Vidhyadevis, Yakshinis, Shalabhanjikas and other decorative
sculptures comparable to the ones in Khajuraho and Konark.
Shri Mahaveer Swami Temple
This is a small structure constructed in 1582 and dedicated to Lord Mahavira.[21] It is small
temple with carvings on its walls. On the upper walls of the porch there are pictures painted in
1764 by the artists of Sirohi. There are detailed carvings of flowers, pigeons, court-scene,
dancing girls, horses, elephant, and other scenes. On each side of Mahavira, there are 3 idols of
tirthankar. Outside the shrine, there is a marble slab of rectangular shape with a triangle stone
over it containing 133 images of miniature-sized tirthankar with a larger image in center.[21]
Jirnoddhar (Repairs
The temples have undergone repairs time to time. Allauddin Khilji had attacked and damaged the
temples in 1311. In 1321, Bijag and Lalag of Mandore had undertaken repairs.
In 1906, Lallubhai Jaichand of Patan had the temples repaired and reconsecrated on April 25,
1906, under the supervision of Yati Hemasagar. Extensive repairs were again undertaken during
1950-1965 by Anandji Kalyanji with the work done by the Sompura firm Amritlal Mulshankar
Trivedi. The older marble has a yellow patina, whereas the newer marble is white.
53
The temples are currently administered by the Seth Kalyanji Paramanandji Pedi (not to be
confused by Seth Anandji Kalyanji Pedhi of Ahmedabad).[50] Seth Kalyanji Paramanandji Pedi
also runs a Bhojanshala (dining hall) nearby.
Jethani shrine in Luna Vasahi
Dilwara in 1990/Dilwara Temple ceiling detail
Jain Derasar, Mt.Abu//interior of the Luna Vasahi or Shri Neminath Temple, Dilwara
Doorway detail/Kalpavriksha illustration in Dilwara Jain Temple
According to Sramana(Jaina) scriptures,
Chaityas(Jinalaya/Jain temple) are classified into two types1. Krutrim Chaityas
2. Akrutrim Chaityas
Krutrim Chaityas are that which are made by humans and celestial beings and
are subjected to destruction with time(Ashashwat).
Akrutrim Chaityas are that which are not made by anyone(Anadhinidhan). They are not
subjected to destruction with time(Shashwat).In the Akrutrim Chaityas, there are 4-sided
(Chaumukhi)
idols of only
the
4
Shashwat
Jinas i.e Rushabhanan, Chandranan, Vardhamanan and Varishen. They are worshipped by the
Vyantar, Vaimanik,Bhavanvasi and Jyotish devas(celestial beings).
In the 3 worlds i.e Upper world(Urdhwa lok), Middle world(Madhya lok) and Lower world(Adho
lok), there are many Krutrim Chaityas and Akrutrim Chaityas.
In the Chaitya-vandana Sutra, there are mentions to the exact number of Akrutrim Chaityas in
the 3 worlds as they are fixed in number and do not vary with time.
Whereas the number of Krutrim Chaityas are not fixed in number and vary with time.
54
Māru-Gurjara architecture, Chaulukya style or Solaṅkī style is a style of north Indian temple
architecture that originated in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th to 13th centuries, under
the Chaulukya dynasty (or Solaṅkī dynasty). Although originating as a regional style in Hindu
temple architecture, it became especially popular in Jain temples and, mainly
under Jain patronage, later spread across India and to diaspora communities around the world.[3]
On the exteriors, the style is distinguished from other north Indian temple styles of the period in
"that the external walls of the temples have been structured by increasing numbers of projections
and recesses, accommodating sharply carved statues in niches. These are normally positioned in
superimposed registers, above the lower bands of moldings. The latter display continuous lines
of horse riders, elephants, and kīrttimukhas. Hardly any segment of the surface is left
unadorned." The main shikhara tower usually has many urushringa subsidiary spirelets on it, and
two smaller side-entrances with porches are common in larger temples. Interiors are if anything
even more lavishly decorated, with elaborate carving on most surfaces. In particular, Jain
temples often have small low domes carved on the inside with a highly intricate rosette design.
Another distinctive feature is "flying" arch-like elements between pillars, touching the horizontal
beam above in the centre, and elaborately carved. These have no structural function, and are
purely decorative. The style developed large pillared halls, many open at the sides, with Jain
temples often having one closed and two pillared halls in sequence on the main axis leading to
the shrine
Mandapa ceiling in the Ranakpur Jain Temple
.
The style mostly fell from use in Hindu temples in its original regions by the 13th century,
especially as the area had fallen to the Muslim Delhi Sultanate by 1298. But, unusually for an
Indian temple style, it continued to be used by Jains there and elsewhere, with a notable "revival"
in the 15th century. Since then it has continued in use in Jain and some Hindu temples, and from
the 20th century has spread to temples built outside India. These include many large temples
built by the Hindu Swaminarayan tradition, with the Neasden temple in London (1995) an early
example, and smaller ones built by the Jain diaspora, such as the Jain
temple, Antwerp, Belgium (completed 2010), and temples in Potters Bar and Leicester in
England.
The name of the Māru-Gurjara style is a 20th-century invention; previously, and still by
many, it is called the "Solanki style".The ancient name of Rajasthan was Marudesh while
55
Gujarat was called Gurjaratra. The term "Māru-Gurjara" was coined by art and architectural
historian Madhusudan Dhaky, who also coined the terms "Surāṣṭra", "Mahā-Māru", and "MahāGurjara" to describe other historical styles of Western Indian architecture. The Māru-Gurjara
style is a synthesis of the Mahā-Māru style of Marwar region in Rajasthan and the Mahā-Gurjara
style of Gujarat. However, Hegewald suggests "This change in terminology appears to have been
suggested first by A. Ghosh during a symposium in Delhi in 1967". She notes that the change
was an "attempt to avoid dynastic terms", and that both "Māru-Gurjara" and "Maru-Gurjara" are
used by different writers, and that the Jain community mostly continues to call the style
"Solanki".
DEVELOPMENT:
The style developed from that of the dynasties preceding the Solankis, mainly the GurjaraPratihara dynasty, and the local dynasties under it. The most famous monuments of this period
are the Khajuraho Group of Monuments built under the Chandela dynasty between 950 and
1050. These are famous for their erotic reliefs. Many of the broad features of this earlier style are
continued in the Māru-Gurjara style. The beginnings of the new style can be seen in the
small Ambika Mata temple in Jagat, Rajasthan. The earliest inscription here records a repair in
961 (well before the Solankis came to power).[12] For George Mitchell, in the Jagat temple (and
others he names) "the Pratihara style was fully evolved in its Western Indian expression".
Bands of relief on the base wall of the Jagdish Temple, Udaipur, built by Maharana Jagat Singh I in 1651
Early Hindu temples
The Somnath temple, dedicated to Shiva, was the most famous in Gujarat, but was very largely
destroyed by the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud in a raid in 1024–1025 CE. It was then rebuilt, but
sacked again when the Delhi Sultanate conquered the area at the end of the 13th century. The
ruins have recently been restored and rebuilt in what is intended as the Solanki style.
56
The Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat, was built in 1026–27 CE, just after Mahmud's raid. The
shikhara is now missing, but the lower levels are well-preserved, and there is a
large stepwell tank of the same period in front of the temple. There is a large
detached mandapa between the main sanctuary building and the tank, which is slightly later. The
carving of all parts is "extremely luxuriant and exquisitely refined in the rendering of detail".[15]
The Rudra Mahalaya Temple was a large complex in Siddhpur Gujarat, mostly destroyed under
Muslim rule. The main temple was surrounded by a screen of subsidiary shrines (partly surviving
as a mosque), and the porches, parts of which remain, and a stand-alone torana were
exceptionally grand. The mandapa had three storeys. It was completed in 1140, ending a long
period of construction.. Two groups of smaller ruined temples of similar date are the two Rama
Lakshamana temples, Baradia and the five Kiradu temples; both have their lowest storeys fairly
intact, and some of the Kiradu group retain part of their shikharas.
The famous Rani ki vav ("Queen's Stepwell", probably 1063–83) is a very
grand stepwell in Patan, Gujarat, once the Solanki capital. With a very different architectural
form and function, "throughout, the ornamentation of the architectural elements is sumptuous" in
the contemporary temple style, including very many Hindu figures. Another non-temple is the 80
foot Kirti Stambha tower in Chittor Fort, Rajasthan, built for a Jain merchant, mostly in the early
13th century, with the pavilion at the top a 15th-century restoration.
Ambika Mata temple in Jagat, Rajasthan, by 960/Durga on the Jagat temple/ Wall below the shikhara, Sun
Temple, Modhera, 1020s
Outside face of screen shrines at Rudra Mahalaya Temple, by 1140/Kiradu templesRani ki
vav, (Well) Patan, Gujarat, 11th century
57
Early Jain temples
Detail of the Jain Kirti Stambha tower, Chittor
1161/Bhadreshwar Jain Temple, 1248, rebuilt 2010
Fort/Ajitanatha
Temple, Taranga
Jain
temples,
The five Dilwara Temples on Mount Abu are among the most famous Jain temples. The Vimal
Vasahi is much the earliest, constructed by 1031, with the Luna Vasahi by 1230, and the others
at intervals between 1459 and 1582. All are in a very white marble that adds greatly to their
effect, and remain in use. The oldest and largest two have large amounts of intricate carving even
by the standards of the style, reaching a peak in the Luna Vasahi temple. The main buildings of
the first three named are surrounded by "cloister" screens of devakulikā shrines, and are fairly
plain on the outer walls of these; in the case of the Vimal Vasahi this screen was a later addition,
around the time of the second temple. These three have an axis from the sanctuary through a
closed, then an open mandapa to an open rangamandapa, or larger hall for dance or
drama.[19] Surrounding the main temple with a curtain of shrines was to become a distinctive
feature of the Jain temples of West India, still employed in some modern temples.
The Ajitanatha Temple, the largest and earliest of the cluster of Taranga Jain temples, was
constructed in 1161, and is a fine example of the style, which remains largely intact, and in
religious use. The shikhara and the much lower superstructure over the mandapa are both among
the "most complicated" in the style. The former begins with three rows of bhumija-style
miniature towers in clusters, before turning to the sekhari style higher up, where the miniature
towers are of varying lengths, and overlap. Over the mandapa, the lowest level continues the
regular miniature tower clusters over the sanctuary, above which shallow pitched planes of roof
are studded with miniature towers, with rows of beasts and urns along the edges of the planes.
The surfaces are heavily decorated with figures and "honeycomb" gavaksha decoration, the
figures "characterized by lively poses and sharply cut faces and costumes".
The Ajitanatha Temple was built under, and very probably by, King Kumarapala (r. 1143 – 1172
CE) of the Solanki/Chaulukya dynasty, who was the most favourable towards Jains of the
58
dynasty. According to Jain sources he converted to Jainism towards the end of his life; at the
least he was influenced by the religion. His reign marked the height of Jain power and influence;
his son Ajayapala, something of a villain in Jain chronicles, was much less favourable, although
there continued to be Jain ministers.
Kumbharia Jain temples is a complex of five Jain temples in Kumbhariya, Banaskantha
district built between 1062 - 1231 CE. The five temples are famous for their elaborate
architecture. The Jain temples, Kumbhariya along with Dilwara temples, Girnar Jain
temples and Taranga Jain temple are considered excellent examples of Chaulukyan
architecture. Mahavira, Shantinatha, and Parshvanatha temples are some of the most renowned
temples in India. These five marble temples vary in size and architecture details, but every
temple is surrounded by a protective walled courtyard with elaborate arched gateways.
The Bhadreshwar Jain Temple, mostly constructed for a merchant in 1248, just at the end of the
Solanki dynasty, is surrounded by the high walls of a curtain of subsidiary shrines, each with a
shikhara in sekhari style, except for a much later two-storey porch at the entrance, which has
elements from Indo-Islamic architecture in the domes and arches. The main temple, in a
courtyard considerably above ground level, is comparable to the earlier examples described
above.
The clustered group of Girnar Jain temples, with a magnificent mountain-top position, are mostly
in the style, with the major temples ranging in date (of basic construction) from 1128, 1231,
1453 and another 15th century example. Other temples, like the large example at the Rajgadhi
Timbo ("mound"), have been completely destroyed.
Later temples
Ranakpur Jain temple, 15th century
The Solanki dynasty finally fell around 1244, replaced by the Hindu Vaghela dynasty for some
decades before the Muslim Delhi Sultanate conquered the region. Temple building then largely
ceased in the original areas of the style for a considerable time, although a trickle of repairs and
additions to existing temples are recorded, and some small new buildings. However, Solanki rule
came to be seen by Jains as something of a "golden age", and the Māru-Gurjara style evidently
became something of a standard for Jains, specifically the Śvetāmbara wing of the religion. The
style began to re-appear in Jain temples in the same area in the 15th century, and then spread
elsewhere in India, initially moving eastwards.
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The Adinatha Ranakpur Jain temple in Rajasthan is a major construction for a merchant, built
between 1439 and 1458 or 1496. It is a thorough-going, but not strict, revival of Māru-Gurjara
style, on the same broad model as Bhadreshwar, with a high outside wall of the back of shrines,
but also a number of Islamic-style corbelled domes. There are four three-storey porches, already
up two flights of steps. The interior of the temple is "unsurpassed for its spatial complexity",
with the sanctuary at the centre of the compound surrounded by many mandapas of two or three
storeys, with all levels very open between the supporting columns allowing views in several
directions inside the compound. Even the shikhara has balconies at three levels. The carving on
the interior is in most areas as lavish as ever.
The large group of Palitana temples on the Shatrunjaya hills in Gujarat are another very
important Jain pilgrimage site, with temples numbering into the hundreds (most very small, and
all but one Svetambara). Though many were founded much earlier, the site was so thoroughly
destroyed by Muslim armies, starting in 1311, that there is little surviving that dates back before
the 16th century. The temples are packed tightly together in a number of high-walled compounds
called "tuks" or "tonks". Michell calls them "characteristic of the final phase of Western Indian
temple architecture", with traditional shikharas, double storey porches, often on three or four
sides, and miniature-urn roofs to the main mandapas. But there are influences from Indo-Islamic
architecture in the domes, often fluted, over porches and second mandapas, "arches with petalled
fringes, parapets of merlons", and other features.] The Polo Forest in Gujarat has groups of
Hindu and Jain ruined temples of various dates, but mostly 15th century.
The Jagdish Temple, Udaipur (completed 1651) is an example of a Hindu temple using the style
at a late date; in this case a commission of Jagat Singh I, ruler of Mewar.
Seven of the Girnar Jain temples, 12th-15th centuries/View across the Palitana temples
The Hindu Jagdish Temple, Udaipur (completed 1651)
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19th century
Hutheesing Jain Temple (1848) in Ahmedabad, Gujarat
There was a considerable number of new Jain temples in the 19th century, as the Jain community
continued to grow and prosper. By now temples were built by wealthy Jains, often individually,
or by community trusts. The large Hutheesing Jain Temple (1848) in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, was
built by the Hutheesing family. It uses the Māru-Gurjara style, with many similarities to
Bhadreshwar and Ranakpur. There is a good deal of "sharply sculpted" decoration, "but figures
appear only at the brackets". There are three sanctuaries in a row, and so three shikharas, but the
porch and the outer mandapa each have three domes.
But the style is not invariably used: the large Ajmer Jain temple (1864–1895) in Rajasthan uses a
kind of Neo-Mughal style. This is a Digambar foundation, and the Digambar wing of Jainism
always favoured the Māru-Gurjara style rather less, at least in India itself. The large Anandji
Kalyanji Trust, which devotes itself to temple-building and renovation, has played a role in
promoting the Māru-Gurjara style, at Palitana in particular.
20th century
The 20th and 21st centuries, especially from about 1950, have seen increasing
Jain diaspora communities in many parts of the world. In India there has been much construction
of large temples and complexes, and the smaller diaspora communities have constructed
buildings on a somewhat smaller scale. In both cases use of the Māru-Gurjara style is very
common, although the thoroughness with which it is adopted varies greatly. Some buildings mix
Māru-Gurjara elements with those of local temple styles and modern international ones.
Generally, where there is elaborate carving, often still done by craftsmen from Gujarat or
Rajasthan, this has more ornamental and decorative work than small figures. A similar mix is
seen in many modern Hindu temples in India and abroad, for example those of
the Swaminarayan sect, or the Prem Mandir, Vrindavan near Mathura (built 2001-2011).
Sometimes the Māru-Gurjara influence is limited to the "flying arches" and mandapa ceiling
rosettes, and a preference for white marble.
Entrance fronting an essentially modern Jain temple building, Kakinada
The Bounter Jinalaya (or "72 Jinalaya") Jain temple at Mandvi, Kutch, Gujarat, begun 1982
The Jain temple, Antwerp, Belgium, completed 2010
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The Jain Centre, Leicester, England. A facade "clad with Māru-Gurjara ornamentation" on a
former church/
Jain Temple at the Oshwal Centre, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire, which "recreates a general
Māru-Gurjara aesthetic" Side view.
The Māru-Gurjara style did not represent a radical break with earlier styles. The previous styles
in north-west India are mentioned above, and the group of Jain temples of Khajuraho, forming
part of the famous Khajuraho Group of Monuments are very largely in the same style as their
Hindu companions, which were mostly built between 950 and 1050. They share many features
with the Māru-Gurjara style: high plinths with many decorated bands on the walls, lavish
figurative and decorative carving, balconies looking out on multiple sides, ceiling rosettes, and
others, but at Khajuraho the great height of the shikharas is given more emphasis. There are
similarities with the contemporary Hoysala architecture from much further south. In both of
these styles architecture is treated sculpturally.
Above from The Architecture of Jainism- by Ashish Nangia
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
Review of Dilwara Jain Temples
Reviewed 25 December 2016
Recently I visited the Delwara Jain Temple. What a marvellous structure. So beautiful.
The carvings so intricate. I wondered how could this structure have been created on a
mountain more than 900 years ago. How did they carry all that marble up hill when no
transport was available. How could they create such intricate carvings on marble with
rustic instruments. Legend says that the artisans were paid in silver and gold. Whatever
powder was removed from the slab of marble was weighed in gold and paid and the
weight of small pieces of rubble extricated from the marble was replaced in silver. The
marble slabs were carried from Makrana (place in Rajasthan) to Mt Abu by elephants. If I
remember correctly even Taj Mahal was built with marble brought from Makrana.
Jainism is an ancient religion of India as old as Hinduism or older and has 24 Tirthankers
or Prophets.. The last Tirthanker attained Moksha in 500 BC. And none of the
Tiarthankers were contemporaries. So one can guess how old that religion is.
There are 5 temples. Each constructed at an interval of almost 100 years starting from the
11th century AD. The Vimal Shahi dedicated to the first Tirthanker (prophet) Lord
Rishabdev , The Luna Vasahi Temple dedciated to Lord Neminath (22nd Tirthanker),
The Pitalhar Temple (Lord Rishabdev) has a life sized statue constructed by an
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amalgamation of metals, the Parshvanath temple (dedicated to the 23rd Tirthanker Lord
Parshvanath) and the Mahavir Swami Temple (dedicated to the last and 24th Tirthanker
Lord Mahavir). The Vimal Shahi temple has a 3000 year old statue of the first Prophet.
Older the temple more beautiful and more intricate the carvings. The moment we enter
the temple we feel the grandeur of the sculptored marble. There are domes, pillars, arches
created on the ceilings with such awesome exquisite finesse. There are ornamental
flowers like lotuses, birds like ducks, swans etc, animals like lions, horses, elephants,
chariots, men and women holding offerings, playing musical instruments all created in
fine carvings of marble.Life cycle of the prophets have been created in the dome of white
marbl. They have created carvings of nets in marble which are hanging as a floral
between two pillars.The pillars, domes, arches, pendants are held together with some
ancient locking mechanism without using any cement that have withstood the ravages of
time and Muslim invaders in the 13th century. I did not want to come out of the temple.
And I wondered how could the Taj Mahal be called the 7th wonder of the world. Without
any doubt both the Delwara and Ranakpur Jain Temples in Rajasthan India are much
more beautiful, much more pristine then the most famous marble structure of India. I
wish these temples were visited by more tourists who could appreciate the skilled
artisanship prevalent in India 1000 years ago. You visit Delwara you will forget the Taj
Mahal. Unfortunately being a religious place no photography is allowed. Visitors are
allowed after 12 noon.
The Jivantasvami images represent Lord Mahavira (and in some cases other Tirthankaras) as a
prince, with a crown and ornaments. The Jina is represented as standing in
the kayotsarga pose Jivantasvami images have been used only in the Shvetambara Jain tradition,
they are unknown in the Digambara tradition.
History: The earliest reference to the Jivantasvami images is found in the later commentaries on
the Shvetambara Jain Agamas (c.mid 6th century AD onwards), Vasudevahindi of
Samghadasagani(c. mid 6th century CE) the Avashyakachurni (c. 625 CE) the Avashyakavritti
of Haribhadra Suri(c. 750 CE) and the Trishashtishalakapurushacharita of Hemachandra (c.
1169-72 CE). These mention the existence of Jivantasvami images at Ujjain, Dashapura
(Mandsaur), Vidisha, Vitabhayapattana, Puri and Koshala.
According to Hemachandra, the original image was made by god Vidyunmali, carved in
sandalwood, during the time Lord Mahavira was still a prince. According to the legend of the
queen of Udayana of Vitabhaya worshipped this image. This image was eventually installed at
Vidisha, but was eventually lost.
The best known images of Jivantasvami were found in the Akota Hoard, and are widely
mentioned examples of the early western Indian school of art. One of them is specifically
inscribed as Jivantsvami installed by Nagisvari, which represents early phase of the Gupta style.
The images were dug out sometime before June 1951. A University of Baroda professor brought
five of them to archaeologist U.P. Shah for examination. U.P. Shat eventually purchased most of
the images from local individuals and presented them to M.S. University, which are now in
the Baroda Museum.
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Other tirthankaras including Rishabhnath (1st Jina), Shantinath (16th Jina), Munisuvrata (20th
Jina) and Parshvanatha (23rd Jina ), were also sometimes represented in the form of
Jivantasvami.
The two famous Jivantasvami images along with the rest of the Akota Hoard bronzes are in
the Baroda Museum & Picture Gallery. Akota Bronzes represent a rare and important set of
68 Jain images, dating to between the 6th and 12th centuries CE, which were found in the
vicinity of Akota near Baroda in the Indian state of Gujarat. It includes rare Gupta
period bronzes that have been widely used for comparison of Gupta period art.
Akota (formerly Ankottaka) was a major centre of Jainism in the 5th century AD and is
mentioned in texts.The hoard provides information on metallic art and development of metal
technology during Gupta, post-Gupta and medieval period.
Discovery: The images were dug out sometime before June 1951. A University of Baroda
professor brought five of them to archaeologist U.P. Shah for examination. U.P. Shat eventually
purchased most of the images from local individuals and presented them to M.S. University,
which are now in the Baroda Museum.
7th-century Tirthankar image, Akota, at Honolulu Academy of Arts
Only two of the images are dated. U.P. Shah dated the rest of them on palaeographic basis. They
range from the 5th to 12th centuries. They may have belonged to the Vasatika of Arya Rath
established in Kshatrapa era. None of the images date after 1100 CE, suggesting that they were
buried for safeguarding broke the invasion of Gujarat by Alap Khan, a general of Alauddin
Khalji.
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Once the Indo-Aryans had settled in India, and produced the corpus of works collectively
known as the Vedas and Puranas, we witness a slow stratification of religion in the Indian
subcontinent. It was to challenge this stratification that two of the world’s major religions,
Buddhism and Jainism, took root in north India in the 5th century BC. While Buddhism went
on to become a major religion across much of Asia, Jainism stayed close to its roots and
flowered in the fertile soil of the Indian subcontinent’s intellectual and cultural ferment of the
time. Indeed, one of Jainism’s central tenets, the principle of ‘Anantekavada’ or ‘many truths’,
meshed well with Hinduism’s ‘polymorphous’ character and thus the two religions never came
into open conflict but co-existed well with each other.
The architecture of Jainism, however, is less easy to define. While its temples are based
originally on the Hindu temple plan, the difference lies in the deities placed inside, Jainism
preferring to situate images of the tirthankaras within the precincts of the temple. The major
sites for ancient and medieval Jain temple architecture are at Mount Abu in Rajasthan and at
Sravanabelagola in the south of India. Apart from this, there are also temples in Ahmedabad
and more modern ones in and around Delhi.
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Features
While initially Jain architecture copied Buddhist and Hindu styles, they soon came to evolve a
distinct identity of their own. The major difference is the construction of ‘temple-cities’ by the
Jains as opposed to solitary Hindu temples which are the norm rather than the exception. A Jain
place of worship is also noted for its rich materials (often marble), as well as the profusion of
ornamentation which decorates the structure.
Structurally speaking, a Jain temple is constructed on a square plan with openings in four
cardinal directions, each of which could lead to the image of a Tirthanakara. It is thus that it is
not uncommon to find four of these images placed back to back, one for each cardinal direction.
The interior of the temple has a singularly large number of columns, from which a false
arch/bracket springs about two thirds of the way up. These pillars are richly carved, as is the
roof towards which they spring. Indeed, roof forms, such as at the temples at Mount Abu,
become quite elaborate with marble deities and concentric rings of carving. Domes
or shikharas are usually more acute than the ones found in Hindu temples, which gives to Jain
temple cities a very distinct skyline of multiple dome points reaching toward the sky.
Examples
Amongst the most distinctive of medieval Jain temples are the examples of the Dilwara temples
at Mount Abu, Rajasthan. A complex of five temples is distributed asymmetrically around the
hilltop with a central space orienting the whole composition. These temples are different from
other temple cities as the structures themselves are unadorned with domes or spires, thus
making them difficult to mark from the outside. However, the interiors more than make up for
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the drabness of the interior with rich, almost Baroque carvings on the interior surfaces and walls
and columns. Two examples are noteworthy: the Luna Vasahi temple dedicated to the 22nd
Jain tirthankara, and the Vimala Vasahi temple, for the 1st tirthankara, Adinatha. The ceiling
in both these temples is richly carved with figures of 16 devis or apsaras acting as a ‘falsesupport’ for the domical roof.
India, Rajasthan, Mount Abu, Dilwara Temples. Vimal Vasahi Jain temple 1031 A.D. Detail of
carved white marble central ceiling with central pendant tapered to form point like a lotus
flower.
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Details of Domed Roof
Another fine example of Jaina architecture is the temple town of Shatrunjaya in the west of
Gujarat.
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Shatrunjaya Temple Complex and carving details
It is to be noted that Jain temples are particularly numerous in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Shatrunjaya, on the summit of a steep hill, is replete with temple complexes with individual
examples built in the standard ‘nagara’ style: i.e., complete with shikharas and 45 degree angle
roofs above the mandapas. Apart from this example, there are numerous other examples of
Jaina temple cities being built at the summit of hills or mountains.
It is a moot point why so much Jain architecture was built on hilltops. One view has it that since
mountains have been holy in Indian culture, the mountain top makes for an ideal site for
temples. A more pragmatic view, of course, is that the temple cities also acted like fortresses,
making for an impregnable site to ward off potential attackers. Of course, with the arrival of
Qutb-ud-din Aibak and later rulers, it was not uncommon for many Jain and Hindu temples
‘losing’ their columns as building material for mosques, the new religious typology that
emerged in India after the 12th century AD.
A final example is that of the temple of Adinatha at Ranakpur.
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Adinatha Temple, Ranakpur
Oriented around a square plan with an octagonal garbha griha, the temple must be one of the
finest examples of medieval Jain architecture. Once again, the standard Jain pattern of richly
decorated columns in the interior and an overwhelming use of marble dominate. It is interesting
to note that none of the pillars is exactly alike in terms of carving and disposition.
Form and Function in Jain Architecture
Why did Jain temple architecture, in particular, develop the four sided form, as opposed to
Hindu temples, which tend to be linear in direction? One answer must come from the
metaphysical doctrines of Jainism, the concept of relativity in particular, or in other words, that
there is no ‘one truth’. This means that for a temple, an architectural promenade that showed
only one face of the tirthankara was against the concept of Jainism, this means that a number of
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overlapping ‘ways’ to reach the image were developed. This multiplicity of viewpoints, this
duplicity of temple forms and facades was well reflected in later examples as well, as at the
Hatheesingh temple at Ahmedabad, and the Shitalanatha temple at Calcutta.
Jain Architecture in India Buddhism and Jainism introduced the art of rock-cut caves such as
the Ajanta and Ellora caves. Other than these well-known examples, It also produced other
works of art that are still famous world over.
Brief facts about Jain architecture with notable examples are highlighted below:
Jain architecture

Jain temples are found all over India except in the hills.

Oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are in Bihar.

In the Deccan: Ellora and Aihole.
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In central India: Khajuraho, Deogarh, Chanderi and Gwalior.

Karnataka has many Jain shrines.

Statue of Gomateshwara: Granite statue of Lord Bahubali commissioned
by Camundaraya, the prime minister of the Ganga kings; located at
Shravanabelagola; 18m or 57 feet high; world’s tallest monolithic freestanding structure.

Gujarat and Rajasthan have a rich Jain heritage continuing to this day.

Jain bronze images found from Akola (near Baroda) belong to the late 5th – late
7th century CE; made using the lost-wax process; the images have been inlaid
with silver and copper for embellishments.

Jain bronze sculptures are also found from Chausa (Bihar), Hansi (Haryana) and
many places in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Jain Temples at Mount Abu, Rajasthan

Constructed by Vimal Shah.

Also called Dilwara temples. Built between the 11th and 13th centuries.

Every ceiling has unique patterns. Richly sculptured on white marble. The
exteriors are simple but the interiors are finely carved and exquisitely
decorated
6th century B.C. in India marked a significant phase of history with the beginning of new
religious and social movements in the form the shraman tradition which included new Buddhism
and Jainism etc. Emergence of Buddhism and Jainism contributed significantly in the
development of early architectural style in India. Under this new architectural style, stupas and
viharas were constructed on a large scale.
The art and architecture of the Jains have the main objective to maintain, preserve and glorify the
culture extensively. Jain architecture especially their temple architecture is one of a kind in India.
The great Jain temples and sculptured monuments of Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan are
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world-renowned. Jain temples at Ranakpur and Mount Abu in Rajasthan are among the most
spectacular Jain temples.
Excellent rock cut architecture can also be found in the caves of Mathura, Bundelkhand, Madhya
Pradesh and Orissa. A number of rock-cut caves have been discovered in Udaigiri and
Khandagiri, twin hills in Puri District of Orissa and in Ellora in Maharashtra.
Rock-cut cave temples
Early examples of rock-cut architecture in India include the Buddhist and Jain cave temples
(Chaityas), monasteries (Viharas). In the early years, Jain temples were built adjoining the
Buddhist sites following the Buddhist rock-cut style. Early cave sites, found in western India
were used by Jain monks as places of worship and residence.
Ellora, dating from the fifth century CE onwards to the eleventh century CE, is one such cave
site located in Aurangabad District of Maharashtra. It is a unique historical site as it has
monastries associated with the three religions (Buddhism, Brahmanism and Jainism).
The remnants of the rock-cut cave architecture are also found in Odisha. The earliest examples
are the Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves in the vicinity of Bhubaneswar. These caves have inscriptions
of Kharavela kings. According to the inscriptions, the caves were meant for Jain monks.
Features of Jain temples
Jain architecture developed largely as an offshoot of Hindu and Buddhist styles. It cannot be
accredited with a style of its own. Compared to the number of Hindu temples in India, Jain
temples are few and spaced out. The regional styles of Jain temple architectural are easily
distinguishable in different parts of the country.
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Early Jain temple architecture was mostly rock cut and bricks were hardly used. In later years,
however, brick temples were constructed in a large scale. At the same time, they also deviated
from Hindu and Buddhist sites to build on their own.
The majority of Jain temples in India consist of three core building elements:
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

Image chamber Garbhagriha
Hall Mandapa
Porch
A fourth element, referred to as Antarala, can also be seen lying between the image chamber
and its hall. Antarala, a small vestibule is a space where worshippers can stand and gaze at the
icon or follow rituals conducted within the shrine.
Some of the prominent features of Jain temples are listed below: As opposed to solitary Hindu temples, Jain temple architecture are mostly found in the
form of temple-cities . These temple-cities are large temple compounds, which contain
large numbers of individual or interconnected temples and shrines.
 Most of Jain pilgrimage sites were built on hilltops which include Palitana temple in
Gujarat, Sonagiri temple in M.P. etc.
 The chambers of these temples have pointy domes and wherever there is dome, the pillars
are omitted to create an octagonal space within.
 Jain temples are noted for the use of rich materials like marble and ornamentation.
 Domes or shikharas on the top are usually smaller than the ones found in Hindu temples.
These multiple dome points, reaching toward the sky give a very distinct appearance to
Jain temple cities.
 Jain temples have numerous pillars having a well designed structure, forming a square.
 The squares thus formed create chambers or chapels which contains the image of a deity.
 These pillars and roofs of the temple are richly carved and well decorated.
 Unlike Buddhist Viharas, the Jain viharas do not have the assembly or prayer hall
surrounded by cells. The cells of Jain viharas are small and plain, designed to observe
rigorous asceticism by Jain monks. The doorways are also small and one has to bend or
crawl to enter a cell.
 Jain temples were mostly built on platforms or terraces, commonly referred to
as Jagati or Vedi . Even rock-cut cave temples have platforms. This was done to elevate
the temple above the surrounding surface and create a distinct sacred area.
 Jain temples are enclosed by free-standing high compound walls, called as Prakara.
 Structurally speaking, a Jain temple is constructed on a square plan with openings in four
cardinal directions, each of which could lead to the image of a Tirthanakara. The
Chamukh temple of Lord Adinath is a characteristic example of the four-door temple.
Jain temples
Like their Hindu counterparts, Jains were also prolific temple builders. Their sacred shrines and
pilgrimage places can be found across different parts of India.
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Some of the most architecturally important Jain sites can be found in Ellora and Aihole in the
Deccan. The famous statue of Gomateshwara at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka is example of
rich heritage of Jain architecture in this region. In central India, Deogarh, Khajuraho, Chanderi
and Gwalior have some marvelous examples of Jain architecture. In the west, Gujarat and
Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since early times. Akota, on the outskirts of Baroda
in Gujarat is famous for Jain bronze images.
Jain Icons
Jain icons are found ever since 400 BC in different parts of India. Jain icons are world renowned
for the use of rich material such as metal, marble, stone etc. and aesthetic beauty.
Jina's icons of different sizes (miniature or tall), materials and in varying postures (seated or
standing) with attractive meditating faces can be found in different parts of India.
Normally, Jina images were made nude. Also early, Jina idols didn t have any identification
mark, but later idols are adorned by identification marks like lion (Mahavir) and bull
(Rishabhdeva) etc. Footprints also have a special place in Jain art. These footprints have a great
significance as they inspire the followers of Jainsim to follow the path led by the Jinas.
There are many Jain idols which are internationally acclaimed for their grandiosity. Idols of Lord
Bahubali at Shravanbelgola in Karnataka (983 AD) and Lord Rishabhdev at Barvani in Madhya
Pradesh need special mention for their magnificence. Palitana is one of the prominent pilgrimage
sites of jains known for its variety of idols.
Shravanabelagola
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Shravanabelagola in Karnataka is one of the most important Jain pilgrimage site in India, visited
by lakhs of followers every year. This is a surrealistic place where two strange craggy mountains
of Chandragiri and Vindhyagiri are facing each other on both sides of the town. At the peak of
Vindhyagiri, there is a 57 feet high, monolithic statue of Lord Gommateshwara, also known as
Lord Bahubali, son of the first Tirthankara, Adinath in tradition.
It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the General-in-Chief and Prime Minister of the Ganga
Kings of Mysore. The statue, which was carved about 1,000 years ago, depicts legend of Lord
Bahubali: he had practiced asceticism in an upright stance until ivy covered his legs and anthills
formed at his feet.
Bawangaja
Bawangaja is a famous Jain pilgrim site in the Barwani district of Madhya Pradesh. It is known
for the world's largest megalithic statue (carved out of mountain) of Lord Adinatha, the first Jain
Tirthankara. The statue is 84 feet high. It was created early in the 12th century.
The idol of Lord Adinatha is made in brown stone in Kayotsarga posture. The hands of idol are
not joined with legs but are made separate. The structural art and style of this idol is unique. The
various parts of idol are quite symmetrical. There is balanced depiction of all emotions like joy,
mercy and separation on the face of this idol.
Schools of temple building tradition
Along with guilds, surviving texts suggest that several schools of Hindu temple architecture had
developed in ancient India. Each school developed its own gurukuls (study centres) and texts. Of
these, state Bharne and Krusche, two became most prominent: the Vishwakarma school and the
Maya school. The Vishwakarma school is credited with treatises, terminology and innovations
related to the Nagara style of architecture, while the Maya school with those related to the
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Dravida style. The style now called Vesara bridges and combines elements of the Nagara and the
Dravida styles, it probably reflects one of the other extinct schools
Some scholars have questioned the relevance of these texts, whether the artists relied on silpa
sastras theory and Sanskrit construction manuals probably written by Brahmins, and did these
treatises precede or follow the big temples and ancient sculptures therein. Other scholars
question whether big temples and complex symmetric architecture or sculpture with consistent
themes and common iconography across distant sites, over many centuries, could have been built
by artists and architects without adequate theory, shared terminology and tools, and if so
how. According to Adam Hardy – an architecture historian and professor of Asian Architecture,
the truth "must lie somewhere in between". According to George Michell – an art historian and
professor specializing in Hindu Architecture, the theory and the creative field practice likely coevolved, and the construction workers and artists building complex temples likely consulted the
theoreticians when they needed to.
Architecture of the Khajuraho temples
The ancient Hindu texts on architecture such as Brihatsamhita and others, states Michell, classify
temples into five orders based on their typological features: Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, ellipse and
rectangle. The plan described for each include square, octagonal and apsidal. Their horizontal
plan regulates the vertical form. Each temple architecture in turn has developed its own
vocabulary, with terms that overlap but do not necessarily mean exactly the same thing in
another style and may apply to a different part of the temple. Chronologically, the early Hindu
temples are often called classical (up to 7th or 8th century), while those after the classical period
through 12th or 13th century are sometimes referred to as medieval. However, states Michell,
this is inappropriate for Hindu architecture given India's artistic tradition to conserve its heritage
and architectural framework, while evolving ideas.
The style of Hindu temple architecture is not only the result of the theology, spiritual ideas, and
the early Hindu texts but also a result of innovation driven by regional availability of raw
materials and the local climate. Some materials of construction were imported from distant
regions, but much of the temple was built from readily available materials. In some regions, such
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as in south Karnataka, the local availability of soft stone led to Hoysala architects to innovate
architectural styles that are difficult with hard crystalline rocks. In other places, artists cut granite
or other stones to build temples and create sculptures. Rock faces allowed artists to carve cave
temples or a region's rocky terrain encouraged monolithic rock-cut temple architecture. In
regions where stones were unavailable, innovations in brick temples flourished. Hindu temple
architecture has historically been affected by the building material available in each region, its
"tonal value, texture and structural possibilities" states Michell.
Illustrative Hindu text
Term
Explanation
Synonyms or Similar
mention / design rules
stylobate, plinth, base
Adhisthana
typically
with
mouldings on the Athavaksham,
side, on which a Pitha
temple building or
pillar stands
Pista, Manasara XIV, Kamikagama 3
5, Suprabhedagama 31
Amalaka
a crowning ornament
on the top of shikara,
shape
of
an
Indian amalok fruit
that
looks
like
a cogged wheel. The
amalaka
supports
the kalasha.
Mayamata silpasastra
Antarala
lit. interior space of
any building; in
temples, it is the
intermediate space
(vestibule,
Sukhanasi
antechamber)
between the sanctum
and space where
pilgrims gather
Manasara XV,
XXIII; Kamikagama XXXV
Ardhamandap
a
half hall at each
entrance, usually the
reception area that
connects
to
the
mandapa
Manasara XIV, Kamikagama 3
5, Suprabhedagama 31
Ayatana
assembly
hall,
grounds inside a
temple or monastery
compound
Agni
Purana XLIII, Matsya
Purana CCLXX, Chandogya
Upanishad 6.8.2
Bhadra
a projection often
aligned to one of the
Manasara XXX-XXXIV
77
Term
Explanation
Synonyms or Similar
Illustrative Hindu text
mention / design rules
cardinal directions;
typically of central
part
of
walls;
decoration
or
a
projected porch for
pilgrims; also may
be a tower storey
projection
Gana
a mythical dwarf or
goblin usually with a
protruded belly and
with
humorous
expression
Garbhagriha
The
womb-house,
adytum, sanctum
sanctorum; it is the
loci of the temple
and the darshana, the
spiritual space that
Hindus
circumambulate
clockwise
about.
Garbha-griya,
This is where the
geha, Sibika,
main murti image is
Mula-sthana
placed. Usually the
space is very plain,
with no distractions
from the murti,
which is rich in
symbolism. A large
temple may have
many shrines, each
with a garbhagriya.
Gavaksha
one of the arch
motifs;
it
is
horseshoe-shaped,
found with windows Gavaksa, kudu
or for decorating
spires, pillars and
other elements
Gopuram
a
gateway
at
Gopura, Dvara attalaka
entrance or one that
78
GarbhaGarbha, Brihat Samhita LXI
Agni
Purana XLII, Manasara XI,
Term
Explanation
Synonyms or Similar
connects two sacred
spaces of the temple;
becomes very large
in South Indian
temples, which may
have several; it has
roots in ancient
Indian monasteries
and
the
Vedic
word gomatipur;[88]
Illustrative Hindu text
mention / design rules
XXXIII verses 1-601, LVIII
Hara
neck ornament such
as necklace
Jala
a trellis, stone grille,
net, first seen in 6th- Jali, Indra koshtha
century temples
Jagati
any moulded base or
pedestal for the
temple or a statue
that extends out, part
of platform that
Jagata, Pithika, Jagatiforms a terrace to
pitha, Kati, Vasudha
stand
on
or
circumambulate
around on, while
reading the reliefs
and friezes
Samaranganasutradhara LXVIII, Agni
Purana XLII, Suprabhedagama
31.19
Kalasha
the pinnacle element
of a temple, a vase
Kalasam, Stupi, Kumuda
finial, cupola or
pitcher
Agni
Purana CIV, Kamikagama 55
temple tank, stepwell,
Kunda
Lata
pool, usually with
steps, public utility Pushkarani, Sara, Sagar, Garuda
for taking a dip; Tadaga, Udapana, Var, Purana XLVI, Mahanirvana
tantra XIII
often connected to a Vapi
nearby
river
or
mountain stream
liana, creeper-style
plant, vine, one type
of scroll work; also
found on sikhara
79
Term
Explanation
Synonyms or Similar
Makara
a mythical fusion sea
creature with fishcrocodile like face,
trunk or snout, legs
sometimes with lion
claws and a tail;
vahana of Varuna
Mandapa
pillared
hall
or
pavilion, with pillars
usually carved; a
mandapa is typically
square,
rectangle,
octagonal
or
circular; it may have
walls with perforated
stone windows, it
may just be open on
some or all sides.
Large temples may
have
many
interconnected
Mandapam,
mandapas. It is a
Jagamohan
gathering place, a
place for pilgrims to
rest (choultry), a part
of
the
circumambulation
space, or to wait
during
prayers
or Sanskara (rite of
passage) rituals.
A
mandapa may have a
tower (shikhara) of
its own, but it is
lower
than
that
above the sanctum.
Mulaprasada
main shrine in a
temple complex
Nisha
niche on temple
walls or in pillars for
sculptures or stele
Nyasa
the art of arranging
Illustrative Hindu text
mention / design rules
Suprabhedagama 31.68-72
Manasara XXXIIMantapa, XXXIV, Kamikagama 50, Briha
t samhita, Vishnu Purana 6.124136
Vastusutra Upanishad VI
80
Term
Explanation
Synonyms or Similar
Illustrative Hindu text
mention / design rules
images and friezes to
create a narrative or
composition,
in
some texts it refers
to relative placement
of images within a
panel to summarize a
Hindu legend or
fable; also a form a
ritual.
Prakara
wall that separates
an inner zone of
temple ground from
an
outer
zone;
typically concentric,
defensive
and
fortified, a feature
added after the wars
and plunders starting
in the 14th-century
Prastara
entablature,
horizontal
superstructure
of
bands and moldings Chaiva,
gopanam, Manasara XVI; Kamikagama LI
above
column kapotam, mancham
V
capitals, sometimes
functions
as
a
parapet of a storey
Ratha
a facet or vertical
offset projection on
the plan of the
sanctum
and shikhara above,
or other structure. It
is generally carried
up from the bottom
of the temple to the
superstructure.
A ratha,
meaning
cart, is also the
temple chariot used
for processing the
81
Term
Explanation
Synonyms or Similar
Illustrative Hindu text
mention / design rules
murti at festivals,
and a "ratha temple"
is one designed to
resemble a cart, with
wheels on the sides,
and often horses.
The most famous
example is the Sun
Temple, Konarak.
Sala
Round barrel-roofed,
wagon-roofed
pavilion; rooted in
the thatched roofed
stall for people or
cattle tradition, then
other materials of
construction;
any
mansion or griha; a
pilgrim
services
building
with
mandapas or pillared
Chala
veranda or both
inside the temple
complex,
Hindu
texts describe multistorey Sala; in south,
sala are structures
used as a decorative
motif, or an actual
roof, as at the top of
gopurams; rooted in
ancient thatched roof
styles.
Sikhara/Viman
a
In North India, the
tower above the
sanctum (entire spire
above mulaprasada);
in South India, that
top part of tower that
is above the vimana
Stambha
A pillar; it can be a Kambha,
load bearing element Dwajasthampam,
Manasara XXXV verses 1-404
Shikhara,
Sikha,
Sikhanta,
Sikhamani, Deul in East Brihat Samhita LVI
India,
Garbhaka,
Garbhamandira
82
Manasara XV, Kasyapa
sastra IX
silpa
Term
Explanation
Synonyms or Similar
Illustrative Hindu text
mention / design rules
or an independent Kodimaram
standing
element
with diya (lamps)
and Hindu icons
below, around and /
or on top; the
designs
vary
significantly
by
region, in Kerala
Hindu temples they
are at the entrance;
on festive occasions
the wick lamps are
loaded with oil and
lit up.
Sukanasa
an
external
ornamented feature
over the entrance to
the garbhagriha or
inner shrine. It sits
on the face of
sukanasa-sika
the sikhara tower (in
South
India,
the vimana) as a sort
of antefix. Can refer
to the antarala below
as well.
Tala
tier or storey of a
shikhara, vimana or
gopuram
Torana
any arch or canopy
motif, ornament or
architectural member Numerous terms, e.g. Garuda
in
temples
and Gavaksha (from 'cow Purana XLVII, Manasara XLV
buildings; it also eye'-shaped)
I verses 1-77
refers to an arched
gateway
Urushringa
subsidiary turret-like
shikharas on the side
of the main shikhara;
the primary turret is
called shringa
Agni Purana XLII
Brihat
Samhita LVI, Agni
Purana CIV
83
CHAPTER V
COSMOLOGY OF THE JAIN TEMPLE
There is no set definition for the meaning or even the form of a mandala, nor could there be,
since it appears in the art and architecture – in one form or another – of various cultures around
the world. The image and use of the term first appear in India via the Hindu text known as
the Rig Veda c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE where it is an image and also the name of the books which
comprise the work. It was, and is, also used as a meditative tool and spiritual exercise in the
belief systems of Jainism, Buddhism, and Shintoism, appears in Persian art, as the Ishtar Star
Symbol (and others) from Mesopotamia, figures in Mesoamerican architecture and Native
American art, and was used by the Celts of the Iberian peninsula and Northern Europe, to name
only a few cultures.
This chapter allows us to see how icons and scriptural exegesis are linked in Jainism. In early
days, Temples served as the major landmarks of the land. A place was recognized either using
the palaces or temples. As the palaces were prone for being ruined due to assault, temples served
as the chief landmark for the passengers travelling on foot orcarriages from afar. It was a beacona light house to guide the visitors.
Although Mahavir often referenced as Jainism’s founder, he is known by adherents as the
24th tirthankara (“ford builder”), one in a long line of enlightened souls who recognized the
illusory nature of existence and freed themselves (and then others) through adherence to a strict
spiritual discipline which broke the cycle of samsara and led to liberation. Jains observe this
same discipline in the hope of reaching the same goal. Jain mandalas illustrate this path and
discipline through images of Mahavira (or an earlier tirthankara) in the center of a circle
enclosed by ever-widening squares in which representations of various divine spirits (devas) or
life-conditions appear. The details of a Jain mandala vary but, frequently, Mahavira appears in
the center and the observer is invited to travel the image from the outer rim of distraction and
illusion toward the central truth revealed by Mahavira. An observer, in the stillness of
contemplation, is thereby provided with a kind of spiritual map of the Jain path.
Samavasarana In Jainism, Samavasarana or Samosharana ("Refuge to All") is the divine
preaching hall of the Tirthankara. The word samavasarana is derived from two words, sama,
meaning general and avasara, meaning opportunity. It is a place where all have 0 in Jain art. The
Samavasarana seems to have replaced the original Jain stupa as an object of worship. In
samavasarana hall, the tirthankara sits on a throne without touching it (about two inches above
it). Around the tirthankara sit the ganadharas (chief disciples). Living beings sit in the following
order.


In the first hall, ascetics
In the second hall, one class of deva ladies
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




In the third hall, aryikas (nuns) and laywomen
In the next three halls, three other classes of deva ladies
In the next four halls, the four classes of devas (heavenly beings)
Men, in the eleventh hall
Animals, in the last hall
According to Jain texts, there would be four wide roads with four huge
columns, Manasthamba (literally, pride pillar), one in each side. The total size of the hall varies
depending upon the height of the people in that era. The size of Rishabhadeva's samavasarana
was 12 km2 (4.6 sq mi). In samavasarana, a tirthankara sits facing the east, but appears to be
looking in all directionsTirthankara sits on a soft cushion while preaching the Jain philosophy in
plain terms.[7] All humans and animals can understand the discourse. Jain scriptures say that all
creatures who listen would become less violent and less greedy. The speech of the tirthankara is
distinctly heard by every one present.
Samosaran (Dharam Sabha)
85
One can find a look alike of samosaran in every Jain Temple or Mandir
made up of silver and being worshiped by the followers of the religion.
The concept of Samosaran – just like Tirthankar-nam-karan – is only available in Jainism and
not in any other religio and is or can be formed in Mahavidya Kshetra- where 20 tirthankaras
always remain and not on Earth a there are no Thirthankars. The creation of samosaran is done
by four kinds of Dev (Gods) when a Tirthankar attains Keval Gyan (Complete knowledge). The
shape of samosaran is either round or even square. It is of about 8 miles i.e. approx. of 1 yojan.
This immensely beautiful development is done so that all and sundry on Earth, sky, water can
hear the Tirthankar’s speech when they attain keval gyan.
86
Description of samosaran-First Gad (first floor)
The God of wind clears the ground from all the stones, pebbles, thorns, etc., vaiyantra dev make
a platform of samosaran out of gold and jewels. Out of the three floors (gad) of Samosaran the
first one is prepared by bhuvan pati devta. They prepare it by silver and decorate the borders by
gold. To reach this floor there are 10,000 steps from the ground in each four directions. Each step
is approximately one hand in width and one hand in height. And here humans and gods who
come to hear the Tirthankara keep their vehicles.
Each of the four directions have a door and two gate-mans (dwarpals) are at each door. At one
side of these door there is a pond of water. That means, in total , there are four doors in four
direction, eight dwarpals – two at each door, 40,000 steps and in the first floor of the samosaran.
Second Gad (second floor)
This floor is made by jyotish devta (God of Astrology). This floor is made up of gold and
borders are decorated with jewels. To reach this floor there are 5,000 steps each in four
directions and just similar to the first step, it has four doors and a pond of water. At the doors of
this floor there are goddesses in place of dwarpals at each door. In four corners of this floor there
are speacial arrangement and seats (sinhasan) for the Gods to be seated. In this floor birds and
animals all sit together forgetting about their enmity. Cat and rat, lion and goat all sit together
and go spellbound by the words of the lord. Such is the specialty of this floor.
Third Gad (third floor)
The third floor is prepared by vaiyamanik devta. They prepare this floor with jewels and decorate
its borders with Mani. To reach this floor there are 5,000 steps each in four directions and just
similar to the first step, it has four doors and a pond of water. At the doors devtas (Gods) stand in
the form of gate-mans. At this part vayantar devta prepare a throne of jewels along with a mat to
keep feet’s. Tirthankar himself come and sit on the throne facing East. As soon Lord takes his
place three look-alikes of him automatically take their position in the other three directions.
These are basically the idols of his which are created so that everybody feels that they visualizing
the ultimate knowledge. At this floor Gods who prepare the sabha, goddesses, sadhu, sadhvi’s
shravik and shraviks’ take their place.
The tree under which Tirthankara sit is Ashok Tree, which is about twelve times higher than the
height of The Tirthankars. By the sides of the lord are one – one server carrying a fan made up of
cotton threads (Chamar). On top of the head of lord are three inverted umbrellas (chatars). There
is enlightened glow on the head of the Lord. He enters from the East and takes tree rounds of the
tree and after saying ‘namo tithas’ takes his seat to the throne.Lords gives his valuable words
twice in a day and each session is 3 hours long. His words are in prakrit language (very old
Indian form of dialect). But such is the effect of his words that each and everybody understands
it in his or her own language.
87
Samosaran (Dharam Sabha) model made of silver in the
Jain Temple on Bhandara Road, Nagpur
Initially Jainism did not postulate the worship of images. The monks, in particular, did not need
images at all, conducting mental bhāvapūjā with recitation of ancient hymns. Everything
external (including sculpture) was involved solely for the sake of the lay donators, the part of
the community that provided material support. The images of donators are also present in the
iconographic program of the temple. The yakṣa, located on the left and the yakṣini, located to
the right of the entrance to the temple, are sasanadevatas, the guardian deities of Tīrthaṅkara;
88
they are the protectors of the Jain teaching . According to Harivaṃśapurāṇa of Jinasena (783
AD.), Indra appointed a pair of Yakṣas to each Tīrthaṅkara. At the same time they are gods who
bestow welfare, as indicated by their corpulence and abundance of jewellery decorating their
bodies. Such deities, located in the entrance areas of the temple, provide material benefits to the
community.
Moreover, in contradistinction to Hindu theologians, Jain believes that Tīrthaṅkara is not present
in its image; therefore, it is obviously useless to offer prayers to it. Only yakṣas can give an
answer and help. It is an important feature of Jain religion that was reflected in iconographic
program of temples. The Tīrthaṅkara has already left the circle of rebirth; he is not present in this
world. Lawrence A. Babb introduced the concept of "Absent Lord". Liberated Jina conquered all
his passions, affections, and desires. For this reason, all the rituals and offerings, as well as
musical performances, are virtually unnecessary. Tīrthaṅkaras cannot interact with the
worshippers, responding to their requests, which reduces all the efforts of the ritual to naught.
However, in reality, sufficiently developed worship rituals indicate that most Jains believe that
in some way Jina is present in his image. A formula was introduced according to which the
offerings accepted in all religions, the believer does not bestow upon the deity, but simply leaves
all this in the temple nearby his image .
89
It is interesting to see, that the temples in Khajuraho the Jain temples follow a similar system,
90
with various divinities, both Yakshas, and Tirthankars, along with the Dikpalas, shown on the
outer walls. are depicted as the centre of the universe, or the focal point of the entire cosmos,
with every icon in place according to the respective philosophical systems. Thus, when we
circumambulate the temple, we become a part of this cosmic system as well, through the divinity
which rests within us. The temples, therefore, are so much more than just the idols and
sculptures. Seen as they are meant to be, they represent the cosmos itself! the architect has
conceptualized the temple as Mount Meru, the centre of the universe.
Niches on one of the Jain Temples, the lower
one a Tirthankar, and the upper one, a deity, probably a dikpala .
91
MANDALA ELEMENTS OF JAIN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
It was the later half of the 7th century that the Jain temple structures of India began to acquire a
definite form with consolidation of design structures all over India.
Elements of Hindu temple:
1. Ardhamandapa’ meaning the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to the
mandapa. It unites the main sanctuaryand the pillared hall of the temple. ‘Antarala’
meaning the vestibule or the intermediate chamber.
2. ‘Garbhagriha’ meaning the womb chamber. The shape and the size of the tower vary from
region to region. It is the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple which represents the
mythological ‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak. 1. ‘Sikhara’ meaning the tower or the
spire. The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and
symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess. There is an enclosed corridor carried
around the outside of garbhagriha called the Pradakshina patha’ meaning the ambulatory
passageway for circumambulation
Garbhagriha (cella or inner chamber). the lower portion inside the Vimana is called
Shikhara and upper as the Vimana is called as the Sikhara . The visitors are not allowed
inside the The chamber is mostly square in plan and is entered by a doorway on its eastern
side. It is nucleus and the innermost chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the
deity is placed.
3. ‘Gopurams’ meaning the monumental and ornate tower at the entrance of the temple
complex, specially found in south India
4. ‘Mandapa’, is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the
devotees. In some of the earlier temples the mandapa was an isolated and separate
structure from the sanctuary known as ‘Natamandira’ meaning temple hall of dancing,
where in olden days ritual of music and dance was performed. It is used by the devotees to
sit, pray, chant, meditate and watch the priests performing the rituals.
5. The Amalaka the fluted disc like stone placed at the apex of the sikhara.
6. ‘Toranas’, the typical gateway of the temple mostly found in north Indian temple
7. ‘Pitha’ , the plinth or the platform of the temple
In order to make easy the roaming folk to recognize the locations easily, the Gopuram’s
of the temples had to be built elevated. That tiled way for the elevated Gopuram’s. By way
of seeing the Gopuram’s form expanse, passengers planned the approximate distance of
their target from their location. Gopuram’s were built extremely high to serve as
landmarks as well as for traveler distance’s.
Additionally, temples served as the main protection for travelers. When people travel between
places, they stay at the temple building to take rest. Before they commence the new part of their
journey, they would respect God and begin.
Representatively, the Temple Gopuram or the access to the temple represents the feet of the
divinity. A devotee bows at the feet of the Lord at the entry as he steps into the temple and
proceed towards the chamber, leaving behind the world of contradiction. A Gopura is usually
constructed with an enormous stone base and a superstructure of brick and support. It is
rectangular in sketch and topped by a barrel-vault roof crowned with a row of finials. When
viewed from apex, the Gopura too resembles a mandala; with sculptures and carvings of Yalis
and mythological animals to be found in the outer enclosed space. Humans and divine beings are
92
in the central enclosures. The crest of the Gopura, the Kalasha, is at the centre of the Mandala.T
hese sculptures follow a selection of themes resulting from the Hindu mythology, mainly those
associated with the presiding idol of the temple where the gopuram is positioned. Gopuras come
into view to have inclined revision in the temple plan and outline. The spaces just about the
shrine became hierarchical; the further the space was from the central shrine, the lesser was its
distinction. The farthest ring had buildings of a more practical or a secular nature – shops,
dormitories, sheds, workshops etc., thus transforming the temple from a merely place of worship
to the center of a vibrant alive city.
A JAIN MANDALA WITH PADMAVATI-GUJARAT, NORTH-WEST INDIA, 17TH/18TH CENTURY
93
A mandala (emphasis on first syllable; Sanskrit मण्डल, maṇḍala – literally "circle") is a
geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed
for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing
a sacred space and as an aid to meditation and trance induction. In the Eastern
religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Shintoism it is used as a map representing deities,
or specially in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines.
In New Age, the mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents
the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe, but it originally
meant to represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life itself, a cosmic
diagram that shows the relation to the infinite and the world that extends beyond and within
minds and bodies.
MANDALA:
Religious meaning
In Hinduism, a basic mandala, also called a yantra, takes the form of a square with four gates
containing a circle with a center point. Each gate is in the general shape of a T. Mandalas often
have radial balance.
A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It may
be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or meditative
rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent the abode of
the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the practitioner through
the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar, "Yantras function as
revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the spiritual aspect of human
experience"
Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not
representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes:
Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Because of the relationship that exists in
the Tantras between the outer world (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the microcosm),
every symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outer synthesis, and is associated
with the subtle body and aspects of human consciousness.[6]
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The term 'mandala' appears in the Rigveda as the name of the sections of the work, and Vedic
rituals use mandalas such as the Navagraha mandala to this day.
The science behind these constructions is that, the temple architecture gives cosmic force to the
main idol in the Garbha Griha. Firstly, the Juathaskambam acts like an antenna and receives the
cosmic force from the space and through a subversive channel it is linked to the main idol in the
Garbha-graha. The cosmic force continuously flows through the Jathuskambam to the statue and
energies it. Secondly, the celestial power fetched through the field gives the idol effulgence and
metaphysical powers. The cosmic-force is additionally maintained by noise waves (Vedic chants
– Read about the Significance of Chanting) and the pyramid like tomb. The pyramid like
construction helps to intensify and protect the cosmic force. These are the reasons for anybody
to feel a positive energy, goodness, serenity or divinity when we approach the interior sanctum.
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The copper plate has the propensity to suck part the Ether when that penetrates from the copper
and the Herbal resulting in powerful atomic force that penetrates through the skin to heal the
human, and that’s why the copper plate is put on the temple tower.
he idol is washed with various materials (milk, sandal paste, oil) to preserve the idols. The idol is
adorned with flowers and ornaments for mental and visual boost. But the diverse postures of the
idol (sitting/standing, number of hands, weapons they hold) do have meaning in emitting the
cosmic force.
Thus the temples serve up as the scientific room to receive the shower of cosmic force or God’s
blessing.
From my understanding Temple Gopurams are an important part of any Hindu temples and there
are specific reasons for their existence. They are:
1) Temple Gopurams are built to receive the positive energy from the universe. Cosmic rays will
be received by the Gopuram and it will be passed to the statue in the temple.
2) Gopuram will also receive the energy from thunder/lightning and pass it to the ground. So it
acted as a layer of protection for the temple and the nearby areas.
3) Temple Gopuram were built largely to depict the culture and art of ancient people
4) It also used to act as a landmark in olden days to find out the cities, way to different places.
5) In olden days , kings built temples in order to give job to the people of the country and along
with that future generations will come to know the architectural talents that ancient people had.
6) The small carvings and statues in temple gopuram depict the story of the god and also will
show life lessons.
MANDALA AND HINDU & JAIN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
Although there have been various arguments by authors of Indian temple architecture like Stella
Kramrisch and Michael W. Meister about the applicability of the Vastu Purusha Mandala as a
governing device for temple architecture, it is safe to say that for formulating the layout of the
temple, the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been an imperative tool. Though the 8 x 8 grid or the
Manduka Vastu Mandala has been used in various temples of Indian architecture, it is to be
noted that regional differences have played a major influence on the workability of the mandala
design throughout India. Customarily, mandalas were spaces for the symbolic consciousness of
universal theories which help in the awakening of the individual psyche. The mandalas can be
thought of as diagrams that function as a cue to reach a contemplational state which is the
primary aim of the tradition. The form of the temples that are based on the regulating lines of the
mandala were meant to create spaces that bring about a “physical and spatial” communion
between God and man.
The Vastu Purusha Mandala contains a minimum of nine sections signifying the directions north,
south, east, west, northeast, northwest, southeast, southwest and the centre represented as square
grids. In the Vastu Purusha Mandala, the Purusha’s head is located in the northeast direction and
this is considered utmost sacred. In the southwest are his feet and his knees and elbows in the
northwest and southeast. Kept open and clear in the centre part of the diagram are his main
organs and his torso. Starting from a single undivided square of 1 x 1 there are grid patterns
ranging up to 32 x 32 thus making it 1024 sections. Architecturally, the adaptation of the Vastu
Purusha Mandala has been seen in the design of houses, palaces, temples and even cities.
Integrating it into the design brings a certain amount of order in the design. Here, the squares are
assumed as cubes of architectural spaces.
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The five elements of earth, water, fire, air and space correspond with specific sections of the
Vastu Purusha Mandala. The south-west direction is associated with the element of
earth(Bhumi); south-east with the elements of fire (Agni); north-east with the element of water
(Jala); north-west with the element of air (Vayu) and the centre space with the element of space
(Akasha). 2
Indian temples are microcosm of Cosmos, acting as a connecting bridge between physical world
and divine world through their proportional arrangement. Mandapa, which were entrance
porches in the beginning became an integral part of the temple plan in providing additional
functions and in form providing an ex- pression of cosmos especially in elevation. Ashapuri
temples analyzed here, corresponds to Nagara temple proportions varying in proportionas they
belong to two different styles of nagara Architec- ture. From the study of Adam Hardy it is said
that they possessed temples of different styles in Nagara other than these two. The site of
Ashapuri seems to be a place for the development of the Ngara school of archigtecture.
This mandala is from the Jain faith. Jains believe that every soul is potentially divine and refer to
beings that have achieved this, and who founded the Jain faith, as jinas.A mandala is a sacred
religious image, usually in the form of complex concentric circles.The first Jina was called
Adinath. He was followed by a further 23 Jinas, the most recent of which was Madavira.
Madavira is thought to have lived in the sixth century. Like the other Jinas he was an advocate of
non-violence and vegetarianism - two precepts of the faith.All 24 Jinas are depicted on this
mandala. The mandala is drawn onto paper and is protected by glass and mounted in a circular
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metal box with lid. The image is divided into three concentric circles, with Mahāvīra in the
centre, seated in meditation. Jinas number 13 to 23 are in the next circle and numbers one to 12,
including Adinath, in the outer circle.
Jainsim is another important religion from the east where mandalas are used. As per Jainism,
every soul is potentially divine and jinas are beings who have attained enlightenment. There
were 24 jinas who were the tirthankaras, the first being Adinatha and the 24th being Lord
Mahavira who lived in the 6th century; who is frequently depicted in the Jaina mandalas.
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Painting of Samavasarana or assembly of a tirthankara,1800 A.D. Rajasthan.By Unknown –
Painting, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18780461
Samavasarana of Lord Mahavira, 19th century, Mysore.
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Mandalas depict a beautiful amalgamation of religion and art. In recent times also mandalas are
constantly being created by children and adults alike. They are being used for meditation and as
a form of art therapy. Rangoli designs made at the entrance and courtyards during festivals in
homes across India, also resemble mandalas.
Ranakpur Jain Temple Mandalas
Ranakpur Jain Temple – photo by Sudhagee
The Ranakpur Jain Temple houses this collection of stone-carved mandalas every surface, except
the floor, is carved and it is an explosion of art all around youAbout this particular photo, she
states:Above photo Clockwise from top left: A many-hooded snake protecting Adinath and his
family from a deluge; Krishna on Kaalia the snake?; a head with 5 bodies, representing the 5
basic elements; this sculpture is supposed to contain 108 Oms !
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Ranakpur Jain Temple – Krishna on Kaalia
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Ranakpur Jain Temple – hooded snake
From Sreenivasan Ramakrishnan’s flickr page, Krishna on Kaalia and the 108 Ohms carving.
Ranakpur Jain Temple – Many Ohms
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The first island of Middle Universe (Madhya Lok) is one lack Yojan (40 crore miles) in
circumference and looks like a round plate, which is known as Jamboodweep. It is surrounded by
innumerable islands and seas.
Where are we in this Jamboodweep? We are just in the Southern corner of this island. Listen!
this island is divided in seven regions known as Bharat, Haimvat, Hari,Videh, Ramyak,
Hairanyavat and Airavat.
These regions are partitioned by six mountains known as Himvan, Mahahimvan, Nishadh, Neel,
Rukmi and Shikhari.
Bharat Kshetra is equal to one hundred & ninetieth part of Jamboodweep i.e. 526 Yojan. It is
again divided in six parts, one part is called Aryakhand; Bharat Varsh (i.e. our country INDIA) is
situated in the centre of Aryakhand; we & you all the people live in it. Today’s whole world is
situated in Aryakhand.
The symbolic structure of Jamboodweep has been built at Hastinapur (Meerut-U.P.) in 1985.
Sumeru Mountain of 101 Ft. height is situated at its centre. Tourists and devotees from all over
the country and abroad come to visit this heavenly structure and understand the essence of JainGeography. U.P. Tourism has defined this Jamboodweep as the index of Hastinapur along with
calling it as 'Man Made Heaven' with 'Unparallel Superlatives'.
Jambudweep is a Digambara Jain temple in Hastinapur, Uttar Pradesh built under the blessings
of Gyanmati Mataji in 1972. Official name of the tirtha is the Digambar Jain Institute of
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Cosmographic Research (Digambar Jain Trilok Shodh Sansthan) and its main attraction is the
building constructed as a model of Jambudvipa. Jambudweep was founded by Gyanmati Mataji
in 1972 and the model of Jambudvipa was completed in 1985. For the tirtha, Nalini
Balbir reported
The main attraction of this vast campus is the Jambudvipa. By its height, this original
construction dominates all other buildings. It is meant both for education of the believers, since it
shows them the Jaina representation of the universe, and for their entertainment. One can climb
to the top by an inner staircase, or go boating around the Lavanasamudra.
— Nalini Balbir
Jambudweep depicts the model Jain cosmology has been designed here under the supervision of
Shri Gyanmati Mataji was in 1985. The premises has various Jain temples which includes
Sumeru Parvat, Lotus Temple, Teen Murti Mandir, Meditation Temple, Badi Murti, Teen Lok
Rachna and many other tourist attractions.
Unique circular structures of Jain Geography 'Jambudweep' has been constructed with white &
coloured marble stones in the diameter of 250 ft. with 101 ft. tall Mount Sumeru Parvat is built
by light pink marble situated in the center of Jambudweep Rachna.
The structure of Jambudweep, depicting Jain Geography, is the model of our grand universe.
Centrally located Sumeru Mountain is considered as the central point of it. Due to the location of
Sumeru, Jambudweep structure has four distinct regions in East, West, North and South. The
East region is known as East Videh Kshetra and the West region as West Videh Kshetra. In the
South direction, with the prominence of Bharat Kshetra, Himvan etc. mountains, Ganga-Sindhu
etc. rivers, Haimvat etc. Kshetras, Bhogbhumis (lands of enjoyment) with Kalpa-Vrikshas (wish
fulfilling trees), Chaityalayas (Temples), palaces of deities, ponds, gardens etc. have been shown
while
same
structures
have
been
built
with
different
names
in
the
North direction, having the prominence of Airavat Kshetra. ust near the Sumeru Mountain,
Jambu Vriksha (tree) in the North and Shalmali Vriksha in the South have been shown. Both of
these metal trees have one temple each. If one first reads the description of these structures in
scriptures like Tiloypannatti, Triloksar, Tatvartha Sutra etc. and then observes all the details at
Jambudweep, he can gain real knowledge about it.According to our scriptures, the present world
(all the six continents) is situated at the South of the Bharat Kshetra and the rest of the grand
Universe is unavailable to us.
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PUJA
Types of Jain Puja
..There are two types of Jinpuja: Saguna & Nirguna. The worship of Jina in the form or Image is
called SagunaJinpuja. The worship of Jina as formless (spiritual idea of Jina) is called
NirgunaJinpuja. The Sagunaworship of the Parmatma (idol) is of eight-fold (Ashtaprakari).We
require the medium of an Idol or image for worship till we reach the 7th Gunasthan (Seventh
Stage in the spiritual development). Nirgunaworship consists of devotion and meditation of the
Formless one. Once the aspirant is spiritually advancedto significantly higher spiritual level (the
stage of the 8th Gunasthan and beyond), where Saguna worship is abandoned. A beginner
requires the medium of Idol. While carrying on the Dravyapuja (Pujathat includes physical
offerings such as Water, Rice etc is known as Dravyapuja) we should do the Bhavpuja (mental /
emotional act of Puja without any physical offerings).
These are various types of Pujas: some of the common Pujas are (1) Eight-fold Jinpuja
(Ashthaprakari or AsthadravyaPuja), (2) Athar (18) AbhishekPuja, (3) PanchParmeshtiPuja (4)
SnatraPuja. There are five types of twenty types of pujas.
How to be engrossed in Jinpuja?
To be engrossed completely in Jinpuja, the aspirant have Tadgatchitt (full concentration),
SamayVidhay (administration – astonishment), Pulak (delight) and Pramod-pradhan
(appreciation of great qualities if the Tirthankar).
By performing Jinpuja on a regular basis with pure feelings (bhav – mental / psychic aspect), it
can remove eight types of karma: knowledge-obscuring karma, perception / awareness
obscuring, belief and conduct diluting karma, energy obscuring karma, life-span determining
karma, body-determining karma, status determining, and pain-pleasure producing karma. Thus,
liberate ourselves from the bondage of karma forever.
Physical purity: The aspirant should take a bath using the necessary amount of water to clean
his/her body. For DigambarPuja: After wearing Puja clothes, take Kesar(saffron paste) on your
right ring finger and place it on various parts of the body to symbolize that you are clean and
ready to start the Puja. In this order, you anoint the forehead, left and right earlobe, the neck.
And nearthe belly button. Clean your fingers after this and do not use the same Kesar for Puja.
Purity of clothes: We should have a special set of clothes worn for puja. The clothing should
never have been worn while using the rest and never have been worn while eating or drinking.
Traditionally, garments should be generally white and unstitched. Men are recommended to wear
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dhoti andkhesh. In contemporary times, women can wear almost anything as long as the clothes
are new. For Digambar puja: the clothes must be handwashed clean. On must not have eaten or
gone to the bathroom in those clothes.
Purity of mind : While worshipping avoid stray thoughts. We should utter relevant verses and
meditate on the virtues of the Bhagwan
Purity of Ground : We should sweep the floor of the temple, clean and arrange the articles of
worship.
Purity of Upakaran (items used in worship): We should buy good and clean items for worship.
Purity of money : Money to be used in religious purposes must be earned honestly. Ill*gotten
wealth should not be used.
Purity of Ceremony : We should stop thinking of worldly affairs as soon as we are on our way to
the temple. We should not carry out any worldly business in the temple area and should perform
the puja ceremony systematically.
Tilak (Agnachakra)
We put a Tilak(vertical flame like) on the forehead. This means that we are obeying the
commands of Tirthankar(His teachings) for liberationof our soul. Round Tilakis not
recommended. After putting Tilak ,the aspirant with folded hands should say “ NamoJinanam”
as if the Parmatma is in the front of him / her.
How to stand in front of the Parmatma?
While worshipping or doing darshanof the Parmatma, men should stand on the right side and
women should stand on the left side of the Parmatma. This is done to observe the courtesy, and
to allow others to see (darshan) the Parmatma.
Ten Triks (group of three) to be observed while worshipping
Nisihitrik: We should utter words ‘Nisihi’ (to give up) thrice first time while entering the main
door of the temple. It means that I will restrain myself from engaging in worldly activities,
physically, verbally and mentally. The second time ‘Nisihi’ is uttered before entering the inner
temple (Gabhara). This signifies that I am abandoning the activities relating to the temple matter.
The third time ‘Nisihi’ is uttered after completion of AshtaprakariPuja. This signifies that I will
restrain myself from physical acts of worships (DravyaPuja) before performing ‘ChaityaVandan’
(BhavPuja).
PradakshinaTrik: After doing Tilak, we should process to perform three
Pradakshina(circumambulation) around the Parmatma (in Bhomati, also called Gomati), starting
from the right going to the left to HIM. It is symbolic for acquiring virtues of right perception,
right knowledge and right conduct.
While performing Pradakashina, we should recite hymns of an auspicious prayer like some
hymns from the RatnakarPachisi or from BhaktamarStotra with full devotion. While performing
Pradakshina, we should do “ Namaskar’ with folded hands whenever we see the Parmatma.
PranamTrika) On seeing the Parmatma, we should utter “NamoJinanam” with our both hands
folded together. B) We should bow down bending the upper part of our body half way before the
Parmatma and do the Pranam with folded hands. c) Bow down by bringing the five limbs of the
body together ( two arms, two knees and the heads ) on the floor.
PujaTrik a) AngPuja – We worship the Parmatma by touching it. It consisits of Jal-Puja,
Chandan-Puja and Pushpa-puja. b) Agra Puja – We worship the Parmatma by standingin front of
Him by waving incense, lamp (Dipak) and swaying the Chamar. Then we worship the
Parmatmaby making a rice-swastikand placing sweets and fruits on it before the Parmatma. c)
BhavPuja – ChaityaVandan, Stavan and Stuti constitute theBhavPuja.
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AvasthaTrik: a) Birth Stage: While doing Abbishek, ( the ceremony of bathing), we should think
that Indra and heavenly beings are performing the Abhishek on the mount Meru upon the head of
the newly born baby who is going to be Tirthankar , b) Kingship stage – After worshipping the
Parmatma with sandal paste, flowers and ornaments, we should conte,plate the kinghood of
Tirthankar imagining Him seated on a throne. C) Shraman(Ascetic) stage – We look at the
hairless head of Tirthankar and contemplate His Ascetic stage of life, wishing for ourseld the
same state in this life.
DishaTrik: We should watch the Parmatma without looking a) upwards, downwards or sideways;
b)right or left or c) behind.
BhumiPujanTrik: Before doing ChaityaVandan, we should sweep the ground with the help of our
scarf or handkerchief in order to gently move insects and minute living beings from the area.
AlambanTrik: a) Varna-alamban – We should recite the sutras,stavanas and stuticorrectly
without skipping any letter or a word. b) Arthav-alamban – We should think of the meaning of
the words by us. C) Pratimav-alamaban – We should say prayers facing the Parmatma.
MudraTrik – a) Yoga Mudra – Fold the ten fingers into form of a lotus, keep the elbow on the
belly and recite the ChaityaVandan up to Namuthunam. B) Jin Mudra – Do KausaggaArihantcheiyaname up to AnatthaSutra. c) MukataSuktiMudra – Fold your two palms hollow like a
pearl-shell and then touch your forehead and recite JavantiCheial, Javant – Kevisahu and Jay
viyravya.
PranidhanTrik – ChaityaVandan is performed with full physical, verbal and mental concentration
Darpan
We look into a mirror (Darpan) to see the face of the Parmatma as the VitaragBhagwan(who has
conquered attachments and aversions) symbolizing that we may attain the state of nonattachment like HIM. This is done after performing Jin Puja.
Chowri Dance
After performing DarpanPuja, we Chowridance while swaying the Chamar before the Parmatma
to express our love, respect and devotion to our VeetragBhagwan. This is usually done after
looking at the face of theParmatmainto Darpan.
Performance of Rice Swastik & its Significance
The swastik sign symbolizes the samsarik cycle that is consisted of four destinies: 1. Heavenly
beings, 2.humans, 3. hell beings and rest of the living forms (animals, plants, etc). A given soul
can be born unaccountable number of times in each type. After JinDarshan or Jinpuja, the
aspirant sits on a mat in front of the Parmatma. He / She forms a sign of swastika using rice
grains on a plate or a wooden plank, This symbolizes the four samsarikdestinites.Then he/she
places three dots above the swastiksign. Three dots symbolize the three jewels – perfect
perception, perfect knowledge and perfect conduct. These three provide the means for escaping
the miserable samsarik cycle. Finally, he/she makes a half cycle on the top of three dots and puts
a dot in that half circle. This half circle figure with a dot symbolizes the place, sidhdhha-lok
(upper portion of the universe) where the liberated souls are. The aspirant to be liberated from
thesamsarik cycle of four destinies by the means of right perception, right knowledge and right
conduct and attain Moksha. The aspirant puts Sweet on the swastika symbolizing he/she wants to
attain a foodlesstatw (Anahari – Siddha). In addition, the aspirant puts fruit on the
siddashilasymbolizing the fruit of the Jinpuja is the fifth state of liberation that is liberation.
BhavPuja
There are three types of BhavPujas. In general, ChaityaVandan is performed after the
AshtaprakariPuja.
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Why should we ring the bell and when?
After completion of the darshan / pujaand before leaving the temple, you must ring the bell in
order to express the spiritual happiness that you have just experienced while performing puja and
having HIS darshan.
How to come out of the temple?
After ringing the bell, you must leave the temple without turning your back towards
theParmatma (Idol). You must retreat walking backwards.
After coming out of the temple, sit for a few minutes outside the temple visualizing the
Parmatma with eyes softly closed, steady body and full mental concentration.
Brief Description of Various Pujas
Athar (Eighteen) AbhishekPuja
The direct translation of Abhishek is “coronation”. Abhishekh signifies the cleansing of the mind
and body as a way to begin puja. The process involves using of eighteen different substances
while reciting the auspicious aphorisms and Mantra, This AbhishekPuja is performed for the
purification of altar. Pratimajis and participants.
Pratishtha (Cementing) Vidhi
This spiritual process involves cementing of Pratimajis on its platform (Gadi). There will be the
same number of the metal sticks under the Gadi as the participating families. Each participating
family will remove one strip and cement that particular place from where the metal strip is
removed. Thenremove back to allow other participants to do the same. Before and during this
process, the auspicious Mantras are recited.
Ashtaprakari (Eight Fold) Jinpuja of SwetambarPratimajis
This particular Jinpuja is usually performed in the morning . Eight different rituals are performed
during puja: jal (water), Chandan (sandalwood paste), Pushpa (flowers), dhoop (incense), dipak
(light), akshat (rice), naivedya (sweets), and fal (fruits).
JalaPuja: (Water): Before performing this, everything (like flowers), from the Parmatma should
be removed. Then insects (if any) on the Parmatma be removed gently by using a peacock
feather-brush. After his, we should sprinkle water (abhishek) on the Parmatma. Then remove
stale sandal paste by wet cloth (Potu), apply the Valakunchi (brush of hair-like Chandan sticks)
gently on the places where dry paste is stuck.
Water symbolizes life’s ocean of birth, death and misery. This Jinouja reminds that one should
live his life with honesty, truthfulness, love and compassion towards all living beings. This way
one will be able to cross life’s ocean and attain liberation (Moksha).
ChandanPuja: (Sandal-wood): Wipe the Parmatma by three pieces of cloth to remove all water,
and make the Parmatma completely dry. This Puja involves puja of nine limbs: (1) two toes of
the feet, (2) two knees, (3) two wrists, (4) the shoulders, (5) the head,(6) the forehead, (7) the
throat, (8) the chest and (9) the naval
Chandan symbolizes knowledge (jinana). By doing this Jinpuja, one should thrive for right
knowledge.
PushpaPuja: (Flower): The flower symbolizes conduct. Our conduct should be full of love and
compassion towards all living beings, like flower provides fragrance and beauty, without any
discrimination.
DhupPuja: (Incense): Dhup symbolizes monkhood life. While burning itself, incense provides
fragrance to others. Similarly, true monks and nuns spend their life selflessly to benefit all living
beings. This Jinpuja reminds that one should thrive for an ascetic life.
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DipakPuja: (Candle): The flame of Dipak represents a pure consciousness. i.e. a soul without
bondage of any karmas or a liberated soul. By doing this Jinpuja one should thrive to follow five
great vows; non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, chastity, and non-possession. Ultimately
these vows will lead to liberation.
AkshatPuja: (Rice): Rice is a kind of grain which is non-fertile. One cannot grow rice plants be
seeding rice. Symbolically, it represents the LAST BIRTH. By doing this Jinpujaone should
thrive to put all efforts in life in such a way that life becomes the last life, and there will be no
more birth this life. Literally, Akshat means unbroken, and it stands for there will be no more
birth after this life. Literally, Akshat means unbroken, and it stands for unbroken happiness. The
bright white color of rice represents the purity of our soul.
NaivedyaPuja: (Sweets):Naivedya symbolizes tasty food. By doing this Jinpuja, one should
thrive to reduce or eliminate attachment to tasty food. Healthy food is essential for survival;
however one should not live for tasty food. Ultimate aim in one’s life is to attain Moksha where
no food is essential for survival.
FalPuja: (Fruit): Fruit is a symbol of Moksha or liberation. If we live our life without any
attachment to worldly affairs, continue to perform our duty without any expectation and reward,
be a witness to all the incidents that occur surroundings us, truly follow monkhood life, and have
a love and compassion to all living beings, we will attain the fruit of liberation. This is the last
Jinpujasymbolizing the ultimate achievement of our life.
Ashtaprakari
(Eight
Fold)
Jinpuja
of
DigambarPratimajis
Abhishekh:Abhishekhis performed by the Pujari (male); the rest of the members participate in
reading the Jinpuja. Altar area is cleaned. Abhishekinvolves cleaning of the altar by sprinkling
saffron water on the eight directions and cleaning of the Parmatma, then wiping the Parmatma
dry using dry cloth. Several kalashes (pots) of pure water is used in bathing the Parmatma as the
bell is rang and the Abhishekh path is read or NamokarMaha Mantra is recited. The rest of the
participants are reading or chanting the Abhishekh Path. Usually, there should be a continuous
stream of water until the AbhishekhPath is complete. Then the Parmatma s first wiped by wet
cloth and then with a dry cloth.
Sthatpana:Take three full cloves and hold one clove at a time between the two ring fingers.
While keeping the clove head pointing forward and while chanting the sthapana, placethe cloves
in an elevated place. The first clove represents that May Dev-Shostra-Guru come into my
thoughts; second clove represents that May Dev-Shostra-Guru stay in my thoughts, and third
clove represents that May Dev-Shostra-Gurube near me.
Invocation: The rays of the sun of omniscience illuminate whose inner self, that voice of
Jinendra expounds beautifully the fundamentals of our being. The monks who process on the
path of right faith, knowledge, and conduct, I bow to thee, oh God. Scriptures and monks of the
Jain order, a hundred times. I implore of the trio to setlle in my mind, while I am offering this
homage.
Brief Description of AshtPrakariPuja:
Water: Pleasured of the senses are sweet poison, nevertheless one is attracted towards this
handsome human frame, I have failed to comprehend that all this is the manifestation of matter
alone, Forgetting my own glories, I have adhered to attachments of the non-self, Now I have
come to you to wash off wrong faith with the pure water of right faith. I offer to you this water
for destroying wring faith as it has not been able to quench my eternal thirst.
Sandalwood: All the sentiment and non-sentiment entities behave and act on their own limits of
existence, calling them favorable or unfavorable is a false attitude of the mind. I have only
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lengthened the circle of life and death by becoming unhappy with unfavorableassociations, I
have come to you with a grieved heart to get peace of mind, as from sandalwood. I offer to you
this sandalwood to destroy the anger in me as this has not been able to keep me calm and
undisturbed.
Flower: This flower is very soft; it has not crookedness or deceitfulness; I accept that there is no
straight forwardness in my own self, mythinking, expression and action – all are different from
each other, I therefore, implore you to grant me stability that washes off inner impurities. I offer
to you this flower to achieve supreme straightforwardness in my nature.
Incense: I have entertained the false belief that inanimate karmas are the cause of my wanderings
in the four phases of life. As such I indulge in attachment and aversion, when these karmas
behave n themselves, Thus, I have been passing through material as well as psychic karmas for
centuries, I have come to thee , oh trio, to burn external incense for achieving the sweet spiritual
incense of my own-self. I offer to you this incense to destroy the antagonistic inclinations of my
existence.
Lamp: I was under the impression that my life will be illuminated with this inanimate lamp,
which changes into deep darkness just in a heavy tempest of wind. I have, therefore, come to
place this mortal light at your feet, And to light my own inner-lamp with your supreme light of
omniscience. I offer to you this lamp in order to destroy the darkness of my inner self.
Rice: I am pure and without any blemish, having no connection with the non-self, Even then I
always take pride in favorable associations of this world, This is a homage of the sentiment to the
non-sentiment elements, destroying our modesty, I have come to you, oh supreme trio, for the
realization of my supreme bliss. I offer to you this unbroken rice to achieve the non-destructible
treasure of joy.
Sweets: My hunger has remained insatiate even after consuming countless inanimate articles, the
pit of greediness has been filled time and again, but it remained empty, I have been moving in
the sea of desires and sinking therein from time immemorial. Renouncing all pleasures of sense
and mind, I have come to thee for drinking deep of the intrinsic nectar of the soul; I offer to you
these sweets in order to win victory over my passionof greed.
Fruit: Whatever material entities I call my own, leave me all of a sudden, I, thus, become
perturbed and this mental disorderliness leads to others of the same kind. I want to see my
delusions dashed to pieces and that is the purpose of my prayer to thee. I offer to you this fruit to
obtain the fruit of supreme bliss.
Arati
There are many meanings of Arati. One meaning is to experience the spiritual joy from all
directions (Arati = A + Rati, A means from all sides and Rati means Joy – spiritual joy). When a
religious activity s concluded with success, we do Arati to express our spiritual joy.rati also
means to seek the end of “Art” (misery). This material world ( Samsar) is full of misery, and the
aspirant is performing Arati to free himself / herself from the cyclew of the miser of the material
worsld, cycle of birth and death , Third is that to fill our inner selves with spiritual joy, and to
end the mental unhappiness.
To free from the miserable cycle of the material world (Samsar), one needs to have bright light
of five types of knowledge. That’s why we light five Dipaks (which has candle like flame).
These five Dipaks are also symbol of five great vows (PanchMahaVrat) through its practice, one
attains the salvation. Five Dipaks are also symbolic of practicing five Samitis (Restraints), It is
also representative of restraining negative of five senses and five characteristics of
SamyakDarshan (Right Perception).
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Another way to understand the purpose of performingArati is that, to free ourselves from the
miserable cycle of material world, we need to detach ourselves from all worldly attachments as
five supreme beings (PanchParmeshthi) have done it.
To pay our spiritual tribute to these five PanchParmeshthi, we light up five Dipaks, and we
mentally contemplate that “I want to also give up all worldly attachments, and want to initiate
myself ( take Diksha) to become a Sadhu (or Sadhvi) to free myself from four Samsari and to
attain the fifth destiny, Moksha.
MaganlDivo
Mangal means to eradicate bad karma (pap), to free ourselves from Samsar (material world), to
remove the darkness of ignorance, to have an auspicious opportunity to practice Right Religion
and to practice the path that is beneficial to the Self (soul). Only path of Moksha is beneficial to
our Self that is attained by eradicating all karma. By removing the darkness of karma, one
enlightens himself / herself with the Absolute Knowledge (KevalJnana). One Dipak is used in
MagalDivo to symbolize the one and only Perfect knowledge, KevalJnana through which the
darkness of the ignorance is permanently removed, the miserable cycle of birth and death is
permanently ended, the association with the foreign dust of karma I=is completely terminated,
and the true qualities of the souls are forever realized. In other words, one Dipak in MangalDivo
symbolizes the one and only path of Moksha as expounded by Tirthankars. We should mentally
contemplate while performing MangalDivo that “I want to enlighten my inner Dipak(self) just
like this MangalDivo by attaining the perfect knowledge, KevalJnana by practicing the path of
Moksha as expounded by Tirthankars.”
ShantiKalash
This is performed for inner and external peace for everyone and everywhere in the universe. In
the beginning NamokarMaha Mantra and Uvasaggaraham are recited and then it is followed
byBruh-Shanti while maintaining a continuous flow of the PanchamrutfomKalash in to a Pot. In
this process, the peace in the universe is prayed for by wishing good physical, verbal, mental and
spiritual health to all living beings and absence of misery everywhere, this is done in the manner
it was done by the heavenly beings and their king (Indra) while performing Janmabhishek of
Tirthankar in the Mount Meru.
Aspirant pays his / her respect to all twenty four Tirthankars and prays for suppression of
passions (Kashay) everywhere. Inner and external peace is wished to the four folded community
(Sangh) and to all living beings, guidance from Jain monks and nuns is sought, Mantra are
recited, help from heavenly beings is sought, environment, that is free of diseases, wars ,
droughts , disturbances and unhappiness, is sought. The spiritual progress, contentment and
wellbeing for everyone is wished. It is prayed that every living being becomes free of all kind of
fears, fear of water, fire, poison, animals, disease, war, enemy, robber, etc. It wished that each
living beings helps each other, everyone eliminates his/her own faults, and everlasting happiness
for everyone is wished.
ShantiSnatraPuja
During this pujanShriLaghuShanti, which is consisted of 27 aphorisms, is recited involving
unique ritual process, This pujan is performed for the wellbeing of entire Sangh, for its spiritual
growth, for its inner happiness and peace, to calm down the outside disturbances and for curing
uncontrollable diseases, After the conclusion of this Pujan, the temple is sprinkled with the holy
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water (Naman). In addition each member of the Sangh takes this water to his/her residence and
sprinkles it around for the inner and external peace.
THE PERFOECT EXAMPLE OF A HINDU TEMPLE AS A MANDALA ANGKOR
WAT
Angkor Wat was built by the king of the Khmer Empire first as a Hindu, then a Buddhist temple
complex. It is known as one of the largest monuments ever built. Hence, this great Buddhist
temple provides clear, physical evidence that Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the
region by the Indians, and adopted by early Southeast Asian empires like the Khmer Empire.
The pagodas of Angkor Wat are also a physical depiction of the Hindu concept of Mandala. In
addition, the gates of the temple also resemble the gates of the symbol of Mandala. This concept
is Hindu in nature and is believed to have been brought to pre-modern Southeast Asia from
India. It is probable that these ideas were then "borrowed" by the Khmer Empire, and depicted
through its great temple.
Angkor Wat also has a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance of
temples - a distinctive feature of South Indian architecture. The presence of this structure at
Angkor Wat indicates that there was Indian influence in the architecture of the Khmer Empire.
In addition, the temple has many bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Indian epics,
the Mahabharata and Ramayana. This shows that these stories were clearly influential in early
Southeast Asia as they repeatedly adorn the walls of Angkor Wat, which was seen as a sacred
and important place. This demonstrates just how strong Indian influence was in the Khmer
Empire.
Furthermore, even though hundreds of years have passed, Angkor Wat is still a national symbol
and major source of pride of Cambodia today. The fact that Indianisation of the Khmer Empire
from the 7th to 14th century has continued to shape the heritage and identity of modern
Cambodia indicates the lasting impact Indianisation had on the region.
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Mandala in Meenakshi temple Madurai with biggest GOPURAMs in the world
Temple Structure
The entire structure, when viewed from above, represents a mandala. A mandala is a structure
built according to the laws of symmetry and loci. There are various shrines built within the
temple complex.
The temple occupies a huge area in the heart of Madurai as it spreads over 14 acres. The
temple is enclosed with huge walls, which were built in response to the invasions. Apart from
the two main shrines, which are dedicated to Sundareswarar and Meenakshi, the temple has
shrines dedicated to various other deities like Ganesha and Murugan. The temple also houses
goddesses Lakshmi, Rukmini, and Saraswati.
The temple also has a consecrated pond named ‘Porthamarai Kulam.’ The term ‘Potramarai
Kulam’ is a literal translation of ‘pond with a golden lotus.’ The structure of a golden lotus is
placed at the center of the pond. It is said that Lord Shiva blessed this pond and declared that
no marine life would grow in it. In the Tamil folklore, the pond is believed to be an evaluator
for reviewing the worth of any new literature.
Image Credit:
The temple has four main towering gateways (gopurams) that look identical to each other.
Apart from the four ‘gopurams,’ the temple also houses many other ‘gopurams’ that serve as
gateways to a number of shrines. The temple has a total of 14 towering gateways. Each one
of them is a multi-storey structure and displays thousands of mythological stories and
several other sculptures. The major ‘gopurams’ of the temple are listed below:
 Kadaka Gopuram – This towering gateway leads to the main shrine that houses
Goddess Meenakshi. The gateway was rebuilt by Tumpichi Nayakkar during the
mid-16th century. The ‘gopuram’ has five storeys.
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Sundareswarar Shrine Gopuram – This is the oldest ‘gopuram’ of the temple and
was built by Kulasekara Pandya. The ‘gopuram’ serves as a gateway to the
Sundareswarar (Lord Shiva) shrine.
 Chitra Gopuram – Built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II, the gopuram depicts
the religious and secular essence of Hinduism.
 Nadukkattu Gopuram – Also called as the ‘Idaikattu Gopuram,’ this gateway leads
to the Ganesha shrine. The gateway is placed right in between the two main shrines.
 Mottai Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ has fewer stucco images when compared to the
other gateways. Interestingly, ‘Mottai gopuram’ had no roof for nearly three
centuries.
 Nayaka Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ was built by Visvappa Nayakkar around 1530.
The ‘gopuram’ is astonishingly similar to another gateway called ‘Palahai
Gopuram.’
The temple also has numerous pillared halls called ‘Mandapams.’ These halls were built by
various kings and emperors and they serve as resting places for pilgrims and devotees. Some
of the most important ‘mandapams’ are given below:
 Ayirakkal Mandapam – It literally translates to ‘hall with thousand pillars.’ The
hall, which was built by Ariyanatha Mudaliar, is a true spectacle as it is supported by
985 pillars. Each and every pillar is sculpted magnificently and has images of Yali, a
mythological creature.
 Kilikoondu Mandapam – This ‘mandapam’ was originally built to house hundreds
of parrots. The parrots that were kept there in cages were trained to say ‘Meenakshi’.
The hall, which is next to the Meenakshi shrine, has sculptures of characters from
Mahabharata.
 Ashta Shakthi Mandapam – This hall houses the sculptures of eight goddesses.
Built by two queens, the hall is placed in between the main ‘gopuram’ and the
gateway that leads to the Meenakshi shrine.
 Nayaka Mandapam – ‘Nayaka Mandapam’ was built by Chinnappa Nayakkar. The
hall is supported by 100 pillars and houses a Nataraja statue.

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Title: Mahāvīra and 23 Jinas.The British Library Board.ossibly Jaipur, Rajasthan.
coloured metal plaque.Size:13 cms diameter
This is a maṇḍala representing the 24 Jinas. The Jinas here are typical Śvetāmbara images, with
jewellery and open eyes.
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They are placed in three concentric circles, and can be identified by moving from the inside
outwards.
Circle
Jina details
Central
circle
Mahāvīra is in the centre, sitting in meditation and the largest figure
Second
circle
Jinas number 13 to 23 are in the next circle, with Vimala at the top. Then, facing
each other in pairs are, first left then right:
 Ananta and Dharma
 Śānti and Kunthu
 Ara and Malli
 Munisuvrata and Nami
 Nemi and Pārśva.
Third
circle
Jinas number 1 to 12 are in the outermost circle, with Ṛṣabha at the top. Then,
facing each other in pairs, first left then right:
 Sambhava and Ajita
 Sumati and Abhinandana
 Supārśva and Padmaprabha
 Suvidhi and Candraprabha
 Suvidhi and Śītala
 Vāsupūjya and Śreyāṁsa.
Identification of Jinas in maṇḍala
Each Jina is depicted in his colour, along with his Śvetāmbara emblem – lāñchana.
The maṇḍala is protected by glass and mounted in a brass case with a lid. A paper inside the lid
contains the key to the picture in English. According to the 1975 British Library
Journal ('Department of Oriental Manuscripts and Printed Books', volume 1, pages 99–104), this
object is one of those the British Library acquired between July and December 1973. It is
described as coming from Jaipur, dating back to the 19th century and having been presented by
'Mr. and Mrs. E. M. Prokofiev' (page 102).
The maṇḍala is more likely to have been in the house of a Jain lay man than in a temple. An
object such as this one could be used for worship or as an aid for meditation or contemplation.
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Both the Digambara and Shvetambara icon‐worshipping Jains posit that the cosmos is filled with
eternal icons. This cosmological “narrative” is analyzed as a defense of icons: if they are eternal
and uncreated, then their ritual use is appropriate. According to Jain cosmology, there are eternal
icons on the continent of Nandishvara Dvipa, on the axial Mount Meru, and at the four gateways
to Black‐Plum Continent (Jambu Dvipa). These eternal icons are described in cosmological texts,
and are vectored into contemporary Jain ritual culture through hymns, temple architecture,
rituals, and annual festivals. In each of the cosmological examples, the icons are found in
temples that in turn are arranged in highly geometric formations. These formations, whether
square or circular, are closely related to mandalas. The chapter then frames the eternal icons
as mandalas, and also shows how a more adequate understanding of mandalas in Asian religions
should see that they are three‐dimensional formations of icons, and not just two‐dimensional
painted representations. Descriptions of the eternal icons are found in many Shvetambara
scriptures, texts that are accepted by both the iconophilic Murtipujakas and the iconoclastic
Sthanakavasis. The Sthanakavasis, therefore, have had to develop a scriptural hermeneutic that
interprets the key term of chaitya (“image”) as referring not to images but to knowledgeable
people. A Cosmos Filled with Eternal Icons: Icons, Cosmology, Mandalas, and Scripture-John E.
Cort (Contributor Webpage) from the book : Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in
Jain History,John Cort, 2009, Oxford Scholarship Online: February 2010
ANGKOR WAT
Angkor Wat was built by the king of the Khmer Empire first as a Hindu, then a Buddhist temple
complex. It is known as one of the largest monuments ever built. Hence, this great Buddhist
temple provides clear, physical evidence that Hinduism and Buddhism were brought to the
region by the Indians, and adopted by early Southeast Asian empires like the Khmer Empire.
The pagodas of Angkor Wat are also a physical depiction of the Hindu concept of Mandala. In
118
addition, the gates of the temple also resemble the gates of the symbol of Mandala. This concept
is Hindu in nature and is believed to have been brought to pre-modern Southeast Asia from
India. It is probable that these ideas were then "borrowed" by the Khmer Empire, and depicted
through its great temple.
Angkor Wat also has a Gopura. A Gopura is a monumental tower often built at the entrance of
temples - a distinctive feature of South Indian architecture. The presence of this structure at
Angkor Wat indicates that there was Indian influence in the architecture of the Khmer Empire.
In addition, the temple has many bas-reliefs depicting stories from the Indian epics,
the Mahabharata and Ramayana. This shows that these stories were clearly influential in early
Southeast Asia as they repeatedly adorn the walls of Angkor Wat, which was seen as a sacred
and important place. This demonstrates just how strong Indian influence was in the Khmer
Empire.
Furthermore, even though hundreds of years have passed, Angkor Wat is still a national symbol
and major source of pride of Cambodia today. The fact that Indianisation of the Khmer Empire
from the 7th to 14th century has continued to shape the heritage and identity of modern
Cambodia indicates the lasting impact Indianisation had on the region.
Note how the architectural layout of the temple greatly resembles the symbol of
Mandala.For example, you can spot the building's centre point, as well as
the four gates on the outermost wall.
Rough Layout of Angkor Wat
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The Third Tier GOPURAM
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122
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“The Vastu Purusha Mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which
the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from
Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The Vastu Purusha Mandala is both the body of the
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Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain
the best results in temple building.” – Stella Kramrisch ; The Hindu Temple, Vol. I
Vastu Purush Mandala has been in existence for thousands of years, will continue till
eternity. It is the fundamental principle which continues to create and run the whole universe
- both at the macro and the micro level If we can decode it's secret and follow its eternal
principles for construction, we can ensure a life full of health, wealth, peace and prosperity.
The Vastu Purush Mandala is a cosmic geometrical wonder used to design temples
amongst other structures. When we observe the energy fields that develop at different stages
of a building – starting from the stage of a vacant plot - to the digging of land - to the laying
of the foundation - to the completion of the building - and finally to the point when it is
inhabited by the people – we unravel the secrets of the Vastu Purusha Mandala.
Image of the Universe: The Vastu Mandala is the omnipresent, omnipotent soul of every
building. It is based on the principle that Man and Universe are analogous in their structure
and spirit. Vastu Purush Mandala is thus a Yantra or an image of the Universe .Hindus
believe that the body is the image of the entire Universe( See figure below). Vastu Purusha
Mandala is a combination of 45 Devtas and Asuras present in a geometrical figure. The
Devtas represent our consciousness and the Asuras our ignorance and fear. The war between
consciousness and ignorance goes on each moment within all of us. It is not just a Puranic
story, it’s the reality we live in each moment.
DECODING THE DEVTAS & ASURAS The 45 Energy Fields PADAVINAYASA
ModularGrid After Shilanyas and construction of foundation walls, this is the first energy
field to develop in the plot.
BRAHMA DEVTASvsASURAS THE ETERNAL WAR- Energy Fields Next to Brahma
ARYAMA The Power of Connections VIVASWAN The Power of Revolution or Change
MITRA The Power of Inspiration & Action BHUDHAR The Power of Manifestation DEVA
VITHI
The 8 Energy Fields in the Diagonal Directions NORTH EAST Apaha Apahavatsa
SOUTH WEST Indra Indrajaya SOUTH EAST Savita Savitur NORTH WEST Rudra
Rajyakshma MANUSHYA VITHI
1. NORTH EAST APAHA Igenerates the energies responsible for healing APAHAVATSA
Carries the healing powers to the occupants ww.anantvastu.com
2. SOUTH EAST SAVITA Energies that help to initiate any process or action SAVITUR
Energies that give capibilities to continue those actions and overcome all challenges
3. . SOUTH WEST INDRA Energies that establish stability and enhance growth
INDRAJAYA The tools and the channels through which one can achieve growth
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4. .NORTH WEST RUDRA Energies responsible for support and ensure flow of activities
and life RAJYAKSHMA Energies which uphold the support and stabilise the mind . The
32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery PAISHACHA VITHI . These are also the 32
Possible Entrance Locations . The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery ADITI Mother
of the Devtas, this energy field provides security and helps one connect with
himself/herself) DITI Mother of the Asuras, this energy field gives the powers of a wider
vision and to see the actual truth of life.SHIKHI Symbolic of a pointed flame, this field
gives the power of ideas and the ability to project one’s thoughts to the world
PARJANYA The giver of rains, this field has the powers to bless the occupants with
fertility and fulfilment of all their wishes NORTH EAST
5. SOUTH EAST BHRISHA The power of friction needed to initiate any action , thinking or
activity AAKASH The energy that provides the space for manifestation ANILA The
energy of air or vayu, it helps to uplift the fire or push further the actions initiated
PUSHAN The energy of nourishment, it blocks the path of enemies The 32 Energy Fields
of the Outer Periphery.
6. SOUTH WEST BHRINGRAJ The energy which extracts nutrients from the food and
removes the waste MRIGHA The energy that drives curiosity and imparts skills PITRA
The energy of the ancestors which provides all means of safety and happiness required for
existence DAUWARIK The safe keeper, represents lord Nandi-the trusted vehicle of lord
Shiva. The energy of being genius and highly knowledgeable The 32 Energy Fields of the
Outer Peripher
7. NORTH WEST SHOSHA The power of detoxification from negative emotions
PAPYAKSHMA The energy which gives addiction, diseases and the feeling of guilt
ROGA The energy which provides support in the hour of need NAGA The energy which
gives emotional enjoyments and cravings The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery
8. NORTH MUKHYA The chief architect or lord Vishwakarma, this energy field defines the
main purpose of the building & also helps in their manifestation BHALLAT The energy
field which grants colossal abundance, it magnifies the efforts and their results SOMA
The energy field of Kubera - the lord of all wealth and money. It ensures a smooth flow of
money and opportunities BHUJAG The the lord of hidden treasures, this energy field is
the preserver of medicines. It safeguards the health of the occupants The 32 Energy Fields
of the Outer Periphery
9. EAST JAYANT The energy which gives the sense of being victorious, it refreshes the
mind and body MAHENDRA The energy which grants the power of administration and
connectivity SURYA The core controller, this energy fields imparts health , fame and
farsightedness SATYA The energy which establishes goodwill, status, authenticity and
credibility The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery
10. SOUTH VITATHA The energy field of falsehood, pretension and the unreal
GRUHAKSHAT The power which binds the mind and defines its limits YAMA The
power of expansion, this energy field binds the world in laws GANDHARVA The energy
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of preservation of health & vitality. This energy also governs all kinds of arts and music
The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery
11. WEST SUGREEV The power which grants the ability to receive all knowledge
PUSHPADANT The power which grants blessings and fulfills all desires VARUN The
lord of the seas, this energy field observes and runs the whole world. It is the granter of
immortality ASURA The the energy field that releases the mind from temptations and
gives depth in spirituality The 32 Energy Fields of the Outer Periphery.
REFERENCES
1. Bindu and Mandala: Manifestations of Sacred Architecture,Conference: ICABE-2016
Kuala Lumpur Malaysia. Paper presented by Jaffer Adam,Deepika Varadarajan.
2. THE MANDALA AS A COSMIC MODEL USED TO SYSTEMATICALLY
STRUCTURE THE TIBETAN BUDDHIST LANDSCAPE,Ping Xu,Journal of
Architectural and Planning Research,Vol. 27, No. 3 (Autumn, 2010), pp. 181203,Published by: Locke Science Publishing Co.
3. On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural
Tradition,Sonit Bafna,Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,Vol. 59, No. 1
(Mar., 2000), pp. 26-49,Published by: University of California Press on behalf of
the Society of Architectural Historians,https://www.jstor.org/stable/991561
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PART III
Single storey gopura (Dravidian architecture)/Two storey gopura
Athisthana architectural elements of a Hindu temple/ Entablature elements/A vimana with mandapam
elements (Dravidian architecture)
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CHAPTER
Quintessential
Architectural
Characteristics
Chaitralayas- Jain “Temples
131
of
the
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133
134
Quintessential Architectural Characteristics of the Chaitralayas- Jain “Temples”
"Cite lepyadicayanasya bhavah karma va
Caityam; tacca sajnasadhvatva devatii
bimbe prasiddham tavahe tadasrayabhutam ya
devatizya/J. grham tadapyupacaracCaityamucyate."
Image of a deity, is an abode of the image
Commentary of ~Santicandra on JambudvTpaprajnapti sutra I, p.9.
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The Jain community is one of the most ancient communities of Indian civilization going back
5000 years. They can be traced not only to the Vedic period but also to Indus valley civilizations;
where there is mention of the worship of the first Tirthankar- Rishabhdeva. 1
Moreover, unlike other minority communities of India, they are Indian in every sense of the
term- their mythology,history,languages, temples are all located herein. Mahavir, being a
contemporary of Gautama Buddha has found mention in both Hindu and buddhist socio-cultural
context. Hence both Buddhist and Hindu influences colour the temple architecture of the Jain
edifices.
Murtipujaka or 'image-worshipping,' is found in both Shvetambaras and Digambaras, so we
have Shvetambara Murtipujakas and Digambara Murtipujakas. Murtipujakas are also known as
Deravasis.
They are centred on temples with puja, worship, of Jina-images, other deities, yakshas and
yakshis, and other celestial figures in the Jain pantheon. There are large numbers of Jain temples
throughout India and more recently overseas. The holy mountain of Satrunjaya Bhavnagar
district, Gujarat, India has nearly one thousand temples and shrines. Some Jain temples are
extraordinarily elaborate and beautiful and through their symbolism express the doctrines of
Jainism.2
The external and visible elements of religious buildings signify the faith of the particular
community, where people have congregated for worship and exhibited their reverence and
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generate contact towards the divine. A tour of famous Jain temples in India would reveal the
visual philosophy in architecture of temples and idols of Jain sects. In Jain doctrine prabhavana
is an important social tendency to do good to others by building temples, setting up Jina-images,
going on pilgrimages, and making donations to hospitals and animal sanctuaries. This way one
can 'illuminate' the Jain religion to the world.
Although Jain temples frequently share the architectural and artistic elements found in temples of
3
other religions, they are distinctively Jain. Their religious buildings are specifically adapted to
Jain spiritual ideas and ritual practices. There are three striking features of Jain religious
buildings:
1) There is usually more than one shrine in a temple.
2) Most are surrounded by additional buildings that form part of the religious building.
3) Lastly, temples are frequently clustered together to produce temple complexes or
‘temple-cities’.
A Jain temple may be referred to by many different names. Terms for ‘temple’ used in early
Jainism were sometimes unclear because activities such as teaching, worshipping and residing
did not have special areas and often happened in the same place. As buildings and rooms in Jain
temples became dedicated to certain purposes over time, so the terminology became more
precise. The term used in the present day varies according to the region of India and the local
language.
There are several distinct architectural types of Jain temple in India. These range from cave
temples, stupas, pavilions built to shelter holy footprints and statues through maṇḍapa-line
temples, ‘four-faced’ temples – caturmukha temples – and havelī temples to hall temples,
domestic house temples and small shrines found inside private homes. The most common type is
that of the maṇḍapa-line temple, which has one or more shrines and halls. Also typical of a Jain
religious context are mythological and cosmological temples, which reflect unique
cosmological traditions. More rarely found temples are the towering kīrtti-stambha mandirs.
.
Proximity of Jain Temple Architecture to Hindu temples: Jain temple architecture is
generally close to Hindu temple architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist architecture.
Normally the same builders and carvers worked for all religions, and regional and period styles
are generally similar. For over 1,000 years the basic layout of a Hindu or most Jain temples has
consisted of a small garbhagriha or sanctuary for the main murti or cult images, over which the
high superstructure rises, then one or more larger mandapa halls. Form and Function in Jain
Architecture.
Four sided form: Jain temple architecture developed the four sided form, as opposed to
Hindu temples, which tend to be linear in direction because of the metaphysical doctrines of
Jainism. The concept of relativity in particular, or in other words, that there is no ‘one truth’.
This means that for a temple, an architectural promenade that showed only one face of
the tirthankara was against the concept of Jainism, this means that a number of overlapping
‘ways’ to reach the image were developed. This multiplicity of viewpoints, this duplicity of
temple forms and facades was well reflected in later examples as well, as at the Hatheesingh
temple at Ahmedabad, and the Shitalanatha temple at Calcutta.
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Mathematics and architecture share the search for order and beauty and the former plays a key
role in achievements of the latter.This is so with all complex temple projects regardless of the
religion-Hinduism or Jainism. The application of geometry is the principle guiding both grandeur
and structural stability as seen in the Pyramids of Egypt, The Parthenon, The Colosseum and the
TajMahal.4
TEMPLES OF JAIN RELIGION: The Jains called their temples"Caitya", or Chaityalaya from
a root cita or ci meaning "heaped-up", is a Sanskrit term for a mound or pedestal or "funeral
pile". The oldest temple has to be Ashtapada at or near Mount Kailash, but since it is
inaccessible to humans, alternate is either the Palitana Tirth situated on the Shatrunjay Hill or
the Sammed Shikharji on the Parasnath Hill.Among other pilgrim sites are Sankeshwar, Nakoda,
Ranakpur and Girnar Hill.Most Jain pilgrim sites are located in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
The Chaitya is a sacred construction of some sort, and has acquired different more specific
meanings in different regions, including "caityavṛkṣa" for a sacred tree. There is a difference
between the Buddhist and Jain connotation. In Buddhism Chaityas appear at the same sites like
the vihara, a strongly contrasting type of building with a low-ceilinged rectangular central hall,
with small cells opening, off it, often on all sides. These often have a shrine set back at the centre
of the back wall, containing a stupa in early examples, or a Buddha statue later. The vihara was
the key building in Buddhist monastic complexes, used to live, study and pray in. Typical large
sites contain several viharas for every chaitya
According to K.L. Chanchreek,5 in early Jain literature, caitya meant ayatanas or temples where
monks stayed. It also meant where the Jain idol was placed in a temple, but broadly it was a
symbolism for any temple. In some texts, these are referred to as arhat-caitya or jina-caitya,
meaning shrines for an Arhat or Jina. Major ancient Jaina archaeological sites such as
the Kankali Tila near Mathura show Caitya-tree, Caitya-stupa, Caitya arches with Mahendra2
dvajas
and
meditating Tirthankaras.
The
word caitya appears
in
the Vedic
literature of Hinduism. In early Buddhist and Hindu literature, a caitya is any 'piled up
monument' or 'sacred tree' under which to meet or meditate.
Different Caityas are referred to, in the Jaina sutras. They reveal that at different places in the
outskirts of a village, town or a city there were Caityas. It was believed that there is a God in a
Caitya and that he has to be worshipped with proper offerings. It is said that Mahavlra would. not
stay in the Yajniya Cityas, Yajna-Shalas. He stayed in Caityas, which were certainly non-vedic
in character and were visited by a large number of people.6
SYNTHETIC CHARACTER OF JAIN ARCHITECTURE
The temples of Digambara and Śvetāmbara group of Jainas have similar styles of temples
commonly and probably the Māru-Gurjara style of northwestern India .Though no one single
type can be called upon- this one was popular.Many of the Jaina temples in northern and eastern
India, as well as in central and southern India, house sculptural representations that are closely
connected with certain clearly identified sites in the northwest of the country. Which means that
there was some duplication (copy) in design. The other reason would be that most of its
architectural elements including "shikhara" have been developed in Hindu architecture, and this
temple in itself does not come up with anything unique.However, in the Jaina architecture,
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sculpture is not supposed to insist on its value in itself. Instead, all the engravings serve for the
entire architectural spaces, without going beyond the frames of architectural elements. The
unique value attained by this Jaina temple resides in its "integration" and can be classified into
these three kinds of architecture .
1."Sculptural Architecture." The essence of Indian architecture like medieval Hindu temples lies
in sculpture revealing the whole building itself as a piece of sculptural with abundance of
carvings in detail. It could also be called a "Massive Architecture."
2."Membranous Architecture," in opposition to the previous type emphasizes covering or
enclosure of interior space rather than external sculpture like features. The examples could be
buildings that do not have conspicuous facades, but once entering inside, there appear
wonderful interior spaces.
3."Framework Architecture." Lacking both sculpturesque appearance and modernistic space
concept, the attractiveness of this type of architecture exists in the undetermined space and a
framework composition above. Their interior space and exterior space are continuous without
clear distinction.
Many Jain temples such as the Adinath integrate these 3 into 1 temple space. Thus they have
both exquisite exteriors and interiors. As opposed to this, the Delwara temples at Mt. Abu do not
have as attractive external appearance as their interior space, this temple also has the sculptural
beauty at its exterior with the shikaras above the shrines.
Moreover, even though the entire structure of Adinatha temple is made of stone, it is mainly a
traberated construction where strong horizontal elements or lintels are held up by strong vertical
elements or columns with large spaces between them. This is usually used to hold up a roof,
creating a largely open space beneath, for whatever use the building is designed. The use of
wider elements at the top of the post, called capitals, to help spread the load, is common to Jaina
temple traditions. The structure is based on the framework of posts and beams, not on walls and
arches. Consequently, the synthesis of these three kinds of architecture sublimated this temple to
the level that no other Hindu buildings had achieved.7
THE MEANING OF JAIN TEMPLES: What enabled Jaina architecture to attain such
integration? It was nothing else but the "Chaturmukha" (four faced) shrine form, which we have
so far observed many times. If we compare in plan the central part of Adhinatha temple at
Ranakpur to that of the Kharatara temple at Mt. Abu, which is the only temple that has a
different form in the Delwara temples there, we will come to know that these two temple plans
are quite similar. The central shrines of these temples are opened to four directions, and in front
of each side, there is a "mandapa" (hall) covered by a domical ceiling.
Incidentally, the basic form of a Hindu temple is [garbhagriha + mandapa]. Since the
garbhagriha (sanctum) always has only one portal at its front side, it is quite unlikely that it has
four mandapas at its four sides. The garbhagriha at Hindu temples means the "house of
God" and accordingly it should be locked securely as a human residence. Meals and oil lamps
are served to a statue of God during daytime and the door is closed at night in order for God to
sleep.
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___
Mahavira in the center of Samavasarana( from "Kalpa-Sutra" c. 1475-1500, Detroit Institute of
Art ) at Left and Sadri,Pali,Rajasthan at right. When a Jina obtains perfect knowledg, the gods
prepare his Samavasarana, which is open to the four directions and takes either round plan or
square plan.Below 2 pics
On the other hand, a Jaina temple is not a house of God, but a place where a Tirthankara" (Jina)
gives teachings. It is called "Samavasarana," and the doctrine of Jina should be preached in all
directions. In Jainism, Samavasarana or Samosharana "Refuge to All" is a term for the divine
preaching hall of the Tirthankara. The word samavasarana is derived from two words, sama
meaning general and avasara meaning opportunity. A place where all have a common
opportunity of acquiring the wisdom. The divine pavilion is built by heavenly beings (devas)
after the tirthankara attain omniscience (Kevala Jnana). The theme of Samavasaranas has been
popular in Jain art.
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What is characteristic about the form of Jaina images is that four statues of Tirthankaras are often
combined back to back with each other, in either standing or sitting posture. It is called
"Chaumukh" or " Chaturmukha" (four faced) image. If a temple is dedicated to this chaturmukha
image, its garbhagriha is also opened to all four directions, thus provides mandapa, which
represent a place of both worship and teaching, in front of each side.
Jain Vastu Shastra: “Vastu-shastra” has been written in many places from ancient times. In
western India, a treatise called “Vriksharnava Shastra ” describes the Chaturmukh, which is
uniqe only to Jain architecture.This basic “Four faced open form’ in which the central shrines
are opened to four directions, and in front of each side, there is a “mandapa” (hall which
represent a place of both worship and teaching). “Chaumukh” or ” Chaturmukha” (four faced)
image – four statues of Tirthankaras are often combined back to back with each other, in either
standing or sitting posture.
Although many Jaina temples followed the mainstream style of Hindu temples initially with 1
main deity in the inner sanctum garbhagriha + mandapa, from the medieval period onwards, the
Jains gradually developed their original “Four faced open form” in the temple design. This is the
original style of Jain temple construction found in a majority of temples with the following
building elements:
 image-chamber – garbha-gṛha
 hall – maṇḍapa
 porch.
These elements vary in number and relative proportions in various temples,but all Jain temples
are built on a platform.
The Plinth: Referred to as jagatī or vedī ,it physically raises the temple above the surrounding
land and creates a distinct sacred area. And raises the temples above the ground to create a
higher, sacred area that is qualitatively different from the lower profane area surrounding it.
Worshippers take off their shoes before climbing up to the sacred temple area. This ascent,
however short, is symbolically related to the idea of the difficulties – durlābha – in
reaching sacred places. By extension it also suggests the long journey to the remote goal
of enlightenment. On this pronounced plinth, the temple is protected and appears larger and more
monumental. The platforms are often much wider than the actual temple structures and thus
provide space for the ritual ambulation – pradakṣiṇā – of the building to take place on the
sacred level. This spaciousness also allows further shrines, surrounding the temple building, to
be at the same level.
This feature became particularly evolved in the Jain temple architecture of north-western India
during the medieval age. The reason could have been to help distribute the weight of the
structure above such as the columns which in turn support the roof- all of it pressing down in the
plinth; which then is the most important part and this was realized by the later Jain architects
who moved from simple to structural complexity.8
Lines of subsidiary shrines were interconnected to create protective walls surrounding the outer
edge of the terraces. This helped to physically protect the temple structures and shield them from
outside view.
Even rock-cut cave temples have platforms, at least at the front entrance.
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The terraces are frequently very high, up to three or four metres tall. In many cases the platforms
are tall enough to allow separate apartments or lower image-chambers to be created inside.
The column-beam-corbel method of construction was the main structural principle governing
the construction of every Hindu temples. The principles of equilibrium of forces in action by
means of arch, vaults and other forms of functional engineering rules never really played a part
in the evolution of Hindu temple. Its doesn’t mean that architects of Hindu temples were ignorant
about these techniques, rather it is their conformance to tradition and strict adherence to
precedents, reflecting a certain firmness in their cultural attitude (Brown, 1942). There was no
instance of use of vaults or domes in the Hindu temple architecture, but arched niches were
created on the surface of the walls and they rarely carry loads from above. The Hindu architects
remained attached to his own traditional techniques and accomplished his task of construction by
carefully study of the laws of gravity, obtaining the strength by the mass supporting mass and
stability by the solid resistance of the weights acting vertically, all pressure being tranismitted
directly downwards. As a result the use of mortar was pointless because there being almost no
inclined pressure to distribute between the courses of masonary. Therefore, the Hindu temple
architecture masonary developed as dry masonary system (Brown, 1942).9
Syādvāda, in Jaina metaphysics, holds that all judgments are conditional, holding good only in
certain conditions, circumstances, or senses, expressed by the word syāt (Sanskrit: “may be”).
The ways of looking at a thing (called naya) are infinite in number. This Syadvada or relativism
of Jaina logic was also perhaps a driving force to develop chaturmukha-type of Jaina temples..
Never assuming one absolute ‘God’, the attitude of regarding even the twenty-four saviors of
Tirthankaras (Jinas) as existence that can be seen from multilateral viewpoints made it possible
to create chaturmukha images in which 4 statues are placed back to back with each other, and to
develop an architectural style of chaturmukha shrine.Some famous examples of this type of
architecture are –Chaturmukha Basadi of Karkala, Ranakpur temple, Mt Abu Jain temple etc.
This is contrary to many other religions and Jain Dharm avoids dogmatism and eliminates selfrighteous statements like “This is the very truth” because as per Syadavada- everything has
many aspects, and each religion, doctrine, and statement has a certain sense of truth
From its early origins to the tenth century, the Hindu temple embodied a progressive elaboration
of a simple formal schema based on a cuboidal sanctum and a solid form of distinctive curvature.
The architectural form of the Jain temples also copied or based on the Hindu plan of the temple
was the subject of wide experimentation, based on canonical sacred texts, within the regional
schools of temple building in the Indian subcontinent. Practice of this knowledge in the
constructive geometry of temple superstructures, with attention focused on the canonical rules
for deriving the planar profile of a temple using a mandala (proportional grid) and the curvature
of the sikhara (superstructure) using a rekha sutra (curve measure) was present in absence of
modern surveying tools helped in erecting these huge edifices.10
The creation of temple-cities in the form outlined here is unique to the Jain faith.Jain templecities are groupings of temple compounds, which contain large numbers of individual and
interconnected temples and smaller shrines. They are walled and entered through gateways.
Temple-cities are not cities in the conventional sense. They do not contain streets, houses or
shops. They are dedicated to the veneration of Jain values and the glory of the enlightened Jinas.
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Most temple-cities are located on hills and have developed out of clusters of temples and walled
compounds, which have been expanded over time. Donors give money to help build shrines and
temples, which eventually form sizeable groups of temple compounds. There are numerous
examples of temple-cities throughout India. The best known include: Mount Girnār Mount
Śatruñjaya Mount Sameṭa Śikhara Mount Sonā-giri Shravana Belgola Mudabidri.
Imitations of well-known templecities have also been built at smaller sites. Representations of
temple-cities in Jain art and at other important Jain sites throughout India, and abroad, indicate
the great importance of these holy sites for the Jain community.
By definition A temple-city is a term for a large number of temples built very closely together.
Jain temple compounds tend to contain a multitude of major temple buildings and minor shrine
structures.
There is a clear tendency in Jain temple architecture towards creating numerous shrines. This
leads to the construction of temple buildings with many shrines and storeys, which are often
surrounded by further free-standing and interconnected shrines. These collections of religious
buildings frequently combine temples of different forms. The religious buildings are regularly
grouped into compounds and surrounded by high protective walls – prākāras. The enclosing
walls can consist of uninterrupted lines of small shrines – deva-kulikās – which form a solid wall
on the outside. The walled complexes – tunks – are strongly fortified. They have massive
gateway structures and can be securely locked. Location By building several such walled
compounds in one place.11
Different scholars have concluded that, Jain Architecture grew parallel with contemporary
Architecture style of India. All the religion and culture have its distinctfeature and style.
Therefore, there is unique style of Architecture with the Jain Architecture also. 12
Polygons: Let us take the example of the visual complexity in the temple forms of Pallava
Architecture where polygons are used and such complexity is mainly created by repetition of
architectural elements in the Vimana. In the south indian temple architecture (Dravidian Style)
the super structure of the vimana or its several storeys are set with small temple shapes, Similar
to the original shape. The smaller shapes are aligned in a definite pattern at each horizontal level,
the repetition of these shapes at each band forming a kind of garland at each level. The repetition
of identical shapes either in the vertical or in the horizontal or vertically as well as horizontally,
is another frequently used procedure to add visual complexity to the temple form. The article
mainly focuses on self similar iteration, repetition, fractalization and how it is applied to various
examples starting from monolithic shrines. Shore temple at Mamallapuram to Kailashanathar and
Vaikunda Permual temple in Kanchipuram. The use of recursive procedures involving self
similar iteration and fractalization in the construction of vimana of pallava temple architecture
give rise to a very distinct architectural style.13 The visual complexity and beauty of the vimana
lies behind the proportions of the arrangement of replicas of sala and kuta. The repetition in the
vimana are not arbitrarily,but follow some rules and proportions. The repetition of sala and kuta
in different rules of iteration create different fractal figures there by create visual complexity in
the vimanas of pallava temple architecture.14 The architecture of Hindu temples is distinguished
by certain formal features,A jaggedness of all surface and edges. Due to splitting of forms into
subforms.
The
exteriors
have
forms
of
deities(Statutes-3D
carved
figures)humans,animals,mythicals,foliage decorative elements of all kind densely packed on the
outside to create a distinctive visual texture on the temple surface.
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When arranged in horizontal layers- one after and under the other- in elevation they form a
distinctive element. Finally repetitive motifs in different scales in the temple forms- repeated in
decreasing sizes within an overall 3D motif. Fractals and forms in self similarity. To achieve
greater visual complexity in order to express the idea of multiplying and growth,many different
techniques of fractalization are foumd.particularly in columns.A square section can be split
into8-16-32 sided polygons in successive sections along the column length with a production
rule of P(n)-->P(2n) P is a regular polygon of n number of sides amongst other fractalisations too
numerous to mention but easily visible to our eyes as we glance upon these accient structures
that highlight a discovery of fractal Algebra and geometry that took place 1000sof years later to
their creation.15
Mathematical ideas have formed new semiotic spaces, where those without a mathematical
background can only "feel" the effects and many of their consequences in real life space. The
truth of a theorem, equations, and many mathematical relations are basically correct, depending
on what is meant by theorems, equations, and conceptual relations of mathematics
itself. Mathematics that we know today tells the long road of human thought from ancient simple
concepts and abstractions, which have relations and connectedness with each other with
concepts.
This then leads us to the intriguing question when looking at the splendor of the diverse
ethnographies in the cultural landscape of the archipelago. The splendor of Borobudur Temple
which is known as one of the largest and most complex Buddhist sites on our planet, has
extraordinary architecture, from its construction structure, to the ornamentation and decoration
carved there. And we are also increasingly intrigued, when we also understand that at the time of
the great temple was built, we do not use mathematical thinking as architects or civil engineering
engineers today build a mega-structure similar to Borobudur.
Similar mathematical ratios used elsewhere in ancient times: 16
4:6:9 Ratio: A survey conducted in 1977 in the Buddhist temple at Borobudur,Java revealed
frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to
lay out the precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design.
This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples.There is
an interesting geometric fact shown in Borobudur, These are as related to the mythology, about
the parts of the temple, including the legs, body, and head of a human being representing the
celestial body of the Buddha..
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Fig.taken from the book of Shri Trivedi showing the repeatativeness and
consequent formation of fractals
Algorithmic process: When the shapes and patterns used to create art, starts to acquire meaning
contextually, it transcends into 'symbolism', art, is seen to have symbolic meanings and a positive
contributing to art thus contributing to the overall understanding of the structure and ambience.
These shapes evolving into patterns is an algorithmic process where the patterns fractal in nature.
Thus making a logical connection between patterns and their meanings, that is, fractals and
symbolism. In this type of religious architecture, the shapes have a set of meanings, their
combinations have certain meanings, and the patterns evolved from them have, either a higher
metaphorical meaning or a totally new interpretation. Thus 'symbolism' and 'fractals' are
linked.17
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In his PhD thesis on Critical Analysis of Jain Architecture in Bihar Region and its Influence on
Regional Architecture, Ravish Kumar describes in considerable details in over 300 pages the
detailed planning of temple construction but referring to Hindu temple construction techniques.18
Geometry:The Indian temple architecture inoculates high level of geometric Proportions.
Different types of proportions can be analyzed from the plan and the elevation of the temple
complex in 1505 AD, the main shrine was built and the prakara around it such that the center of
the Garbha Griha (Sanctum Sanctorum) falls at the center of a square
The Shrine dedicated to garuda (stone chariot) is at the center of a rectangular portion adjacent to
the square mandala. The garuda fall at the central axis of the garbha griha, the northern gopuram
also along the central axis of the garbha griha to the other side and the southern gopuram is along
the axis of the center of the rectangular enclosure. With garbha griha as the center, the 9 square
mandala inscribed as shown in Figure 8, the Amman shrine and the mantapa (100 pillared hall)
fall outside the mandala. The 2.4mx2.4m grid is taken from inside the temple complex, when it is
extended outside the temple complex, we see that the other mantapas and structures fall with
same grid. 19
Urushringas are subsidiary tower springing from the sides of the main shikhara tower and is
smaller and narrower than the shikhara, and "engaged" or connected to it where they meet,
except right at the top. It strengthens the feeling of height given by the temple, and may give
some structural support by acting like a buttress, as well as adding to the visual symbolism of the
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temple as a sacred mountain.They often reflect the complex shape of the sanctuary structure at
ground level, following the ratha projections up into the shikhara. The style of shikhara with
urushringas is known as sekhari. Many of the temples in the famous Khajuraho Group of
Monuments have sekhari towers, though others do not. On the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple
there are 84 urushringas around the shikhara. The urushringa echoes the form of the main
Sikhara, and often has its own amalaka and kalasha at the top, as in the Kandariya Mahadeva
Temple.
The Khajuraho group of temples belong to Vaishnavism school of Hinduism, Saivism school of Hinduism and
Jainism - nearly a third each. Archaeological studies suggest all three types of temples were under
construction at about the same time in the late 10th century, and in use simultaneously. Will Durant states that
this aspect of Khajuraho temples illustrates the tolerance and respect for different religious viewpoints in the
Hindu and Jain traditions. 20
Chaturmukha : The mainstream of the style of Jaina temples was [garbhagriha + mandapa],
which Jainas had modeled after Hindu temples. From the medieval period, they gradually
developed their original "Four faced open form" in the temple design.. Hindu temples, on the
other hand, could not extend their composition in four directions. And this they compensated by
increasing the number of shrines when they wanted to enlarge its scale. Bhubaneshwar and the
Jagannatha temple in Puri they have added two large mandapas in front of the basic edifice of
[garbhagriha + mandapa], and placed them in a line.An example is the Jain temple Chaturmukh
Basadi where Chaturmukha stands for four faces. As we were nearing, the basadi was visible
from a distance and the view was magnificent as on left side there is basadi and on right side one
could notice the statute of Bahubali on the top of the hill. King Immadi Bhairava (Bhairava II)
constructed the Basadi on top of a small rocky hill in 1586 AD. The Basadi has four identical
entrances from the four quarters leading to the Garbagriha or sanctorium and hence is popularly
known as Chaturmukha Basadi. It is also referred to as Tribhuvana Tilaka Jina Chaityalaya and
Ratnaraya Dhama in some inscriptions. The Basadi is built in the form of a square mandapa with
a doorway and pillared portico on each of its four sides and a pillared verandah. It has life size
statues of three Tirthankaras on each side and small images of 24 Tirthankara. It took 30 years to
147
construct this temple. In all, there are 108 pillars in the temple complex. Each pillar is an
exhibition of the architectural skills of the masons of that time and carries a piece of history in
itself. One needs to spend time to connect the dots from pillar to pillar.
_____________
Left : The Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneshwar
Right : The Pancha-Yatana-type Temple at Sinnar
Quincunx or Panch Yatana: In architecture, a quincuncial plan, also defined as a "cross-insquare", is the plan of an edifice composed of nine bays. The central and the four angular ones
are covered with domes or groin vaults so that the pattern of these domes forms a quincunx; the
other four bays are surmounted by barrel vaults. In Khmer architecture, the towers of a temple,
148
such as Angkor Wat, are sometimes arranged in a quincunx to represent the five peaks of Mount
Meru. The Jaina architects devised this system to build four small shrines at four opposite
angles of vimana (main shrine). This complex is called "Pancha-yatana" or Five-shrined-type.
The Adhinatha temple at Ranakpur is also a kind of Pancha-yatana-type. In this case, the shrines
at four opposite angles take a form of "two-faced-shrine". Furthermore, on both the north and
south ends, there are four "side shrines," and eighty-six small shrines surround its periphery, and
thus completing the entire temple. quincunx in mathematics is a geometric pattern consisting of
five points arranged in a cross, with four of them forming a square or rectangle and a fifth at its
center. It forms the arrangement of five units in the pattern corresponding to the five-spot on sixsided dice.
Adinath(Left) Floor Plan and the Ranakpur Jain Temple aerial view in Sadri Rajasthan
showing the quincunx.
The difference in the Jain and Hindu temples is that in Hindu temples, Pancha-yatana is quite
similar to the one we see in the Mt. Abu Jain Temples where the "Ranga mandapa" (open-type
hall) is in in front of "Mulaprasada" (central shrine) and connects it with surrounding cloisters
giving the temple a continuous interior space. Similarly in t Ranakpur, each mandapa, which is
covered by a domical ceiling, ties every part of the temple together into a continuous interior
space with circularity, including several courtyards. This temple, so to speak, is a great integrity
of all the elements of traditional Indian architecture, and brought it to an extremely high level
completion. This composition was applied not only to Jain temples but also Buddhist and Hindu
ones.21Different scholars have concluded that, Jain Architecture grew parallel with
contemporary Architecture style of India. All the religion and culture have its distinctfeature and
style. Therefore, there is unique style of Architecture with the Jain Architecture also. 22
Space is a term used to describe dimensional aspects existing between other, significant
phenomena.The semiotics of space is a descriptive process enquiring into the relevant
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significance of the relationships between objects and their spatial contexts. Since semiotics is the
disciplined study of the life of signs that ‘stand for or represent’ something, space is generally
overlooked as the background to other objects of attention. Mathematical ideas on the other hand
have formed new semiotic spaces, where those without a mathematical background can only
"feel" the effects and many of their consequences in real life space. The truth of a theorem,
equations, and many mathematical relations are basically correct, depending on what is meant by
theorems, equations, and conceptual relations of mathematics itself. Mathematics that we know
today tells the long road of human thought from ancient simple concepts and abstractions, which
have relations and connectedness with each other with concepts. This then leads us to the
intriguing question when looking at the splendor of the diverse Jaina ethnographies in the
cultural landscape of the archipelago.23 An example is the Māru-Gurjara architecture is still
popular with Jain architects in temples and jain patronage and is a style of north Indian temple
architecture that originated in Gujarat and Rajasthan from the 11th to 13th centuries, under
the Chaulukya dynasty (or Solaṅkī dynasty). It originates as a regional style in Hindu temple
architecture. The dominant feature is the mathematical urushringa and subsidiary spirelets on it,
and two smaller side-entrances with porches are common in larger temples, Lavishly decorated
interiors,small low domes carved on the inside with a highly intricate rosette design. Another
distinctive feature is "flying" arch-like elements between pillars, touching the horizontal beam
above in the centre, and elaborately carved. These have no structural function, and are purely
decorative. The style developed large pillared halls, many open at the sides, with Jain temples
often having one closed and two pillared halls in sequence on the main axis leading to the
shrine.24
Temple with fractal designs
The visual complexity in the temple forms of Pallava Architecture is mainly created by repetition
of architectural elements in the Vimana. In the south indian temple architecture (Dravidian
Style) the super structure of the vimana or its several storeys are set with small temple shapes,
Similar to the original shape. The smaller shapes are aligned in a definite pattern at each
horizontal level, the repetition of these shapes at each band forming a kind of garland at each
level. The repetition of identical shapes either in the vertical or in the horizontal or vertically as
well as horizontally, is another frequently used procedure to add visual complexity to the temple
form.The article mainly focuses on self similar iteration, repetition, fractalization and how it is
applied to various examples starting from monolithic shrines , Shore temple at Mamallapuram to
Kailashanathar and Vaikunda Permual temple in Kanchipuram. The use of recursive procedures
150
involving self similar iteration and fractalization in the construction of vimana of pallava temple
architecture give rise to a very distinct architectural style. The visual complexity and beauty of
the vimana lies behind the proportions of the arrangement of replicas of sala and kuta. The
repetition in the vimana are not arbitrarily,but follow some rules and proportions. The repetition
of sala and kuta in different rules of iteration create different fractal figures there by create visual
complexity in the vimanas of pallava temple architecture.25
Due to the change in social, economic and political conditions, the Jain architecture developed
with new concept and new features. 26 Jain temple ritual is elaborate and full of symbolism.
Temples and images are eternal in the Jain tradition, being involved in Jain cosmography. Due
to the widespread and widely accepted and ever growing doctrine of Jainism and its eternal
image-cult 27 new temples will adorn the lands and scientific nuances will illuminate their
construction and existence and impact other designs of modernity. Performance has long been
recognized to be a meaningful component in the worship of the Jina. The more splendid and
aesthetically pleasing one’s expression of devotion, the more efficacious it is believed to be. 28
Adinath Temple
151
Photo By Geoffrey Samuel. Jain Hill Temples
Hyper fractisation discussed above and the other are the Hill temple cities also discussed above
152
REFERENCES
1 Jainas a significant Religious Minority, Chapter 10 from Facets of Jainology-Research Papers on
JainSociety,Religion and Culture, Vilas Sangave,Popular Prakashan,New Delhi,2001 page 81
2 Sthānakavāsī is a sect of Śvētāmbara Jainism founded by a merchant named Lavaji in 1653 AD.
It believes that idol worship is not essential in the path of soul purification and attainment of
Nirvana/Moksha.
3 Jaina-Tempelarchitektur in Indien: "Habilitation (postdoctoral qualification) in the Department of
Architectural History and Monument Preservation, Faculty of Architecture, RWTH Aachen University(
Translated:Jaina Temple Architecture in India: The Development of a Distinct Language in Space and
Ritual") Thesis 2008. Monographien zur indischen Archäologie, Kunst und Philologie 19, Published by
Stiftung Ernst Waldschmidt, G+H-Verlag, Berlin 2009.
4. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, Architecture Style Developing through
Application of Mathematics: Concepts of Geometry &Proportion in Architecture Ar.Muzaffar Ali et al,
Vol. 2 Issue 9, September – 2013
5. Jaina Religion, History and Tradition Hardcover, K.L. Chanchreek (Editor), Mahesh K. Jain (Editor),
Shre Publishers & Distributors 2004
6."THE CONCEPT OF JINA CAITYA IN JAINISM",M. Nirmala ,Doctoral Thesis Department of
Jainology, Univeristy of Madras,2005
7. TAKEO KAMIYA,Blog, http://www.kamit.jp/03_jaina/6_ranakpur/ran_eng.htm
8. For a detailed analysis of the structural characteristics of Jain Temples see the comprehensive
treatment in -The Jagatī or Vedī (Plinth) in Jain Temple Architecture, Srishti Dokras, academia.edu
9.Building Science of Indian Temple Architecture,Shweta Vardia, Master’s Thesis, Erasmus Mundus
Programme, ADVANCED MASTERS IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF MONUMENTS AND HISTORICAL
CONSTRUCTIONS Researchgate July 2008
See Indian Architecture,Buddhist and hindu Period,Percy Brown,1942( not available) but quoted in
the above thesis as well as, Chhotelal Jain’s Jaina Bibliography, Volume 1,Vir Sewa Mandir,1982
10. Infinite Sequences in the Constructive Geometry Of Tenth-Century Hindu Temple
SuperstructuresSambit Datta,School of Architecture and Building, Deakin University,AUSTRALIA
11. Māru-Gurjara Temples Under the Solaṅkīs, throughout India and in the Diaspora- the international
jaina style? Julia A. B. Hegewald, ars orientalis 45.
12. Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy- National Institute of Technology,Patne,Department of
Architecture ,2018
file:///C:/Users/blah/Downloads/Critical_Analysis_of_Jain_Architecture_i.pdf
13. The Visual Complexity in the Temple forms of Pallava Architecture
Jaikumar
Ranganathan,Dr.G.Subbaiyan,
researchgate,February
2018,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323199666_The_Visual_Complexity_in_the_Temple_forms_
of_Pallava_Architecture
14. See Fn 10- Infinite Sequences in the Constructive Geometry Of Tenth-Century Hindu Temple
SuperstructuresSambit Datta,School of Architecture and Building, Deakin University,AUSTRALIA
15 Hindu Temple-Models of a fractal Universe,Kirti Trivedi, International Seminar on Mayonic Science
and Technology, 243-258.1993, Also published in the Visual Computer 1989
16. See my Book Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur,Chapter 8, page 192 academia.edu
17. Shapes, Patterns and Meanings in Indian Temple ArchitectureTanisha Dutta,V. S.
Adane,Researchgate,2018.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328960511_Shapes_Patterns_and_Meanings_in_Indian_Te
mple_Architecture
18 DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA PATNA
800 005, BIHAR August 2018
153
19.Visual reconstruction of Hampi Temple - Construed Graphically, Pictorially and Digitally
Reconstrucción visual (gráfica, ilustrada y digital) del Templo Hampi Ar. Meera Natampally ,National
Institute of Advanced Studies. India, Virtual archeology review.
20 Will Durant, Our Oriental Heritage - The Story of Civilization, Simon & Schuster, (1976),Vol. I Our
Oriental Heritage
21. See my book Dr Uday Dokras-Hindu Temples of Bharat, Cambodia and Indonesia Essays page 313314, academia.edu
22 Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy- National Institute of Technology,Patne,Department of
Architecture ,2018file:///C:/Users/blah/Downloads/Critical_Analysis_of_Jain_Architecture_i.pdf
23. Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev temple, Khajuraho
Iasef Md Rian, Jin-Ho Park, Hyung Uk Ahn Department of Architecture, Inha University, South Korea
2006
24. Such as Keshava Temple of Somnathpur, or the Yellamma Temple in Karnataka.
25 The Visual Complexity in the Temple forms of Pallava Architecture,Jaikumar
Ranganathan,Dr.G.Subbaiyan,
researchgate,February
2018,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323199666_The_Visual_Complexity_in_the_Temple_f
orms_of_Pallava_Architecture
26. Development of Jain Architecture from Caves to Temple Architecture in Maharashtra,Ar. Pranoti
Kiran Meghal, International Journal of Engineering Research Volume No.7, Issue Special 2, pp : 188194
27 The Origins of Yoga and Tantra: Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century,Dundas,1992
See also Il Sentiero Jaina della Nonviolenza e della Liberazione, di Simone Gall - 08/10/2017
28.Aesthetic Pleasure in the Worship of the Jina: Understanding Performance in Jain Devotional
Culture’ Aleksandra Restifo, https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/10/4/251
154
CHAPTER VII
Although Jain temples frequently share architectural and artistic elements found in temples of
other religions, they are distinctively Jain. Their religious buildings are specifically adapted to
reflect Jain spiritual ideas and ritual practices.
There are three striking features of Jain religious buildings.
• there is usually more than one shrine in a temple.
• most are surrounded by additional buildings that form part of the religious building.
• temples are frequently clustered together to produce temple complexes or ‘temple-cities’.
PARTS OF A JAIN TEMPLE
The majority of Jain temples in India consist of a few core building elements. Lets understand
their function and symbolism. Starting from the outer to the inner –
1. ASPRĀKĀRA – HIGH BOUNDARY WALL
Almost without exception, Jain temples are enclosed by free-standing detached compound walls,
encircling the entire sacred temple area.
The symbolism is for the devotee entering to be leave his ordinary concerns of the householder
life before entering the holy ground.
2. JAGATĪ OR VEDĪ – PLATFORM
Although may be varied in relative proportions and forms, all Jain temples are built on a
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platform or terrace that physically raises the temple above the surrounding land and creates a
distinct sacred area.
On this pronounced plinth, the temple is protected and appears larger and more monumental. The
platforms are often much wider than the actual temple structures and thus provide space for the
ritual ambulation –pradakṣiṇā – of the building to take place on the sacred level. This
spaciousness also allows further shrines, surrounding the temple building, to be at the same level.
The symbolism is related to the idea of the difficulties –durlābha – in reaching sacred places. By
extension it also suggests the long journey to the remote goal of enlightenment.
3. ARDHAMANDAPA – FRONT PORCH
This is the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to shrines and maṇḍapas. At
the main gateway, a worshiper bends down and touches the threshold before crossing it. The
gateway greets the worshiper with a host of sculpted secular figures on the outer walls;
representing the worldly concerns of man. Usually the gateway to a temple will be a massive and
magnificent construction. When we stand in front our feeling of insignificance helps to break our
ego.
The Symbolism is that this marks another transition from the outer world to the inner world of
the temple. Porches are very small, simple halls that provide access to.
4. MANDAPA – HALL
This is the hall or halls in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the devotees. The halls
can have side walls and be closed or may simply have pillars, which leave the sides open.
Temple halls create an approach to the shrine and house more religious statues and ritual
equipment. Halls are used for rituals, the recitation of sacred texts, meditation and for larger
gatherings that involve singing hymns etc. Here, often the worshiper will come across
mythological themes, carved on the inner walls, to attune his attitude towards higher ideals.
The symbolism here is that the devotee must prepare to leave even his concerns for the temple
and fellow devottees and prepare to enter the inner sanctum.
5. ANTARĀLA – INTERMEDIATE CHAMBER
Some temples have this additional element. This small vestibule is a space between the main
sanctuary and its hall, in which worshippers can stand and gaze at the idol or follow rituals
conducted within the shrine. As the worshiper progresses towards the inner sanctum, the
sculptural details and decorations become simpler.
The symbolism is again to help the worshiper to put aside distractions and try focusing their
attention on the sanctum.
6. PRADAKSHINA PATHA – CIRCUMAMBULATION PASSAGEWAY
It consists of enclosed corridor carried around the outside of garbhagriha. The devotees walk
around the deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and symbol of respect to the temple
god or goddess.
The symbolism here is that this represents an encircling of the universe itself.
7. SHIKHARA – TOWER or SPIRE
The upper part of the Garbh griha is called as the Sikhara; the pyramidal or tapering portion of
the temple, Vastu Shastra says that the design of the Shikhara over the Garbhagrahamm attracts
energies from the cosmos from the cosmos, much like an aerial or even like our nose attracts
pranavayu (oxygen) from air.
The symbolism here that it represents the axis of the world through Mount Meru.
8. GAMBHARA – INNER SANCTUM
The main part of Jain temple is called “Gambhara” (Garbha Graha) which is the nucleus and the
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innermost chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the main deity (mulnayak) is placed.
This is the focal point of the building and beside a statue of a sacred figure it may house abstract
religious element, such as the eight auspicious symbols, the siddhacakra, the cosmic person,
yantras and sacred syllables or mantras. The shrine or garbha-griha (womb space) is usually
devoid of any ornamentation to avoid distraction and lead the worshiper further to tranquility.
The Symbolism here is in the name – garbha = womd, graha = home; representing the final
journey of the soul to its real self.
The walk to the inner sanctum indicates that we have to leave the grand external world outside
and direct our minds inward, light up the lamp of knowledge there and by seeing the Jina we are
to behold our Atma within the sanctum sanctorum of our hearts.
Thus the ideology behind the designing of Jain temples is to link man with himself. It is a
depiction of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the microcosm (the inner space) and has
developed over thousands of years. According to the Jaina ethics, a man’s life is asummation of
countless individual lifespans bound up in the cycle of rebirth. One can from achieve
enlightenment thorough pure deeds, thoughts and dedication. Thus, in this world the temple is
the symbol of enlightenment: it is the place where we can be closer to our soul and through
rituals and ceremonies men can discover the divine knowledge.
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CHAPTER VIII
JAIN Maṇḍapa-line temples
Contributed by Julia A. B. Hegewald
The most common type of Jain temple construction in India is the maṇḍapa-line temple, raised
by followers of the image-worshipping sects. Built by both the principal Jain sects of
Digambaras and Śvetāmbaras, these temples are typical of all periods and can be found in all
regions of the subcontinent.
In maṇḍapa-line temples the three core building elements – porches, halls and shrines – that form
most Jain temples in India are arranged more or less in one long line. This line runs from the
entrance to the principal image-chamber at the far end of the building.
While other Jain temple types also combine these three basic architectural elements, they do this
in a distinct and not primarily linear fashion. Although other religions in India also use these
elements in their temples, the architecture of Jain temples represents distinctive Jain
principles and beliefs.
Worshippers enter the temple by ascending the platform on which it sits and going through the
porch at the front, then progressing though one or several temple halls to the image-chamber,
which is the sacred heart of the building. This may symbolise the journey to enlightenment that
is the ultimate goal of Jainism, an aim that is also represented in other aspects of the temple.
Maṇḍapa-line temples are frequently composed of many examples of these three elements,
which were often added to the original structure over time. How many entrance porches, halls
and shrines a maṇḍapa-line temple has depends on its size, its fame and particular importance, its
age and the present or past wealth of the religious community supporting it.
There are often numerous shrines and images as well as the main temple icon, which is housed in
the image-chamber. The multiplicity of building elements that make up the temple and the
smaller, simpler shrines outside the main structure combine to form an often elaborate temple
complex. This mirrors the complex nature of the universe and Jain cosmology, and allows space
for the large number of donated images, and more abstract symbols, venerated in Jain temples.
Building elements
The elements out of which maṇḍapa-line temples are assembled are simple.
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The majority of Jain temples in India consist of the three core building elements of:
 entrance porch – ardha-maṇḍapa
 hall – maṇḍapa
 image-chamber – garbha-gr̥ha.
The followers of other religions in India, such as Hinduism, also use these elements for their own
religious architecture, yet Jain temples are designed to support and reflect distinctively Jain
beliefs.
The diverse ways in which these three elements can be arranged and multiplied are
endless. Jain sacred architecture is particularly well known for its complex arrangements of
entrance porches, halls and shrines, all raised on a moulded plinth. This characteristic
organisation of building elements leads to a distinct structuring of space in Jain temples.
Religious ceremonies are usually performed within specific spaces in the temple. For example,
offerings are made to images of Jinas and deities in dedicated image-chambers while hymns are
sung and recitations performed in the temple halls.
Temple platform
All building elements in a Jain temple are elevated above the ground on a platform or terrace –
jagatī or vedī – which is normally decorated. The terrace has a symbolic role as well as a
functional purpose, underlining the Jain notion of effortful progress towards liberation.
The temple platform, which may be quite low or up to a few metres tall, is usually ornamented
with abstract mouldings or floral and vegetal motifs. Especially tall and prominent platforms can
be seen in the Odegal Basti at Shravana Belgola, Karnataka, and in the modern Jaina Temple at
Bakara Road, Rajasthan. Some plinths are adorned with rows of geese and elephants, processions
of horses and riders, battle scenes and lines of dancers and musicians. Such elaborate decorations
can be found at the Neminātha Temple at Kumbharia and the Pārśvanātha Temple at Mirpur,
both in Rajasthan.
The aim of the terrace is to raise the sacred temple structure from the dusty ground and to create
an upward approach towards the holy icons housed inside.
In some instances, the terrace varies in height under different parts of the temple. In these cases
the platform is lowest beneath the porch while it rises below the hall, reaching its highest point
underneath the shrine. This creates the feeling of a slight upward climb towards the most
important image-chamber, which is at the end of the succession of architectural elements. This
can be seen in the Neminātha Temples at Nadol in Rajasthan and in the Neminātha Temples at
Tirumalai in Tamil Nadu.
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The platform may be wide enough to allow worshippers to use it for the ritual circumambulation
– pradakṣiṇā – of the temple. See, for instance, the Ādinātha Temple at Kundalpur, Bihar and the
Cintāmaṇī Pārśvanātha Temple at Hastinapur in Haryana.
Porches and halls
To enter a Jain temple, visitors go up the steps built at the front or cut into the terrace at the
entrance. Larger temples usually have a porch leading to a hall.
The generic term for a temple hall Is maṇḍapa while a porch is commonly known as an ardhamaṇḍapa.
Porch
A porch is a roofed structure outside a building's entrance, attached to the external wall and
projecting outwards from it. A porch may have open or closed sides and more than one storey.
Porches are essentially very small, simple halls and provide access to shrines and
larger maṇḍapas. Porches create spaces for people to pause before entering or leaving the
building proper.
Porches are frequently called ardha-maṇḍapas but other terms can be used, depending on the
region and style of the porch. Amongst the most common are:
 agra-maṇḍapa
 prāggrīva
 balana-maṇḍapa
 balānaka
 mukha-maṇḍapa
 mukha-catuṣkī
 mukha-catuṣkya.
Porches provide shelter against sun and rain and allow devotees to prepare themselves for the
religious experience inside the temple.
In addition to the main entrance, through a porch, many temple halls have two side entrances,
which frequently also have porches. Clear examples are the Sambhavanātha Temple at Sravasti
in Uttar Pradesh and the Ādinātha Temple at Kulpak in Andhra Pradesh.
Temple hall
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The temple hall – maṇḍapa – is a fundamental element in Jain religious buildings. It can take
different forms, including being several storeys high or a free-standing structure. All temple halls
in maṇḍapa-line temples, however, lead the devotee to the sanctum at the heart of the building,
which contains the main image and is the centre of worship.
Larger halls can be open – raṅga-maṇḍapa or nr̥tya-maṇḍapa – with columns marking their
boundaries at the sides. Such halls are particularly typical of central India, where they can be
seen in the Caubārā Dehrā at Un. Looking into pillared halls from the outside, they are airy and
flooded by sunlight.
Halls can also be closed – gūḍha-maṇḍapa – rooms, with walls at the side. Light and air is only
admitted to such halls through one or several porches. A good example is
the Pārśvanātha Temple at Khajuraho.
The space inside the halls, whether open or closed, is usually pillared. The pillars support the
roof and structure the internal space into distinct areas. There are specific terms for halls with
certain numbers of pillars or bays, such as the popular nine-bayed halls, referred to as trikamaṇḍapa, nava-caukī and nava-catuṣkī. Examples include the Mahāvīra Temples at Osian,
Ghanerao, Sewadi and Kumbharia, all in Rajasthan.
There are also multi-storeyed temple halls – meghanāda-maṇḍapas – connected to raised imagechambers. These can be seen in the Ādinātha Temples at Ranakpur in Rajasthan and in the Bālā
Bhāī Tunk on Mount Shatrunjaya in Gujarat as well as in many of the Jain temples in Varanasi,
Uttar Pradesh.
Noteworthy are the detached open halls – sabhā-maṇḍapas. A prominent example can be seen in
front of the Pārśvanātha Basti at Halebid, Karnataka. Although they are free-standing, they
visually extend further the line of elements that are arranged along one axis in large maṇḍapaline temples.
Temple halls create an approach to the shrine and house additional religious statues and ritual
paraphernalia. They are used for ritual activities – pūjā – and the recitation of sacred texts.
During larger gatherings, the devotees sing hymns and watch ceremonial dance performances in
the temple hall.
Image-chamber and vestibule
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The innermost sanctum in which the main icon of a temple is housed is referred to as the garbhagr̥ha – 'womb chamber'. In temples with more than one shrine, the main image-chamber is
usually referred to as the mūla-garbha as it contains the principal statue – mūla-nāyaka or adhināyaka.
The cella of maṇḍapa-line temples is usually square and has no windows that let in natural light.
In its simplicity and dimly lit state it resembles a cave inside a mountain, a model which the
superstructure of the temple aims to copy.
Based on perceptions of ritual purity, sometimes not all devotees are allowed to enter the shrine,
which is the purest and most sacred area of the temple. For this reason, a small vestibule –
antarāla or kapilī – sits between the image-chamber and its adjacent hall. Worshippers can stand
in this intermediate compartment to:
 perform the rite of darśana – gazing at the icon
 communicate with a priest
 make offerings
 follow the rituals conducted within the shrine.
Spatial layout of maṇḍapa-line temples
In maṇḍapa-line temples, the porches, halls and shrines are arranged to create a straight line from
the front entrance to the main shrine at the opposite end. This line may be stronger in large
temples, which may be composed of several examples of such architectural elements. Other
architectural elements may be used to lengthen the main alignment. Such additions to a simple
original temple may have been made over centuries. However, areas where Jains enjoyed wealth
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and protection may have intricate maṇḍapa-line temples that were designed from the beginning
to have many elements.
The maṇḍapa-line temple is characterised by an axis of clearly aligned architectural elements
that echoes the ritual movement of devotees and priests into the temple. It is a journey from light,
openness and abundant stimulation of the senses towards the darkness and simplicity of the
confined inner space of the shrine at the far end.
The simplest form of a maṇḍapa-line temple consists of a single small entrance hall that gives
access to a vestibule before the cella or immediately to the shrine. All major
Jain pilgrimage centres in India have ample examples of this simple architectural form, as may
be seen on the sacred mountains of Sona-giri in Madhya Pradesh and Shatrunjaya in Gujarat and
at Karkal in Karnataka.
Larger temples of this type, however, have:
a front porch
more than one hall, of which often at least one is open and one is closed
at least one shrine projecting from the end farthest from the main entrance porch.
The closed halls often have side entrances. Such central halls with side openings leading to side
porches or subsidiary shrines are known as ‘large halls’ – mahā-maṇḍapas. These are particularly
popular in north-western and central India. See, for instance, the temples at Kumbharia and
Mount Abu in Rajasthan.
Developed Jain temples of the maṇḍapa-line type usually consist of large numbers of
architectural elements aligned along a main axis. This arrangement of temple elements – halls
and porches – serves the functions of:
 creating an approach to the sacred icon
 providing clearly defined spaces for the celebration of rituals
 hierarchically structuring holy space.
Completely detached platforms, halls, gateways – toraṇas – or water structures can be added to
further lengthen the line of architectural elements. Two examples are the detached platform at
Phalghat in Kerala and the line of gateways at Patan in Gujarat.
Often, Jain temples started simply but were enlarged by adding elements, such as additional halls
and supplementary shrines, thus developing impressive dimensions over time. Most Jain
temples combine building components from various centuries up to the present day. The older a
temple, the more often it has usually been modified and enlarged.
During periods in which Jainism flourished and was supported by influential patrons, however,
more elaborate temple constructions were also designed and built from the outset. Examples of
such periods are the reigns of the:
 Solaṅkī dynasty in north-western India during the tenth to 13th centuries, which saw the
building of the temple complex at Mount Abu, Rajasthan
 Hoysaḷa Empire in the south, lasting from the 11th to 13th centuries, with examples at
Halebid, Karnataka.



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Multiplicity in maṇḍapa-line temples
Multiplicity is an important issue in Jain temple architecture in general. In maṇḍapa-line temples,
there can be multiple free-standing or interconnected shrines and many image-chambers. These
may be arranged on both a horizontal level and on various vertical layers added to the building.
This reflects Jain religious practice, and is related to the diverse objects of veneration housed
inside the temples and to distinct Jain cosmological issues.
It is characteristic of Jain temples to accommodate large numbers of figural icons – of
the Jinas and of gods and goddesses – as well as more abstract symbols. The latter can be:
 foot-imprints of the Jinas – pāda or pādukā
 sacred symbols – yantras or mantras
 manuscripts.
These are found inside the multiple shrines and halls on the ground floor, which form the typical
spatial layout of developed Jain temples. Often there are further subsidiary image-chambers and
interconnected levels of halls on additional levels inside temple structures. These can be
raised sanctums as well as some which have been sunk into the ground. The most complex
temples combine raised with subterranean layers.
Multiplicity is also created by surrounding these often very complex maṇḍapa-line temples with
small shrines and subsidiary temple structures. These can be free-standing.
However, a typical architectural feature is to connect large numbers of small shrines, consisting
of porches and image-chambers only – deva-kulikās or deva-koṣṭhas – to line or form the
compound walls of a temple at the top of the tall terraces. Often, the walls between the individual
shrines have been removed to create passages – bhamatīs or bhramantikās – used for the
sacred rite of circumambulation – pradakṣiṇā. Such lines of interconnected deva-kulikā shrines
surround the well-known Jain temples on Mount Abu and the Ādinātha Temple at Ranakpur, all
in Rajasthan. Deva-kulikās too can be double-storied and may be linked to the central temple
buildings on several levels, producing spatial patterns of great complexity.
Images

The carved marble pillars in the main hall – maṇḍapa – of the Ādinātha
temple at Ranakpur are renowned for their beauty and artistry. Like most Jain temples,
regardless of size, the Ādinātha temple is chiefly built from the three principal
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architectural elements of porch, hall and image-chamber.. Image by Antoine
Taveneaux © CC BY-SA 3.0
The Odegal Basti at the pilgrimage site of Shravana Belgola. It is notable
for its tall, prominent platform or terrace – jagatī or vedī. A key part of the architecture of
Jain temples, the terrace raises the sacred temple structure from the dusty ground and
creates an upward approach towards the holy icons housed inside. This symbolises the
long, difficult path to liberation.. Image by Anks.manuja © CC BY-SA 3.0
The small 12th-century Akkan Basti is in the pilgrimage town of
Shravana Belgola. Especially prominent in this temple, the porch is a central element
in most Jain temples. Temple porches shelter devotees from the weather, mark the
boundary between ordinary and sacred space, and help worshippers ready themselves
for the religious experience inside the temple.. Image by HoysalaPhotos © CC BY-SA
3.0
The colourful Digambara temple in Thirupanamur, Tamil Nadu.
Although the styles of Jain temples vary greatly, most are constructed out of three
main architectural elements. Here, the wide, open-sided porch leads to the hall, where
religious rituals take place. These include performing ceremonies, reciting holy texts,
singing hymns and dancing.. Image by Rishi Vandavasi © CC BY-SA 3.0
The smooth, plain appearance of the standing Jina figure contrasts with its
ornately carved surroundings in the Digambara temple at Lakkundi, Karnataka. As the
principal temple icon, the statue is sited within the image-chamber – garbha-gr̥ha, literally
'womb chamber'. The purest, holiest part of the temple, the sanctum or image-chamber is
the focal point of worship, although not all worshippers are allowed inside. Worshippers
may carry out some religious ceremonies while standing outside, in the vestibule – antarāla
or kapilī. . Image by Dinesh Kannambadi © CC BY-SA 3.0
The ninth-century Narayana temple at Pattadakal is an example of a
maṇḍapa-line temple. In this type of temple the porch, hall and shrine lie in a straight
line from the front entrance to the main shrine at the opposite end. Larger maṇḍapa165
line temples may have several porches, halls and shrines, but all these rooms or spaces
lead from the entrance to the image-chamber housing the main temple icon.. Image by
Dinesh Kannambadi © CC BY-SA 3.0
Probably the best-known Dharmanātha temple, the Hutheesing temple in
Ahmedabad was completed in the 19th century. Named after its original patron, the
two-storey temple is famous for its intricately carved white marble. It demonstrates
the multiplicity and repetition characteristic of Jain temples. The main image is of
Dharmanātha or Lord Dharma, the 15th Jina.. Image by Kalyan Shah © CC BY-SA
3.0
Glossary

Basadi
A term for a Jain temple common in Southern India.
Clergy
Formally recognised leaders within a religion. The clergy often perform rituals, lead
worship and instruct believers in religious principles. Lay men and women usually
complete formal study before being initiated into the clergy. Clerics are active among lay
believers, often living in society. They may have specific roles or ranks and may progress
through a hierarchy to become top leaders of the religious organisation.
Cosmology
A belief system about the universe that covers its origin, structure and parts, and natural
laws and characteristics such as space, time, causality and freedom.
Darśana
Vision, insight or perception. It works with the quality of jñāna – knowledge in the soul –
to gain deep, true understanding and is ever-changing.
Also one of the 14 'gateways' or categories of investigation of mārgaṇā or 'soul-quest'.
Deity
A god or divine figure, often with physical powers beyond those of a human and with
superhuman abilities.
Devotee
An enthusiastic follower of a religion. Can also describe a keen enthusiast of an
individual, concept or activity.
Donor
A donor gives freely. He or she may give alms to a mendicant or money to an institution.
This donation may be for specific items or purposes, such as the creation of art. A donor,
sponsor or patron may be named or pictured in the artwork.
166
Garbha-gṛha
The inner room of a temple, where the main image of a Jina sits.
Gujarāt
The westernmost state in India, which is a stronghold of Śvetāmbara Jainism.
Hinduism
The majority faith in India, often called Sanātana Dharma or Eternal Law. With no single
named founder, Hinduism has a pantheon of gods and a range of different beliefs. Most
Hindu traditions revere the Veda literature but there is no single system of salvation or
belief, although many Hindus believe in the soul, karma, the cycle of births and
liberation. Large Hindu communities exist in southern Asia, with smaller groups across
the world.
Idol
An image of a deity or concept that is worshipped either as a god or as a representation of
the deity.
Jain
Follower of the 24 Jinas or an adjective describing Jain teachings or practices. The term
'Jaina' is also used although 'Jain' is more common.
Jina
A 'victor' in Sanskrit, a Jina is an enlightened human being who has triumphed
over karma and teaches the way to achieve liberation. A synonym for Tīrthaṃkara, which
means 'ford-maker' or one who has founded a community after reaching omniscience
through asceticism. The most famous 24 – Ṛṣabha to Mahāvīra – were born in the
Bharata-kṣetra of the middle world, but more are found in other continents. There have
been Jinas in the past and there will be some in the future.
Karnataka
State in south-west India.
Mahāvīra
The 24th Jina of the present age. His symbolic colour is yellow and his emblem the
lion. Mahāvīra or 'the great hero' is his title. His birth name was Vardhamāna, meaning
'ever increasing'. His existence is historically documented but the two main sects of
Digambara and Śvetāmbara Jains have slight differences in their accounts of his life.
Maṇḍapa
The hall of a Jain temple. Creating an approach to the inner shrine, the temple hall
usually has columns and ritual equipment. It may display idols if the temple belongs to
a murti-pujaka sect. The hall is where the congregation gathers for rituals of worship, to
hear sermons and readings of sacred texts and to sing hymns and perform dances.
Mantra
A sacred sound, syllable, word or phrase that is believed to produce spiritual change if
recited correctly. A mantra can be recited aloud or silently, and is often repeated. Mantras
are closely associated with religions that originated in India, such as Hinduism and
Buddhism as well as Jainism. The chief Jain mantra is the Namaskāra-mantra, which is
recited daily, while another mantra very popular in Indian culture generally is Auṃ.
Mokṣa
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The 'liberation' of the soul from its body and thus from the cycle of rebirth because it has
no karma and becomes omniscient. The ultimate aim of Jainism is to achieve mokṣa and
become a liberated soul in siddha-śilā.
Nemi
Pādukā
The 22nd Jina of the present age, also called Ariṣṭanemi. His symbolic colour is blue or
black and his emblem the conch. There is no historical evidence of his existence.
The Jains hold that Nemi is the cousin of the Hindu god Kṛṣna. The tale of his
renunciation and jilting of his fiancée Princess Rājīmati are famous among the Jains.
168
PART III
TEMPLE
STRUCTURE AND
ARCHITECTURE
169
CHAPTER VIII
ELEMENTS OF INDIAN TEMPLES
Plan: The earliest architecture in India is that of cottage type. It is a circular, bottle or dome shaped. Mud
and Bamboo sticks were used for construction. In the course of evolution number of plans were
incorporated in the temple architecture, such as circular plan, square, rectangular, elliptical, upsidal,
stellar, etc. A text like Manasara mentions 32 types of square plans 1 . Plan is essential for any structural
temple. Plans of the temples depend upon the number of components that existed within the temple.
The simplest plan of the temple consists of a garbhagriha and sabhamandapa or porch. This simple plan
does not imply that the structure belonged to the earliest period. The temples constructed in the later
period also have simple plans. Construction of a temple depends upon the financial position of the
builder. When an antarala is added in-between garbhagriha and mandapa, then the plan of the temple
hecomes little larger. When a pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path) is added to garbhagriha and
antarala, the plan of the temple becomes wider. Then it is called as Sandhara' temple. In the course of
time, number of components of the, temple increased like mandapas, shrines for subsidiary deities;
priikaras, etc, and the plan of the temple became large and wider.
Mandala: With the arrival of Agamas in Hindu religion, the details of architecture became more
sophisticated in the temple and reflected the fundamental symbolism of Mandalas. The Yoga Tattva
Upanishad speaks about the symbolism in terms of the five fundamental elements that constitute the
material basis of the entire cosmos. Earth elements are represented by' a 'Square', Water with a
'semicircle', fire by a 'Triangle', air by a 'six- angled figure' and ether (sky) by a circle. The point without
dimension dot (bindu) is the focus of all energy . The icon in the sanctum occupies the central position
and the temple represents the other necessary forms. The architectural details of a sophisticated temple
reflect this fundamental symbolism. The above five forms are represented in a Mandala known as VishvaKarma Mandala,' which is regarded as fundamental to all temple architecture 3 . The four sides of the
Mandala symbolize the four main directions and the corners of the square represents four mid-directions
and each of the eight quarters is presided over by a deity. The inner circle symbolizes the 'Creator'
(Brahma), which is symbolic of activity, guarded by the eight directions.
The Mandala is symbolic of the entire universe. The 'allmaker' (Creator) is also the progenitor. The whole
mass of scripture, consisting of manuals of architecture, sculpture and painting collectively are known as
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Agama. Early temples were reputed to be built by this All-maker . In early days, this vertical emphasis
was laid on only one tier (prathama tala). Later, number of tiers (talas) were added to this superstructure.
It was believed that the entire area, which the vimana or sikhara overlooked was rendered holy and the
area covered by this sikhara, would be prosperous. Superstructures of temples of Kalinga type are simple
with series of receding courses forming stepped pyramids. Another type of superstructure that is of
storyed type contains several talas (storeys).)
Texts like Vishnu Tilaka, Manasara, Mukutaganta, Silparatna, layamata and Isana Shivaguru Paddhati
and Bhave Prakasana give broad account of sikhara features such as Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. In
addition to these Nagara, Dravida and Vesara type sikharas, Vishnu Mn Ira and Markhandcya Samhita
grouped the temples into nine and added six more types such as Sarvadesika, Kalinga, Varata, Mandira,
Bhavana and .yoga. But Silvaprasna and liana Shivaguru Paddhati referred only three classifications,
Nagar. Dravida and Vesara
Nagara: Actually means squarish, cruciform in plan and its sikhara has a vertical emphasis.
Vesara: Circularly emphasized horizontal aspect shape, like domical or octagonal or in the shape of
vaulted roof. Another feature is storeyed towers and tall gopuras. It is a combination of Dravida and
Nagara style of Sikhara features.
Dravida- Polygonal or octagnal (six or eight sided): It is circular in plan or apsidal. General conception is
that Nagara type of temples prevails in the land between the Himalayas and Vindhya ranges. Vesara type
of temples exists inbetween Vindhya ranges and Krishna river and Dravida type of temples prevails
inbetween River Krishna and Kanyakumari'7.
The term sikhara meaning 'Mountain peak' may indicate that it signified 'Meru' meaning mountain or
Kai lasa , , so tall and sacred place of Shiva. The North Indian vimana or Sikhara is crowned by a large
circular (Wheel shaped) capstone block known as 'amalaka' (ribbed disc resembling an amalaka fruit,
Emblic Myrobalan), while its South Indian counterpart ends in a cupola (Srnga) or Wagon roof (khakra).
The South Indian vimana is broader and shorter than the North Indian vimana. The North Indian temples
rise from a pedestal (Pitha or Jagati), though the wall (tiara) and main body (gandi) to the head (mastaka),
which consists of a rib, is surmounted by a 'skull' (khapuri) on which is installed the Kalasa (finial). And
on top of finial will be seen the weapon (ayudha) of the deity, a trident or a discus flag e.g.
Jagati( See my paper on Jain temple Jagati elsewhere on academia.edu and researchgate.net) Temples in
Orissa and Khajuraho The The Jaina temple at Cudne, Goa stands on Pitha (Jagati) like North Indian
temple. Compared to the North Indian Temple Sikharas, in the Dravidian vimana, the height is less
emphasized. The plan of the Virnana could be round or square. It could also be six- sided or eight- sided.
It could retain one form uniformly from the base to the top or combine two or more plans at different
storeys, sometimes as many as sixteen, but the prevailing style is devoid of such differentiation into
storeys. It rises above the sanctum with flat roof of the sanctum (Bhumika or Kapotha) as its base
(adhisthana).
Kalasa It was an old custom to install a crowing member in the form of a sacrificial 'Vase (Kalasa)' made
of metal. kalasa denotes a mark of exaltation . It occupies the topmost part of the temple below the
171
Ayuda. (Pineal). Porch The rectangular porch in front of the Sanctum sanctorium (Mukhamandapa or
Mukha —sala) is a pillared hall, allowing the devotees to stand and watch the worship rituals as they are
conducted inside the sanctum. When the temple became popular and devotees increased, the sanctum
needed additional hall and this porch became merely a vestibule (antarala) 21 . Its main function is to
accommodate more devotees of the temple. The porch (vestibule) is structurally connecting the sanctum
with the additional hall (assembly hall). Like the antarala in front of the sanctum, a low raised structure
called `Sukhanasi' crowned antarala. It is erected in front of the Sikhara, which stands on sanctum proper.
Unlike the sanctum covered by flat roof stone slabs, antarala is also filled in the similar manner, which
serves as the base (adhisthana) for the super structure.
The doors of the temple must always be two panelled and the two are described as mother and daughter
' Brihat-Samahita prescribes that the door must be located in the middle of the front wall and that it must
be in the same direction as the idol. According to Agnipurana, the door must always be placed in one of
the four directions and never in the corners. Suprabhediigama recommends gateways in all the four
directions on the outer wall. Texts mentioned that Devadar wood is best for temple doors.
. Texts prescribe the rules about the several aspects of door like jamb, lintel (dwara-sakha), door panels
(kabata), door joints (dwara sandhi), door planks (phalaka), bolt (kila-bhajana), tower over the door way
(dwara gopura) and the chamber associated with the door way (dwara-koshtha). Dwiira-Sakha (door
jamb) is single panelled in early temples without much ornamentation. Ornamentation developed in the
later period in the door panels, and it became familiar as Sakhas in temple architecture such as Lata
Sakha, Patra Sakha, Pushpa Sakha, etc. The popular simple form of doorconsists of only three sakhas in
it.
Sometimes the images of Gajalakshmi or Ganesh at the centre of lintel occasionally with Purnakumbhas
on either side, Dweirapalas or Ganga, Yamuna or Purnakumbhas at the base also can be seen in the
Dwara Sakhas in the medieval period. Mahadeva temple at Curdi is the best example for tri-sakha dw&a.
Tri-sakha dwara also can be seen at Saptakoteswar temple at Opa.
Pranala or water chute takes out ablution water from garbhagriha. It passes through garbhagriha wall
(generally towards north) and extends to a considerable length away from wall (e.g Pranalas of Mahadev
temple, Curdi and Tambdi Surla were extended up to the adhisthana mouldings of the temple). Majority
of the pranalas are in simple long block with a channel cut into it. Some pranalas are highly decorated and
the mouths of the Icirtimukhas are crocodile or ox or makara or lion or creeper scroll etc., emerge as
channel. Generally main deity used to be placed over the pranala in al- most all the temples in Goa. Some
prdruilas have beautiful mouldings like as in the Adhisthana of the temple, e.g., Brahma temple in Sattari
172
Taluka.
A Chandrasilis (Moon-Stones) Chandrasila— or Moonstones were in the form of semicircular slabs on
floor in front of doors forming a step in the beginning or in the main entrance (e.g, in front of the rock cut
cave temples at Haravalem). The terminology itself suggests their shape i.e., semi circular 26. Their
outline was carved on the floor slabs later (mainly in front of the garbhagriha door e.g. Curdi, Tambdi
Surla and Opa temples. Subsequently, the semi-circle took leaf shape with a point at the centre and two
scrolls on the sides. The Chandrsirds in the Mahadev temple at Curdi, Tambdi Surla and Saptakoteshwar
temple at Opa with a pointed tip are shown in relief on the floor slab in front of the garbhagriha doors.
Kopeshwar temple. Highly ornamented chandrashila at entrance
Air and light entrances: chandrasiliis(Windows) or Jalavatayanas meant for allowing light and air into
temples have provided artists with a space for exhibiting their skill by carving creepers, flowers, figures
and several perforations. Some Jalavatayanas are decorated with creepers containing circular perforations
Torana is another interesting feature involved in stylized temples. Temples like Mahalasa, Manguesh,
Naguesh, etc, have chitra toranas in the drooped wall of their Mandapa ceilings. Besides Chitra torana, the
texts mention two other types of torana
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1) Patra torana (fashioned like the lotus leaves) and
2) Makara torana (arch with makara).
The Makara torana enshrined in the temple was suitable for the residence of Brahmins and Kshatriyas
while Chitratoranas was suitable for Vaisyas and Patratorana was useful for Sudras. Sabhainandapa or
Navaranga or MaCamandapa When the temple became very popular and the participants increased in
number there was a need for an additional hall of larger dimension to sanctum and antarala to
accommodate large assemblies. (e .g. Navaranga).
This sabhamandapa used to be pillared hall with or without kakshasana. These type of larger halls were
found more in some places according to the requirements of the temple such as Natya mandapa, Bhoga
mandapa, Kalyana mandapa etc., and they can be seen mainly in Orissan temple architecture. Mahadeva
temple at Tambdi Surla is the best example for its sabhamandapa with kakshasana. Modem temples like
Malialsa, Ramn-ath etc., have kakshasanas within the large 96 97 halls (Mandapas) but those are not
aesthetic enough like that of Tambdi Surla temple. The area of the temple comprising of the sanctum and
the halls as well as the tanks and gardens came to be enclosed by a wall (prakara). But this was a later
innovation and can be seen in many of the South Indian temples. Walls The treatment of walls also
depicts a wide range from simple plain to decorated with pilasters, turrets and figures. Some of the
mukhamandapas and Sabhamandapas are open and some are covered with jalavatayanas (perforated door
screens) niches and figures. Mahadev Temple at Tambdi Surla and temple fragments of Saptakoteshwar
temple near St Cajetan Church, Old Goa are the best examples.
Chajjas: A projected horizontal band called bandana runs in the middle of the wall of sanctum and
antarala of Tambdi Surla temple with Kudya stambhas with regular intervals resembling the features of
later Chalukyan period. Eaves The main function of eave or chajja is to protect wall from rainwater. It
projects forward from the ceiling level, so that water is thrown away from wall surface. The slightly
projecting eaves with curved upper surface to facilitate the flow of water are found in several temples.
Especially in Goa, the rainfall is more and it continues for a long period. Hence almost all the structures
in Goa require slanty roofs and eaves for easy disposal of rainwater. Ceilings Ceilings are different types.
1) Domical ceiling 2) Flat ceiling 3) Rectangular ceiling 4) Square ceiling 5) Circular ceiling 6) Rotated
squares ceiling 7) Octagonal ceiling, etc.,
174
Placing smaller triangular slabs over the corners of the lower square forms the upper square. A flat slab is
placed at the top for covering the central gap. The space of the ceiling is reduced at the top by creating
these squares. The lower square is exactly half of the ankara and the upper square is half of that of the
lower. A flat slab one-fourth of the size of the ankara is used at the top. The squares not only reduce the
areas but also break the monotony of the comparatively plain interior 29. This type of ceiling 98 99
appeared in the rock cut cave at Khandepar for the first time in Goa where the ceilings of the monolithic
rock are cut in the shape of trabeat (lantina type). This system became more sophisticated in the structural
temples such as Mahadev temple at Curdi and Tambdi Surla in the later period.
The central bays in the Nandimandapa ceiling is decorated with a variety of circular inverted lotus in the
same temple. Here lotus petals were more projected and a lotus bud was shown very prominently in the
centre and the star shaped central lotus is encircled with similar type of lotuses. The ceiling slabs of
eastern side bay of mandapa are also adorned with the star shaped circular lotuses in it. Similarly, in the
later temples like Mahalasa, Manguesh, Nciguesh, Shantadurga, have lotus decoration in ,mkjnbvcyghthe
wooden ceilings in the mandapas. These temples generally have domical shape ceilings on the octagonal
base for sanctum. The domical ceilings are almost plain and no decorations are found in them.
100 Pillars Pillars supporting the corners of garbhagriha and antarala are known as canton pillars.
The canton pillars are prominently shown in the rock-cut cave architecture. Rock cut caves at Khandepar
is the best example for this feature. Here the canton pillars are chiselled in the monolithic rock in the
corners of garbhagriha and antarala, canton pillars can be made out of basalt (volcanic rock). Pillars
supporting various mandapas of temples are found in various shapes, such as square pillars, round pillars,
projected square pillars, octagonal pillars, sixteen sided pillars, star shaped pillars etc. These pillars
consist of a pedestal, shaft, capital, abacus and corbels. Square Pillars: Square pillars first appeared in the
rock cut cave temples. These pillars are simple massive and plain, and can be seen in the rock cut cave
temples at Harvalem, Limgaon, Veliguem Surla, Narve, Kusyacherann in Goa. 101 Round Pillars: Simple
round pillars consist of a lower square block and the remaining circular portion with pot at the top. This
type of pillars can be seen in the Nandimandapa of Mahadev temple at Curdi. These pillars have a square
base, a rectangular malasthana, an octagonal and a circular shaft with a top pot and a square capital with
pothikas on its top.
175
Accessory structures Very few temples contain accessory structures like Nandi shrine or Nandi mandapa
separately in front of the temple or otherwise these are attached to the main temple. Some temples have
separate shrines for subsidiary deities, (Parivara- devta or Gramdevta) on either side of the main temple or
backside or in the front of the main temple. Maximum number of accessory structures in Goa belongs to
Ravalnath, Sateri, Ganesh and Durga.
Tulasi- Tulasi is the most important plant for Hindus. because Lakshmi's presence is recognized in the
Tulasi plant. Every year on the twelfth day of the bright half of Kartik, Tulasi Vivah (marriage) is
celebrated. Tulasi or holy basil is worishpped with profound respect everywhere. People keep a Tulasi
plant in front of their house on a specially made stand called Tulasi Vrindavan and worship with great
veneration to keep the environment free from bactereous and unwanted prying eyes (burl nazar) into their
houses.
Dhvaja-Stambha (FLAG-STAFF): Hayasirsha — samhita, a Pancharatra text reveals that a building
(prasada) without a flag would be in vain. 'Shiva-sarvasva' describes the purpose of the flag as indication
of the insignia of the deity or of the characteristic vehicle of the icon that is within the sanctum. Ancient
texts mentioned that where the flag was hoisted in front of the temple; Gods as well as manes used to be
delighted. The text also assigns Vishnu (protector) to the top, Brahma (creator) to the middle and Shiva
(destroyer) to the bottom of the 107 flag-staff. 36 . Hosting the flag suggests setting out to conquer. The
devotee coming into the temple would have firm resolve to conquer his own baser nature. To look at the
flag would be a reminder for him in this regard. The Sanskrit word for the flag or banner dhvaja strictly
means whatever that is raised. Whatever raises man to a higher level of understanding and activities is a
dhvaja. It is a call that God is high and above. The characteristic animal and the insignia of the icon on the
banner gives a direction to the devotee's desire and will. When the devotee sees the banner and bows
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before it, he resolves to rise higher. The benefit of the flag-mast is here said to be "obtainment of all that
is desired". The canonical texts favour wooden or bamboo poles. In course of time, the wooden pole was
covered with copper, brass or even with silver.
Bali-Pitha (The Dispensing Seat): The sanctum, adytum garbhagriha, which is the most important
structural detail, is closely associated with the Bali-Pitha that is installed in front of the sanctum directly
facing the icon. Actually there will be several 'seats' of this nature, installed in various ritualistically
determined positions inside the enclosure and outside the sanctum. However, the one in front of the
sanctum is the 'Chief seat'. (Pradhana-pitha). It is a low stone altar, frequently planned in the form of a
flat, relatively elaborate form with a base, cornices, wall surface and the top lotus. The canons specify that
the real temple should comprise of the sanctum, the tower on top of it, the icon inside it and the
dispensing seat in front of it 3:9. 110 Water Tank: Water tank or snanaghat is essential for Hindu temple.
Before entering into the temple, the devotee must purify (parishuddh) with taking bath or clean and wash
hands and legs and head. Water tank is also necessary for daily requirement of water for deities and
cleaning of temple. Providing Snanaghat (bathing ghat or pushkar) on the banks of major rivers near the
temple is ancient practice jri India. All the 12 major rivers in India have bathing ghats to celebrate
`Pushkar'. The Pushkar celebrations come once in twelve years after rotation at all the major rivers from
North to South (e.g., Ganga nadi pushkar. Yamuna nadi pushkar, Godavari nadi pushkar and Krishna nadi
Pushkar.
177
CHAPTER X
PRAKAR or APRAKARA
Walls surrounding the Jain Temple
The term wall comes from Latin vallum meaning "...an earthen wall or rampart set with palisades, a
row or line of stakes, a wall, a rampart, fortification..." while the Latin word murus means a
defensive stone wall. English uses the same word to mean an external wall and the internal sides
of a room, but this is not universal. Many languages distinguish between the two. In German,
some of this distinction can be seen between Wand and Mauer, in Spanish
between pared and muro. provides security, shelter, or soundproofing; or is decorative. There
are many kinds of walls, including:
 Walls in buildings that form a fundamental part of the superstructure or separate
interior rooms, sometimes for fire safety
 Border barriers between countries
 Brick walls
 Defensive walls in fortifications
 Doors, mobile walls on hinges which open to form a gateway
 Glass walls (only when most of the wall, in smaller amounts it is called a window)
 Permanent, solid fences
 Precast walls
 Retaining walls, which hold back dirt, stone, water, or noise sound
 Stone walls
 Walls that protect from oceans (seawalls) or rivers (levees)
Defensive wall
The word wall originally referred to defensive walls and ramparts.
The purposes of walls in buildings are to support roofs, floors and ceilings; to enclose a space as
part of the building envelope along with a roof to give buildings form; and to provide shelter and
security. In addition, the wall may house various types of utilities such as electrical
wiring or plumbing. Wall construction falls into two basic categories: framed walls or masswalls. In framed walls the load is transferred to the foundation through posts, columns or studs.
Framed walls most often have three or more separate components: the structural elements (such
as 2×4 studs in a house wall), insulation, and finish elements or surfaces (such
as drywall or panelling).
Mass-walls
are
of
a
solid
material
including masonry, concrete including slipform
stonemasonry, log
building, cordwood
construction, adobe, rammed earth, cob, earthbag construction, bottles, tin cans, straw-bale
construction, and ice. Walls may or may not be leadbearing. Walls are required to conform to the
local local building and/or fire codes.
There are three basic methods walls control water intrusion: moisture storage, drained cladding,
or face-sealed cladding. Moisture storage is typical of stone and brick mass-wall buildings
where moisture is absorbed and released by the walls of the structure itself. Drained
cladding also known as screened walls[3] acknowledges moisture will penetrate the cladding so
178
a moisture barrier such as housewrap or felt paper inside the cladding provides a second line of
defense and sometimes a drainage plane or air gap allows a path for the moisture to drain down
through and exit the wall. Sometimes ventilation is provided in addition to the drainage plane
such as in rainscreen construction. Face-sealed also called barrier wall or perfect barrier,cladding
relies on maintaining a leak-free surface of the cladding. Examples of face sealed cladding are
the early exterior insulation finishing systems, structural glazing, metal clad panels, and
corrugated metal.
Building walls frequently become works of art, externally and internally, such as when
featuring mosaic work or when murals are painted on them; or as design foci when they exhibit
textures or painted finishes for effect.
Curtain wall
In architecture and civil engineering, curtain wall refers to a building facade that is not loadbearing but provides decoration, finish, front, face, or historical preservation.
Precast wall
Precast walls are walls which have been manufactured in a factory and then shipped to
where it is needed, ready to install. It is faster to install compared to brick and other walls
and may have a lower cost compared to other types of wall. Precast walls are cost
effective compare to Brick Wall compound wall.
Mullion wall
Mullion walls are a structural system that carries the load of the floor slab on
prefabricated panels around the perimeter.
Boundary walls include privacy walls, boundary-marking walls on property, and town walls.
These intergrade into fences. The conventional differentiation is that a fence is of minimal
thickness and often open in nature, while a wall is usually more than a nominal thickness and is
completely closed, or opaque. More to the point, an exterior structure of wood or wire is
generally called a fence—but one of masonry is a wall. A common term for both is barrier,
which is convenient for structures that are partly wall and partly fence—for example the Berlin
Wall. Another kind of wall-fence ambiguity is the ha-ha—which is set below ground level to
protect a view, yet acts as a barrier (to cattle, for example).
Before the invention of artillery, many of the world's cities and towns, particularly in
Europe and Asia, had defensive or protective walls (also called town walls or city walls). In
fact, the English word "wall" derives from Latin vallum—a type of fortification wall. These
walls are no longer relevant for defense, so such cities have grown beyond their walls, and many
fortification walls, or portions of them, have been torn down—for example
in Rome, Italy and Beijing, China. Examples of protective walls on a much larger scale include
the Great Wall of China and Hadrian's Wall.
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Building the newer wall at the U.S.–Mexico border
Mexico–United States barrier in California
Some walls formally mark the border between one population and another. A border wall is
constructed to limit the movement of people across a certain line or border. These structures vary
in placement with regard to international borders and topography. The most famous example of
border barrier in history is probably the Great Wall of China, a series of walls that separated the
Empire of China from nomadic powers to the north. The most prominent recent example is
the Berlin Wall, which surrounded the enclave of West Berlin and separated it from East
Germany for most of the Cold War era. The US-Mexico border wall, separating the United
States and Mexico, is another recent example
Why do Hindu/Buddhist temples often have walls surrounding them?
1. Hindus circle around the temple (perambulation around the temple) when they visit the
temple as part of the praying ritual. May be the temple premise is walled to allow the
devotees exclusive space around the temple.
2. The big temples are managed as trusts and also own the land surrounding the temples.
Historically kings used to allocate specific lands for temples and so the perimeter
boundaries were marked with a wall. In today’s world; a wall ensures that land is
protected against illegal encroachment by petty sellers or others. This is a very
common issue in India; not restricted to temple land but any open / vacant land.
But the walled temples are only big and famous temples. There are millions of temples around
India which are small and without any walls around.
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Having stayed in south east Asia for many years; I guess the reasons are same for
Buddhist.There are 3 broad styles in which temples are designed in India:



Nagara Style (Seen in North India)
Dravidian Style (Seen in South India)
Vessarra Style (A hybrid of both the above styles, seen in the Deccan region)
A temple, in the earlier times was the center of the town- in terms of activity, prominence and
mostly even the location. Since it was the most important structure, it had to be made
conspicuous. Mostly it dominated the entire skyline of the town. The designers in the North and
South chose two different ways to do so.
In the North, they raised the entire temple on a high plinth, giving it the required prominence.
he Dravidians chose another
way. They enclosed the temples in a compound wall. They marked the entry point with a tall
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Gopuram. So, it was the Gopuram that marked the presence of a temple, and not necessarily the
temple Shikhara (Spire).
A Gopuram
This approach had the following additional advantages, due to which it became popular in the
South:
 It enclosed a space- the Prakaram where covered halls (Mandapams) could be erected.
This space was used for cultural and religious gatherings.
 In the South, each successor would generally add to the existing structure. It was
possible for successive rulers to go on adding layers of Prakaras, with even taller
Gopurams
 It proved as a fortification, especially during the times of Islamic conquests. The
enclosing walls of the Maratha temples in the Deccan, were inspired from these. They
even show a military characteristic to it.
Plan of Ranganathswamy Temple, Srirangam: Layers of Prakara seen in thick lines, with a
number of pillared halls- the Mandapas
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The Sturdy fortification
The temples seen by you in South East Asia are most likely to have these walls. There was a lot
of influence from South India on the architecture of South East Asia.
In Nepal, almost all temples have boundaries, but these were not existent during old periods.
There are many things to be noted here like :
 Initially, only the main sanctum sanctorum is established, then in accordance with
Hindu tradition, various deities are installed with proper pooja at a nearby location.
These installed deities bring positive energy in combination with the main temple god.
Now, since there were multiple deities in a small area, they are walled with the hope
that no negative energy reaches the God from outside the wall. And the entire precinct
is considered pious.
 Secondly, the main temple’s roof, door and outer covering of temple used to be made
of Gold. These golds were donated by the kings of the time as most of them were
devout followers of Hinduism. So in order to protect outsiders from stealing it, walls
were necessary. [The yellow outer of Pashupatinath temple used to have real gold
during ancient time, but later people started stealing the gold and now only gold color
paints are used]
 Thirdly, due to heavy populations influx, encroachment of land started. So to prevent
the temple premises from being encroached, walls were made.
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In respect of Buddhism, it is mainly due to the fact some space is needed to circumvent the
stupa and chances of encroachment of land.Both Bouddhanath and Swayambhunath are not
walled. All stupas in Lumbini are walled as they have been allocated only designated area inside
the heritage zone and considering the artwork will need security.Not only temples, most houses
have walls.
Not to get in thieves, strangers, cows, beggers etc. Most people do not bear arms at home. And
another reason, they don't want to dispute with neighbors when they stay or sell the properties.
Most of the villages, there is no inspection or taxes included when they transfer the property.
They are not much worth either.
For temples and monastery, one has to pay respect and act accordingly in the compound. Plus
some area, they need to go bare foot. Monesteries are donated not only to single monk, they are
donated to Sanga. Yes, that single monk has right to stay and transfer to another but the donation
is not meant for individual. If someone do something bad, for example, make dirty the floor, the
result is big. The donor is not donated to a single monk, the whole Sanga.Same go to temples.
Temples are housed Buddha relics and in ancient time, donor even put a curse on it. There was
an old saying, temple, tattoo and marriage, once you did them, you cannot change. Hardly
anyone wants to destroy the temples or statue. Because they are regarded as Buddha and some
places it is treated as a person and destroying them is a capitol crime. Making them boundary is
not everyone will get in, not to do something bad and not to get huge bad consequences back.
It’s not only to protect temples or monasteries, it is also to protect individual who will commit
bad things and get bad consequences. Temples are not some sort of brick piles, they housed
Buddha relic or enlightened being relics and valuable items donated by donors.
The Telli Temple in Kerala for instance, is surrounded by the gigantic walls of 'elephant
belly' (aana palla) type with broad base and narrower neck at the top. The platform facing the
sanctum-sanctorum, the four walls surrounding the sanctum-sanctorum with lamps lit on all the
four sides, dwajastambam, anakottil (flag-staff platform for elephants), gopurams (large entrance
gate), deepasthambhum (pillars of lighting) and large outer walls make this a grand temple.
The temples on the banks of the Tamiraparani have several important inscriptions, that offer
a fund of information on local governance and social life across the Pandya, Chola, Chera
(Venad) and Nayaka dynasties.
Inscriptions are the last thing pilgrims would look for in a temple. Etched on the walls and
floors, they are all political, social, economic and judicial records and invaluable for an
unbiased study of history and psychology. A few samples are: Inscriptions inside the
Nellaiyappar temple, located in the middle of the river’s course date back only 1,400 years
although the temple itself is older. Many inscriptions have been lost to ‘renovation.’ The
golden period of the Pandya kings was under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan (1216-1238
CE). He was guided by a person called Thadakanni Chitrudaiyan Uyyanindravan
Gurukulatharayan. This person has given gifts to this temple as well as the Vishnu temple
in Tiruthangal. In both, the gift is carved in a satirical verse.
The writer says in the poem that pained by the Bikshatana at the temple having to go
begging for food, he has given enough land so that he could eat comfortably and not hold
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the kapala. Outside the Muruga shrine (western prakaras), on the floor is a thala pramana or
a composition of beats composed/invented by Pichchandi Annavi, a resident of
Pasuvanthanai village in 1870. The notes are carved into a flower shape. Many of the
donations to the temple are of land, lamps and structures. Several given by Devadasis. A
particularly generous donor was a Thalaikolli from the Madurai Meenakshi temple.
In the ancient inscriptions, Palayamkottai is mentioned as Sri Vallabha Chaturvedi
Mangalam, named after Sri Vallabha (815-865ACE). The Tripurantaka temple has
inscriptions from the reigns of Raja Raja. The adjacent Vedanarayana temple seems to have
started off as an Ashtanga Vimana temple but has only one upper floor. The temple has an
intricately carved Pandya Alankara Mandapa, which is now sadly covered in brass. The
museum has some impressive Jain images from Tuticorin district and hero stones.
Inscriptions on the hero stones are from 600 years ago.
bas relief sculpture showing the maritime trade at the Thirukurungudi Nambi Temple in Tamil Nadu |
Many inscriptions in the region show a connection with Malaimandalam or Kerala. The
Venad rulers had palaces in the region and the upper tracts of the river were hunting
grounds. Tirukkurungudi and Nanguneri even had worship protocols influenced by the
Nambudiri system. Even today, temples at Bhoothapandi and Padmanabhapuram in
Kanyakumari district show this amalgamation of cultures. The Vishnu temple at Tharuvai
was built by a Raman. Sivalapperi is the birthplace of Mukkudar Pallu, a genre of bardic
literature. The earliest record here is 1,400 years back. One of them mentions a gift of 22
sheep by Anukkan Api Nangai to burn a perpetual lamp. She was the wife of Sathur
Bayankara Mutharaya.
Inscriptions also reveal that the region was not always peaceful and harmonious. However,
disputes were resolved and the judgment respected. Brahmadesam, near Ghatana river has a
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resolution of this type. Another is in Kallidaikurichi where a bitter conflict was resolved
between Vellala and Nadars. From a national point of view, the inscriptions on a small,
slender pillar at Manur are the most important. They go back 1,400 years when the village
assembly met to redraft the rules of elections and duties of the village legislature. The
details show how much we have regressed as a democracy today.
Although not on the river banks, those pilgrims who have more time, are encouraged to
visit the temples at Malaiyadikurichi and Darukapuram near Sankarankoil. The ancient cave
was hewn out by Sathan Eran, of Sevur in 637ACE, this makes it one of the oldest temples
or monuments in the region. Other inscriptions from 1135 on the pillars are on land grants.
Plan
Temples are usually freestanding, square structures, on top of a high square plinth. Once again,
the shape of the temples varied depending upon the deity, the temple was dedicated to. For
example, the square plans with opening on all sides were adopted for the temples of Lord Shiva.
Palaces are built around square courtyards. All of the individual buildings around the courtyard
were joined together making them appear as a single large structure. Numbers of such courtyards
were again connected together making a big palace complex. Floor levels were supported by
closely placed wooden planks and beams. The roof coverings were provided on top of the
wooden frames, which were supported directly on the walls with the help of wooden planks that
project out from the walls..
Foundation and walls
The foundation provided for all the structures was quite shallow. The basic foundation for small
temples had just a few layers of stone (large pebbles or broken stones) and the brick foundation
wall on top of it. These brick foundation walls gradually reduce the thickness to attain the ground
floor wall thickness. For the bigger structures, the foundations were two to three feet deep and
about two feet wide. The trenches were filled up with stones for the foundation and the brick
walls were laid directly over the stone without providing any vapor barrier.
The plinth was not the part of the foundation, but it was added in front of the brick wall to appear
as the part of the foundation. The plinth was just extended and raised in front of the ground floor
wall as a protection from the penetration of the moisture from the ground. The plinth also made
the building look more stable and it appeared to lift the structure above the ground level.
The stepped, high plinths were provided for the aesthetic purposes, rather than the structural
purposes. But the structure of these stepped plinths is still unknown. It has not yet been
ascertained whether these plinths are just a hugh masonry square filled with soil, or a hillock of
brickwork. Temple walls speak history.
Pradeep Chakravarthy 2018 HTTPS://WWW.THEHINDU.COM/SOCIETY/HISTORY-
AND-CULTURE/TEMPLE-WALLS-SPEAK-HISTORY/ARTICLE25191503.ECE
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Elevations
Brickwork
Fire burnt bricks and mud mortar was used for most of the buildings. Depending on the financial
standing of the owner or the importance of the building, different types of bricks were used. For the
Palaces and the Temples a simple brick wall was provided for the structure purpose, and an oil-glazed
brick layer was provided for the external face.Wall thickness varied considerably and there seems to be
no standard dimension. Generally, the thickness varied from on foot to two feet thick, but the walls of
certain temples and the palaces are up to six feet thick. https://www.webpages.uidaho
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CHAPTERXI
The Jagatī or Vedī (Plinth) in Jain Temple Architecture
ABSTRACT
This is a short paper on the importance of the plinth in Jain temples where the infrastructure supports the
weight of many( sometimes 1000) pillars and the corresponding domes adorning them to prove that the
plinth is the most important part though not visible or visually encompassing as the lofty Jain
architectural structures it supports
णमो अरिहं ताणं/ णमो सिद्धाणं/ णमो आयरियाणं/ णमो उवज्झायाणं/ णमो लोए िव्व िाहूणं
एिो पंच णमोक्कािो, िव्व पावप्पणािणो मंगला णं च िव्वेसिं, पढमं हवई मंगलं
I bow to the Arihants, Siddhas, Acharyas, Upadhyayas,
and I bow to all the Sages of the world.
This five-fold salutation completely destroys all the sins.
And, of all auspicious mantras, (it) is indeed the foremost auspicious one.
Ṇamōkāra Mantra
Introduction: In Architecture, the concept of a plinth is pretty basic: To create a base or platform, then
put whatever one builds on top of it. You may not think there are too many ways to mess with that basic
formula, and to a degree you're right. Still, when we talk about plinths, there are three main uses. To
understand the Plinth we need to familiarize with the other concepts of Grid:
The grid is a useful device for expressing design rules about the placement of elements in a layout. By
expressing position rules for elements in relation to a grid, a designer can organize decisions in a layout
design problem systematically. Grids and placement rules offer a discipline that can help a designer work
effectively to lay out complex designs, and it can also facilitate group design work. The grid, one of the
oldest architectural design tools, is a useful device for controlling the position of building elements. Grids
have been and continue to be used in all manner of layout tasks from urban design to building
construction. A grid can help a designer control the positions of built and space elements, making the
layout task more systematic. By determining positions of different building elements in relation to a grid
or to a set of grids, the designer can specify design rules that describe a typology of physical forms.1
Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle. However, there are some
exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century CE is not a square but is a
rectangle consisting of stacked squares. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in
1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect intended to use these
harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other
examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and NaktiMata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael Meister states that these exceptions mean the ancient
Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in
expression and aesthetic independence.T he Teli temple reflects in its proportions a careful expansion of
the grid system known from square temples in Central India in the eighth century.” y. In fig. 4 I give a
ground plan for the Teli temple. Several plain bhitta platforms support the base moldings (vedibandha) of
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the temple walls (figs. 6, zo). These consist of khura, kumbha, a broad antarapatta-setback (decorated
with a vedika pattern of small pillarets with a broad cross-beam of foliage), and a kapotapalihood. The
frieze of the wall (janghd) has doors on the central bhadra projections which lead to broad recesses which
now lack their images. On the corners, smaller niches in the form of shrine models with entry doorways
(fig. 20) also lack images. Percy Brown records the inner dimensions of the sanctum of this temple as 1 5
x 30 ft. (a ratio of i: 2).16 This is not correct. The sanctum measures ca. 6 x 9 meters, the ratio being 2: 3.
In fig. 5, I give a diagram of one quarter of the temple's ground plan showing the grid from which the
architect has generated his plan. The sanctum is defined by 4 x 6 squares; the walls are two squares thick,
measured from the corners. (Each square of this grid is ca. I .5 meters on a side.) Corner buttresses
measure 2 x 2 squares at the khura-hoof of the wall's moldings (fig. 6). The central bhadra projection on
each side projects a full square. The opening into the bhadra shrine is ca. two squares wide. 2
The Grid of the Jain Temple at Dilwara, Mount Abu
1. The base for a pedestal. This type of plinth is not so much a matter of architecture as it is a matter of
art (or at least the display of art). Most pedestals have a wide base that supports them and whatever
they're holding; that's the plinth.Incidentally, the bottom part of a piece of furniture that actually touches
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the floor is sometimes called a plinth as well. That would make your chair a glorified pedestal, and you
sitting in it a work of art. There's your ego boost for the day.
2. The base for a column. All three Classical orders of columns (including Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian)
are traditionally placed on top of plinths. However, there use is not limited to Classical or even Western
architecture. Columns and similar support structures in Asia, Africa, and the Americas often contained a
plinth or plinth-like base.
3. The bases for much larger structures. In fact, many houses and other buildings are built on very
large plinths that serve as the bottom-most structure supporting that edifice. Look around your city or
neighborhood: there's a good chance that some structures are resting on massive bases of stone, concrete,
or other strong materials.
Definition: When something's important, we tend to raise it off the ground. This is universal in human
cultures; we try to visually separate the things we make from the earth itself. The Plinth allows us to do
this.
A plinth is a base or platform that's used to support something else above the ground. The plinth is one of
the most underappreciated, and yet most important, elements of architecture found around the world and
used throughout history. Ironically, the one thing we can't actually put on a pedestal (because it is one) is
the thing that may most deserve it.
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Taranga Jain Temple,Kheralu,Gujrath showing Plinth and super structure
Although many Jaina temples followed the mainstream style of Hindu temples initially with 1 main deity
in the inner sanctum garbhagriha + mandapa, from the medieval period onwards, the Jains gradually
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developed their original “Four faced open form” in the temple design. This is the original style of Jain
temple construction and majority of Jain temples in India consists of these core building elements:
PARTS OF A JAIN TEMPLE
The majority of Jain temples in India consist of a few core building elements. Lets understand their
function and symbolism. Starting from the outer to the inner –
1. ASPRĀKĀRA – HIGH BOUNDARY WALL
Almost without exception, Jain temples are enclosed by free-standing detached compound walls,
encircling the entire sacred temple area.
The symbolism is for the devotee entering to be leave his ordinary concerns of the householder life before
entering the holy ground.
2. JAGATĪ OR VEDĪ – PLATFORM
Although may be varied in relative proportions and forms, all Jain temples are built on a platform or
terrace that physically raises the temple above the surrounding land and creates a distinct sacred area.On
this pronounced plinth, the temple is protected and appears larger and more monumental. The platforms
are often much wider than the actual temple structures and thus provide space for the ritual ambulation –
pradakṣiṇā – of the building to take place on the sacred level. This spaciousness also allows further
shrines, surrounding the temple building, to be at the same level.
The symbolism is related to the idea of the difficulties –durlābha – in reaching sacred places. By
extension it also suggests the long journey to the remote goal of enlightenment.
3. ARDHAMANDAPA – FRONT PORCH
This is the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to shrines and maṇḍapas. At the main
gateway, a worshiper bends down and touches the threshold before crossing it. The gateway greets the
worshiper with a host of sculpted secular figures on the outer walls; representing the worldly concerns of
man. Usually the gateway to a temple will be a massive and magnificent construction. When we stand in
front our feeling of insignificance helps to break our ego.
The Symbolism is that this marks another transition from the outer world to the inner world of the temple.
Porches are very small, simple halls that provide access to.
4. MANDAPA – HALL
This is the hall or halls in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the devotees. The halls can have
side walls and be closed or may simply have pillars, which leave the sides open. Temple halls create an
approach to the shrine and house more religious statues and ritual equipment. Halls are used for rituals,
the recitation of sacred texts, meditation and for larger gatherings that involve singing hymns etc. Here,
often the worshiper will come across mythological themes, carved on the inner walls, to attune his attitude
towards higher ideals.
The symbolism here is that the devotee must prepare to leave even his concerns for the temple and fellow
devottees and prepare to enter the inner sanctum.
5. ANTARĀLA – INTERMEDIATE CHAMBER
Some temples have this additional element. This small vestibule is a space between the main sanctuary
and its hall, in which worshippers can stand and gaze at the idol or follow rituals conducted within the
shrine. As the worshiper progresses towards the inner sanctum, the sculptural details and decorations
become simpler.
The symbolism is again to help the worshiper to put aside distractions and try focusing their attention on
the sanctum.
6. PRADAKSHINA PATHA – CIRCUMAMBULATION PASSAGEWAY
It consists of enclosed corridor carried around the outside of garbhagriha. The devotees walk around the
deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess.
The symbolism here is that this represents an encircling of the universe itself.
7. SHIKHARA – TOWER or SPIRE
The upper part of the Garbh griha is called as the Sikhara; the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple,
Vastu Shastra says that the design of the Shikhara over the Garbhagrahamm attracts energies from the
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cosmos from the cosmos, much like an aerial or even like our nose attracts pranavayu (oxygen) from air.
The symbolism here that it represents the axis of the world through Mount Meru.
8. GAMBHARA – INNER SANCTUM
The main part of Jain temple is called “Gambhara” (Garbha Graha) which is the nucleus and the
innermost chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the main deity (mulnayak) is placed.
This is the focal point of the building and beside a statue of a sacred figure it may house abstract religious
element, such as the eight auspicious symbols, the siddhacakra, the cosmic person, yantras and sacred
syllables or mantras. The shrine or garbha-griha (womb space) is usually devoid of any ornamentation to
avoid distraction and lead the worshiper further to tranquility.
The Symbolism here is in the name – garbha = womb, graha = home; representing the final journey of the
soul to its real self.
Ideology of Design: According to the Jaina ethics, a man’s life is asummation of countless individual
lifespans bound up in the cycle of rebirth. One can from achieve enlightenment thorough pure deeds,
thoughts and dedication. Thus, in this world the temple is the symbol of enlightenment: it is the place
where we can be closer to our soul and through rituals and ceremonies men can discover the divine
knowledge.
The walk to the inner sanctum by the devotee indicates that he has to leave the grand external world
outside and direct our minds inward, light up the lamp of knowledge there and by seeing the Jina we are
to behold our Atma within the sanctum sanctorum of our hearts.Thus the ideology behind the designing of
Jain temples is to link man with himself. It is a depiction of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the
microcosm (the inner space) and has developed over thousands of years; the elements may vary in
number and relative proportions in various temples,but all Jain temples are built on a platform.
The Plinth: Referred to as jagatī or vedī ,it physically raises the temple above the surrounding land and
creates a distinct sacred area. And raises the temples above the ground to create a higher, sacred area that
is qualitatively different from the lower profane area surrounding it.
The column-beam-corbel method of construction was the main structural principle governing the
construction of every Hindu and later Jain temples. The principles of equilibrium of forces in action by
means of arch, vaults and other forms of functional engineering rules never really played a part in the
evolution of Hindu temple. Its doesn’t mean that architects of Hindu temples were ignorant about these
techniques, rather it is their conformance to tradition and strict adherence to precedents, reflecting a
certain firmness.
Worshippers take off their shoes before climbing up to the sacred temple area. This ascent, however short,
is symbolically related to the idea of the difficulties – durlābha – in reaching sacred places. By extension
it also suggests the long journey to the remote goal of enlightenment. On this pronounced plinth, the
temple is protected and appears larger and more monumental. The platforms are often much wider than
the actual temple structures and thus provide space for the ritual ambulation – pradakṣiṇā – of the
building to take place on the sacred level. This spaciousness also allows further shrines, surrounding the
temple building, to be at the same level.
This feature became particularly evolved in the Jain temple architecture of north-western India during the
medieval age. The reason could have been to help distribute the weight of the structure above such as the
columns which in turn support the roof- all of it pressing down in the plinth; which then is the most
important part and this was realized by the later Jain architects who moved from simple to structural
complexity.4
Lines of subsidiary shrines were interconnected to create protective walls surrounding the outer edge of
the terraces. This helped to physically protect the temple structures and shield them from outside view.
Even rock-cut cave temples have platforms, at least at the front entrance.
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The terraces are frequently very high, up to three or four metres tall. In many cases the platforms are tall
enough to allow separate apartments or lower image-chambers to be created inside.
Uses of Vedi
The concept of a plinth is pretty basic: create a base or platform, then put whatever you're building on top
of it. When we talk about plinths in Jain temples, there are three main uses.
1. The base for a pedestal. This type of plinth is not so much a matter of architecture as it is a matter of art
(or at least the display of art). Most pedestals have a wide base that supports them and whatever they're
holding; that's the plinth.
Incidentally, the bottom part of a piece of furniture that actually touches the floor is sometimes called a
plinth as well. That would make the chair a glorified pedestal, and the one sitting in it a work of art.
2. The base for a column. All three Classical orders of columns (including Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian)
are traditionally placed on top of plinths. However, there use is not limited to Classical or even Western
architecture. Columns and similar support structures in Asia, Africa, and the Americas often contained a
plinth or plinth-like base.
3. The bases for much larger structures. In fact, many houses and other buildings are built on very large
plinths that serve as the bottom-most structure supporting that edifice.
Diagrammatic example of the Plinth showing the Osiyan Temple of Rajasthan(Below pictures)
Part of the plinth seen in this pic of the Osiyan temple. Above and Below
194
195
Osiyan Jain Temple,Jodhpur, Rajasthan.CEPT University,Temple-Overall Plans, Plan At Plinth Level,
Plan Above Parapet, Harihara Temple – 3
196
Temple structure showing the plinth positioning (Encyclopedia Britannica)
197
The Chaturmukha Jain Temple of Ranakpur as an example No 2:
The plinth of this temple supports 1444 marble pillars, twenty-nine halls, 80 domes and 426 columns The
most outstanding feature of this temple is its infinite number of pillars. This temple can be called a
treasure house of pillars or a city of pillars. In whichever direction one might turn one's eyes meet pillars
and pillars big, small, broad, narrow, ornate or plain. But the ingenious designer has arranged them in
such a manner that none of them obstructs the view of the pilgrim wishing to have a Darshana' (glimpse)
of God. From any corner of the temple one can easily view the Lord's image. These innumerable pillars
have given rise to the popular belief that there are about 1444 pillars in the temple.In the North of this
temple, there is a Rayan tree (Mimusos laxandra) and the foot prints of Bhagavan Rishabhadev on a slab
of marble. They remind us of the life and preaching of Bhagavan Risabhadev and of Shatrunjaya, the
foremost among the places of Jain pilgrimage. The architecture and stone carvings of the temple are based
on the Ancient Mirpur Jain Temple at Mirpur in Rajasthan. The temple is a grand white marble structure
spread over 48,000 square feet (4,500 m2)
On one hand the temple has been made artistic with it's two upper storeys, on the other the designer has
shown foresight in constructing some nine cellars in which the sacred images could be safely preserved in
the event or a crisis. It is believed that there are many Jain images in these cellars. These cellars must be
an additional streng and support to the entire structure and must have sustained it against the onslaught of
time and the elements The Jain temples of Mount Abu are famous for the carvings, but the Ranakpur
temple also is second to none in its delicate carvings. What attracts one most is its complexity and vast
expanse of its structure. There is a popular saying among the people: The canings of Abu and the
architecture of Ranakpur are unique". The eroding sweep of time and nature and wanton and mindless
destruction by foreign invaders did much damage to this holy shrine. For a long time it wore a deserted
look as pilgrims didn't find it safe to go to this secluded place infested with wild animals and dacoits.
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Plinth of various temples a) Straight b) Conical c) Cascading
REFERENCES
1.Grids in Design and CAD Mark D. Gross University of Colorado at Boulder
https://depts.washington.edu/dmgftp/publications/pdfs/acadia_91_mdg.pdf
2. Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples Author(s): Michael W. Meister
Source: Artibus Asiae, Vol. 44, No. 4, (1983), pp. 266-296
3. Indian Architecture, Brown, Percy: Bombay, 2nd Edn.
4. Chakravarti , Glassenapp, H.V. : Doctrine of Karman in Jaina Philosophy, Bombay, 1942 .
As mentioned in Building Science of Indian Temple Architecture, Shweta Vardia, Master’s Thesis,
Erasmus Mundus Programme, ADVANCED MASTERS IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF MONUMENTS
AND HISTORICAL CONSTRUCTIONS Researchgate July 2008
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CHAPTER XII
Sanctum sanctorum” or Garbagriha
Garbhagriha is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctuary of a Hindu and Jain
temples where resides the murti (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the temple. The room has a
single entrance, normally facing east to be accessed by the rising sun, and no windows. It is
normally square, and at least approximately a cube, with the representation of the temple's deity
placed in the centre, so that it can be seen by worshippers outside. Relative to the size of the
temple, and especially the large tower arising over it, it is a rather small room, and there is no
view from below up into the shikhara or tower, which is treated as completely solid, although in
fact for structural reasons it very often includes a hollow space.
Cosmology: For Jains: Garbhagṛha refers to a type of gṛha located in the vyantara cities of
Jambūdvīpa, according to Jain cosmological texts, such as the Tiloyapannatti.
The vyantaras represent a class of Gods (devas) comprising eight groups of deities that wander
about the three worlds (adhaloka, madhyaloka and ūrdhvaloka). Jambūdvīpa sits at the centre
of madhyaloka (‘middle world’) is the most important of all continents and it is here where
human beings reside.
200
The Latin word sanctum is the neuter form of the adjective "holy", and sanctorum its genitive
plural. Thus the term sanctum sanctorum literally means "the holy [place/thing] of the holy
[places/things]", replicating in Latin the Hebrew construction for the superlative, with the
intended meaning "the most holy [place/thing]". The Latin phrase sanctum sanctorum has
wrongly been considered the translation of the Hebrew term Qṓḏeš HaQŏḏāšîm (Holy of Holies)
which generally refers in Latin texts to the holiest place of the Tabernacle of the Israelites and
later the Temples in Jerusalem, but also has some derivative use in application to imitations of
the Tabernacle in church architecture.
The correct translation is the plural form sancta sanctorum, arguably as a synecdoche, used also
to refer to the holy relics contained in the sanctuary. The Vulgate translation of the Bible uses
sancta sanctorum for the Holy of Holies.[1] Hence the derivative usage to denote the Sancta
Sanctorum chapel in the complex of the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, Rome.
In Hinduism, a temple's innermost part where the cult image (Murti) of the deity is kept forms
the Garbha griha, also referred to as a sanctum sanctorum.
The Enclosed House: The garbhagriha in a Jain temple architecture (a shrine inside a temple
complex where the main deity is installed in a separate building by itself inside the complex) has
also been compared to a "sanctum sanctorum" in texts on temple architecture, though the
Sanskrit term actually means "enclosed house" or "the deep interior of the house". However,
some Indian English authors seem to have translated the Sanskrit term literally as "womb house".
sanctum sanctorum, Garbhagriha Although the term is often associated with Hindu temples, it
is also found in Jain and Buddhist temples. Jain temple architecture is generally close to Hindu
temple architecture, and in ancient times Buddhist architecture. Normally the same builders and
carvers worked for all religions, and regional and period styles are generally similar. For over
1,000 years the basic layout of a Hindu or most Jain temples has consisted of a small garbhagriha
or sanctuary for the main murti or cult images, over which the high superstructure rises, then one
or more larger mandapa halls.
201
Entrance: The Garbagriha has a single entrance, normally facing east to be accessed by the
rising sun, and no windows. It is normally square, and at least approximately a cube, with the
representation of the temple's deity placed in the centre, so that it can be seen by worshippers
outside. Relative to the size of the temple, and especially the large tower arising over it, it is a
rather small room, and there is no view from below up into the shikhara or tower, which is
treated as completely solid, although in fact for structural reasons it very often includes a hollow
space.
In the great majority of temples with a tower superstructure, a shikhara (in the north)
or vimana (in the south), this chamber is placed directly underneath it, and the two of them form
the main vertical axis of the temple. These together may be understood to represent the axis of
the world through Mount Meru. The garbha griham is usually also on the main horizontal axis of
the temple which generally is an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-axis,
the garbha gṛha is generally at their intersection.
Generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber, intentionally created thus to
focus the devotee's mind on the tangible form of the divine within it. Entrance to the Hindu
garbhagrha is very often restricted to priests who perform the services there, and in temples in
active worship (as opposed to historic monuments) normally to Hindus at the least. In Jain
temples all suitably bathed and purified Jains are allowed inside. In the Dravida style, the
garbhagriha took the form of a miniature vimana with other features exclusive to southern Indian
temple architecture such as the inner wall together with the outer wall creating
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a pradakshina around the garbhagriha. The entrance is highly decorated. The inner garbhagriha
or shrine became a separate structure, more elaborately adorned over time.
The garbhagriha is normally square and sits on a plinth, its location calculated to be a point of
total equilibrium and harmony as it is representative of a microcosm of the Universe. In the
centre is placed the image of the deity.
In some early temples it is not quite square, and in some later ones may be rectangular where
more than one deity is worshipped and has an image there.There are a very few examples of
larger variance; the chamber at Gudimallam is both semi-circular at the rear, and set below the
main floor level of the temple. The famous 7th-century Durga temple, Aihole has a
rounded apse at the garbagriha end, which is echoed in the shape of the chamber.
Torana, also referred to as vandanamalikas, is a free-standing ornamental or arched gateway
for ceremonial purposes seen in the Jain architecture as well as Buddhist and Jain architecture of
the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and parts of East AsiaChinese paifang gateways,
Japanese torii gateways, Korean Hongsalmun gateways, and Thai Sao Ching Chawere derived
from the Indian torana.
Torana of Sanchi Stupa. The stupa dates to the period of the Mauryan Empire (3rd century BC),
but the torana itself dates to the Satavahana period, in the 1st century CE. The site is now
a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Indologist art historian and archaeologist Percy Brown has traced the origin of torana from
the grama-dvara (village-gateways) of the vedic era (1500 BCE – 500 BCE) village which later
developed as a popular adornment for cities, places. sacred shrines. According to the vedic text,
the Arthasastra, the gateways of different forms were to adorn the entrance to a city or a palace.
A granite stone fragment of an arch discovered by K. P. Jayaswal from Kumhrar, Pataliputra has
been analysed as a pre Mauryan Nanda period keystone fragment of a trefoil arch of gateway
with mason's marks of three archaic Brahmi letters inscribed on it which probably decorated a
torana. The wedge shaped stone with indentation has mauryan polish on two sides and was
suspended vertically.
In Mauryan Empire, the archaeological evidence shows the Torana of Sanchi stupa dates back to
3rd century BCE. The Sanchi torana and architecture is imitation of timber and brick
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construction in stone, which was popular feature in Indian architecture before 3rd century
BCE.[11][12][13]
In Kalinga architecture we can see the Toran in many temples built from the 7th to 12th
centuries. Jagannath Temple, Puri, Rajarani Temple and Mukteswar Temple are the few example
of Kalinga architecture having torana.
In Gujarat, several Toranas built during reign of Chaulukya dynasty (10th-12th century). They
were mostly associated with temples.
Toran from Gujarat, 20th Century, plain cotton weave with embroidery and mirror
work, Honolulu Museum of Art. The hanging pieces are stylized mango leaves. Could be tied
over a door as dvara-torana or hanged on a wall as bhitti-torana.
There are many different types of toranas, such as, patra-torana (on the scrolls or gateway
adornment made of leaves), puspa-torana (made of flowers), ratna-torana (made of precious
stones), stambha-torana (made on pillars), citra-torana (made of paintings), bhitti-torana
(adornment made on walls, such as over the wall recess or false portals and windows, could even
be a specific type of wall painting) and dvara-toranas (appended adornment over a gateway (e.g.
toran) or an adorned gateways itself). These are mentioned in the medieval Indian architectural
treatises.
Hindola Torana. 9th century Torana in Madhya Pradesh, India.
Socio
religious
significance:
Torana is
a
sacred
or
honorific
gateway
in Buddhist and Hindu architecture. Its typical form is a projecting cross-piece resting on two
uprights or posts. It is made of wood or stone, and the cross-piece is generally of three bars
placed one on the top of the other; both cross-piece and posts are usually sculpted.
Toranas are associated with Buddhist stupas like the Great Stupa in Sanchi, as well as with Jain
and Hindu structures, and also with several secular structures. Symbolic toranas can also be
made of flowers and even leaves and hung over the doors and at entrances, particularly in
Western and Southern India. They are believed to bring good fortune and signify auspicious and
festive occasions. They can also serve didactic and narrative purposes or be erected to mark the
victory of a king.
During Vesak festival of Sri Lanka it is a tradition to erect electrically illuminated colorful Vesak
toranas in public places. These decorations are temporary installations which remain in public
display for couple of weeks starting from the day of Vesak.
Toranas in India
204
Torana at the Jain tmple of Nagpur
Rear side of North Torana of Stupa-1 at Sanchi Hill, 3rd century BCE to 1st century
BCE, India.
205
1.
2.
3.
4.
Jain Torana at Lodhruva Jain temple, rebuit in 1615 CE after repeated destruction by
islamicinvaders Mahmud of Ghazni (1025 CE) and Muhammad Ghori (1178 CE), near Jaisalmer, India.
A photo of Torana taken in 1890 of 10th century Jagannath Temple, Puri, India.
Torana of the 10th century Muktesvara deula, India.
Hindu Torana from the 12th century Kakatiya dynasty, at Warangal Fort, India.
Garbhagṛha, “sanctum” is the nucleus of the temple. It is the place where the main deity of
the temple is installed. The Canons prescribe that the shape of the garbhagṛha may be (on plan):
1. caturaśra (square),
2. āyata (rectangular),
3. vṛtta (cicular),
4. āyatavṛtta (elliptical)
5. or vṛttāyata (ovoid).
The square and circular garbhagṛhas are constructed for the installation of the deities
in sthāṇaka (standing) or āsīna (seated) postures. While in the other varieties, deities
in śayana (reclining) posture or group of deities standing or sitting in a row are to be installed.
Mānasāra mentions that if the plan of the garbhagṛha is square or circular, it is
called puruṣa (Male) and if it is rectangular it is called vanitā (Female). Male deities can be
installed in a square, circular or rectangular garbhagṛha, while the female deity should always be
installed in a rectangular garbhagṛha.
206
A manastambha (Sanskrit for 'column of honor') is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain
temples or large Jain statues. In North India, they are topped by four Tirthankara images. According
to the Digambara Jain texts like Adi Purana and Tiloyapannati, a huge manastambha stands in front
of the samavasarana (divine preaching hall) of the tirthankaras, which causes someone entering
a samavasarana to shed their pride.A monolithic manastambha is a standard feature in the Jain
temples of Moodabidri. They include a statue of Brahmadeva on the top as a guardian yaksha.
Garbhagṛha ( “womb-house”).—When combined the two words [garbha (womb)
and gṛha (accommodation)] become garbhagṛha (womb-house). It denotes the sanctum
sanctorum, or shrine of a sacred space, especially that of a Hindu temples. The sanctum
sanctorum is the most central and fundamental component of any sacred architecture.
What garbha (womb) is to the human body gṛha (accommodation) and guhā (cave) are to the
world of habitation. What gṛha is to the world of habitation garbhagṛha is to the sacred
207
architecture. In garbha resides the foetus, the genesis of a being. In gṛha, resides the gṛhastha,
the family man—the microcosm, a unit, of which the multiples make a society, and which is
opposed to the macrocosmic sphere of civilization. In the microcosmic sphere of
the garbhagṛha, the God resides, who is referred to as the macrocosm in religions, the
omnipresent, all-pervading entity.
Chandraprabhu Jain Temple
Chandraprabhu Temple
Chandraprabhu Jain Temple is inside the Jaisalmer Fort & was made in the year 1509 AD and is
dedicated to the 8th (eighth) Jain tirthankara Chandraprabhu. The garbhagriha is adorned with carved idol
of Chandraprabhu is made of pure marble, and there are innumerable sculptures of apsaras (nymphs),
elephants and other characters from Jain mythology carved in the pillars of the temple.The Rajput
architecture of this temple can be seen in its elaborately carved mandapa and pillars & the dome from the
inside of this temple is finely carved with delicate sculptures.
Garbhagṛha refers to the “sanctum sanctorum”, a common concept found in the ancient
Indian “science of architecture” (vāstuvidyā).—Garbhagṛha is the sanctum sanctorum, where the
presiding deity is installed.
208
Garbhagṛha Mūlasthāna sanctum-sanctorum of the Hindu Temple.—Each temple has
a mūlasthāna or garbhagṛha (sanctum-sanctorum) and many subsidiary sanctums. The temples
here selected for the study of the mūla beras are temples specially dedicated to Śiva, Viṣṇu,
Subrahmaṇya, and Pārvatī. In these garbhagṛhas, there are icons of gods and goddesses, namely,
Śiva and His manifestations like Naṭarāja; Pārvatī and the Śakti avatāras; Viṣṇu and His other
forms and incarnations; Brahmā, Lakṣmī, Sarasvatī, Subrahmaṇya, Valli, Deivāṇai (also known
as Deviyāni or Devasena), and Gaṇapati.
Vastushastra refers to the ancient Indian science (shastra) of architecture (vastu), dealing with
topics such architecture, sculpture, town-building, fort building and various other constructions.
Vastu also deals with the philosophy of the architectural relation with the cosmic universe.
Shilpashastra (iconography)
In Shaivism (Shaiva philosophy)
Shaiva represents a tradition of Hinduism worshiping Shiva as the supreme being. Closely
related to Shaktism, Shaiva literature includes a range of scriptures, including Tantras, while the
root of this tradition may be traced back to the ancient VedasIt is only the physical structure. It
is transformed into sannidhi after the invoking of the Lord. This explains why, in the Śaiva
Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a space where the deity is invited to reside in
the garbhagṛha. The temple’s spiritual energy can be sustained only if the
deity’s sāniddhya remains unsullied. Therefore the most important dharma of the Ādiśaiva priest
is to maintain the “presence” and sanctity of the deity by offering regular pūjā as prescribed.
Only then can the temple be a storehouse of energy for the public. Only then can the devotees
find their God in the sanctum. This he does through pūjā.
Location: It is the location in the temple where the primary form of a deity resides) is only the
physical structure. It is transformed into sannidhi (Sanctum Sanctorum) after the invoking of the
Lord. This explains why, in the Śaiva Siddhānta tradition, the temple is conceived as a space
where the deity is a special guest invited to reside in the garbhagṛha .
Girbhagriha in Tamil: In Tamil language Girbha griha is called karuvarai meaning the interior
of the sanctumnsanctorum. It is the iner- most of the sanctum and focus of the temple, where the
image of the primary deity resides. The word karuarai means "womb chamber". The word' karu'
means foetus and arai means a room. Only the priests are allowed to enter this innermost
chamber.
Hindu temple Garbhagriha
209
In some of the temples, it is strictly forbidden to enter this area. In other temples, one can enter
this area up to a certain extent, but is not allowed to go near or touch the idols. Most of the
temples in India follow this. The third category is where one can enter this area and even touch
the idols this is possible in Hindu temples but not in Jain temples. Examples are Hindu temple
like vittala temple in pandharpur.
Garbagriha- Nirmaljhar temple
Sanctum in Hindu tempeles: Generally the garbhagrihas are square in shape. Some
garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also can be seen. Garbhagriha
used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only one worshipper at a time, though the
shrine was meant for public and the basic shrine, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This
type of single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple architecture, which are
mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush. The temple should
consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to be installed and housed.
The structural involvements nearby the temple are also essential for the principal worship and
rituals. Texts like Sri Prasna describes that the sanctum is the body of the divinity and the icon is
its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a stone structure, square in shape and simply plain with some
projected slabs in the wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The
sanctum should be provided with windows for air and light, which eventually help in
preservation of the icon. In olden days, the wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the
sanctum. The sanctum represented then by an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A
copper vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be
placed on a seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of the
divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum was usually built in stone, but constructions in
brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka mentions that while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick
210
one is the next best. The wooden sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be
considered the worst '. 85 The sanctum of the temple must be constructed first. Before
construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as 'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or
Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual involves letting into the earth a ceremonial
copper pot containing nine precious stones, several metals and minerals, herbs and soil (purified
earth by ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the womb is said
to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab (Adhara-sila) is placed over the
spot.
The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the icon symbolizes the soul. This is the
significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'womb-house' 8 . Texts like Silparatna, TantraSamuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give an elaborate account of this ritual. When the
arrangement of the garbhagriha is more than one in some temples, they are called as a
Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples and so on. In a few temples, projecting slabs and niches are
found in the walls of garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla temple has projecting slabs and in
Mahadeva Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional aspects of these are for providing space
for keeping certain objects used for worship. These niches and projected slabs are provided
according to their convenience and orientation of the temple entrance e.g. projected slabs in
Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in the western wall of the sanctum (rear wall), while
a recessed niche was provided in the Mahadeva Temple at Curdi in the southern wall of the
sanctum. Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the rear wall of sanctum touching
the image kept at the centre. The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height.
The centre of gravity of such images falls backwards 86 away from the centre because the weight
of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front portion of the image. Though
images are fixed on pithas by inserting projecting tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their
fall cannot be ruled out. Under these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level
from the rear wall (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at Kurdi in
Raichur district of Karnataka). Most of the temples in Goa have the main deity at the centre of
the sanctum and placed over pranala.
Some Jain garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the principle 84 axis, also can be seen.
Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only one worshipper at a
time, though the shrine was meant for public and the basic shrine, sanctum alone constituted the
real temple. This type of single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple
architecture, which are mainly dedicated to the main Thirthankar. The temple should consist of a
sanctum in which the icon is to be installed and housed. The structural involvements nearby the
temple are also essential for the principal worship and rituals. Hindu Texts like Sri Prasna
describes that the sanctum is the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a
stone structure, square in shape and simply plain with some projected slabs in the wall or niches.
There should not be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The sanctum should be provided with
windows for air and light, which eventually help in preservation of the icon. In olden days, the
wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the sanctum. The sanctum represented then by
an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A copper vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire
place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be placed on a seat in the dark room to prevent
ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of the divine presence in the sanctum. The sanctum
was usually built in stone, but constructions in brick are not rare 6 . Vishnu Tilaka mentions that
211
while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next best. The wooden sanctum however
is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be considered the worst '. 85 The sanctum of the temple
must be constructed first. Before construction of the sanctum a significant ceremony known as
'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual involves letting
into the earth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine precious stones, several metals and
minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The
building that contains the womb is said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone
slab (Adhara-sila) is placed over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the
icon symbolizes the soul. This is the significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'wombhouse' 8 . Texts like Silparatna, Tantra-Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give an
elaborate account of this ritual. When the arrangement of the garbhagriha is more than one in
some temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples and so on. In a few
temples, projecting slabs and niches are found in the walls of garbhagrihas. (e.g. Tambdi Surla
temple has projecting slabs and in Mahadeva Temple at Curdi have niches). The functional
aspects of these are for providing space for keeping certain objects used for worship. These
niches and projected slabs are provided according to their convenience and orientation of the
temple entrance e.g. projected slabs in Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were fixed in the western
wall of the sanctum (rear wall), while a recessed niche was provided in the Mahadeva Temple at
Curdi in the southern wall of the sanctum.
Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the rear wall of sanctum touching the
image kept at the centre. The images of deities in standing posture are of considerable height.
The centre of gravity of such images falls backwards 86 away from the centre because the weight
of the rear portion of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front portion of the image. Though
images are fixed on pithas by inserting projecting tenon into the sockets, the possibility of their
fall cannot be ruled out. Under these circumstances, the images need support at a higher level
from the rear wall (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at Kurdi in
Raichur district of Karnataka) 11)Most of the temples in Goa have the main deity at the centre of
the sanctum and placed over pranala. Pradakshinipatha: All around the sanctum a passage is kept
often narrow, permitting the devotees to pass round the sanctum in the customary act of
devotion. This circumambulatory path (Pradakshinirpath or hhrama) subsequently became a
structural involvement as the temple grew in size; it was more open naturally, as it was in the
early phase. The temple, which has the circumbulatory passage, is known as Sandhara temple,
e.g. Jain temple at Kudne and the temples of Ponda and Bardez talukas have this feature. The
temple, which doesn't have pradakshinapatha is known as Niradhara temple e.g. Mahadeva
temples of Curdi and Tambdi Surla, Saptakoteswar temple at Opa, Agasthipur temple etc.". 87
Sikhara Sikhara or superstructureis the top member of a shrine. A flat roof stone slab that covers
the sanctum is also called as Kapota. Flat roof (Kapota) of the sanctum on which the tower rests
and rises is over-laid by a single stone slab, known in the texts as 'Brahma randra sila' (the
stone). This serves as the base (adhisthana) for the superstructure that rises above the sanctum
known as Vimana or Sikhara', which forms the important part of the temple.
212
CHAPTER
MANDAPA or PORTICO
Photographer: Unknown
Medium: Photographic print-Date: 1895
Rare Photograph of the portico of the great Jain temple, on the LEFT.Deogarh
taken by an unknown photographer in the 1890s. In the fort area at Deogarh there is a
group of Jain temples dating from the 9th and 10th Centuries. Of these, temple 12 is in the
best state of preservation. It was built in 862 in the Pratihara style and is richly decorated
with sculptures depicting Jina figures, Jain yakshis and amorous couples. This photograph
shows the temple's porch in a semi-ruinous condition. The columns are elaborately carved
with niches containing Jain tirthankharas and figures of ganas decorate the brackets. Some
of the columns have inscriptions on their shaft.
Pic on RIGHT- the mandapa of the jain temple at Ramdaspeth Nagpur a relatively
new temple
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Form, Arrangement and design: Through out the history of Temple Architecture of the Hindu
Temples, and later percolated to the Jain- proportion dominated as a tool, which determined the
monuments both spatial arrangements as well as form. Proportion and measurements were the
guiding tools for Indian temple construction starting from the 5th century onwards and it
continuous even now. The ancient texts, therefore, insist on a high degree of precision in their
measurements. The standard text Mayamata mentions. Only if the temple is constructed correctly
according to a mathematical system can it be expected to function in harmony with the universe.
Only if the measurement of the temple is in every way perfect, there will be perfection in the
universe as well.
Mandapa (also spelled mantapa or mandapam) in Indian architecture, is a pillared hall
or pavilion for public rituals. Mandapa, a Sanskrit term, means a pillared outdoor hall or a
pavilion for public rituals in Indian architecture. The architecture of mandapa in Southeast
Asia also shares similarities to that in India, for instance mandapas in Cambodia and Vietnam.
These had a rectangular floor plan, were the site of ritual ceremonies, and were located to the
front of an image shrine called garbha griha or garbha grha. However, in Sukhothai
a mandapa referred to a small building enshrining a Buddha image or sometimes multiple
images. Its role was parallel to an image shrine (garbha griha) of Hindu and Buddhist
architecture in India and Sri Lanka. A Sukhothai mandapa or mondop was often located to the
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back of a vihara which corresponded to a mandapa in India where ceremonies were held. This
paper aims to understand the term mandapa and compares the architecture of mandapas in
India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Sukhothai, Thailand. Sukhothai mondops represented a
pavilion where the Buddha resided, and its function was equivalent to a gandakuti, a perfumed
chamber, or a karerikuti where the Buddha dwelled in Jetavana monastery, India. The vihara to
its front corresponded to a reception area. Mondop and its attached vihara of Sukhothai were
also like a dhammasala or dhammamandapa in Pagan, Myanmar. The comparison
of mandapas in India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand will provide indigenous architectural
characteristics as well as links to the history, culture, and religion of the people.Mandapas are
described as "open" or "closed" depending on whether they have walls. In temples, one or more
mandapas very often lie between the sanctuary and the temple entrance, on the same axis. In a
large temple other mandapas may be placed to the sides, or detached within the temple
compound.1
In Maṇḍapa-line temples, Contributed by Julia A. B. Hegewald, says that the most common
type of Jain temple construction in India is the maṇḍapa-line temple, raised by followers of the
image-worshipping sects. Built by both the principal Jain sects of Digambaras and Śvetāmbaras,
these temples are typical of all periods and can be found in all regions of the subcontinent.
In maṇḍapa-line temples the three core building elements – porches, halls and shrines – that form
most Jain temples in India are arranged more or less in one long line. This line runs from the
entrance to the principal image-chamber at the far end of the building.
While other Jain temple types also combine these three basic architectural elements, they do this
in a distinct and not primarily linear fashion. Although other religions in India also use these
elements in their temples, the architecture of Jain temples represents distinctive Jain
principles and beliefs.
Worshippers enter the temple by ascending the platform on which it sits and going through the
porch at the front, then progressing though one or several temple halls to the image-chamber,
which is the sacred heart of the building. This may symbolise the journey to enlightenment that
is the ultimate goal of Jainism, an aim that is also represented in other aspects of the temple.
Maṇḍapa-line temples are frequently composed of many examples of these three elements,
which were often added to the original structure over time. How many entrance porches, halls
and shrines a maṇḍapa-line temple has depends on its size, its fame and particular importance, its
age and the present or past wealth of the religious community supporting it.
There are often numerous shrines and images as well as the main temple icon, which is housed in
the image-chamber. The multiplicity of building elements that make up the temple and the
smaller, simpler shrines outside the main structure combine to form an often elaborate temple
complex. This mirrors the complex nature of the universe and Jain cosmology, and allows space
for the large number of donated images, and more abstract symbols, venerated in Jain temples.
The mandapis a design item of Indian and Hindu social and cultural context.. A fabric thrown
over 4 beams beomes a mandap. The temple design tgakes inspiration from this structrural
emphasis. Use of a mandap is an ancient custom and is described in texts
like Ramacharitamanas and various Sanskrit texts. A wedding Mandap is a mandap (covered
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structure with pillars) temporarily erected for the purpose of a Hindu or Jain wedding. The main
wedding ceremonies take place under the mandap.
Wedding mandapa
It is traditionally made of wood, although now modern materials are sometimes used. It often
comes as a set that includes pillars supporting a frame, royal chairs for the bride and the groom,
side chairs for parents and a pedestal for the sacred fire.
It is often rented from businesses that specialize in renting items for an Indian wedding. Its use is
common even among overseas Indians.
The bride is often escorted to the mandap by her maternal uncle. Traditionally, the wedding
mandap is decorated using kalashas (pots filed with water), garlands of mango leaves, coconuts,
banana leaves, etc. Modern Mandaps use fabrics, lights, crystals, flowers, Wrought Iron unique
shapes and other materials insuring all religious aspects of a mandap, which include the four
pillars and havan kund (fire box) is now completely modernized
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Mandapa and entrance of the jain temple at Ramdaspeth, Nagpur,India
The Shastra behind Wedding Mandap design
The Hindu religion may hold a lot of rituals and traditions, but none of them come without any
meaning. The same goes for the elements of a Hindu wedding.
The mandap is the ‘sanctum sanctorum of hindu wedding rituals. It is the central element in
wedding decorations. A great mandap design is not just about pleasing aesthetics but also about
the meaning behind putting up a canopy with four pillars that marks the auspiciousness of a
fruitful married life. Only a select number of people are allowed in the mandap under its canopy,
namely, the bride, groom, families of the bride and groom, and the officiating priest who will be
summoning the rituals.
There is an interesting story behind the whole concept of a wedding in a mandap. Back in the
time, when the open ground were not hygienic for holy rituals, weddings happened within the
four walls of their homes with the attendance of close family members. This is how mandaps
came into being. With times, a lot has changed, but the underlying reasoning behind certain
rituals haven’t. While the scenario of a wedding may be different, the meaning behind it remains
the same. With the mandap having moved out of a traditional home to open grounds, wedding
halls, to even beach sides, Hindu weddings have taken grandeur to another level while keeping in
touch with the roots.
Now, after having some clarity on how the concept of getting married in a mandap came into
being, we are still to know the significance of a mandap in a marriage. It is closely related to the
vedas, and here is the significance of a mandap in a Hindu marriage.
What is a Mandap?
A four poster structure with a canopy in the shape of a dome that marks the sacred area of a
traditional Hindu marriage. While a lot of venues have mandaps already built, the traditional
ones are built with organic materials like wood, bamboo, sugarcane or banana stems with pots
stacked nearby and the color of the canopy being red and yellow, denoting the colours of haldi
and kumkum.
Meaning behind the Mandap design
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All Hindu vedic traditions come with meaningful backings. The same applies to the weddings
decor and rituals.
1. A GRAND STEPPING INTO THE NEXT STAGE OF
LIFE
According to the Hindu vedas, there are four stages of life - Brahmacharya, Grihastha,
Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. The four posters or pillars of a mandap symbolize these four stages of
life. It is in a mandap where the groom enters are a Brahmacharya and exits as a Grihastha,
which means a householder.
2. PRAYERS OFFERED TO THE FIVE ELEMENTS
OF LIFE BEFORE BEGINNING A NEW PHASE
There are five elements of the universe - Earth, Water, Fire, Air and Space. There are decorated
stacks of pots kept near the four pillars that symbolize the first four elements, while the fifth
element of the universe, ‘Space’, is symbolized by the canopy on top, traditionally called
‘Gopuram’.
It is believed that the mandap is the universe under which a new beginning starts, hence the
elements are represented by the architecture of a mandap, making it an ideal place to start one’s
marital life.
3. THANKING THE GIFTS OF NATURE
The colours of a traditional Hindu wedding are usually vermillion red and yellow gold. One can
see the colour combination in all aspects of a Hindu wedding from flower garlands, seating
decor, haldi, kumkum, traditional sarees, etc. Along with that, there are a lot of splashes of green
in the form of leaves used.
4. BALANCING THE MIND, BODY AND SOUL
A metal pot called Kalash is placed in front of the bride and groom which is said to represent the
human body. The kalash is filled with Holy water from the Ganges or any other Holy river. This
denotes the believe that the soul in the human body is pure.
Topped with a coconut that represents the head or mind of the human body, and decorated with
five mango leaves that represent the five senses of the human body, the Kalash is placed on a
plantain leaf covered with paddy or raw rice symbolizing prosperity, fertility and wealth.
This ritual of using a Kalash in a wedding sends across the message of a balance between the
mind, body and soul, that is very necessary in marriages.
5. THE HOLY FIRE - AGNI SAAKSHI
According to the Hindu Vedas, agni or ‘Holy Fire’ stands for purity and spirituality. The ‘Agni’
is invoked and is a crucial part of any auspicious event in the Hindu religion. Respected and
revered since the ancient times, the sacred fire is considered ‘The Witness’ to a wedlock. All the
wedding rituals like the vows, saat pheras, etc., takes place in front of the Agni Kund, by burning
fragrant herbs, ghee, raw rice and millets.
6. FOR A NEW BEGINNING
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The mandap overflows with fruits, flowers, pulses, silks and gold on the day of the wedding. The
bride and groom and all family members are laden with gold and all things opulence, while the
offerings made to the Almighty and the priests are also nothing less than a display of wealth.
This display of wealth coming in along with the blessings of the elders is a reassurance of a good
life to the newly weds. This marks the beginning of an abundant and prosperous life of the newly
married couple.
The revolution of modern mandap decor is a great way to keep the age old tradition alive even in
changing times, but it is imperative for every couple to know the importance of the mandap and
the significant meanings behind every ritual. And now that you know a lot more about your
wedding tradition, go ahead and read up on some of the most beautiful mandap designs that also
cater to all the above significance.
In the Hindu temple the mandapa is a porch-like structure through the (gopuram) (ornate
gateway) and leading to the temple. It is used for religious dancing and music and is part of the
basic temple compound. The prayer hall was generally built in front of the temple's sanctum
sanctorum (garbhagriha). A large temple would have many mandapa.
If a temple has more than one mandapa, each one is allocated for a different function and given a
name to reflect its use. For example, a mandapa dedicated to divine marriage is referred to as
a kalyana mandapa. Often the hall was pillared and the pillars adorned with
intricate carvings. In contemporary terms, it also represents a structure within which a Hindu
Wedding is performed. The bride and groom encircle a holy fire lit by the officiating priest in
the center of mandapa.
When a temple has more than one mandapa, they are given different names.
 Ardhamandapa (Artha Mandapam or Ardh Mandapam) – intermediary space between the
temple exterior and the garba griha (sanctum sanctorum) or the other mandapa of the temple
 Asthana Mandapam – assembly hall
 Kalyana Mandapam – dedicated to ritual marriage celebration of the Lord with Goddess
 Maha Mandapam – (Maha=big) When there are several mandapa in the temple, it is the
biggest and the tallest. It is used for conducting religious discourses. Sometimes, the maha
mandapa is also built along a transversal axis with a transept (bumped-out portions along
this transversal axis). At the exterior, the transept ends by a large window which brings light
and freshness into the temple.
 Nandi Mandapam (or Nandi mandir) – In the Shiva temples, pavilion with a statue of the
sacred bull Nandi, looking at the statue or the lingam of Shiva.
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



Ranga Mandapa or rangamandapa - a larger mandapa, which can be used for dance or
drama, with music
Meghanath Mandapa
Namaskara Mandapa
Open Mandapa
PORCH: In the Hindu temple the mandapa is a porch-like structure through the (gopuram)
(ornate gateway) and leading to the temple. It is used for religious dancing and music and is part
of the basic temple compound The prayer hall was generally built in front of the temple's
sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha). A large temple would have many mandapas.
If a temple has more than one mandapa, each one is allocated for a different function and given a
name to reflect its use. For example, a mandapa dedicated to divine marriage is referred to as a
kalyana mandapa. Often the hall was pillared and the pillars adorned with intricate carvings. In
contemporary terms, it also represents a structure within which a Hindu wedding is performed.
The Bride & Groom encircle a holy fire lit by the officiating priest in the center of the
Mandapam.
Photograph of the second Jaina temple
in front of the fort at Belgaum in
Karnataka, taken by Thomas Biggs in
1855, from 'Architecture in Dharwar and
Mysore'. In northern Karnataka: now the
districts of Belgaum, Bijapur, Bidar,
Raichur, Dharwar and Gulbarga, temple
construction proliferated during the
period of the Chalukyas of Kalyana who
were the chief power in the Deccan from
the 10th to the 12th century. Innovative
builders, their influence continued to
inspire dynasties such the Hoysalas who
took over their territory and were also
avid builders. Jainism always remained
a significant force in this region and the
various dynasties of the Deccan such as
the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas,
Gangas, Kadambas and Rattas also
patronised the Jaina religion. With the
result that there are many Jaina temples
at
numerous
medieval
sites
of
Karnataka. In the Bombay List of 1874,
Henry Cousens wrote, 'Within the fort of
Belgaum there are three old Jaina
temples, built, as indicated by the style,
about the year 1200 A.D.' The temple in
this view consists of a shrine, a closed
hall and an open hall. The shrine of the
temple has walls with plain, horizontal
mouldings and a stepped, pyramidal
roof. The open hall or mandapa has a
low parapet-wall and a pyramidal roof
supported by lathe-turned pillars.
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Hindu Temple mandapa
A Thai Buddhist Mandapa or Mondop, Wat Phra Kaew, Bangkok
Javanese Pendopa- mandala
In Burmese, the term mandat , which has etymological origins in Pali maṇḍapa, is an open
platform or pavilion from which people spray water to passers-by during the Buddhist
festival Thingyan.
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In Indonesian, the mandapa is known as a pendopo . Unusually, Indonesian pendopos are built
mostly for Muslim communities. Many mosques follow the pendopo design, with a layered roof
to resemble Mount Meru.
In Khmer, Mandapa is pronounced to be Mondup , means pavilion. Khmer people often refer it
as a small shrine with high crown-shaped like tower, decorated with exquisite ornaments in
various styles. In Khmer temples during Angkor era, A Mandapa is generally attached to the
central tower of a temple and lied longitudinally to one of each main direction.
In Tamil, this platform is the Aayiram Kaal Mandapam – a distinctly thousand pillared hall close
to the vimana of the Koil which forms a distinct part of the site plan of classical Dravidian
architecture.
In Thai, it is called a mondop . It features often in Thai temple art and architecture, either in the
form of a Hor Trai (a temple library) or as an altar shrine such as the one in Wat Chiang
Man in Chiang Mai.
Mandapa: Its Proportion as a tool in Understanding Indian Temple Architecture Ragima N
Ramachandran AbstractMandapas in Indian temples have been studied with respect to various parameters like its
expression, function, proportion, orientation, chronology etc. Proportions of Mandapas both
spatial and in form is studied and taken as a tool to understand how it influences various other
parameters of mandapa or how its been influenced by others. An analysis of its proportion in
Indian temple architecture has been made especially focusing on Nagara style as mentioned in
ancient texts.
Evolution: Mandapas were added proportionately from 8th Century onwards to temples as an
additional space for performance of various functions with the participation of devotees as well
as a way to communicateion between the temple administration and the folk.
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The temple is dedicated to
Kunthunatha, the 17th Thirthankara
of the Jaina faith. The temple is also
known as Kunthunatha Jaina
Temple. It is one of the main Jain or
Jina temples built during the reign of
the Vijayanagara Empire in Hampi.
The temple is also known by other
names such as ‘The Oil-Woman
Temple’ and the Ganigitti Temple.
Jain temples are normally very
simple in architecture. The Ganagitti
Temple follows the same principle in
terms of simplicity. The temple has
two halls and an inner sanctum. The
two halls are called the antarala
ardha mantapa and maha mantapa
and the inner sanctum is the garbha
griha of the temple. The
superstructure of this temple
in Hampi is made of stone. The
superstructure is built in the form of
a stepped pyramid that has six
diminishing talas of plain horizontal
slabs. A huge mana-stambha or
column stands near the portico of
the temple. An inscription found on
the column states the name of
Iruguppa Daṇḍanāyaka as the
person who constructed the temple
during the reign of Harihara II.
REFERENCES
1. India-Thailand Cultural Interactions pp 53-85| Cited as
Mandapas of India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand, Chotima Chaturawong, Springer
Link,2017
2. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 10, Issue 7, July-2019
2104 ISSN 2229-5518 IJSER © 2019 http://www.ijser.org Ragima N Ramachandran
https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper/Mandapa-Its-Proportion-as-a-tool-in-Understanding-IndianTemple-Architecture.pdf
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CHAPTER
Pillars of Jain Temple
Srishti Dokras, Architect, IDEAS, India &
Dr. Uday Dokras, Phd,Stockholm,SWEDEN
“A building is not just a place to be but a way to be.”-Frank Lloyd Wright
Introduction : One cannot compare modern buildings with historic ones. People who lived 200,
500, or 1000 years ago didn't have the range of materials we have today, or the ability to source
and transport materials over long distances. Nor did they have the scientific understanding of
how materials behave when they're stressed and strained in different ways or subject to different
kinds of environmental shock for years, decades, or centuries.
If you're trying to understand a building, you need to look through the eyes of the people who
built it. What problems were they trying to solve? What materials did they have? What other
building techniques existed at that time that they could copy or develop? Pillars are slender,
vertical columns that can support heavy loads or serve display purposes. They can make
buildings more attractive or exhibit freestanding monuments. Used in the architecture of
ancient India as early as 2700 BC, pillars are commonly still employed today in modern
architecture. In modern architecture, pillars are often internal or covered by a veneer, making
them invisible from the outside.
PILLARS
They can add strength and beauty to a building.
In structural engineering, pillars support heavy loads above them. They often sit under beams
or arches on which walls or ceilings rest. A pillar transmits the weight of structures above it to
other structures below it through compression. As a result, pillars have played a large role in
allowing mankind to build higher structures and taller buildings that do not collapse under their
own weight.
Compressive Support-Structural Elements
Pillars can be circular, rectangular or polygonal. Historically in Egypt and the Middle East,
pillars were circular and formed of one or many pieces of stone. The pillars often included a
slight outward curve down the length to make them appear longer and increase their loadbearing capabilities. Modern pillars, often made of metal or concrete, are usually straight. The
material, length, diameter and construction of a pillar dictates its load-bearing capacity, after
which a state of instability occurs and it will start to buckle.
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Earthquake and Wind Engineering
Pillars are used for the purposes of wind or earthquake engineering. Pillar construction plays
an important role in this arena, and a great deal of research goes into finding earthquakeresistant pillar structures. Earthquake-resistant pillars are designed to resist lateral forces and
repetitively alternating loads during storms or seismic activity. The arrangement of pillars
within a structure is also important in determining the level of seismic activity a building can
withstand.
Decorative Features
Stone pillars were commonly used in classical Greek and Roman architecture for both
structural and decorative purposes. The entrances of impressive buildings featured aweinspiring, lavish columns as signs of power or wealth. Of the five types, or "orders," of pillars,
each had its own style and proportions. Historians and archaeologists now use these unique
styles of columns to date ancient Greek and Roman buildings and to learn about the wealth and
power of the inhabitants.
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER OF THE JAIN TEMPLES
PROJECT FOR STUDIES IN INDIAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE, LALBHAI DALPATBHAI
INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY Prepared under the Monograph Series on Historic Temples undertaken with
the help of Shri Anandji Kalynaji Pedhi and The Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad,
India 1999
225
As M. A. Dhaky in The Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture: v. 2, Pt. 3 (Indira Gandhi National Centre
for the Arts) ssuggests in his work on Western
Indian Jaina Temple,
. . . the Western Indian or Maru-Gurjara Jain Temple spells the perfect expression of the Jinaite
sacred architecture. Jainism all the same did not create a separate architecture; it rather drew
from and always depended on the very vital source, Hindu architecture. Though its constituent
elements, came from Brahmanical vastu-art, it is largely in the organization and manipulation
just as in application, and we may add in further and fuller development of some of these
elements that the Jaina sacred building remains distinguished from its Brahmanical counterpart
...
These medieval Jaina Temples broadly followed the regional and period styles of the
Brahmanical sacred buildings. The impact of Jainism and the influence of its followers in
Western India had begun to be felt more decidedly from the seventh century . . . but it is in the
medieval epoch particularly between the eleventh and thirteenth century, that Jainism reached
the zenith of its power and importance . . . Dhaky further describes the important features of a
Western Indian Jain Temple at Jagati, Mulaprasada, (containing garbha or garbhagriha)
enshrining mulanayaka, mulaprasada is attached to a gudhamandapa, which is axially opened to
Mukhamaṇḍapa i.e. trika, trika articulated to a rangamandapa together with the Mukhamaṇḍapa,
in rear is surrounded and thus enclosed by bramantika or pattasalika (cloistered corridor) formed
by the linkage of the porches of the conjoined clusters entourage of deva-kulikas or subsidiary
Shrines, in the first instance of 24 in numbers enshrining images of the 24 Jinas.
The Temple Complex as explained earlier has the following constituents: (1) The entrance porch
on the north, to the street (2) The entrance hall which earlier housed the stairs also (3) The vast
Temple court (4) The main Temple with main front hall, inner hall, main shrine (5) The
colonnaded corridors on south, east and west, (6) Reassembled Torana — archway and (7)
Subshrines numbered 1 to 7 in groups of four on eastern side and three on western side. Two
subshrines out of these seven, numbered six and seven are enclosed within the eastern and
western colonnaded corridors respectively. These structures are described in extreme details by
M. A. Dhaky in his work compiled in the article entitled Some Early Jaina Temples in Western
India, p. 312 to 327, published by Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume,
Bombay (1968).
Main Shrine
The plan of the main shrine shows the inner Temple surrounded by the external envelope which
provides a circum-ambulatory passage around the inner Temple. The inner temple has a frontal
porch with two independent pillars which conjoin with the two pilasters on the sides of the
entrance door. This forms a miniature Temple proper. The external envelope is devised with
three projected surfaces of walls, which is a type in Temple forms. The corners and the central
offset also has an intermediate projection. The central offsets on east, south and west has
projected niches with stone traceries and provide for spaces for additional sculptures and also
climatic comfort to the interior of the Temple. The width of the Temple measured here is 7.70 M
on outside base of the east and west walls. (Dhaky mentions 7.77 M.) The plan of the external
envelope is a square which is conjoined by the inner hall attached to the main shrine by a lobby,
which coincides with the porch of the inner Temple. This dimension of lobby 1.78 M. in width
separates the two forms i.e. the form of main shrine and the form of the inner hall which
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becomes a transition point in the formal union of the roofs of these structures which are also
differently modelled in external as well as internal massing and volumetrics. The inner hall of the
Temple with its own frontal verandah and central porch, which housed the steps to the plinth
completed the Temple form as recorded by the earlier scholars and published henceforth. This
part of the exterior is now expanded into an additional external pillared hall to accommodate
more pilgrims. This is shown in the accompanying illustration of the latest plan of the Temple
prepared by the Sompura Krishna Chandraji of Ahmedabad, who supervised these extensions
and repairs in 1970. The new hall was expanded adding one more bay to the north of the
entrance porch erecting fourteen more pillars and raising the plinth to form the pillared hall in
front of the existing porch and verandah.
Inner Hall
The inner hall is once again a square in plan with two projected surfaces of wall with the corner
and the central offset. The central offset has on east and west sides projected niches like the main
shrine envelope. The width of the hall measured on the outside east-west extremities is 10.40 M.
(Dhaky mentions 10.65 M.) The structure of the hall is marked by a central pavilion, which is
constructed by four pillars supporting a domical ceiling. The adjoining bays on all four sides are
constructed with the help of side walls and corresponding pilasters with flat stone ceilings
supporting the pyramidal roof on top of the inner hall. The enclosing structure of the hall also
provide through modulations of its wall surfaces and pilasters series of niches on sides which
housed sculptural figures symbolizing divine incarnations and guardian angels.
Front Hall
As stated earlier this pillared hall has been added recently amalgamating the original porch and
the verandah which marked the entrance to the Temple. The structure of the earlier facade
including the ceiling and roof is retained and additional pillars totalling to fourteen are added in
front of existing pillars as shown on the illustration. The width of the hall coincides with the
width of the inner hall and the plinth is also extended at the lower level to mark the flooring of
the extended hall. The plinth projects beyond the northern row of pillars and accommodates the
entrance steps to the pillared hall. The part of earlier entrance steps to the inner hall are retained
within the central bay connected with the entrance pavilion of the older facade, which mark the
entrance doorway to the inner hall of main shrine.
Entrance Hall
As stated earlier, the entrance hall as we see today has replaced the earlier entrance hall which
existed since the Pratihara period. This was in its modified form as recorded by Bhandarkar and
is explained in his report. During the expansion of the Temple during this century the older
entrance hall is modified including its level which is made flat and a new entrance porch is
attached on the north on the road front. The enclosing periphery towards the Temple court is
dispensed with and the entrance hall now sits entirely on the courtyard floor. The hall has a
domical central shape supported by 12 pillars and the ceiling is spanned by a hemispherical
dome in stone construction. There are three wings attached to the dome with an isle space
adjoining the central hall on north east and west. The east and west wings have a structure
constructed with 8 columns spanning 3 base, north south. The wing on the north is attached to
the north wall on the street face and is attached to the north wall on the street face and is
supported between a row of 4 columns and 4 pilasters attached to the wall. The entrance porch
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on the street side is projected beyond this point with a similar structure forming the overall
entrance porch. On the eastern wing is attached the subshrine No. 5 which earlier was connected
with the eastern wall of the entrance hall. This entire structure, enlarged and re-modelled is the
latest addition to the Temple Complex and shows the overall effect of contemporary Temple
building traditions adopted by Jaina builders. The character of this hall is described by the
Sompura builders as that of a dancing hall in a Temple, but in this case this space which is
approximately 180 sq. mts. is used for religious discourse and gathering by large groups of
pilgrims which visit the Temple very often for pilgrimage. In construction of the new hall the use
of considerable number of old column parts is done and this is very evident when one inspects
the 32 odd columns which are combined together to erect this entrance hall structure.
Archway
In the tenth century scheme of the Temple Complex, an archway was constructed to mark the
entrance of the main Temple. This archway was in place until the front hall of the Temple was
built in early 70. This archway has been now removed and kept aside along the eastern
periphery. In structural terms this archway comprised of two highly decorated columns
supporting a ribbed awning topped by a lintel and brackets on top forming an arch like assembly.
The original archway was assembled in 1080 A. D. according to an epigraph on its lintel and this
was an important feature in the overall Temple architecture in Western India.
Subshrines No. 1 to 7
These miniature shrines form an important part of the Temple Complex and as stated earlier five
of them are standing within the Temple court and the last two i.e. No. 6 and 7 are amalgamated
within the corridor on easter and western periphery of the Complex. These subshrines are more
or less of the same size but stylistically they represent two significant phases of architecture as
explained by M. A. Dhaky (ibid). The subshrine No. 1 and 2, on east and west of the main
Temple are similar. They have, like all other, typical build up of the structural form divided into
plinth, superstructure and the roof. The entrance porch is formed by a pair of pilasters on the two
sides of the entrance door and two corresponding pillar support forming a square entrance porch
to the shrine chamber. This portion has a ceiling with a pyramidal roof on top of the shrine
chamber as a regular spire roof. The general size of the subshrine is approximately 3 M x 3 M
with additional porch. Subshrines No. 3 and 4 once again to the east and west of the main
Temple respectively were added as late as end of eleventh century. Thus subshrines No. 1 &3
and 2 &4 form the pairs of subshrines on the east and the west of the main Temple respectively.
Subshrine No. 5 is the earliest of all dating back to late tenth century and it was attached on the
eastern side of the earlier entrance hall. With the modification of the earlier entrance hall into a
new structure, this subshrine is now independently standing abutting the eastern colonnade of the
new entrance hall and the north eastern periphery of the Temple complex is expanded beyond
this subshrine which is a changed situation of the periphery from what was recorded by
Bhandarkar in his ASI report (ibid.)
Plate 1: Overall plan of the Temple Complex based on a sketch by Bhandarkar, Calcutta (1912)
228
).Pillars are the dots on these 3 pics
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The Plan of the complex after the modifications of early seventies, periphery on road.
Plate 3: Plan of the main temple after addition in 1970s. The front hall was modified and enlarged and the roof
of the original Mandapa restored.
Plate 4:(top) Part sectional profile of the plinth of the main temple
1. (bottom) Measuerd drawing of the main temple showing part plan of the oldest shrine.
Plate 5: Longitudinal section
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Longitudinal section prepared from a recent measured drawing showing the corridor of south, main temple
with profile of sikhara, Mukhamaṇḍapa, and the new mandapa integrating the original trika.
Note the level differences between the main temple and the new mandapa and the front parts
of the temple, which is raised to level the surrounding areas to the level of the entrance mandapa.
Colonnaded Corridor
As the earlier studies indicate, the southern corridor with about 8 pillars was part of the original
scheme of the Temple. In Bhandarkar's sketch plan the corridor is shown as continuous on east,
south and west. These extensions of the east and the west therefore appear to be later additions
and they are also stylistically of a later date. The subshrines No. 6 and 7 which are amalgamated
in the eastern and western corridor have their spire extending above the roof of the corridor
structure and these spires resemble stylistically to the late eleventh century traditions according
to Dhaky. These corridors are normally a feature of a typical Jain Temple complex and in this
case they help define the Temple peripheries. In recent times, the southern corridor is renovated
and the displaced relics from the Temple which are removed because of material decay and
replacement are exhibited here to preserve the original parts of the Temple construction. The
southern corridor is measured in part and is approximately 3 M wide and 3 M high with niches in
its rear wall. The plinth of this corridor is 83 cm. high and the original pillars 2.56 M high up to
the beams (refer illustrations.)
A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural
element
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A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that
transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements
below. In other words, a column is a compression member. The term column applies especially
to a large round support (the shaft of the column) with a capital and a base or pedestal, which is
made of stone, or appearing to be so. A small wooden or metal support is typically called a post,
and supports with a rectangular or other non-round section are usually called piers.
For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral
forces. Other compression members are often termed "columns" because of the similar stress
conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of
walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to such a structural element that also has
certain proportional and decorative features. A column might also be a decorative element not
needed for structural purposes; many columns are engaged, that is to say form part of a wall. A
long sequence of columns joined by an entablature is known as a colonnade. All significant Iron
Age civilizations of the Near East and Mediterranean made some use of columns.
Most classical columns arise from a basis, or base, that rests on the stylobate, or foundation,
except for those of the Doric order, which usually rest directly on the stylobate. The basis may
consist of several elements, beginning with a wide, square slab known as a plinth. The simplest
bases consist of the plinth alone, sometimes separated from the column by a convex circular
cushion known as a torus. More elaborate bases include two toruses, separated by a concave
section or channel known as a scotia or trochilus. Scotiae could also occur in pairs, separated by
a convex section called an astragal, or bead, narrower than a torus. Sometimes these sections
were accompanied by still narrower convex sections, known as annulets or fillets.
At the top of the shaft is a capital, upon which the roof or other architectural elements rest. In the
case of Doric columns, the capital usually consists of a round, tapering cushion, or echinus,
supporting a square slab, known as an abax or abacus. Ionic capitals feature a pair of volutes, or
scrolls, while Corinthian capitals are decorated with reliefs in the form of acanthus leaves. Either
type of capital could be accompanied by the same moldings as the base. In the case of freestanding columns, the decorative elements atop the shaft are known as a finial.
Modern columns may be constructed out of steel, poured or precast concrete, or brick, left bare
or clad in an architectural covering, or veneer. Used to support an arch, an impost, or pier, is the
topmost member of a column. The bottom-most part of the arch, called the springing, rests on the
impost.
Equilibrium, instability, and load
As the axial load on a perfectly straight slender column with elastic material properties is
increased in magnitude, this ideal column passes through three states: stable equilibrium, neutral
equilibrium, and instability. The straight column under load is in stable equilibrium if a lateral
force, applied between the two ends of the column, produces a small lateral deflection which
disappears and the column returns to its straight form when the lateral force is removed. If the
column load is gradually increased, a condition is reached in which the straight form of
equilibrium becomes so-called neutral equilibrium, and a small lateral force will produce a
deflection that does not disappear and the column remains in this slightly bent form when the
lateral force is removed. The load at which neutral equilibrium of a column is reached is called
the critical or buckling load. The state of instability is reached when a slight increase of the
column load causes uncontrollably growing lateral deflections leading to complete collapse.
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Table showing values of K for structural columns of various end conditions (adapted from Manual of Steel
Construction, 8th edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Table C1.8.1)
For an axially loaded straight column with any end support conditions, the equation of static
equilibrium, in the form of a differential equation, can be solved for the deflected shape and
critical load of the column. With hinged, fixed or free end support conditions the deflected shape
in neutral equilibrium of an initially straight column with uniform cross section throughout its
length always follows a partial or composite sinusoidal curve shape, and the critical load is given
by
Fcr =
EL min/ L2
(1)
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where E = elastic modulus of the material, Imin = the minimal moment of inertia of the cross
section, and L = actual length of the column between its two end supports. A variant of (1) is
given by
Fcr =
ET/ (KL/r)2
(2)
where r = radius of gyration of column cross-section which is equal to the square root of
(I/A), K = ratio of the longest half sine wave to the actual column length, Et = tangent modulus at
the stress Fcr, and KL = effective length (length of an equivalent hinged-hinged column). From
Equation (2) it can be noted that the buckling strength of a column is inversely proportional to
the square of its length.
Fcr = Fy -/ F2y/4
2
E( KL/r2)
(3)
When the critical stress, Fcr (Fcr =Pcr/A, where A = cross-sectional area of the column), is greater
than the proportional limit of the material, the column is experiencing inelastic buckling. Since at
this stress the slope of the material's stress-strain curve, Et (called the tangent modulus), is
smaller than that below the proportional limit, the critical load at inelastic buckling is reduced.
More complex formulas and procedures apply for such cases, but in its simplest form the critical
buckling load formula is given as Equation (3),
A column with a cross section that lacks symmetry may suffer torsional buckling (sudden
twisting) before, or in combination with, lateral buckling. The presence of the twisting
deformations renders both theoretical analyses and practical designs rather complex.
Eccentricity of the load, or imperfections such as initial crookedness, decreases column strength.
If the axial load on the column is not concentric, that is, its line of action is not precisely
coincident with the centroidal axis of the column, the column is characterized as eccentrically
loaded. The eccentricity of the load, or an initial curvature, subjects the column to immediate
bending. The increased stresses due to the combined axial-plus-flexural stresses result in a
reduced load-carrying ability.
Column elements are considered to be massive if their smallest side dimension is equal to or
more than 400 mm. Massive columns have the ability to increase in carrying strength over long
time periods (even during periods of heavy load). Taking into account the fact, that possible
structural loads may increase over time as well (and also the threat of progressive failure),
massive columns have an advantage compared to non-massive ones.
Extensions
When a column is too long to be built or transported in one piece, it has to be extended or spliced
at the construction site. A reinforced concrete column is extended by having the steel reinforcing
bars protrude a few inches or feet above the top of the concrete, then placing the next level of
reinforcing bars to overlap, and pouring the concrete of the next level. A steel column is
extended by welding or bolting splice plates on the flanges and webs or walls of the columns to
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provide a few inches or feet of load transfer from the upper to the lower column section. A
timber column is usually extended by the use of a steel tube or wrapped-around sheet-metal plate
bolted onto the two connecting timber sections.
Foundations
A column that carries the load down to a foundation must have means to transfer the load
without overstressing the foundation material. Reinforced concrete and masonry columns are
generally built directly on top of concrete foundations. When seated on a concrete foundation, a
steel column must have a base plate to spread the load over a larger area, and thereby reduce the
bearing pressure. The base plate is a thick, rectangular steel plate usually welded to the bottom
end of the column.
Classical order
The Roman author Vitruvius, relying on the writings (now lost) of Greek authors, tells us that the
ancient Greeks believed that their Doric order developed from techniques for building in wood.
The earlier smoothed tree-trunk was replaced by a stone cylinder.
Doric order
The Doric order is the oldest and simplest of the classical orders. It is composed of a
vertical cylinder that is wider at the bottom. It generally has neither a base nor a detailed capital.
It is instead often topped with an inverted frustum of a shallow cone or a cylindrical band of
carvings. It is often referred to as the masculine order because it is represented in the bottom
level of the Colosseum and the Parthenon, and was therefore considered to be able to hold more
weight. The height-to-thickness ratio is about 8:1. The shaft of a Doric Column is almost
always fluted.
The Greek Doric, developed in the western Dorian region of Greece, is the heaviest and most
massive of the orders. It rises from the stylobate without any base; it is from four to six times as
tall as its diameter; it has twenty broad flutes; the capital consists simply of a banded necking
swelling out into a smooth echinus, which carries a flat square abacus; the Doric entablature is
also the heaviest, being about one-fourth the height column. The Greek Doric order was not used
after c. 100 B.C. until its “rediscovery” in the mid-eighteenth century.
Tuscan order
The Tuscan order, also known as Roman Doric, is also a simple design, the base and capital both
being series of cylindrical disks of alternating diameter. The shaft is almost never fluted. The
proportions vary, but are generally similar to Doric columns. Height to width ratio is about 7:1.
Ionic order
The Ionic column is considerably more complex than the Doric or Tuscan. It usually has a base
and the shaft is often fluted (it has grooves carved up its length). The capital features a volute, an
ornament shaped like a scroll, at the four corners. The height-to-thickness ratio is around 9:1.
Due to the more refined proportions and scroll capitals, the Ionic column is sometimes associated
with academic buildings. Ionic style columns were used on the second level of the Colosseum.
Corinthian order
The Corinthian order is named for the Greek city-state of Corinth, to which it was connected in
the period. However, according to the architectural historian Vitruvius, the column was created
by the sculptor Callimachus, probably an Athenian, who drew acanthus leaves growing around a
votive basket. In fact, the oldest known Corinthian capital was found in Bassae, dated at 427 BC.
It is sometimes called the feminine order because it is on the top level of the Colosseum and
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holding up the least weight, and also has the slenderest ratio of thickness to height. Height to
width ratio is about 10:1.
Composite order
The Composite order draws its name from the capital being a composite of the Ionic and
Corinthian capitals. The acanthus of the Corinthian column already has a scroll-like element, so
the distinction is sometimes subtle. Generally the Composite is similar to the Corinthian in
proportion and employment, often in the upper tiers of colonnades. Height to width ratio is about
11:1 or 12:1.
Solomonic
A Solomonic column, sometimes called "barley sugar", begins on a base and ends in a capital,
which may be of any order, but the shaft twists in a tight spiral, producing a dramatic, serpentine
effect of movement. Solomonic columns were developed in the ancient world, but remained rare
there. A famous marble set, probably 2nd century, was brought to Old St. Peter's
Basilica by Constantine I, and placed round the saint's shrine, and was thus familiar throughout
the Middle Ages, by which time they were thought to have been removed from the Temple of
Jerusalem. The style was used in bronze by Bernini for his spectacular St. Peter's baldachin,
actually a ciborium (which displaced Constantine's columns), and thereafter became very popular
with Baroque and Rococo church architects, above all in Latin America, where they were very
often used, especially on a small scale, as they are easy to produce in wood by turning on a
lathe (hence also the style's popularity for spindles on furniture and stairs).
Caryatid
A Caryatid is a sculpted female figure serving as an architectural support taking the place of
a column or a pillar supporting an entablature on her head. The Greek term karyatides literally
means "maidens of Karyai", an ancient town of Peloponnese.
Engaged columns
In architecture, an engaged column is a column embedded in a wall and partly projecting from
the surface of the wall, sometimes defined as semi or three-quarter detached. Engaged columns
are rarely found in classical Greek architecture, and then only in exceptional cases, but in Roman
architecture they exist in abundance, most commonly embedded in the cella walls
of pseudoperipteral buildings.
Extensions
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When a column is too long to be built or transported in one piece, it has to be extended or spliced
at the construction site. A reinforced concrete column is extended by having the steel reinforcing
bars protrude a few inches or feet above the top of the concrete, then placing the next level of
reinforcing bars to overlap, and pouring the concrete of the next level. A steel column is
extended by welding or bolting splice plates on the flanges and webs or walls of the columns to
provide a few inches or feet of load transfer from the upper to the lower column section. A
timber column is usually extended by the use of a steel tube or wrapped-around sheet-metal plate
bolted onto the two connecting timber sections.
Foundations
A column that carries the load down to a foundation must have means to transfer the load
without overstressing the foundation material. Reinforced concrete and masonry columns are
generally built directly on top of concrete foundations. When seated on a concrete foundation, a
steel column must have a base plate to spread the load over a larger area, and thereby reduce the
bearing pressure. The base plate is a thick, rectangular steel plate usually welded to the bottom
end of the column.
If a column is a vertical structural member intended to transfer a compressive load. For example,
a column might
transfer loads from
a ceiling, floor or roof slab or
from
a beam, to
a floor or foundations.Columns are
typically constructed from materials such
as stone, brick, block, concrete, timber, steel, and so on, which have good compressive
strength.In classical
architecture, columns are
often
highly
decorated,
with standard designs including Ionic, Doric and Corinthian, and so on.A colonnade is a row
of columns spaced at regular intervals that can be used to support a horizontal entablature,
an arcade or covered walkway, or as part of a porch or portico. Stone columns of Jain tgemples
were probably (or vibro stone columns) formed by granular aggregate that was inserted
into column shaped excavations and
then
compacted
to
improve
the load bearing
capacity of soil and fill material.
237
Thousand pillared Jain Temple, or Tribhuvana Tilaka Chudamani basadi – at Moodabidri, near
Mangalore, Karnatak
238
Shree Shankheshwar Parshwanath Jain Temple, Gujarat
Thousand pillared Jain Temple, or Tribhuvana Tilaka Chudamani basadi – at Moodabidri, near
Mangalore, Karnataka, is the largest of 18 Jain basadis, built during 14th to 16th century A.D. It
is also known as Chandranath basadi since it honours Chandranath, whose eight foot idol is
worshipped in the shrine. The Tribhuvana Tilaka Chudamani basadi is the largest and considered
to be the finest of its kind in coastal Karnataka. Also considered to be the most ornate of the Jain
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temples of this region; it was originally built in 1430 A.D. by the Chowta ruler Devaraya
Wodeyar, and completed in three stages. Moodabidri, ~34 kilometres to the north-east of
Mangalore, in Dakshina Kannada (South Canara) district of Karnataka, is a small town in the
midst of hills. Often referred to as the Jain Kashi of south India, Moodabidri was a center of Jain
religion, culture, art and architecture during 14th - 16th centuries. The Tribhuvana Tilaka
Chudamani Basadi (which means, the Crest jewel of the three worlds) is the largest of 18 Jain
basadis and considered to be the finest and the most ornate of the Jain temples in coastal
Karnataka. It was originally built in 1430 CE by the Chowta ruler Devaraya Wodeyar, and
completed in three stages.
The land to construct the temple was donated by the Vijayanagara king. It took 32 years for its
construction and is a charming cluster of seven parts such as, Chaturasa Garbhagriha, Sukhanasi,
Theerthankara Mantapa, Gaddige Mantapa,Chitradevi Mantapa, Bhairadevi Mantapa
and.Manasthambha
Cave 33 of jain Caves in Ellora showing the Pillars
A column consists of a shaft together with its base and its capital. The column supports a section
of an entablature, which constitutes the upper horizontal part of a classical building and is itself
composed of (from bottom to top) an architrave, frieze, and cornice. There are many separate
elements that make up a complete column and entablature. At the bottom of the column is
the stylobate; this is a continuous flat pavement on which a row of columns is supported. Rising
out of the stylobate is the plinth, a square or circular block that is the lowest part of the base.
Atop the plinth and forming the remainder of the base are one or more circular moldings that
have varying profiles; these may include a torus (a convex molding that is semicircular in
profile), a scotia (with a concave profile), and one or more fillets, or narrow bands. The shaft,
240
which rests upon the base, is a long, narrow, vertical cylinder that in some orders
is articulated with fluting (vertical grooves). The shaft may also taper inward slightly so that it is
wider at the bottom than at the top.
Atop the shaft is the capital, which serves to concentrate the weight of the entablature on the
shaft and also acts as an aesthetic transition between those two elements. In its simplest form (the
Doric), the capital consists (in ascending order) of three parts; the necking, which is a
continuation of the shaft but which is set off from it visually by one or more narrow grooves;
the echinus, a circular block that bulges outward at its uppermost portion in order to better
support the abacus; and the abacus itself, a square block that directly supports the entablature
above and transmits its weight to the rest of the column below.
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EXAMPLE
Pillars of 15th century CE Jain temple of Ranakpur - an architectural wonder of massive
proportions. Dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankar, Rushabhdev, also called Adinath, the temple
of Ranakpur has over a thousand intricately carved pillars, each unique! But that is just a small
part of this spectacular architectural marvel.
History: The region of Mewar, (presently in south – central Rajasthan) has been an important
centre of Jainism since ancient times. Earlier, the Jains were a trading community, but from the
13th century CE, they also began to serve as treasurers and ministers at the courts of Rajput
rulers. Savvy in finance, they were responsible for controlling the state purses. As a mark of
respect for this community, it was only a matter of time before the state patronized Jainism and
its religious establishments, even though the Rajputs themselves were Hindus. Thus, today we
see a major presence of Jain temples even in forts like Chittorgarh.
The Legend of Ranakpur
Legend has it that in the 15th century CE a Jain trader named Dharna Shah dreamt of building
a nalini-gulmavimana, or a flying pillared palace in honour of Rushabhdev, the 1st Tirthankar of
the Jains. To fulfil his dream, he went in search of artisans and met a man called Depa, who was
hired as the architect for the temple. Later, he requested the ruler of Mewar, Rana Kumbha, of
the Hindu Sisodia clan of Rajputs for land.
Since Dharna Shah was also a minister in his court, the king obliged, and as a gesture of
gratitude, the temple was named ‘Ranakpur’. A copper plate inscription dated to 1437 installed at
the entrance of the temple, and Sanskrit text Soma-Saubhagya Kavya composed in 1497 help us
date the building. Incidentally, Rana Kumbha is among the fiercest opponents of the Delhi
Sultanate and was known for various constructions including the Vijay Stambha, a nine storey
victory tower.
However all didn't go well. According to the local belief, the construction of the temple which
started in 1389, could not be completed even after fifty years. A worried and ageing Dharna Shah
is said to have installed the idol of the Principal deity. In the late 1430s, after the completion of
the temple, the idols were ceremoniously installed by Dharna’s guide and inspiration to build the
temple, a jain monk named Acharya Somalsundarsuriji. About ninety-nine lakhs of rupees were
spent on the construction of the temple.
242
Three storeys at Ranakpur temple|Amrusha Chati
Ranakpur’s Architecture
243
Nestled between the green hills, the monument is a sight to behold. Spread over an extensive
base of 48,000 sq.ft. and rising 102 ft. with three storeys, the Ranakpur temple is massive, with
29 halls and 84 idols. The temple has elaborate domes, shikaras and minarets, pillars and arches
all made of soft grey marble rising majestically from the slope of a hill.
The temple has four doorways which lead to the four chambers, which in turn lead to the main
hall. The quadruple image of Adinath is placed here. The top of the entrance is graced
with akichaka, a man with five bodies which represent fire, water, heaven, earth and air. The
ceiling is decorated with leaves of the wish-fulfilling tree, Kalpavriksha.
Ornate pillars at Ranakpur temple |Amrusha Chati
But the architectural marvel here is the network of 1,444 pillars through the hall. Each pillar is
unique in its design. And despite this dense network of pillars, the design allows for a clear sight
of the idol of Adinath.The placement of the pillars has been done keeping natural light and
shadows in focus. This also allows for the free movement of air, creating a cool and serene
environment.Each pillar is finely carved with floral designs, depiction of animals and heroes and
damsels along with complex geometrical patterns. No two pillars are identical. Another stunning
feature of these pillars is that they change their colour from golden to pale blue every hour as the
day advances. The domes are linked by brackets which are adorned with various sculptures.
Most common are the figurines of nymphs playing the flute in various dance postures.
Lord Parshvanath with 1008 headed serpent |Amrusha Chati
Tucked into corners and crevices of the temple are fine engravings of Jain scriptures. There is a
sculpture of Parshvanath, the 23rd Tirthankar, being protected by a 1008 headed serpent.
Interestingly, the carving is done on a single block of stone.
There is also an artistically detailed model of the famous Shatrunjay Tirth at Palitana, a major
Jain pilgrimage center in Gujarat, created in spite of minimum resources in those times.
In 1443, the poet Megh was astounded by the beauty of the Ranakpur Temple and he composed
“Ranakpur Chatur Mukh Prasad” in which he described the city of this temple as similar to
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Patan, an ancient fortified town of Gujarat famous for its sculpted monuments. During the reign
of Aurangzeb (1658-1707), Muslim armies advanced through Mewar and pillaged Ranakpur. In
later centuries, famines decimated the population in the surrounding area. The place was
abandoned by the locals and this in turn led to encroachments by bandits.
It was only in the middle of the 20th century that the community took notice of the temple,
which had collapsed in parts, and made efforts to restore it to its former splendour. This was
possible due to the efforts of the Anandji Kalyanji trust, then headed by the famous industrialist
Kasturbhai Lalbhai. It was reopened for to the public in 1953.
Inside view of the Ranakpur temple|Amrusha Chati
.
245
Mirapur Jain temple
Jain Temple, Jaisalmer Fort
246
Mysterious Pillar Placement
The Rankapur temple is a grand white marble structure spread over 48,000 square feet (4,500
m2) with 1444 marble pillars, twenty-nine halls, eighty domes and 426 columns. The most
outstanding feature of this temple is its infinite number of pillars. In whichever direction one
might turn one's eyes meet pillars and pillars big, small, broad, narrow, ornate or plain. But the
ingenious designer has arranged them in such a manner that none of them obstructs the view of
the pilgrim wishing to have a Darshana' (glimpse) of God. From any corner of the temple one
can easily view the Lord's image. These innumerable pillars have given rise to the popular belief
that there are about 1444 pillars in the temple.
Structural Integrities of Jain Temple Pillars
This part is explained in modern language
Adds structural integrity to the area it is built on. Can
also act as stilts for buildings on inclines.
Structure
Type
Building
Health
6,250
Item
Weight
4.0
ExpandSpawn Command
Crafting
Required level
Level 25
Engram Points
8 EP
247
Crafting XP
12 XP
Crafting Time
3s
Prerequisites
Unlocks
Crafted in

Stone Foundation

Wooden Pillar

Brick Pillar

Metal Pillar

Steel Pillar
Inventory
Ingredients
30 ×
Stone
15 ×
Wood or Fungal Wood
10 ×
Thatch
The Stone Pillar is the second unlockable pillar. A pillar is a stackable form of a foundation,
which is required for building any kind of housing or storage structure. The Stone Pillar can be
placed on even or slightly uneven ground, or on the top or bottom of foundations, ceilings, or
other pillars. Once the first Pillar is placed, subsequent pillars can snap into place on the top or
bottom of the first one, provided there is adequate room to do so.A pillar or series of pillars with
the bottom touching the ground and a ceiling on top will function as a foundation, providing
support and allowing structures to be built on top of it.
Support
Pillars provides sufficient support to allow a structure built on top of it to extend up to 2 ceilings
in any direction on the x and y-axis, and up to 1 ceiling diagonally, not counting the center
ceiling. However, the ceilings on the far end will not support walls.
248
✖
A diagram showing how a single pillar or foundation (✖) can support 13 ceilings (indicated in
green). The edges marked in red will not be able to support a wall without additional support
beneath.
Amazing buildings can withstand earthquakes and plane crashes. They can heat themselves using
little more than the Sun's gaze. They use advanced materials in very advanced ways so you never
have to paint the woodwork or clean the windows. Let's take a closer look at some of the science
hiding inside the places where we live, work, sleep, and breathe!
Photo: Steel skeleton: You might look at a building and
think the walls hold it up, but a modern building is just as likely to be supported by a hidden steel framework. In this
partly constructed community center, a web of giant, interlocked, steel girders acts like a skeleton, resting on
concrete foundations. Bricks are being built around the outside of the steel frame to give an attractive, traditional
appearance, but they're largely cosmetic: the majority of the forces holding the building up are going to be
supported by the steel inside.
How gravity works against buildings
All kids like building things! Whether we're stacking LEGO® blocks or playing cards in the
living room, sticks in the forest, or sandcastles on the beach, we're all architects and builders at
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heart. Think back to the last time you made something in this way. What was the biggest
problem you faced? One of the things that would have worried you was the possibility of your
building toppling over once it reached a certain height. That's also true in the real world, where
the number one problem any builder faces is keeping their structure upright.
The trouble is all to do with gravity: the magnetic-like force of attraction between any two
objects in our universe. On Earth, we see gravity as a tendency for things to fall toward the floor,
but gravity always work two ways. If you drop a pen, it does indeed fall toward the floor—but
the floor also jumps up by a microscopic amount to meet it on the way! The force pulling your
pen down toward Earth is exactly the same size as the force that pulls Earth up toward your pen.
Now gravity usually pulls things straight downward, but it can act in other ways too. Suppose
you built a really tall brick wall. We can think of gravity acting on it in two different ways. We
can see it as a collection of separate bricks, with gravity pulling on each one separately. Or we
can think of it as a solid wall with gravity pulling on the whole thing, just as though all its mass
were packed into a single point in its center. The place where an object's mass seems to be
concentrated is called its center of gravity. For a simple brick wall, the center of gravity is slap
bang in the middle of the central brick.
So what makes a wall fall over? If the center of gravity is over to one side (if we've not built the
wall straight or if we've built it on sloping ground), the force of gravity acting down will produce
a turning effect called a moment. If the moment is small, the mortar between the bricks can
resist it and keep the wall upright. But if the moment is too large, the mortar will break apart, the
bricks will topple, and the wall will collapse.
Artwork: Why walls stay up and why they collapse. Left: If a wall is built upright or on flat
ground, the center of gravity (blue dot) is directly above the center point of the wall's
foundations (yellow dot), so the wall is stable. Right: But if a wall is built on sloping ground, the
center of gravity is no longer above the center of the base. Now gravity (red arrow) creates a
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moment (green arrow) that tips the wall over. The higher the wall, the greater the mass above
the center of gravity, the greater the turning force and the more chance the wall will collapse.
Now this doesn't just apply to single walls: it applies to entire buildings. If a skyscraper is 200 m
(650 ft) tall and a gale blows it hard at the top, there's a huge turning force trying to tip the whole
building over to the side. That's why tall buildings need deep foundations (where a significant
part of the building is constructed underground to support the part that's above ground). If
something tries to push the top the building to one side, the foundations effectively resist and
push it back in the opposite direction! In other words, they help to counter the moment that
would make a building topple to one side.
LEFT_
Photo:
Question: How do you build deep foundations
for a tall building without digging away tons of
earth? Answer: Use a foundation drill like this.
These amazing drills can sink foundations over
30m (100ft) into the ground. Some can drill
holes about 2.5m (8.2ft) in diameter! Find out
more in our main article about drilling
technology.
RIGHT_ Photo: Buildings have to cope with
ever-changing loads from things like wind and
the weight of the people inside. When architect
Daniel Burnham completed his famously tall
and thin Flatiron building in 1902, some
people believed it would blow over in the wind.
It earned the nickname Burnham's folly as a
result. Although it certainly does channel
winds down into the streets around it, the
famous New York City landmark remains
standing to this day.
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It's not only sideways, toppling forces that buildings have to withstand. If you've ever picked up
a brick or a piece of stone masonry, you'll know it's reasonably heavy. Now imagine how much
all the bricks or blocks of stone in a skyscraper weigh. Add to that the weight of the floors and
ceilings. And then, on top of that, the weight of all the office equipment, furniture, and people in
the building. What you have is a gigantic lump of weight pushing straight downwards... which
immediately raises two questions.
First off, why doesn't the whole building sink straight into the ground? Of course, if you build
your skyscraper on quicksand or in the middle of a swamp, it might do exactly that! But most
people build on reasonably firm earth (soil) or rock. There will be a certain amount of squeezing
downward if you build onto earth, but once the soil is fully compressed (squeezed) it will be
almost as solid as rock and further compression shouldn't be an issue. It is possible, however, if
floods or drought make the earth too wet or dry, that the ground beneath the building could shift
or sink. This problem is called subsidence and has to be tackled by pumping tons
of concrete under a building to shore it up.
The other question is why the building does not collapse down on itself. You can probably see
that the bottom stories of a building are going to be under much more pressure (the force acting
per unit of area) than the top stories, because they have to support more weight. So if you built
the lower stories of a building from cardboard and the upper ones from brick, you'd run into
problems quite quickly. But you might be able to build the lower stories from brick and the upper
ones from cardboard. And you could even build the lower ones from cardboard if you used some
extra supports (such as steel pillars) to help support the weight of the bricks in the stories up
above.
How buildings balance forces
Buildings in the real world are not like towers made of LEGO® or sandcastles. Those structures
are usually made of solid material, whereas a real-world building is mostly empty space. Not
only that, but the "empty space" inside a building usually has to support the weight of people,
office equipment, or factory machines. Having solved their first problem (how to make a
structure that doesn't topple over), architects and builders immediately turn their attention to
another problem: how to make a hollow building that can support its own weight and that of its
contents and occupants. This comes down to understanding where the forces are in a building
and how they are transmitted from one part to another—or, in other words, how gravity is
channeled through the various parts of the structure.
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Artwork: There's more than one way to balance the weight of a building. Instead of chaneling it through heavy vertical walls and horizontal
floors, Richard Buckminster Fuller's famous geodesic domes distribute force evenly through an outer "skin" of interconnected triangles.
This creates an uninterrupted interior space much more cheaply and using much less material. As he pointed out in his 1954 dome patent,
you need 23kg (50lb) of wall and roofing material to shelter 900 sq cm (one square foot) of floor space, but you can achieve the same end with
only 0.35kg (0.78 lb) of geodesic dome. That works out at abut 600 times less building material! Furthermore, Fuller claimed his domes were
strong enough to withstand winds of 240 km/h (150mph). Artwork courtesy of US Patent and Trademark Office from US Patent 2,682,235:
Building Construction by Richard Buckminster Fuller, published June 29, 1954.
To make a building that is both strong and hollow, we need to put horizontal and vertical
structures together to do different jobs. For example, the outside walls usually play a vital part in
keeping the building up, while the inside walls help to separate one room from another and the
floors (which are often ceilings too) give us something to stand on. But it's not quite that simple
when you start to think about forces. Imagine you're sitting on a sofa in the middle of the floor
on the top story of a large house. If there's no wall directly underneath the floor where you're
sitting, what stops the sofa crashing through the floor? The total gravitational force acting
downward (the weight of your body, the weight of the sofa, and the weight of the floor) is
transmitted sideways through the structural members of the floor (which may be anything from
simple wooden bars called joists to heavy metal ones known as girders) to the walls at the side.
The force then channels down through the walls to the floor. The force of the walls pushing
down on the floor is exactly balanced by an equal force when the floor pushes up on the wall. If
that weren't the case, and the two forces weren't exactly balanced, either the walls or the floor
would be moving. The fact that buildings and structures don't move tells us that the forces acting
on them must indeed be balanced—and that's why we call these sorts of
constructions static structures.
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If you've ever seen a building being demolished by a crane with a wrecker ball (a ball and chain),
you will have noticed that buildings can stay up even with most of their walls knocked away.
That's because some walls in a building are more important than others and not all of them
support the building's weight. The main, structural walls are called load-bearing walls and
they're usually built from solid brick or stone. Knock one of these out and a large chunk of your
building will probably collapse. The other walls in your building may simply be cosmetic ones
built from a lighter material such as plasterboard. You can easily remove these walls without
affecting the building's ability to stay upright and keep its shape which is known as its structural
integrity. A floor, wall, staircase, or any other structure has to be supported to stop it
collapsing, but that doesn't mean it must be supported equally in all places. Though we tend to
think of beams as needing support at both ends, if a beam is strong enough, you can support it at
one end only. Any downward force you put on the beam travels down its length and is balanced
at the single, supported end. A structure like this is called a cantilever and it was used to great
effect in the long, reinforced concrete terraces of this famous building,
When skyscrapers were first built, they had elaborate wooden frameworks inside them to
support their weight—lots of internal walls to support all the force pushing down from above.
Gradually, though, as people found they needed (and often preferred) wide open spaces inside
buildings for offices and factories, architects found ways of getting rid of the internal walls.
Having slender pillars or columns was one obvious way to do this. Another option was to have
extremely strong outer walls and sturdy horizontal girders running through the floors and
ceilings to carry the weight of the building across to this "outer skin". A third option was to have
a strong central core, sturdy floors running out from it like the petals on a flower, and only a
relatively light outer skin made from steel or glass.
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Tension and compression forces in buildings
Artwork: Left: The vertical wooden beam is in compression: it's being squeezed by the weight pushing downward
and by the ground pushing back up. Right: An identical wooden beam, laid horizontally on top of two vertical
beams, is in compression at the top and tension at the bottom, while the vertical beams that support it are both in
compression.
The parts of a building can behave in different ways when large forces act on them. Suppose, for
example, you're back on the sofa in the middle of the floor on the top story of your house.
Suppose I reach in through a window with a crane and place a 50-tonne weight onto the floor
right next to you. It's quite likely the floor will immediately collapse and you'll fall through the
hole I've just made. But what makes the floor collapse? Obviously, the beams supporting the
floor cannot withstand the weight we're subjecting them to—but how exactly do they break? And
why does the floor collapse rather than the walls? The answer is all to do with tension and
compression.
Suppose you have a wooden beam standing vertically. You can support lots of weight on top of it
because there's something solid underneath transmitting the force of gravity directly to the
ground. The more weight you put on the beam, the more you squeeze it. If you could measure
the beam accurately, you'd see that it shrinks just a tiny bit with every extra bit of weight you
pile onto it. When a beam is loaded like this, we say it's in compression: it's being subject to
compressive or squeezing forces.
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Now suppose you balance the same beam horizontally between two similar, vertical beams—
much like balancing the floor of a house between the walls. If you pile weights onto the beam, it
won't behave quite the same way as it did before. The entire beam will start to bend, but the top
and the bottom will bend differently. The top of the beam will be squeezed (by compression
forces) and it'll get slightly shorter, while the bottom will be stretched and it will become a bit
longer. We say the bottom is in tension (it's stretching) and we call the forces that do this tensile
forces.
We can keep piling load onto the beam for just as long as its internal structure can cope with
these forces. At some point, the wood in the beam will splinter when the individual wood fibers
can no longer cope with the tensile forces at the bottom. Then the beam will snap in two in the
center, at the bottom, and the floor will collapse.
Like wood, concrete is good at withstanding compressive forces, but not so good at coping with
tensile forces. Ordinary concrete is a superb material for making vertical walls, but it's much less
effective for making horizontal floors because it's quite brittle: it will snap at a weak point just
like wood if you pile too much weight onto it. You can make concrete much stronger by pouring
it into a mold that contains a grid of rigid steel bars (often known as "rebar"). Concrete
strengthened in this way is called reinforced concrete because the steel gives the concrete extra
strength and helps it to withstand tensile as well as compressive forces. Next time you see people
constructing a huge concrete building, bridge, or other structure, take a look and see if you can
see the steel reinforcement bars or rebar grid before the concrete is poured in.
Make way, heavy load!
Tension and compression aren't the only forces that buildings have to cope with. From the tallest
skyscraper to the simplest bridge, every static structure also has to cope with varying loads. An
office block will weigh far more when it's full of people, computers, desks, and photocopiers
than it does when it's empty, and the people who build it have to take that into account.
Similarly, bridges have to cope with varying forces both from things that drive over them and the
weather, which can lead to bending and twisting (torsion) that might make them collapse. Every
static structure has to be able to cope with a mixture of dead loads (its own basic weight)
and live loads (the weight it carries when it's occupied or being used), so working out what those
are and how big they will be is an important part of building design. You can read more about
this in our detailed article on bridges.
How Marble was polished in ancient times
It's not uncommon for dull spots to show up on polished marble and newly mined marble needs
polishing too.Marble—a white or uniquely variegated type of limestone that has been exposed to
extreme heat and pressure—has a long history of being favored by artisans and builders, from
Michelangelo’s David and Moses sculptures to The Taj Mahal. So it’s no wonder that marble in
the modern home is both prized and expensive. Its natural beauty, depth of pattern, and unique
markings make it an elegant, luxurious choice for flooring, countertops, tabletops, and vanities.
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However, soft and porous marble counters have their downsides, and chief among them is their
tendency to stain or etch. The latter problem, etching, refers to dulled spots that
sometimes appear pitted and feel slightly rough to the touch. These may occur after exposure to
acidic or highly colored foods (red wine, tomatoes, vinegar, and citrus) and even acidic or
abrasive cleaning products. While a matte marble finish can minimize the appearance of
imperfections, the glossy finish that most homeowners prefer on their countertops often shows
off every etch and stain.Still, the beauty of marble—and the value it adds to your kitchen or
bathroom—makes it worth a bit of extra trouble. When your marble surfaces have lost their
shine, the following procedures will bring back the glory of this classic stone.
Before tackling the cleaning and shining of r marble one needs to understand the two different
marble finishes before you fruitlessly try to restore a shine to one that’s not designed to be
glossy.
Honed marble has been sanded to create a velvety finish—not quite matte, but definitely not
shiny. Less slippery than polished marble, honed marble is very well suited for floors as it’s less
likely to scratch than polished marble and hides etching better than a shiny surface.
. The less porous option, this finish won’t stain as easily as honed marble might and does not
demand the same frequency of sealing. Plus, its shine offers a semi-reflective surface that is both
attractive and helps to create an illusion of more space than there is.
Today it is possible to transform a polished marble counter into a honed surface, or vice versa,
the project requires skill and experience and special equipment—in other words, it’s best to leave
this job to a professional with a stone polishing but in olden days natural elements were used to
polish marble.
– Soft rags
– Coconut kernels (Spongy)
– Razor blade
– Marble polishing powder
– Marble sealer
lemon
STEP 1: Start with a clean slate: Brush off crumb and dust particles, spray with water and wipe.
The first step to restoring your marble’s shine is to clean them. Of course, you probably whisk
away crumbs regularly and quickly wipe up any spills or splatters, but when it’s time to really
polish up your marble’s finish, you’ll go a little deeper than that.
Wipe your marble with a soft dry rag to remove dust and crumbs, then wet the surface with a
damp sponge. Whichever you choose, distribute the cleaner across the marble, buffing away any
spots of food or other debris. Vinegar, bleach, scrubs, or other harsh chemicals are not suited to
clean polished marble. Doing so can etch the polish, leaving you with dulled spots.
Use of a clean, damp rag, wipe the cleaner off the marble. Dry with a chamois or an unused thin
cloth.
STEP 2: Remove stains with a commercial or homemade poultice left to sit overnight.
Then marble with discolorations left behind need to treated them before moving on to polishing
slowly mixing one tablespoon of ammonia into a half-cup of hydrogen peroxide and slowly
adding just enough baking soda to make a thick, creamy texture this was known as poultice
which had to be spread over any stained areas using a clean paintbrush and covered with plastic
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wrap (edges taped down). Leave the poultice in place for 12 to 24 hours, after which you can
remove the plastic wrap and leave to dry out completely.
Carefully the crumbly poultice was scrape away with a razor blade without gouging or digging at
the marble surface. Remaining poultice residue was cleaned with a damp cloth, and then e the
marble wiped dry.
STEP 3: Buff out etching with a polishing powder.
Miinor etching were removed with a polishing powder made from non-reactive substance and
the etched areas wiped with a water-dampened cloth, and sprinkle a small amount of marble
polishing powder onto the etched spots. The powder was gently buffed into the blemishes with a
damp cloth followed with a clean, damp rag to remove the powder residue, then the marble
wiped dry to reveal its restored shine.
STEP 4: Seal the marble for shine and resistance to future staining and etching.
While sealing won’t completely prevent staining, this act will help your marble resist major
stains and boost its glossiness. Generally, one could seal your marble at least twice per year,
although performing the task each season will keep the marble looking their best. Sealing
Granite, Marble, & Natural Stone Countertops
Sealing granite, marble or natural stone countertops is a relatively easy process that usually takes
less than an hour.
You’ll need:
 A cleaner designed for natural stone
 Microfiber cloths
 Granite or natural stone sealer
Step 1: Deep Clean the Stone You Plan to Seal
Cleaning the counter well ahead of time will ensure you’re sealing only the counter and will help
the sealant absorb more evenly. There are several recipes for DIY granite and natural stone
cleaners, and there are also a wide variety of natural stone cleaners available in stores.
It’s a good idea to remove any stains as part of this cleaning process because the sealant will also
help to lock in stains — which, of course, is something you want to avoid.
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If you have a few problem stains you’d like to remove before sealing, start by identifying the
source of the stain. This will help you to treat it properly. The Natural Stone Institute provides
a detailed list of stains on natural stone, and how to remove them.
After cleaning, dry the counter thoroughly. If there is any doubt whether the stone is completely
dry, error on the side of caution. Sealers require very dry stone to perform at their highest.
You Might Also Like: How to Make Homemade Granite Countertop Cleaner
Step 2: Apply Sealer With a Soft Cloth, Lambs Wool or Soft Brush
Application of any sealer should be in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Some
manufacturers provide specific techniques and sealer amounts required for various stone types
and their finish ie polished, honed, flamed. Read the directions and inquire with a representative
for further clarity.
Some companies will recommend 1 coat and others may recommend 2 or more. An optimal
result with any manufacturer’s sealer is typically associated with the following:
1. Make yourself aware of any precautions listed by the manufacturer before you start your
project
2. ALWAYS TEST PRODUCT ON A SMALL AREA AND WAIT 24 HOURS FOR
DESIRED RESULTS
3. Start with a clean, dry stone
4. Apply the proper quantity of sealer
5. Allow for the manufacturers recommended dwell times between coats.
Applying the sealant itself is straightforward. However, a bit of preparation beforehand will save
you some trouble later.
Since sealants are applied as sprays, it will splatter on nearby surfaces if you don’t take
precautions. Protect any surfaces you don’t want sealant on. Use plastic wrap on faucets, sinks or
stovetops to protect them from the sealant.
We also think it’s a good idea to protect backsplashes and walls while you’re sealing. Just grab a
magazine (or any other thin material you don’t mind getting sealant on). Place it along the seam
between the wall and the counter while you’re sealing.
With homemade granite sealers, shake the spray bottle before use to ensure the ingredients are
well mixed. With commercial granite sealers, follow the instructions for mixing.
Once you’ve sprayed the counter, leave the sealant for approximately five minutes to allow it to
soak into the stone. If the stone sealer you’re using specifies a different length of time, follow the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
It’s best to apply sealer in small areas instead of over the whole surface at once. Since sealer
doesn’t stay on the counter for long, this will let you wipe it off when needed.
Step 3: Remove the Sealer
Next, remove the excess sealer from the areas you’ve sealed. Some of the sealant will be
absorbed by the stone itself. However, once a stone is sealed, there’s usually a bit of excess
sealant on the surface.
Using a soft cloth, wipe up any sealer left on the surface. We like microfiber cloths for this
purpose. They’ll soak up leftover sealer without leaving fiber on the counter. Do not let the
sealant dry on the counter.
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In some cases, you won’t have any sealer to remove. This means that the sealer has been fully
absorbed by the stone, and it’s possible the perfect amount of sealer has been applied. It is
always advised that the stone be thoroughly wiped down after the final application. In the event
you notice any residue, most manufacturers recommend using the sealer itself to re-activate and
wipe off any excess.
More likely, however, is that your natural stone counters could use another coating of sealer. If
this is the case, go on to step four.
Step 4: Apply Additional Coats of Sealant (As Needed )
Applying more than one coat of sealer is normal. In fact, in some cases it’s recommended to
ensure an even coverage.
The more porous the stone, the more likely you’ll need to apply additional coats of sealant.
Luckily, more absorbent stone also means less waiting time between coats of sealant.
In general, it’s a good idea to wait at least 15 minutes before applying a second coat of sealant.
This will allow the first layer to be fully absorbed by the stone. If you’re using a solvent-based
sealant, the stone should look dry before you apply the next layer of sealant. With water-based
sealants, the stone may still have a wet look.
Some sealants, particularly granite sealants, will recommend waiting at least 30 minutes between
applying coats of sealant. If the manufacturer’s instructions specify a different time period,
follow their recommendations.
How to Seal Granite Countertops
What Not to Use
When you’re sealing your granite countertops, there are various things you don’t want to use.
Avoid sealers with:
 Citrus ingredients
 Linseed oil
 Silicon based sealers
 Siloxane sealers
There are several recipes available online for DIY granite sealers that use either citrus solvents or
linseed oil (or both!). Avoid these recipes. Both citrus and linseed oil will discolor your granite.
That’s why we suggest you use mineral oil instead of citrus oil to test whether your counters
need sealing.
What to Use for Sealing a Granite Co untertop
The best sealers for granite will be:
 Impregnators or penetrating sealers
 Sealers with fluorocarbon aliphatic resins
 Sealers that are safe to use around food
Look for a sealant that’s designed especially for granite surfaces. These sealants are different
than a sealant designed for natural stone. Because granite is so dense, the solvents and resins
used in granite sealer need to be very lightweight.
The most effective granite sealants are usually called penetrating sealants or impregnators. These
sealants contain a resin, a carrier and a solvent. They soak into the stone via channels in the
surface.
You Might Also Like: Custom Stone Sinks
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By contrast, a surface sealer creates a hard barrier on top of the stone.
The resin used in granite sealer is critical to how well it works. Avoid linseed, silicon and
siloxane resins. Instead, look for a fluorocarbon aliphatic resin. They’ll last longer than other
resins, and they are more durable.
How to Seal Marble Countertops
What Not to Use
For marble countertops, there are also some ingredients you’ll need to avoid.
Avoid sealers with:
 Sealants with citrus solvents or ingredients
 Surface sealants
 Linseed oil
Not all marble needs to be sealed. Before sealing a marble countertop, test it with mineral oil or
water to make sure it really does need to be sealed.
Many people see etchings on marble, and they believe the stone needs to be sealed.
Unfortunately, sealing marble won’t help to prevent etchings. Etching is not a stain. It’s actually
a change in the chemical composition of the marble. This occurs when an acid comes into
contact with calcium.
Marble is a porous, calcium-based rock that reacts with acid. When acidic items, like lemons,
vinegar or even strawberries, come into contact with the marble, the acid and calcium interact to
create these dull spots.
That’s why it’s particularly important to avoid sealers with acidic ingredients like citrus solvent.
These will actually damage your counters.
Avoid linseed oil and tung oil as well. These will yellow over time, causing your once white
marble to look old and dirty. Although linseed oil is often touted as a non-toxic, non-VOC
sealant, marble is not the place to use it! Look for a non-toxic marble sealer instead.
What to Use for Sealing a Marble Countertop
Look for:
 Impregnators
 Acid resistant sealers
 Acid Resistant Coating – There are coatings on the market however most have a
reputation of cracking, chipping, peeling and/or discoloring
The best sealants will be designed especially for the stone you’re sealing. Look for a penetrating
sealer for marble. These are sometimes called marble and granite sealants.
If you’re sealing marble in the kitchen, we recommend that you look for a non-toxic marble
sealer. These are sometimes labeled as “food safe” sealants. Avoid sealants that specify use for
bathrooms and tiles, unless they specifically say “food safe.”
Honed marble tends to absorb more sealant than polished marble. And because marble is more
porous than some other natural stones, this can make a big difference. If possible, find a sealer
that’s designed for the appropriate finish your stone has.
What about water-based versus solvent-based sealants? Both will work on a marble surface, but
the best choice depends on what you want to accomplish. Solvent-based sealants are better at
repelling water. On the other hand, water-based sealants are better at repelling oil. Consider what
types of activities you usually use the surface for, and choose the sealant accordingly.
When Not to Seal Natural Stone Countertops
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There are some types of stone that don’t need to be sealed. Quartz fall into this category.
Although quartz is made from natural stone, it’s combined with a resin in the engineering
process. This resin means you won’t need to seal quartz. In fact, sealing quartz surfaces can
actually leave them with a hazy film.
Some other types of natural stone don’t need to be sealed, either. Dense granites, for example,
don’t always need sealing. In addition, sealing travertine, limestone as well as some marble is
recommended more for cosmetic reasons than for protective ones.
Professional Sealing for Natural Stone Surfaces
Over time, the resins and solvents in natural stone sealer will break down. This means that they’ll
need to be reapplied. Depending on the type of stone and its finish, sealants may need to be
reapplied every year. Others may need to be reapplied every three to five years.
For soapstone, the sealing is at the discretion as they may go without sealing, use of mineral oil,
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CHAPTER
Shikhara or Vimana of Jain Temples
NOTE: This is the first part of a series of articles that deal with the architecture of temples.
Pages 1 to 22 focus on introducing the temple architecture to the readers. Should you only
be interested in SHIKHARA or VIMANA please read directly from Page 23 onwards
VIMANA the flying chariots of Gods. Vimana Or Shikara is designed to represent these?
In this mega-article, we shall discuss about the Indian temple architecture and sculpture in detail.
Basic form of a Hindu temple
Temple architecture have been a gradual evolution starting from the rock cut- cave
temples to monolithic rathas which finally culminated in structural temples. Before we come to
the basic form of a Hindu structural temple we must consider the following architectural steps or
nuances:
Steps in Temple Construction 1. Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for
temple and town. The land should be fertile and soil suitable.
2. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image
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3. Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the
location is fit for town/temple construction.
4. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vaastu devata.
5. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out.
6. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone
7. Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug, water
mixed with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then the
temple is constructed.
8. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again involves
creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are placed.
9. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the place
of main deity.
10. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed.
11. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness.
THE GEOMETRY OF HINDU TEMPLE Vastupurashamandala is the square which
represents the earth and the circle represents the universe suggesting timelessness and infinity
(see Fig. below). The mandala is actually a square divided into smaller squares arranged in
the form of a grid. Each smaller square depicts the area of the respective Gods. The most
commonly used mandala is the square subdivided into 64 and 81 squares. Figure-: The image
of Vastupurushamandala with 64 blocks for different deities. See my detailed article on
Vastupurushamandala on academia.edu and researchgate.net
VINYASASUTRA (LAYOUT & ORIENTATION) of Ancient Temples: In Hindu temple
manuals, design plans are described with 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 up to 1024 squares; 1
pada is considered the simplest plan, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate on,
do yoga, or make offerings with Vedic fire in front. The second design of 4 padas has a
symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative layout. The 9 pada
design has a sacred surrounded center, and is the template for the smallest temple. Older
Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the 9 through 49 pada series, but 64 is considered the
most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. Figure-: Typical Temple Plan (a)Shrine alone
(b)Shrine with porch (c)Shrine with Antarala and porch. (d) Sarvatobhadra shrine with four
entrances Figure-: Typical Temple plan of temple : temple of Tanjavur
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Tanjavar layout plan above
The temple architecture portrays the advancement of ancient Indian building sciences. The
styles, design and geometry, structural system and construction materials and technology of the
Indian temples, their distinctive architectural styles of Hindu temples are all a ancient science
emulated temple after temple. It also focus on geometric excellence of the layout plans of the
ancient temples. The balance, hierarchy, regulation and symmetry like architectural concepts was
well developed in ancient India before thousand of years.
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Tanjavar
1. Garbhagriha:
 It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like a sanctum.
 In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.
 Later it grew into a larger complex.
 The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of
much ritual attention.
2. Mandapa:
 It is the entrance to the temple.
 It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that
incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.
 Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.
 Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa,
Mandapa, and Mahamandapa.
3. Shikhara or Vimana:
 They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.
 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
 Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.
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4. Amalaka:
 It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North
Indian temples.
5. Kalasha:
 It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.
6. Antarala (vestibule):
 Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall
(mandapa).
7. Jagati:
 It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.
8. Vahana:
 It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar
or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the sanctum.
Classification of Indian Temples
Indian temples can be classified into two broad orders as
 Nagara (in North India)
 Dravida (in South India)
 At times, the Vesara style of temples as an independent style created through the mixing
of Nagara and Dravida orders.
Sculptures, Iconography, and Ornamentation
 Iconography is a branch of art history which studies the images of deities.
 It consists of identification of image based on certain symbols and mythology associated
with them.
 Even though the fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may remain the same for
centuries, its specific usage at a spot can be a response to its local or immediate social,
political or geographical context.
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
Every region and period produce its own distinct style of images with its regional
variations in iconography.
 The temple is covered with elaborate sculptures and ornament that form a fundamental
part of its conception.
 The placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned: for instance, river goddesses
(Ganga and Yamuna) are visually found at the entrances in a Nagara
temple, Dwarapalas are usually found on the gateway or gopurams of Dravida
temples, similarly mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas ( the 9 auspicious planets) and
Yakshas are also placed at the entrances to guard them.
 Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls of the
sanctum.
 The ashtadikpalas (deities of direction) face eight key directions on the outer walls of the
sanctum and/or on the outer walls of the temple.
 Subsidiary shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of
the main deity.
 The various elements of ornamentation are gavaksha, vyala/ yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka,
kalasha, etc.
The Nagara or North Indian Temple Architecture
 Nagara is the style of temple architecture which became popular in Northern India.
 It is common here to build an entire temple on a stone platform with steps leading up to
it.
 Unlike in south India, it doesn’t usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
 Earliest temples had only one shikhara (tower), but in the later periods, multiple
shikharas came.
 The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.
Nagara temples can be subdivided mainly into three – based on the shikhara type.
1. Latina/ Rekha-Prasada:




It is the simple and most common type of shikhara.
It is square at the base and the walls curve or slopes inwards to a point on top.
Latina types are mainly used for housing the garbhagriha.
Later on, the Latina buildings grew complex, and instead of appearing like a single tower,
the temple began to support many small towers, which were clustered together like
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rising mountain type with the tallest one being in the centre, and this was the one which
was always above the garbhagriha.
2. Phamsana type shikhara:


They are broader and shorter than Latina type.
Their roof is composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre
of the building, unlike the Latina ones which look like sharply rising towers.
 Phamsana roofs do not curve inwards; instead, they slope upward on a straight incline.
 In many north Indian temples, the phamsana type is used for mandapas while the main
garbhagriha is housed in a Latina building.
3. Valabhi type shikhara:
 These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
 The edge of the vaulted chamber is round, like the bamboo or wooden wagons that would
have been drawn by bullocks in ancient times.
 The form of this temple is influenced by ancient building forms that were already in
existence.
We can also classify the Nagara Temples on the basis of region as follows:
Central India
 In the later periods, the temples grew from simple four pillared structures to a large
complex.
 This means that similar developments were incorporated in the architecture of temples of
both the religions.
 Two such temples that survive are; temple at Udaygiri which is on the outskirts of
Vidisha (it is a part of a large Hindu temple complex) and a temple at Sanchi, which
was a Buddhist site.
 The early temples were modest looking shrines each have four pillars that support a small
mandapa before an equally small room that served as garbhagriha.
 Some of the oldest surviving structural temples of Gupta period are in Madhya Pradesh.
 The ancient temple sin UP, MP and Rajasthan share many traits and the most visible is
that they are made of Sandstone.
1. DASHAVATARA VISHNU TEMPLE, DEOGARH, UP:
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
Even though the patrons and donors of the temple are unknown, it is believed that this
temple was built in the early 6th century CE.
 This is a classical example of the late Gupta period.
 This temple is in the Panchayatana style of architecture. [Panchayatana is an
architectural style where the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four
smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners and making it a total of five shrines – i.e.,
Pancha]
 There are 3 main reliefs of Vishnu on the temple walls.
 In fact, it is not actually known to whom the four subsidiary shrines were originally
dedicated.
 The temple depicts Vishnu in various forms due to which it was assumed that the four
subsidiary shrines must also house Vishnu’s avatars and the temple was mistaken for a
dashavatara temple.
 The grand doorway of the west facing temple (west facing is less common) has the
sculptures of Ganga on the left and Yamuna on the right side.
 The shikhara is in latina/ prasada style which makes it clear that this is an early example
of a classical nagara style of the temple.
 Sheshayana – on the south (Vishnu reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta)
 Nara-Narayana – on the east (discussion between human soul and the eternal divine)
 Gajendramoksha – on the west (story of achieving moksha , symbolically
communicated by Vishnu’s suppression o an asura who had taken the form of an
elephant)
 The temple is west facing, which is less common, as most of the temples are east or north
facing.
2. TEMPLES AT KHAJURAHO, MADHYA PRADESH:
 The temples at Khajuraho were made in the 10th century, about 400 years after the temple
at Deogarh and the complex is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 The temples were patronized by Chandela kings.
 We can see how dramatically the shape and style of the nagara temple architecture had
developed.
 The temples at Khajuraho are all made of Sandstone.
 The largest temple at Khajuraho is the Kandariya Mahadeva temple which is attributed to
king Ganda.
 The Lakshmana temple dedicated to Vishnu was built in 954 by Chandela king, Dhanga.
 All the towers or shikhara of the temple rise high, upward in a curved pyramidal fashion,
emphasizing the temple’s vertical thrust ending in a horizontal fluted disc called an
Amalaka topped with a Kalasha or a vase.
 The crowning element Kalasha and Amalaka are to be found on all nagara temples of this
period.
 The Khajuraho temples are also known for their extensive erotic sculptures (about 10%
of total sculptures); the erotic expression gives equal importance in human experience as
a spiritual pursuit, and it is seen as a part of the larger cosmic whole.
 Many Hindu temples, therefore feature Mithuns (embracing couples-erotic sculptures)
sculptures, considered auspicious.
 Khajuraho sculptures are highly stylized with typical features.
 There are many temples at Khajuraho, most of them dedicated to Hindu gods.
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

There are some Jain temples as well as a Chausanth Yogini temple.
Chausanth Yogini is a temple of small square shrines dedicated to esoteric devis or
goddesses associated with the rise of Tantric worship after the 7th
 [Khajuraho dance festival is organized by MP Kalaparishad and is one week long (first
week of February) festival of classical dances celebrated annually against the
spectacular backdrop of Khajuraho]
West India
 There are too numerous temples in the northwestern parts of India, including Gujarat and
Rajasthan, and stylistically extendable, at times, to western Madhya Pradesh.
 The stones to build temples ranges in colour and type.
 While sandstone is the commonest, a grey to black basalt can be seen in some of the
10th to 12th-century temple sculptures.
 The most exuberant and famed are the manipulatable soft white marble which is also seen
in some of the 10th to 12th-century Jain temples in Mount Abu and the 15th-century
temple at Ranatpur.
 Among the most important art, historical sites in the region are Samlaji in Gujarat.
 It shows how earlier artistic traditions of the region mixed with a post-Gupta style and
gave rise to a distinct style of sculpture.
 A large number of sculptures made of grey schist have been found in this region.
1. SUN TEMPLE, MODHERA, GUJARAT:
 The temple dates back to the early 11th century and was built by Raja Bhimdev I of
the Solanki dynasty.
 The Solanks were a branch off later Chalukyas.
 There is a massive rectangular stepped tank called Surya Kund in front of it.
 The hundred square metre rectangular pond is perhaps the grandest temple tank in India.
A hundred and eight miniature shrines are carved in between the steps inside the tank. A huge
ornamental arch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assembly hall) which is open on all
sides, as was the fashion of the times in western and central India temples.
East India
 East Indian temples include those found in the North-East, Bengal, and Odisha and each
of these three areas produces a distinct type of temple.
 The history of architecture in the northeast and Bengal is hard to study because a number
of ancient buildings in those regions were renovated, and what survives now is later
brick or concrete temples at those sites.
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MODHERA TEMPLE


It appears that terracotta was the main medium of construction.
A large number of sculptures have been found in Assam and Bengal, which shows the
development of important regional schools in those regions.
ASSAM:
 An old 6th century sculpted door frame from DaParvatia near Tezpur and another few
stray sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness to the
import of the Gupta idiom in that region.
 The post-Gupta style continued in the region well in the 10th
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However, by the 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct regional style developed in Assam.
The style that came with the migration of the Tais from upper Burma mixed with the
dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to the creation of what was later known as
the Ahom style in and around Guwahati.
 Kamakhya temple, a Shakti peeth, is dedicated to goddess Kamakhya and was built in the
17th century.
BENGAL:
 The style of sculptures during the period between the 9th and 11th centuries in Bengal
(including Bangladesh) and Bihar is known as the Pala style, named after the ruling
dynasty at that time.
 That style in the mid 11th and mid 13th centuries is named after the Sena kings.
 While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of Buddhist monastic sites, the temple of the
region is known to express the Vanga style.
 The Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Burdwan, W.B, built in the 9th century, shows a
tall curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka, is an example of early Pala style.
 Many of the temples from 9th to 12th centuries were located at Telkupi in Puruta district,
W.B.
 They were submerged when dams were constructed in the region.
 The architecture of these temples heavily influenced the earliest Bengal Sultanate
buildings at Gaur and Pandya.
 Many local vernacular building traditions of Bengal also influenced the style of the
temple in that region.
 The most prominent of these was the shape of the sloping or curving side of the
bamboo roof of a Bengali hut.
 This feature was eventually even adopted in Mughal buildings and is known as across
India as the Bangla Roof (word Bungalow derived from this).
ODISHA (KALINGIA ARCHITECTURE):
The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders:
A. REKHAPIDA/ REKHA DEULA/ RATHAKA DEULA:


Rekha means line and it is a tall straight building with a shape of a sugar loaf. It covers the
garbhagriha.
B. PIDHADEULA:
It is a square building with a pyramid shaped roof and is mainly found
for housing the outer dancing and offering halls.
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C. KHAKRADEULA:
It is a rectangular building with a truncated pyramid shaped roof. Temples of
the female deities are usually in this form (garbhagriha usually) and will have a resemblance
with Dravidian temples of the south.
 Most of the ancient temples are located in ancient Kalinga – modern Puri district,
including Bhuvaneswar or ancient Tribhuvaneswar, Puri, and Konark.
 The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct sub-style within nagara order.
 In general, here the Shikhara called Deul in Odisha is vertical almost until
the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards.
 Mandapas in Odisha are called Jagamohanas.
 The ground plan of the main temple is almost always square, which, in the upper reaches
of its superstructure becomes circular in the crowning
 The exterior of the temple is lavishly curved while their interiors are generally quite bare.
 Odisha temples usually have outer walls.
1. Sun temple, Konark, Odisha:
 It is built around 1240 on the shores of the Bay of Bengal.
 The temple is set on a high base, its walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental
carving.
 These include 12 pairs of enormous wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs, representing
the chariot wheels of the sun God who, in mythology, rides a chariot driven by 8 horses,
sculpted here at the entrance staircase.
 The whole temple thus comes to resemble a colossal processional chariot.
 On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of Surya carved out of green stones.
 It is said that there were 3 such images, carved out of a different stone placed on the three
temple walls, each facing different directions.
 The fourth wall had the doorway into the temple from where the actual rays of the sun
would enter the garbhagriha.
2. Jagannatha temple, Puri, Odisha:
 It is also located on the eastern coast, at Puri, Odisha.
 The temple is a part of Char Dham (Badrinath, Dwaraka, Puri, Rameswaram)
pilgrimages that a Hindu is expected to make in one’s lifetime.
 When most of the deities in the temples of India are made of stone or metal, the idol of
Jagannatha is made of wood which is ceremoniously replaced in every twelve or
nineteen years by using sacred trees.
 The temple is believed to be constructed in the 12th century by King Anatavarman
Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
 The temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra or Chariot festival.
The Hills
 A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and
Kashmir.
 Kashmir’s proximity to Gandhara site (such as Taxila, Peshawar and northwest frontier)
left the region a strong Gandhara influence by the 5th century CE.
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
This began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that brought to it from
Sarnath, Mathura, and even centres in Gujarat and Bengal.
 Both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills.
 The hills also had their own tradition of wooden building with pitched roofs and as a
result, while the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in latina/rekha-prasada type,
the mandapa is an older form of wooden architecture.
 Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda shape.
 The Karkota period of Kashmir is the most significant in terms of architecture.
 The most important temples of these regions are Pandrethan, Laksna-devi Mandir,
Jageswar near Almora, Chambavat near Pithoragarh, etc.
The Dravida or South Indian Temple Architecture
 Unlike the nagara temple, the Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
 The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopura/
Gopuram.
 The shape of the main temple tower is known as Vimana (shikhara in nagara style).
 The vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving
shikhara of north India.
 In south India, the word Shikhara is used only for the crowning element at the top of the
temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola (this is
equivalent to the amalaka or kalasha of north Indian temples).

In north Indian temples, we can see images such as Mithunas (erotic) and the river
goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna guarding the temple. But in the Dravida style of temple
architecture, instead of these sculptures, we can see the sculptures of fierce dvarapalas
or door keepers guarding the temple.
 A large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed in the complex is general in south
Indian temples.
 Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower or located as a
distinct, separate small shrine beside the main temple.
 The north Indian idea of multiple shikharas rising together as a cluster was not popular in
Dravida style.
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
At some of the most sacred temples in south India, the main temple in which the
garbhagriha is situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers.
 This is because it is usually the oldest part of the temple.
 When the population and the size of the town associated with the temple increased, it
would have become necessary to make a new boundary wall around the temple (and
also associated structures).
 An example for this is the Srirangam temple at Thiruchirapally, which has as many as
seven concentric rectangular enclosure walls, each with gopurams.
 The outermost is the oldest while the tower right in the centre housing the garbhagriha is
the oldest.
 Just as the nagara architecture has subdivisions, dravida temples also have subdivisions.
These are basically of five different shapes:
1. Kuta or caturasra – square
2. Shala or ayatasra – rectangular
3. Gaja-prishta or vrittayata (elephant backed) –elliptic
4. Vritta – circular
5. Ashtasra – octagonal
PALLAVAS:
 The Pallavas were one of the ancient south Indian dynasties that were active in Andhra
region from the 2nd century onwards and moved south to settle in Tamil Nadu.
 Their history is better documented in the inscriptions in stone and several monuments.
 Although they were mostly Shaivites, several Vaishnava shrines also survived from the
reign, and there is no doubt that they were influenced by the long Buddhist history of the
Deccan.
 The early buildings of Pallavas were rock-cut; while the later ones were structural
(structural buildings were well known to them when rock cut ones being excavated).
 The early buildings are generally attributed to Mahendravarman I, contemporary of
Chalukya king, Pulikeshi II of Karnataka.
 Narasimhavarman I, who was also known as Mamalla, acceded the throne around 640
CE.
 He expanded the empire and also inaugurated most of the building work at
Mahabalipuram which is known after him as Mamallapuram.
THE SHORE TEMPLE AT MAHABALIPURAM, TAMIL NADU
 It is a structural temple and was built during the reign of Narasimhavarman II, also
known as Rajasimha.
 The temple is facing east towards the sea and has three shrines – east and west to Shiva
and the middle for Vishnu (Anantashayana).
 This is unusual because temples generally have a single main shrine and not three areas
of worship. This shows that it was probably not originally conceived like this and
different shrine may be added at different times.
 In the compound, there is an evidence of a water tank, an early example of a gopuram,
and several other images.
 Sculpture of the bull, Nandi, Shiva’s mount, lines the temple walls.
 The temple has suffered severe disfiguration due to erosion by salt water laden air over
the centuries.
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The Pallava temple architecture can be classified into four groups according to the rulers and the
features of temples they constructed.
a. Mahendravarman Group:
 Early temples of the Pallavas belong to King Mahendravarman I (7th century).
 They were rock-cut temples (may be influenced by rock-cut architecture).
 g. Manndagapattu, Mahendravadi, Tircuchirapally, etc.
b. Narasimha/Mamalla Group:
 It is the second stage of Pallava architecture which started when Narasimhavarman I
(Mamalla) came to the throne.
 The architecture is represented by Monolithic rocks.
 The monolithic rathas and mandapas of Mamallapuram are examples.
 The five rathas are popularly known as Panchapandava rathas.
c. Rajasimha Group:
 The group was under Narasimhavarman II who was also known as Rajasimha.
 He introduced the structural temples and Gopura style in Pallava architecture.
 The Kailasnath temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram are examples.
d. Nandivaram Group:
 Architecture mainly under the Pallava king, Nandivaram Pallava.
 They also represented structural temples.
 The temples were generally small compared to the other groups.
 The Vaikundaperumal temple, Tirunelveli and Mukteswara temple are examples.
Cholas
 The best example of Chola temple architecture is the Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore.
 The temple is also known as Rajarajeswara temple.
 It was completed around 1009 by Rajaraja Chola and is the largest and tallest of all
Indian temples.
 The temples pyramidal multi-storeyed Vimana rises a massive seventy metres, topped by
a monolithic shikhara, and the kalasha on top by itself is about three metres and eight
centimetres in height.
 The main deity of the temple is Shiva, who is shown as a huge lingam set in a two
storeyed sanctum.
 Painted Murals and sculptures decorate the walls surrounding the sanctum.
The Vesara or the Deccan Temple Architecture
 The buildings in the Deccan region are hybridized style, which contains both elements
from nagara and Dravida architectural styles and is known in some ancient texts as
the Vesara style (not all temples of Deccan are the vesara type).
 The vesara style became popular after the mid 7th century.
Chalukyas
1. Ravan Phadi cave, Aihole, Karnataka:
 The Ravan Phadi cave at Aihole is an example of the early Chalukya style which is
known for its distinct sculptural style.
 One of the most important sculptures at the site is of Nataraja, surrounded by a large
depiction of saptamatrikas: three to Shiva’s left and four to his right.
2. Lad Khan Temple at Aihole, Karnataka:
 The temple is dedicated to Shiva and is one of the oldest Hindu temples.
 Built in the 5th century by the Kings of the Chalukya Dynasty.
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It seems to be inspired by the wooden – roofed temples of the hills except that it is
constructed out of stone.
 The temple is named after a person named Lad Khan, who turned this temple into his
residence for a short period.
3. Durga Temple at Aihole, Karnataka:
 The temple is built in between 7th and 8th century.
 The architecture of the temple is predominantly Dravida with Nagara style also in certain
areas.
 The temple is considered as a unique and magnificent temple of the Chalukya period.
 The Lad Khan Temple of Aihole is located to its South.
4. Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka:
 There are ten temples at Pattadakkal including a Jain temple and is a UNESCO
world Heritage Site.
 A fusion of various architectural styles can be seen here.
 Out of ten temples, four are in Dravida style, four are in nagara style and one is a Jain
temple, while the Papanatha Temple is built in a fusion of both nagara and Dravida
styles.
 The Jain temple (Jain Narayana temple) was built by Rashtrakutas in the 9th
 The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal is also known as Sri-Lokeswar-Maha-Sila-Prasad,
was built by Loka Mahadevi, the Queen of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733-44).
 It was probably built around 740 CE to commemorate her husband’s victory over the
Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
 It closely resembles the Kailasnath temple at Kanchipuram on plan and elevation.
 It represents a fully developed and perfect stage of the Dravida architecture.
Rashtrakutas
 By about 750 CE, the early western Chalukya control of the Deccan was taken by the
Rashtrakutas.
 Their greatest achievement in architecture is the Kailasnath Temple at Ellora.
 The Jain temple at Pattadakkal was also built by Rashtrakutas.
Hoyasalas
 With the waning Chola and Pandya power, the Hoyasalas of Karnataka grew into
prominence in south India and became the most important patrons centred at Mysore.
 The three main temples of Hoyasala are the temples at Belur, Halebid and
Somanathpuram.
 The most characteristic feature of these temples is that they grow extremely complex
with so many projecting angles emerging from the previously straightforward square
temple so that the plan of these temples starts looking like a star.
 As the plan looks like a star, it is known as stellate plan.
 They are usually made out of soapstone.
Temples at Halebid, Karnataka:
 The temple is also known as Hoyasaleswara temple.
 Built in dark schist stone by the Hoyasala king Vishnuvardhan in 1150.
 Dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja and contains a large hall for the mandapa to facilitate
music and dance.
 In the bottom frieze of the temple featuring a continuous procession of hundreds of
elephants with their mahouts, no two elephants are in the same position.

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Vijayanagara
 The Vijayanagara Empire, which was founded in the 14th century, attracted a number of
international travelers such as the Italian, Nicoclo di Conti, the Portuguese Domingo
Paes, Fernao Nuniz and Duarte Barbosa and the Afghan Abd, al- Razzaq, who have left
vivid accounts of the city.
 Architecturally, Vijayanagara synthesizes the centuries old dravida temple architecture
with Islamic styles demonstrated by the neighbouring Sultanates.
 Their sculptures too, which were consciously seeking to recreate Chola ideals,
occasionally shows the presence of foreigners.
Buddhist and Jain Architectural Developments
The period of 5th to 14th centuries was not only the period of the development of Hindu temples
but also were the equally vibrant period for the Buddhist and Jain architectures.
Buddhist Architecture
 When the Gupta empire crumbled in the 6th century CE, the eastern region of Bihar and
Bengal, historically known as Magadha, appears to have remained unified whilst
numerous small Rajput principalities sprang up to the west.
 In the 8th century, the Palas came to power in the region.
 The 2nd Pala ruler, Dharmapala, became immensely powerful and established an empire
by defeating the powerful Rajput Pratiharas.
 Dharmapala consolidated an empire whose wealth lay in a consolidation of agriculture
along the fertile Ganges plain and international trade.
BODHGAYA, BIHAR:
 Bodhgaya became a pilgrimage site since Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here and
became Gautama Buddha.
 The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is an important reminder of the brickwork of that
time.
 The first shrine here, located at the base of the Bodhi Tree, is said to have been
constructed by King Ashoka.
 The vedika (fence) around it is said to be Post-Mauryan, of about 100 BCE.
 Many sculptures in the temple are dated to the 8th century Pala period.
 The actual Mahabodhi temple as it stands now is largely a colonial period reconstruction
of the old 7th
 The design of the temple is unusual and is neither Dravida nor nagara style.
NALANDA, BIHAR:
 The monastic University of Nalanda is a Mahavihara as it is a complex of several
monasteries of various sizes.
 Only a small portion of this ancient learning centre has been excavated till date, as most
of it lies buried under contemporary civilization, making further excavations almost
impossible.
 Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the records of Xuan Zang/Hsuan
Tsang (Chinese traveller).
 It states that the foundation of the monastery was laid by Kumaragupta I in the
5th century CE.
 All three Buddhist doctrines – Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana – were taught here.
 Monks came to here from the different regions of the world such as China, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Burma, etc.
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
Monks and pilgrims who came here take back small sculptures and illustrated
manuscripts to their homeland, which resulted in a decisive impact on the arts of the
Buddhist countries in Asia.
 The sculptural art of Nalanda was developed out of a heavy dependence on the Buddhist
Gupta art of Sarnath.
 The Sculptures were mainly made in stucco, stone, and bronze.
 By the 9th century, Nalanda school of sculpture was formed which was characterized by
distinctive facial features, body forms, and treatment of clothing and jewellery.
 The Nalanda sculptures initially depict Buddhist deities of the Mahayana tradition, such
as standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas, etc.
 During the 11th and 12th centuries, Nalanda emerged as an important tantric centre and the
sculptures during that period dominated by deities of Vajrayana tradition, such as
Vajrasharada (a form of Saraswati), Khasarpana, Avalokiteswara, etc.
 Various Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda.
Jain Architecture
 Jains were also prolific temple builders like Hindus and their sacred shrines and
pilgrimage spots can be found across the country.
 The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in Bihar.
 In the Deccan, some of the most architecturally important Jain sites can be found at
Ellora and Aihole.
 Karnataka has a rich heritage of Jain shrines and the Sravana Belagola, the famous
statue of the Gomateswara, the granite statue of Lord Bahubali which stands
eighteen metre, is the world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
 It was commissioned by Camundaraya, the General-in-Chief and Prime Minister of the
Ganga Kings of Mysore.
 Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since early times.
 The Jain temples at Mount Abu (Dilwara Temples) were constructed by Vimal
Shah.
 One can see a complex of temples carved of white marble
 The temples are famous for its unique patterns on very ceilings, and graceful bracket figs
along the domed ceiling.
Introduction to the SHIKARA: During the Gupta Empire, when Buddhist practices began to
fuse with the surviving Vedic practices of pre-Buddhist times, Which lead to new and wellorganized religion that we now call Hinduism. The Gupta revival of a transformed Vedic
Hinduism was a skillful exercise in adaptation and invention. Vedic institutions were
reinvented to serve the purposes of their new champions. Old fire sacrifices were transformed
into courtly ritual, oral Vedic literatures were rewritten to integrate contemporary social and
cultural norms. Vedic gods were supplanted by new, more agential and personal gods—
particularly Shiva and Vishnu.
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Sanskrit became the language of the court and the medium of an official high culture that
revolved around the reinvented institution of the temple. Though the new Hinduism
challenged Buddhism theologically, the latter’s institutions and practices were assimilated
into the Hindu temple. Buddhist practices were not prohibitedin fact, their institutions
continued to thrive. By this time, the Buddhists were themselves routinely making stone
images of the Buddha.
To start with in Hindu worship, the antarala (doorway or threshold) between the garbha griha and a mandapa marks the all- important moment of transition at which the worshipper
and the deity come into direct visual contact and enact the critical transaction called darshana
(“beholding of an auspicious deity”). A sanctum inside the Hoysaleshwara templein Halebidu
the whole temple can be considered a two-way portal between the worlds of the worshipper
and the deity. In essence, the deity descends into the lingam or statue while the worshipper
ascends to the sacred threshold. The deity is considered to be a guest in the world of the
worshipper.
The Hindu temple Temple Architecture of architecture developed over two thousand India
years. It is said thatbthe architectural evolution of the indian temples took place within the
rigid frameworks derived entirely from religious thoughtfulness. Therefore the architect was
bound to keep to the ancient primary dimensions and strict configurations, which remained
unaltered over the period of time.
The architectural elements and decorative details in the temple had their origin in the early
wood, timber and thatch buildings.It had persisted for centuries in one form or another in the
stone structures even though the original purpose and context was lost. This can be studied
from the horseshoe shaped window. The origin of this type of window can be traced from the
chaitya arch doorway first at the Lomash Rishi cave in the Barabar Hills used in the 3rd
century BC.It was transformed later into a dormer window known as a gavaksha and
eventually it was used strictly as the decorative design of interlaced forms seen on the towers
of medieval temples.
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The architect and sculptor were given a plenty of freedom in the ornamentation and
decoration of the temples. This resulted in an overwhelming riches of architectural elements,
sculptural forms and decorative ebullience that is the characteristic feature of Indian temple
architecture has few analogues in the aesthetic manifestation of the whole world.
The distinct architectural styles of temple construction of the north India and the south India
was the result of the broad geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic
differences resulted, from early on, in.The Vastu Shastras, the ancient canonical texts on
architecture, classify temples into three different orders: the Nagara or the Indo-Aryan or
Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style and the Vesara or Mixed style of temple
architecture.There are also definite regional styles in peripheral areas like Bengal, Kerala and
the Himalayan areas.
In the early years, when the temple building had just begun, the shape of their superstructures
can distinguish the two styles. The most significant difference between the later northern and
southern styles are the gateways. The shikhara in the north Indian temples remained the most
prominent component of the temple and the gateway was ordinarily unassuming. In the south
Indian temples, the enclosure walls were built around the whole complex.• Elaborate and
often magnificent gateways called gopurams were ideally set along the east-west and northsouth axes of these walls, which led the devotees into the sacred courtyard. Less obvious
differences between the two main temple types include the ground plan; the selection and
positioning of stone-carved deities on the outside walls and the interior, and the range of
decorative elements that are sometimes so numerous as to almost obscure the underlying
architecture.
Parts of a Hindu temple:
Examples The best examples of the north Indian style of temple architecture are the
Khajuraho Group of temples, Sun temple, Konark, Surya temple, Modhera, Gujarat and
Ossian temple, Ossian, Gujarat.
The finest examples of Dravidian style are temples of Tanjore, Madurai, Mahabalipuram,
Badami, Pattadakal and Kanchipuram.
Sikhara”refers to the spire or the tower. It is shaped as pyramidal and tapering representing
the mythological “Meru” or the highest mountain peak. The shikhara marks the vertical axis
in the form of the cosmic mountain. Its purpose is to enable the worshipper to visualize the
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order of the complete universe as described by Hindu cosmogony. A shikhara, therefore, is a
three- dimensional model of the Hindu cosmos. All temples culminate in a finial, the
conceptual center of the structure. From there, the “cosmos” splays outward, cascading down
the building along radial lines.
Shikhara ( Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain peak", refers to the
rising tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India, and also often used in Jain
temples. A shikhara over the garbhagriha chamber where the presiding deity is enshrined is
the most prominent and visible part of a Hindu temple of North India.
In South India, the equivalent term is vimana; unlike the shikhara, this refers to the whole
building, including the sanctum beneath. In the south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of
the vimana only, which is usually a dome capped with a finial; this article is concerned with
the northern form. The southern vimana is not to be confused with the elaborate gatewaytowers of south Indian temples, called gopuram, which are often taller and more prominent
features in large temples.
The vertical axis: the mountain as a link between the upper and lower worlds The axis of
access Sikhara or tower. Shikharas conceived of as solid and are for the most part, even
though for structural reasons some may have internal hollows. The actual geometries of the
shikhara are determined by its mandala, or astrological diagram. They can best be understood
ood, as Adam Hardy has recently described, as complex assemblages of mini-temples, or
aediculae, intended to depict the composite nature of the Hindu cosmos.
During the 6th and 7th centuries, Hindu architecture in South Asia entered an experimental
phase, and rock-cut temples competed for prominence with the new structural-stone and
brick temples. The plethora of styles and approaches was a product of the numerous
kingdoms, that of Harshavardhana (606– 47 CE ) in the north, and, moving southward, the
Chalukyas, the Pallavas, the Cholas, and the Pandyas. An interesting comparison can be
made between two 6th-century Gupta period temples: the Shiva shrine on Elephanta Island, a
rock-cut structure built by Shaivite monks for their own use, and the Dasavatara Vishnu
Temple at Deogarh, a brick-and-stone structure built for a large devotee population.
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Deogarh is a new invention a shrine constructed with rock to appear as if it is monolithic (i.e.,
rock-cut). The Deogarh has a representational mountain as its shikhara, begin with a square
garbha-griha. Deogarh would have had originally held an image of Vishnu, Deogarh is
accessible only from the west (the direction of Vishnu) and has three implied doors (ghanadwaras, literally “blind doors”) along its remaining cardinal directions. Deogarh’s main shrine is
at the center of a nine-square mandala, with four subsidiary shrines interlocked at its corners.
In North Indian temple architecture, the superstructure, tower, or spire above the sanctuary and
also above the pillared mandapas (porches or halls); it is the most dominant and characteristic
feature of the Hindu temple in the north. The North Indian shikhara is basically of two types: (1)
the latina, curvilinear in outline, the type most usually found above the sanctuary; and (2)
the phamsana, rectilinear in outline and capped by a bell-shaped member, the form more usually
found above the mandapa.
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The latina shikhara is composed of a series of horizontal roof slabs gradually receding
toward the top and provided with projections that extend from the base and wall of the
temple. The surface of the shikhara is covered with a vinelike tracery composed of
diminutive chandrashalas
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(ogee arches). Above the truncated top (skandha) projects a necking on which rests a large
grooved disk (amalasaraka), and above it sits a pot with a crowning finial. Each story is
indicated by miniature amalasarakas at the four corners, repeated all the way to the top.
The latina shikhara has two further variations: the shekhari and the bhumija.
The shekhari consists of the central latina spires with one or more rows of half spires added on
either side and miniature shikharas clustered along the base and corners. The shekhari was
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popular from the 10th century onward and can be observed on most Central Indian temples;
the Lakshmana and Kandarya Mahadeva temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, have excellent
examples.
The bhumija variation has a flat vertical projection in the centre of each of the four sides, the
quadrants between being filled with rows of miniature shrines all the way up to the top of the
tower. The bhumija temple was particularly popular in Malwa, in the western part of Madhya
Pradesh, and in the Deccan; an example is the 11th-century Udayeshvara temple at Udayapur,
Madhya Pradesh.
According to South Indian architecture texts, the term shikhara is reserved for the dome-shaped
crowning cap, though art historians have generally used the term to designate all temple spires,
north and south. The South Indian spire, known as the kutina type, is quite different in shape
from the North Indian shikhara, having a pyramidal storied arrangement, with each story
(bhumi) stepped and relatively realistically delineated. The other forms of the Shikara are :
Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets
called urushringa echoing the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may be
more than one size of these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets are
typically near the ends of the face or on the corners.
Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to the top,
creating a grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly vertical in overall
shape, often approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the northern Deccan and West
India.
The early history of the Hindu shikhara is unclear, but the Buddhist Mahabodhi
Temple at Bodh Gaya has a straight-sided shikhara tower over 55 metres (180 feet) high, with
an amalaka near the top. The current structure dates from the Gupta Empire, in the 5th–6th
century CE. When the temple acquired its shikhara tower, today considered more characteristic
of Hindu temples, is uncertain.
However the current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple may represent a restoration of earlier
work of the 2nd or 3rd century CE. A plaque from Kumrahar dated 150-200 CE, based on its
dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of Huvishka coins, already shows the
Mahabodhi Temple in its current shape with a stepped truncated pyramid and a stupa finial on
top, together with devotional images of the Buddha and the elephant-crowned Pillar of
Ashoka next to the entrance. It is thought that this shape of a truncated pyramid was derived
from the design of the stepped stupas which had developed in Gandhara, as seen in the stupas
of Jaulian, with an elongated structure formed of a succession of steps with niches containing
Buddha images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars, and topped by a stupa.
By at least 600 CE in Odisha, and perhaps somewhat later in the Deccan Plateau and West
India, the Latina form of the shikhara is well-established, with an amalaka disk-stone at the top,
and then a kalasha urn. There is often a sukanasa feature over the entrance door.
The forms with smaller subsidiary spires begin in the 10th century, and from then on tend to
predominate. The Khajuraho Group of Monuments has several early forms from early in the
century, though Latina ones reappear after about 1050, in examples like the Vamana
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Temple. The bhumija spire probably first appears around 1000-1025, with other temples begun
in the 1050s, such as the Shiv Mandir, Ambarnath
Homogeneous Shikhara (but with rathas) of the Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar
Shikharas form an element in the many styles of Hindu temple architecture, of which the three
most common are:
 the Nagara style prevalent in northern India. The shikhara is a high curved shape, and so
called. In the north-east, the local term deul or deula is more often used, both for towers and
often the whole temple. In Odisha a Rekha Deula is the sanctum and the tower over
it; gandi is also a term for the upper tower only, equating to shikhara. In Odisha the curve is
very slight until the top, and the amalaka rather large, typically supported by four lion
sculptures facing out.[20] Of the many temples in Bhubaneswar, only the Rajarani Temple has
significant spirelets.
 the Vesara style, a synthesis of the two others, seen mostly in Karnataka and most commonly
in Hoysala and later Chalukya temples. In the vesara style, the tower moves towards a lower
conical shape, with highly ornate carving.
 the Dravidian style prevalent in southern India : The equivalent of the shikhara is the vimana.
The superstructure above the sanctum is typically more like a four-sided pyramid in overall
shape, consisting of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions (talas), with a profile that is
normally straight rather than curved. The Dravidian superstructure is generally highly ornate.
In every style of shikhara/vimana, the structure culminates with a "kalasha", or urn for offerings,
or water-pot, at its peak.
Mini Shikhara the Indian temple 'orders Indo-Aryan (north)Sculpture on a mass scale has these
repeating themselves Dravida (south) 2 types making up little structural inventiveness or
technical ingenuity. These structure of massive blocks one on top of the other ensured stability
without using mortar Fine appreciation of mass & value & effects of shadow to a marked degree
can be seen here. Sikhara tower in Nagara temples have a sloping curve as they rise • have
decorative arches known as gavakshas and are topped by an amalaka – a large fluted stone disk –
and also a small pot and finial • walls of Nagara temples present a complex exterior of
projections (ratha), with seven on each side which create many recesses.
Another name for the Shikhara is Vimana which is the structure over the garbhagriha or inner
sanctum in the Hindu temples of South India and Odisha in East India. In typical temples of
Odisha using the Kalinga style of architecture, the vimana is the tallest structure of the temple, as
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it is in the shikhara towers of temples in West and North India. By contrast, in large South Indian
temples, it is typically smaller than the great gatehouses or gopuram, which are the most
immediately striking architectural elements in a temple complex. A vimana is usually shaped as
a pyramid, consisting of several stories or tala. Vimana are divided in two groups: jati
vimanas that have up to four tala and mukhya vimana that have five tala and more.
In North Indian temple architecture texts, the superstructure over the garbhagriha is called
a shikhara. However, in South Indian Hindu architecture texts, the term shikhara means a domeshaped crowning cap above the vimana.
A typical Hindu temple in Dravidian style have gopuram in the four directions i.e. East - main
entrance, North and south - side entrances, West - only opened on auspicious day where it is
believed we will go directly to Heaven.The temple's walls are typically square with the outer
most wall having four gopura, one each on every side, situated exactly in the center of each wall.
This will continue to next tier depending upon the size of the temple. The sanctum sanctorum
and its towering roof (the central deity's shrine) are also called the vimana. Generally, these do
not assume as much significance as the outer gopuram, with the exception of a few temples
where the sanctum sanctorum's roofs are as famous as the temple complex itself.
The kanaka-sabai (Golden Stage) at Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, is another example. This
shrine is entirely covered with golden plates, but is different in its structure and massive in size
when compared to most other vimanas. Historical evidence states that during the ninth
century, Parantaka I funded to cover this vimana with ornamental gold and it retains its glory
even today.
The Ananda Nilayam vimana of the Venkateswara Temple, Tirumala, is a famous example
where the gopuram of the main shrine occupies a very special place in the temple's history and
identity.
Meenakshi Temple has two golden vimana,[4] the huge one for Shiva and the second one for his
consort, Meenakshi.
The vimana of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur, is another example, with a very exaggerated
height. This form is not very common.
The Jagannath Temple, Puri, has the Neelachakra on the sikhara, i.e., the top of the vimana. It is
a representation of Vishnu's most powerful weapon, the sudarshana chakra.
The vimana of the Konark Sun Temple was the tallest of all vimana before it fell.
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VIMANA
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FLYING TEMPLE or VIMANA
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Pratistha kiya unke guru
Labhi vikram
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