Chapter
7
Sampling data and data collection
in qualitative research
Violeta Lopez and Dean Whitehead
KEY TERMS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
focus groups
interviews
observation
qualitative data collection
qualitative sampling
questionnaires
sampling criteria
After reading this chapter, you should be
able to:
• describe the rationale and processes
for conducting qualitative sampling
techniques
• describe the main types of sampling in
qualitative research and give examples
of research for each type
• explain the selection criteria in
qualitative sampling
• describe the different qualitative data
collection approaches and note
examples of research for each
approach
• discuss the benefits and limitations of
each of the qualitative data collection
approaches.
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INTRODUCTION
A major part of the qualitative research process lies in determining and choosing an appropriate
population (sample) for the study so that data can then be collected from that population. With
qualitative research the population being studied is nearly always human, although there are
some exceptions that will be discussed in this chapter. A human individual is most commonly
referred to as a participant (sometimes ‘subject’) in qualitative research. A population sample is a
chosen subset usually representative of a wider population. In this chapter, both sampling and
data collection techniques used in qualitative research are the focus.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
AND PROCEDURES IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
The primary purpose of sampling is the selection
of suitable populations (or ‘elements’) so that
the focus of the study can be appropriately
researched. In qualitative research, effective
sample selection process is very important
because inappropriate procedures may seriously
affect the findings and outcomes of a study.
There are a number of types of sampling
procedures that can be adopted and the choice
of qualitative research design will often guide
that process.
1
Tutorial Trigger
You want to explore the experiences
of carers who care for relatives with
cancer. What initial considerations
might you need to identify for choosing an
appropriate participant sample?
Types of sampling
Sampling in qualitative research is non-probability
sampling. It is unlike probability sampling used
in quantitative research where researchers recruit
the population with characteristics that represent
a wider community. With non-probability
sampling in qualitative research the researchers
recruit only specific populations to investigate a
specific topic or when the total population is
unknown or unavailable. There are four main
types of non-probability sampling:
1) convenience sampling
2) purposive sampling
3) snowball sampling
4) theoretical sampling.
Convenience sampling
This is the most common form of qualitative
sampling and occurs when people are invited
to participate in the study because they are
conveniently (opportunistically) available with
regard to access, location, time and willingness.
Convenience sampling is a relatively fast and
easy way to achieve the sample size needed for
the study. For example, Cubit and Lopez (2011)
used a convenience sample of 44 newly
graduated nurses who had previously practised
as enrolled nurses to explore their transition
experiences. These nurses were invited to
participate as the researchers were able to
produce a list of all newly graduated nurses from
the hospital where they had to complete their
one-year clinical rotation. However, the main
limitation of using convenience sampling is that
it could suffer from either under-representation
or over-representation of particular groups within
the population. It could also potentially be that
the sample is unlikely to be representative of the
population being studied and, therefore, limiting
researchers’ ability to make generalisations of the
findings to a wider population (Creswell 2007).
Some would argue, however, that this is not
always important in qualitative studies.
Purposive (purposeful) sampling
This is also a commonly used sampling strategy,
in that participants are recruited according to
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7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research
pre-selected criteria relevant to a particular
research question. Sometimes referred to as
‘judgment sampling’, purposive sampling is
designed to provide information-rich cases for
in-depth study. This is because participants are
those who have the required status or experience,
or are known to possess special knowledge to
provide the information researchers seek. For
example, Elmir et al. (2010) used a purposive
sample of four Australian women to investigate
their lived experience of recovering from breast
cancer. The pre-selection criteria included those
diagnosed with breast cancer that resulted in
breast surgery, under 50 years of age and able to
converse in English. Although the sample size
of four participants might be regarded as small,
in keeping with the aim of encouraging the
detailed richness of women’s emotional
experience, the sample size was deliberately
kept small.
There are two other types of sampling that
come under the umbrella of purposive sampling.
These are quota sampling and maximum variation
sampling. In quota sampling, the researcher
decides the number of participants and which
characteristics they need to possess. The
characteristics may be according to age, gender,
profession, diagnosis, ethnicity and so forth. The
inclusion criteria (see later) allow the recruitment
of participants who would most likely experience
or have experience related to the research topic.
It is different from purposive sampling because
quota sampling is more specific with respect to
sizes and proportions of the sub-samples for
each prescribed quota. For example, Chan et al.
(2010) conducted a study to explore the
perceptions of coronary heart disease (CHD)
among Hong Kong Chinese people. The study
targeted three sample groups according to their
level of CHD risk factors: ‘low-risk public’,
‘multiple risk public’ and those with ‘confirmed
diagnosis of myocardial infarction’ (MI). In this
study, the CHD risk factor is the focus of
interest in determining how people understand
CHD, which is why a quota sample was used to
seek an equal balance of people with low risk,
multiple risk and those who had an MI.
Maximum phenomena variation sampling is
sometimes used to ensure that the full range and
extent of the phenomena are represented. When
choosing this type of sampling, the focus could
be either on people (e.g. first, second and third
generation migrants), time periods (e.g. 3, 6,
12 months) or context (e.g. hospital and/or
community settings). For example, Holroyd
et al. (2011) conducted audio-taped interviews
(see later) to examine the postnatal practices of
two generations of Chinese women in Australia.
This provided different data related to the fact
that the participants were first-time mothers
and their mothers. The study aimed to uncover
whether the Chinese cultural practice of ‘doing
the month’ was influenced by or had changed
from one generation to the next.
Snowball sampling
Also known as ‘chain referral’ or ‘networking’
sampling, snowball sampling occurs when the
researcher starts gathering information from one
or a few people and then relies on these people to
put the researcher in touch with others who may
be friends, relatives, colleagues or other significant
contacts. This type of sampling is especially useful
where the sample is representative of marginalised
or stigmatised individuals and to find and recruit
‘hidden populations’, where individuals are not
easily accessible to researchers through other
sampling strategies (Green & Thorogood 2009),
such as drug-users, prostitutes, AIDS/HIV
sufferers, etc. As such, the potential participants
may normally be reluctant to come forward
without the reassurance of knowing someone
who has already participated in the study.
Sometimes though, research ethics committees
may not grant permission for snowball sampling
because of either privacy concerns, issues of
consent or the potential for coercion. This is not
always the case though, as with Hood et al.’s
(2010) descriptive exploratory study of Western
Australian midwives’ experiences of an external
review (Douglas Inquiry) of obstetric services.
Snowball sampling was used to invite 16
Australian midwives to participate in taperecorded interviews. Some limitations of snowball
sampling are that the researcher needs to rely
on referrals from initial contacts to generate
additional participants. The participants,
therefore, are often not considered to be
representative of the overall population being
studied.
Theoretical sampling
This form of sampling is mostly used in
grounded theory studies (see Chapter 6) but is
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increasingly being used to gather data from
participants for theory generation (see Chapter
2). In order to identify the similarities and
differences amongst the selected cases, the
research starts from a homogeneous (small)
sample and moves to a heterogeneous (larger)
sample (Creswell 2007). It is sampling that
occurs sequentially and alongside data analysis.
This is when previously analysed data guides
what data needs to be collected next (see
Chapter 8). The first selected participants,
from whom initial data are collected, are usually
purposively chosen or conveniently available. For
example, Utriainen et al. (2009) used theoretical
sampling in their grounded theory approach to
create a substantive theory of wellbeing at work
among ageing hospital nurses in Northern
Finland. The aim was to discover core processes
of the phenomenon based on nurses’ authentic
experiences. The 21 subjects of this study were
nurses working at a university hospital, aged
45–55 years with at least 10 years of hospital
work experience and performing three shifts per
week. The material consisted of first-phase open
interviews and diary entries and of second-phase
interviews and open-data collection forms (see
later).
Point to ponder
The type of sampling chosen often depends
on its ability to maximise the opportunity for
producing enough ‘rich’ data to answer the
chosen research question.
2
Tutorial Trigger
If you wanted to explore the
phenomenon of client-centred care,
which sampling technique would/
could you choose?
Sampling criteria
In qualitative research, participants are viewed
as capable individuals able to reflect upon and
clearly express their experiences, values, beliefs
and opinions. Different qualitative approaches
have varying sampling intentions regarding
participants. The selection depends on the
sampling criteria. Sampling criteria identify the
characteristics of the sample population and
their eligibility to be part of the study based on
pre-selected inclusion and exclusion
requirements.
Inclusion criteria
Inclusion criteria are specific characteristics that
the person or population or elements must
possess, such as a certain age range or gender.
For example, Jones et al. (2007) explored the
training requirements of residential aged-care
personal carers needed in order to understand
and respond to residents with dementia and
mental illness. In the study, personal carers were
those who carry out all front-line nursing care
tasks such as bathing, feeding, dressing, simple
wound management and organising residential
aged-care plans. The inclusion criteria included
all personal carers enrolled in Certificate III and
Certificate IV in Aged-Care and all those who
worked primarily in aged-care facilities in
Canberra, Australia.
The chosen qualitative methodology will
‘automatically’ determine inclusion criteria. For
instance, participants in phenomenological
studies are mostly chosen because of their
experience of the phenomenon being studied
and because of their ability to express that
experience. In grounded theory, because samples
of events and incidents involving action or
interaction relevant to the research focus are
sought, participants must have been or are
currently involved in those events. With
ethnographic research, the researcher is in the
‘field’, observing and recording the events and
behaviours of participants, so the participants
have to already be in the observable location.
Exclusion criteria
Exclusion criteria identify characteristics that
deem a participant inappropriate for inclusion in
a study, such as any person who is cognitivelyimpaired or where the conducted language of
the study is the participant’s second-language.
These criteria may be stated in a study or they
are implied as a ‘given’. For instance, studies
related to maternal care would not normally
include males, unless the studies wanted to
explore expectant fathers’ roles or roles of
male health professionals involved in maternal
services.
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7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research
Point to ponder
Whatever inclusion and exclusion criteria you
use, you must always provide a rationale for
both the sample and the inclusion/exclusion
criteria.
3
Tutorial Trigger
You intend to research the
perceptions of patients in a
residential aged-care facility with
in-dwelling urinary catheters. What might you
decide in terms of inclusion/exclusion criteria?
Sample size in qualitative research
Unlike quantitative approaches which aim to
establish statistical significance by sampling a
predetermined number of subjects or elements,
qualitative researchers do not usually begin a
project with a predetermined sample size. In
qualitative research, there are no overall formal
criteria for determining sample size and,
therefore, no rules to suggest when a sample size
is small or large enough for the study. Essentially,
the ‘richness’ of data collected is far more
important than the number of participants
(Tuckett 2004). This said, the researcher still
requires insight to the size most likely to achieve
the purpose, context and the richness of the data
collected (Patton 2002).
Regarding the number of participants in
qualitative studies, a common range is usually
somewhere from 8 to 15 participants, but will
vary widely both inside and outside this range. A
number of qualitative methodologists, however,
provide sample size guidelines for qualitative
research designs. Creswell (2007) recommends
3–5 participants for a case study, 10 for a
phenomenological study and 15–20 for grounded
theory study, whereas Morse (1995) suggests a
sample size ranging from six participants for a
phenomenological study and 30–50 for an
ethnographic study. Rarely, quite a large number
of participants may be involved. For example,
Crowe et al.’s (2001) New Zealand-based
qualitative study accessed 131 community-based
client participants in order to evaluate consumer
mental health service provision. With focus groups
(group interviews — see later), Krueger and Casey
(2009) suggest 5–10 participants but this can also
range from as few as 4 to as many as 12. The
overall number could be higher, especially where
more than one group is needed for comparison
between groups or in the case of program
evaluation research. Cheek et al.’s (2005) South
Australian study, for instance, used 14 different
stakeholder focus groups to investigate factors
that influenced the decisions of older people
living in independent units. Within the literature,
decision on the number of focus groups is often
compared to the method of analysis to be used. As
such, sample size should refer to the number of
groups and not to the total of participants in the
study (Carlsen & Glenton 2011). Small samples,
however, are far more manageable because of the
amount of potentially rich and detailed data that
can be generated from each single participant.
Point to ponder
Sample size in qualitative research should be
adequate to achieve data saturation, richness
of data and not too large that it is difficult to
undertake in-depth, meaningful analysis.
DATA COLLECTION IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
The process of data collection is directly related
to sampling and is best viewed as complementary
to it. Data, therefore, are collected directly from
the identified and selected sample population.
Data collected from the sample can be either
‘direct data’ or ‘indirect data’. Direct data include
recordable spoken or written words and also
observable body-language, actions and
interactions. Here, the interactions may be
human-to-human or human responses to
inanimate objects, such as a haemodialysis
machine. Whatever can be observed or
communicated are considered to be potential
or actual data. This will occur when considering
the thoughts, feelings, experiences, meaning of
experience, responses, actions, interactions,
language and processes of individuals and groups
within their social and/or cultural setting. It
is this type of data that sets the ‘context’ of
qualitative studies. Indirect data are generated,
in the first instance, by someone or something
else, such as with documents or photographs
reporting an event or an artistic rendition of an
event or experience (e.g. novels, songs, paintings,
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poems, photographs). Turner (2005) used
photographs taken by Australian youth study
participants to depict their interpretations and
experiences of hope. Direct data, though, are the
most common form in qualitative research.
Depending on the types of data required for a
qualitative study, various methods of collecting
data can be used singularly or in combination to
obtain direct data. For direct data, these methods
may include interview, observation, open-ended
questionnaire, journalling (diary accounts)
or ‘think aloud’ sessions. Direct data can be
collected by the participant involved in a study
at the request of the researcher (e.g. through
writing a personal journal or diary) and then
provided to the researcher. Most commonly,
however, qualitative approaches acquire data
primarily through interpersonal contact with
participants (usually an interview) or, secondly,
through the presence of the researcher in
proximity to pertinent events (usually
observation). This is unlike quantitative research
where, frequently, there is no interpersonal
contact with participants or events. Manias et al.
(2005) used both interview and observational
techniques to gather qualitative data concerning
Australian nurses’ communication with health
professionals when managing patients’
medications. Where indirect data need to be
collected these are sought through a variety of
methods. These may include systematically
searching archives or browsing through the
internet — with data collected being either in
hard copy or electronic form (see Chapter 3).
Interviews
Interviews are regarded as the prime method for
qualitative data collection; also representing the
most common method for gathering qualitative
data in nursing-related research (Borbasi et al.
2005). Spoken ‘narrative’ is the basis of most
qualitative data, where that narrative is most
often gained through a direct encounter between
the researcher and participant (or several
participants) using in-depth interviews or focus
group interviews. Interviews can be conducted
by telephone, email and, more recently, through
social media conversations (e.g. Twitter,
Facebook).
Interviews in qualitative research may be
unstructured, semi-structured or occasionally
structured. With unstructured interviews, neither
the specific questions to be asked nor the range
or type of possible answers are pre-determined.
The interviews are designed to be informal and
conversational with the aim of encouraging
participants to express themselves in a naturally
unfolding manner. Unstructured interviews tend
to start with single broad questions, such as
‘what is your experience of …’. The researcher,
however, has an idea in mind of the general
issues to be covered and may use a topic list as
a reminder. Turner (2005 p 510) described his
unstructured interviews with Australian youths as
‘a free-flowing conversation with a definite focal
point’.
Semi-structured interviews have an interview
guide providing a set of questions for discussion.
The questions are set to ensure the research
questions or objectives are covered. However,
there is freedom to ask any questions in any
order, following tangents or seeking clarification
of previous answers or elaboration of responses.
In other words, semi-structured interviews steer
the interview yet allow for flexibility. For
example, Gagnon (2011) used semi-structured
interviews with 11 immigrant midwives in their
ethnographic study to learn the adaptations and
transformations that midwives, coming from
abroad into the Quebec healthcare system,
needed to go through in order to integrate into
practice. Using both unstructured and semistructured interviews, questions were nondirected and mainly open-ended and were
designed to trigger and stimulate the participant
to talk about their adaptations.
Structured interviews in qualitative research
are not very common and follow a list of set
questions usually asked in a certain order, but
these questions are still open-ended; that is,
usually commencing with words like ‘how’,
‘why’, ‘where’, ‘when’ etc. This distinguishes
them from structured quantitative interviews
which usually only ask closed-ended questions.
4
Tutorial Trigger
Prepare an interview schedule for
investigating the experiences of
clients who have an in-dwelling
urinary catheter. What sort of questions might
you want to ask of your participants?
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7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research
Conducting interviews
The structure and conduct of interviews are
very important. A poor interview will produce
poor quality narrative data and poor outcomes
overall. Conducting interviews can be a
complex and demanding skill that requires
attention to process. It is unwise to conduct
qualitative research interviews in terms of
‘learn as you go’. If unsure, many researchers
perform ‘dry or dummy runs’ with peers and/or
colleagues as a form of piloting the interview
schedule.
Where novice or experienced researchers are
appropriately equipped to conduct interviews in
the clinical setting, certain prerequisites need to
be in place. The ‘rules of engagement’ need to
be established early on, such as establishing and
maintaining a warm and non-judgmental
manner towards the participant/s, asking
questions in a balanced, unbiased, nonthreatening, sensitive and clear way, and
choosing a setting for the interview where it is
most appropriate to ask personal questions. The
majority of interviews conducted in qualitative
research are audio-recorded or, less commonly,
video-recorded. In Fenwick et al.’s (2005) study,
they completely tape-recorded telephone
interviews of a self-selected cohort of Western
Australian women who had experienced
childbirth. Annells (2006), however, chose
to video-record interviews for her Australian
hermeneutic phenomenology study on the
experience of flatus incontinence by people with
bowel ostomies. Both of these formats have an
advantage over handwritten notes because it
is often impossible to record everything the
interviewer hears or to observe everything that
occurs in an interview situation.
In the interview process, the participant needs
to be made to feel as comfortable as possible. It
is necessary to ensure privacy and comfort and
ensure that all items required for the encounter
are available. This will likely include recording
equipment, tapes, consent forms, participant
information sheets, drinks and tissues.
Researchers should take active steps, such as
posting ‘do not disturb’ signs and disabling
telephone or pager devices. This will help to
ensure that interruptions are avoided.
Appropriate time should be allowed for each
interview. Interviews should not be hurried or
stopped before they have naturally completed. If,
however, the participant wishes to stop the
interview or the researcher senses that the
participant is becoming too tired or distressed,
then the interview can be stopped or paused
at any time. This may mean setting up a new
appointment for another occasion. It is, however,
preferable to resume as soon as possible so that
flow and recall of previous discussion is not lost.
It is recommended that no single interview last
more than 1–2 hours as ‘interview fatigue’ is
likely to occur.
5
Tutorial Trigger
What might be the features of a
‘desirable’ environment for the
conduct of qualitative interviews?
During an interview, the interviewer’s presence
and engagement (including how they listen and
attend to and end responses) is vital to the
process. It should be remembered that the
purpose is to gain information from the
participant — and not an opportunity for the
researcher to express their own thoughts and
feelings. In a structured or semi-structured
interview, an appropriate range of questions
are asked as listed on interview schedules. The
purpose of these question lists is to provide
clarity and assist the participant if hesitant or
confused. Questions may also be used to prompt
expansion and elaboration if further detail is
required. An active listening position is adopted
by the researcher, concentrating on what is
being said as well as being alert to other cues,
particularly non-verbal cues. During the
interview, some researchers find it useful to
record (memoing) non-verbal aspects of the
interview. Another researcher may be invited to
take detailed notes (memos) during the course of
the interview. The notes are later used to guide
the data collected from the audio/video-taped
interviews. Alongside this, the interviewer may
well note and review their own thoughts and
feelings about the interview and any
‘extraordinary’ situations or events that arise. The
memos may then assist later data analysis (see
Chapter 8).
Qualitative interviews should allow the
interviewee to speak freely and offer in-depth
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and lengthy responses through techniques used
singularly or in combination. Possible techniques
include those in the following list.
• Funnelling — beginning the interview with
general and broad (non-threatening) opening
questions and then narrowing down to topic
specifics as the interview progresses.
• Probing — eliciting further details or seeking
clarification. Price (2002) details an innovative
probing technique called ‘laddered questions’.
This is where appropriate questions are asked
in a series leading from the least intrusive
questions to the most intrusive. This technique
identifies classifications of questions; questions
about ‘actions’ are deemed to be the least
invasive, through to questions about
‘philosophy’ (feelings/values/beliefs) as the
most invasive. Story-telling, as another
technique, involves asking questions in a
manner which encourages story-telling and
more elaborate answers; for example, ‘Tell me
about when you last experienced …’
• Paraphrasing — repeating what the participant
has said, without changing the meaning of
what has been said, assists understanding and
clarity and acts as a further prompt.
RESEARCH IN BRIEF
Fernandez and Wilson (2008) examined the
effectiveness of smoking cessation initiatives
for Māori in New Zealand. They conducted a
focus group interview, consisting of five Māori
women who had stopped smoking, to ask
what was more likely to influence Māori
women to quit and the data were thematically
analysed (see Chapter 8). Two themes were
identified: (1) ‘transmission of Whanau’
(immediate and extended family) with values
that included the sub-categories ‘Whanau
experiences’, ‘being mothers’ and ‘role
models’; and (2) ‘factors crucial in influencing
change’ that included the sub-categories of
‘choices and exercising own will’, ‘a positive
perception of self’ and ‘a Māori approach’.
The findings provide insight for nurses into
Māori women’s insights that highlight the
importance of ‘Whanau’ and supportive
relationships, and can be used to inform
strategies to assist Māori women in smoking
cessation.
When conducting interviews it is also
important to consider the use of language,
especially in cross-cultural settings. In qualitative
research where participants are not fluent in oral
or written English language, it is important that
the interviewer is fluent not only in the language
but is culturally understanding or representative
of the participants and their environment. In
multicultural societies, such as New Zealand and
Australia, research is often conducted involving
participants from culturally and linguistically
diverse (CALD) backgrounds for the purpose of
describing, understanding and clarifying their
cultural ‘worldview’. As such, research in a
multilingual environment poses methodological
challenges (Liamputtong 2008). Appropriate
strategy for data collection, when another
language is used during interviews, is to include
language assistants (such as bilingual researchers
or professional interpreters). In the Fernandez
and Wilson (2008) ‘research in brief ’ (see
earlier), one of the researchers is of Ngati Tahinga
descent and is also a Fellow of ‘Te Mata o te Tau’
(Academy of Māori Research & Scholarship).
Benefits of interviews
Interviews provide the researcher with a valuable
opportunity to enter the world of the participant
and reflect on a particular event. Rapport and
trust can be developed and are desirable to collect
the extensive and detailed data that are needed.
Interviews should develop as conversational
encounters that offer opportunities to clarify
issues, as well as probe for ever-deeper insight.
Interviews also offer unique data, where interview
outcomes will never be the same between
participants. When emotional and emotive issues
arise during the course of the interview session,
the interviewer is able to offer appropriate
support and referral to counselling if the need
exists or arises. Overall, qualitative interviews
potentially offer a productive, meaningful and
supportive engagement that benefits both
researchers and participants.
Limitations of interviews
Price (2002) identifies a range of challenges
when it comes to interviewing, such as securing
access, making sensitive records, managing power
relationships, managing ‘space’, managing
communication and managing the sequence of
interviews. Interviews are not so much limited
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7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research
by the techniques and methods used, but mostly
by how these are applied by the researcher.
Ethically, interview schedules should be
challenged if there are questions which are
seemingly biased, leading, unbalanced, emotive,
imposing, coercive, manipulative or threatening.
Therefore, the potential for an increased
imbalance in the power relationship between
interviewer and interviewee should be avoided.
Even in research designs that are well executed,
some degree of power differential will always
exist in an interview situation. In order to
minimise the imbalance in the power
relationship, it is important for the interviewer
to explain why it is in the interest of the
participants to answer the questions and remain
in control of the interview. A good interview is
a discussion rather than a question and answer
session. It is important to always treat the
participants with respect and politeness.
Interviews can be time-consuming and
resource-intensive to establish. Although in
qualitative research, estimation can be made
about how many interviews may be necessary to
gather a complete set of data, this is not always
an exact science. Also, limiting data collection to
‘one-off ’ interviews with participants may lead
to insufficient in-depth information. Another
consideration is the interviewer, despite any
effort to ‘bracket’ out their own experiences,
ideas, prejudices and opinions prior to the
interview, is always partly generating their
own internalised data. The resulting data will
inevitably be partly influenced by the interviewer
whether this is through subtle body language or
the nature of questions asked.
Focus group interviews
Focus groups are useful as they help to explore,
develop and refine initial research questions and
interview schedules. They can also be useful as
part of a developing evaluative framework to
assess client needs and the outcomes of such
investigation (Banning 2005). Focus groups use
interview schedules but these differ in scope,
nature and intention from other research
interviews. This is because of the unique nature
of group dynamics and insights gained from
interaction between participants. Focus groups
offer a collective set of values, experiences and
observations of participants that are later
interpreted in context. Sometimes group
‘synergy’ or consensus (agreement) on issues
occurs, but this is not always the case.
If a series of focus groups are scheduled, initial
interviews usually identify broad issues and
perspectives related to the focus of the study,
while subsequent interviews seek to prioritise
and narrow down generated issues. In Fragar and
Depczynski’s (2011) study of the challenges at
work for older nurses and allied health workers
beyond 50 years of age in rural Australia,
communities were selected for focus group
discussions based on size and geographical spread
across the region of rural New South Wales. A
convenience sample of 80 older health workers
attended six focus groups. One or two items
from each group were selected for further
discussion by the larger group to assist other
group members to contribute and/or debate on
the ideas that arose from each small focus group.
Such focus groups work because they include
participants who are similar to each other.
Homogeny (consistency) was determined by
the purpose of the study and by the general
inclusion criteria; that all were beyond 50 years
of age, all were rurally located and all were
health workers. From the methodological
approach used, the results of this study provided
ways to address concerns and avoid demands
being placed on older healthcare workers across
the rural health service.
Benefits of focus group interviews
One of the main benefits of this method of data
collection is that they are often less intimidating
than individual interviews. The focus group
method allows access to participants who may
find individual interviews intimidating or
inappropriate (Krueger & Casey 2009;
Liamputtong 2010). They potentially offer
supportive group interactions as each member
is encouraged to identify, describe, analyse and
resolve issues (Morgan 1997; Krueger & Casey
2009). They are particularly useful in discovering
new information or obtaining different
perspectives on the same topic. Focus group
interviews are also useful in gaining participants’
views, beliefs, values and perceptions on why
they think and feel the way they do (Litosseliti
2007). Focus group interviews are usually more
economical to conduct than individual
interviews.
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Limitations of focus group interviews
Focus groups may not explore issues as deeply as
one-on-one interviews. At the same time, as they
are not as intimate and private as individual
interviews, they tend not to uncover sensitive or
potentially embarrassing information.
Researchers generally need quite high levels of
interviewing expertise to conduct focus group
interviews. For instance, they require ‘gatekeeping’ skills to help avoid ‘group think’
outcomes, prevent any individuals from
dominating conversations as well as teasing
contributions from quieter members. That said,
where the focus group does not present any of
these dilemmas the researchers should be mostly
anonymous, often only needing to contribute to
commence, prompt occasionally and finalise the
session.
Point to ponder
Focus groups are small, structured groups with
selected participants led by a moderator.
Focus groups are specialised groups in terms
of purpose, size, composition and procedures.
Interaction in focus groups is important with
an element of flexibility and adaptability
designed to obtain the best results (Litosseliti
2007).
RESEARCH IN BRIEF
Paulin (2010) investigated the understanding
and experience of supervision by dietitians
in New Zealand. Twenty senior dietitians
participated in the study. Focus group
audio-taped interviews (four in each group)
were conducted in a conversational style using
an interview guide to ensure all topics were
covered. A research assistant was also present
during the interview to take notes. The study
provided in-depth insight into the professional
supervision practice of New Zealand dietitians
which was regarded as important to ensure
safe practice.
Observation
Observational methods are commonly used in
qualitative research designs and vary between
methods. Observation is the process of watching
the daily life and behaviours of participants in
their natural setting to record aspects such as
social position and function, or actions and
interactions. Qualitative observation is
traditionally adopted by ethnographers (Borbasi
et al. 2005), but can be used in other qualitative
approaches. This is especially so with studies
using an interpretive/constructivist approach (see
Chapter 2) where exploring observed events are
often used to interpret and understand behaviour
(Mulhall 2003).
In qualitative research, observation methods
are mostly unstructured. Sometimes, however,
qualitative observation may have some structure.
With unstructured observation, the researcher
enters the ‘field’ with no predetermined schedule
as to what they may or may not see or hear.
Using this approach requires an ‘observation
protocol’ to record the same information
collected during observations by the data
collectors. For instance, observers in a ward
or clinic may focus observation on a certain
phenomenon of interest. Munyisia et al. (2011)
undertook an observational study to see how
nursing staff spent their time performing clinical
activities in a 110-bed nursing home in
Australia. Their study required a team of trained
observers to use a predetermined classification of
activities in recording the specific activity being
undertaken at a particular time by nurses.
Some examples of the predetermined nursing
activities observed included ‘time spent in
communication’, ‘medication management’,
‘direct care’, ‘indirect care’ and ‘documentation’.
A total of 6538 observations were recorded over
5 days among 74 nursing staff.
Process of observation
Methods of observation range across a
continuum from participation to observation
where four distinct roles of participation and
observation can be identified. These being:
complete participant; participant-as-observer;
observer-as-participant; and complete observer.
These roles can also be adopted in quantitative
research and are further discussed in Chapter 11.
Differences in observer roles depend on the
degree of researcher involvement (intervention)
or detachment (concealment) with participants
(see Figure 7.1).
With complete participation, the researcher
is an accepted and established member of the
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7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research
Complete Participant
Participant as Observer
• Researcher is immersed in group/community
(complete intervention)
• Researcher steps into and out of groups/
community (intervention)
• Research is usually concealed (covert)
• Research is known (open)
Observer as Participant
• Researcher mainly observes but occasionally
enters field (brief intervention)
• Research is known (open)
Complete Observer
• Researcher does not participate
• Research is either known (open) or
concealed (covert)
Figure 7.1 Different roles of the observer in observational research
community (or group or sub-group) under
observation. Complete participation gives the
researcher the best opportunity to observe
behaviours as the researcher is part of the
community. Most anthropological studies use
this technique as the researcher is already a
member of the community or attempts to be
invited into and ultimately be accepted by the
community. Often it is not known by the
community that the participant observer is a
researcher (a form of concealment) to avoid
disruption of normal activity. In a participantas-observer role, the researcher is acting as both
participant and observer with this openness
allowing productive relationships to develop with
other participants, and allows the researcher to
step in and out of the research environment
when they think it is best. With observer-asparticipant, the researcher’s role is made public
and the researcher is first an observer, with
participation a secondary role. The close relations
of a complete participation role, however, are
more difficult to establish in this role. As a
complete observer, a researcher is confined to
observations only and offers no interaction with
participants. The research study itself may or
may not be revealed. There are major ethical
implications for not revealing to people that they
are being observed for research purposes and so
examples, not just in nursing and midwifery, are
rare. Sometimes, it may be planned that
participants are informed instead after the
research has finished. However, this is still
usually not a compelling case for ethical approval
to be given.
A further aspect of observation is in the
‘positioning approach’ that the observer adopts.
These are classified as single, multiple and mobile.
In single positioning the observer occupies one
location only. They are less likely to distract
participants or be distracted. Multiple positioning
allows the observer to move to different locations
and view events from different angles/
perspectives. Mobile positioning is needed in
situations where the observer must follow
participants as they go about daily activities.
Another method of conducting observational
study is by the use of video-recording. Decisions
on how to record observational data depends on
the focus of the research question and the
analytical approached proposed. A main
advantage of this approach is that the researcher
has the ability to play the video over and over,
aiding the data analysis process and reducing
personal observational bias. This method can also
be effectively used for intervention studies to
compare pre- and post-change in practice. For
example, Mjaaland et al. (2011) video-taped
(using a still camera and extended microphones)
72 doctors’ encounters with their patients before
and after a communication-skills training
intervention. The focus of the study was to
observe if doctors responded to patients’ cues
and concerns when they expressed negative
emotions. The results showed that doctors
tended to avoid supporting or exploring patients’
emotions. A further related method is the use
of photographic observation which serves to
illustrate aspects of activities that are not easily
described. Researchers could, for example, take a
series of 10 to 15 photographs of an activity and
then describe what they see so that an account
of what is happening in the activity unfolds
(Kawulich 2005).
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Benefits of observation
Mulhall (2003) suggests that observation has
several advantages for qualitative research.
These being: ‘capturing data in more natural
circumstances’, ‘capturing the whole social
setting’ and ‘context of the environment in
which people function’, and ‘informing about
influences of the immediate physical
environment’. Depending on the observation
method used, there is opportunity to interact
with participants while gaining rich data and
perspectives related to participants’ values and
experiences. Where the researcher is also a
participant, observation allows them to reflect
on and evaluate their own feelings about their
experiences in the field. In this case, researchers
can choose to either ‘step back from’ or ‘be
immersed in’ situations.
deceived (Kawulich 2005). Table 7.1 highlights
some of the overall benefits and limitations of
the main qualitative data collection methods.
RESEARCH IN BRIEF
Walsh (2006) used a mixture of both observeras-participant and complete observer
(depending on whether he was dealing with
colleagues or clients), in his ethnographic
study of a free-standing birth centre. In the
first instance, he would find himself informally
chatting to the women and families and
making field tape-recordings. In the other
instance (complete observer), as he was not
employed by the birth centre, he simply ‘hung
out there, shadowing the staff as they went
about their daily work’ (pp 229–30).
Limitations of observation
If researching from an ‘objective’ stance, it is
necessary to be aware of Mulhall’s (2003) caution
that observation is more prone to ‘subjective’
interpretation by the researcher than is usually
the case with interview data. Field notes are
likely often written up following the observation
event potentially adding to the subjectivity of
data. However, neither of these issues would
be a primary concern if working within a
constructivist paradigm of research (see Chapter
2). For example, Manias and Street (2001) state
in their study that researcher/participant
subjectivity was an important and positive aspect
of observation. Mulhall (2003) also points to the
incidence of the Hawthorne effect (reactivity) in
observational research methods. This effect is a
well-known phenomenon whereby people who
know that they are being researched (particularly
when observed) tend to behave in different ways
than they would normally — either to please the
researcher or to present themselves in a different
and possibly more positive way (see Chapters 5
and 10 for a more detailed account of this
phenomenon). To avoid participant ‘reactivity’
altogether, a practical solution is concealment
of the researcher’s role from start to finish (Li
2008). The disadvantages of this approach,
however, are that the researcher may lack
objectivity, the group members may feel distrust
when the identity of the researcher is revealed
and the ethics of the situation are questionable
since the group members are essentially being
6
Tutorial Trigger
Devise an observation schedule for
observing chronically ill children on a
paediatric ward. What type of
observer/participant role/s would you employ?
What might you expect to observe?
Other types of data collection
Although most qualitative studies use interviews
or observations for the collection of data, other
data collection methods are also applied —
either singularly or in relation to each other. For
instance, qualitative research questionnaires can
be used where a list of open-ended questions
capture qualitative data. Journals can be written
by participants about their experiences, decisionmaking or whatever is the focus of the study,
with the journalling usually occurring soon after
the event or the experience. A novel form of data
collection is the ‘think-aloud’ technique. This is
where participants record reflective thoughts,
decision-making processes or impressions about
events and incidents into, for example, a handheld audio-recorder. This occurs in a study of
patients where they are making self-management
decisions about their diabetes (Thorne &
Paterson 2001).
A long-established method of data collection
is using a form of ‘systematic searching’ for
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7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research
TABLE 7.1
Summary of benefits and limitations of main qualitative data collection methods
DATA COLLECTION
METHODS
BENEFITS
LIMITATIONS
Individual interview
• Allows participants to express their own
ideas
• Allows interviewer to be responsive to
individual differences and situational
circumstances
• Minimal control over the order
in which the topics are covered
• Usually small sample size
limited due to cost and time
Focus group
interview
• Allows organised discussion structured in a
flexible way
• Provides opportunity for all to participate
and give their opinions
• Dominant and submissive participants can
be directed and controlled
• Discussion generated between participants
• Large quantity of information collected in
a short amount of time
• Researcher has less control
over the flow of discussion
• Facilitating focus group
interviews requires
considerable skill
• Difficult to distinguish between
individual view and group view
• More difficult to organise and
order data for analysis
Involved observation
• Allows researcher immersion and
prolonged involvement with participants
• Encourages free and open conversation
with the participants
• Altered behaviours of
observed groups by the
presence of the researcher
• Takes time to build trust with
participants
Detached
observation
• Reveals descriptions of behaviours by
stepping outside the group
• Allows identification of recurring patterns
of behaviours that participants may be
unable to recognise or reveal themselves
• Potential researcher bias in the
design of a study
• Sources or participants may
not be equally credible
• Analysis of observation can be
biased
stored or displayed items of relevance (indirect
data) that can later be analysed. The search may
be for items of historical information (e.g.
archival material, minutes of meetings,
biographies, personal and organisational diaries,
letters and personal documents). For instance,
Kirby (2004) used government reports and
professional journals to investigate nursing
recruitment crises in the 1930s and 1940s — to
compare how this impacted on the foundations
of nursing research from 1950 to the 1970s.
Such sources provide historical and contextual
accounts either to back up observations and
interviews, or to provide data in its own right.
In the Chaboyer et al. (2004) benchmarking
project, for embedding evidence-based practice
into a nursing curriculum, data were drawn
directly from official university documents.
Similarly, Leibbrandt et al. (2005) examined
the curriculum documents of 26 Australian
universities to produce data for the formation
of a national curriculum evaluation
framework.
The systematic search process may also be
used for indirect data that present as a range of
literary and artistic media, including paintings,
literature and photography. In this case, some
qualitative researchers also ask participants to
create collages, take photographs or perform
other artistic processes related to the research
focus of a study. For example, Turner (2005)
investigated hope, from the perspective of 10
young Australian people, asking them to take
photographs that reflected their experiences and
interpretations of hope. Ureda et al. (2011) used
‘story-mapping’ with their focus group
participants to illustrate their decision-making
processes for dealing with prostate cancer. The
story maps were illustrated visually by a local
artist in colour and were found to increase
participants’ identification of the issues
surrounding prostate cancer. In addition,
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NURSING AND MIDWIFERY RESEARCH 4E
a discussion guide was used to assist the focus
group process of how and where, in their
community, participants might learn about
screening for prostate cancer.
Using multiple data
collection methods
More and more nurse and midwifery researchers
are conducting research using mixed-method/
triangulation research (see Chapter 14). One
form of methodological triangulation is where
the researcher uses different methods for
collecting data in the same study. For instance,
Henderson (2003) details a grounded theory
study where she uses interviews and participant
observation to investigate power imbalances
between nurses and patients in Western
Australia. Ray and Street (2005) use interviews
and an original technique, called ‘ecomapping’,
to explore the dynamic nature of social networks
of Australian motor-neurone disease sufferers.
Ecomapping is a form of observational technique
that maps and tracks relationships, social
networks and support over time and offers a
visual schematic of identified connections.
RESEARCH IN BRIEF
Williams and Irurita (2004) report their
grounded theory study to investigate Western
Australian patients’ perspectives of therapeutic
and non-therapeutic interpersonal interactions.
Three types of data collection methods were
used. Forty patients were interviewed
individually; 78 hours of participant
observation field notes accompanied this and
patient-related documentation was also
reviewed for data retrieval. ‘Emotional comfort’
and ‘emotional control’ emerged in the
findings as the main factors that either
prevented or promoted therapeutic
relationships. Emotional comfort was found to
be related to ‘level of security’, ‘level of
knowing’ and ‘level of personal value’.
WHEN HAVE ENOUGH DATA
BEEN COLLECTED?
Qualitative researchers often experience
uncertainty when not being able to generalise
their findings due to the small sample sizes often
used (Marshall 1996). However, this can be
overcome when researchers ‘feel’ that they have
enough information at hand or, alternatively, the
emerging data becomes repetitive or uncovers
nothing new. If this is the case, then researchers
continue collecting data until data saturation,
redundancy of data or ‘theoretical saturation’ is
achieved (see Chapter 8). Saturation, therefore, is
not dependent on the amount of data collected
but based on the richness of the emerging data
set (Tuckett 2004; Guest et al. 2006). There is
some controversy, though, as to whether it is
really possible to achieve true data ‘redundancy’
or saturation, because further interviews always
have the potential to uncover something new or
unexpected (Wray et al. 2007). Therefore, the
point at which this situation seems to occur will
vary with each study and cannot be predicted.
However, once the researcher is reasonably
satisfied that this point has potentially been
achieved, data collection can then cease and the
researcher can move on to the next stage in the
research process — data analysis.
Point to ponder
Close attention is needed when selecting data
collection methods for a research study.
Without effective data collection strategies,
the collected data will be flawed — as will the
findings and conclusions of the whole study.
SUMMARY
With qualitative research, sampling methods and
methods of collecting data are a vital and closely
related part of the study design (see Chapter 2).
A number of different options are available
which, in turn, will determine the nature and
approach of the research to be conducted. So, for
instance, different types of fields of observation
are linked with different types of ethnographical
studies. Careful attention to detail is required
with both sampling and data collection
processes. Errors in either are likely to severely
affect overall study outcomes. The effectiveness
of these processes greatly impacts on the next
stage of qualitative design process, that of data
analysis. Qualitative data analysis is the focus of
the following chapter.
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7 • Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research
KEY POINTS
• Qualitative research uses a wide range of methods and techniques for both sampling from
the appropriate population and for collecting required data from the sample.
• The four main types of sampling used in qualitative research are convenience sampling,
purposive sampling, snowball sampling and theoretical sampling.
• Choosing a sample size and sampling scheme and collecting data from the chosen sample
should be an active process of reflection which is central to qualitative research.
• Qualitative research usually employs either/both interviews or observation to collect data
from sample populations. Each has both its strengths and limitations.
Learning activities
1. In sampling, the inclusion criteria indicate:
a) characteristics or properties of the chosen
sample that the researcher would not
want them to possess
b) characteristics or properties of the chosen
sample that the researcher would most
want them to possess
c) characteristics or properties of the sample
that the researcher would find most
attractive
d) characteristics or properties of the chosen
sample that the researcher would find
least attractive.
2. Which group of participants below would
represent a judgment sample:
a) all the people working in a hospital
b) specialist nurses recommending other
specialist nurses
c) specialist nurses working in intensive
care
d) all inpatients in a hospital.
3. When sampling methods are applied to
data already collected, this is called:
a) data sampling
b) information sampling
c) theoretical sampling
d) non-theoretical sampling.
4. What is the most common method used
for collecting qualitative data:
a) questionnaire
b) interview
c) observation
d) survey.
5. When interviewing, starting off with simple
and broad questions to help ease the
participant into the process is referred to as:
a) nurturing
b) channelling
c) funnelling
d) easing.
6. Observational methods can employ which
of the following approaches:
a) in-place participant; participant-asobserver; observer-as-participant; and
absolute observer
b) complete participant; participant-asobserver; observer-as-participant; and
complete observer
c) absolute participant; participant-asobserver; observer-as-participant; and
in-place observer
d) complete participant; in-place observer;
in-place participant; and complete
observer.
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7. Observation techniques are most commonly
used in:
a) phenomenology
b) grounded theory
c) historical research
d) ethnography.
8. A qualitative researcher knows that it is not
useful to collect any further data:
a) when they sense that this is the case
b) when the participants say that they have
nothing more to say
c) when data saturation/redundancy of data
is reached
d) when data overload is reached.
9. A form of methodological triangulation
applies when:
a) participants are mixed up
b) different methods for collecting data are
employed in the same study
c) different methods for collecting data are
employed in different studies
d) the data collection methods are mixed up.
10. The Hawthorne effect, in observational
research, is when:
a) participants behave in different ways
than they would normally
b) participants are observed when the
research is concealed from them
c) the researcher becomes totally integrated
into the community being researched
d) there is more than one observer and
observations are integrated for objectivity.
Additional resources
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focus group studies. BMC Medical Research
Methodology 11(26):1–10
Chaboyer W, Willman A, Johnson P et al. 2004
Embedding evidence-based practice in a nursing
curriculum: a benchmarking project. Nurse
Education in Practice 4:216–23
Chan C W, Lopez V, Chung J W Y 2010 A qualitative
study of the perceptions of coronary heart disease
among Hong Kong Chinese people. Journal of
Clinical Nursing 20:1151–9
Cheek J, Ballantyne A, Roder-Allen G 2005 Factors
influencing the decision of older people living in
independent units to enter the acute care system.
International Journal of Older People Nursing in
association with Journal of Clinical Nursing
14(3a):24–33
Creswell J W 2007 Qualitative Inquiry and Research
Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches, 2nd edn.
Sage Publications, London, UK
Crowe M, O’Malley J, Gordon S 2001 Meeting the
needs of consumers in the community: a working
partnership in mental health in New Zealand.
Journal of Advanced Nursing 35:88–96
Borbasi S, Jackson D, Wilkes L 2005 Fieldwork in
nursing research: positions, practicalities and
predicaments. Journal of Advanced Nursing
51:493–501
Higginbottom G M A 2004 Sampling issues in
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Krueger R A, Casey M A 2009 Focus Groups: A
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McLafferty I 2004 Focus group interviews as a data
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Wimpenny P, Gass J 2000 Interviewing in
phenomenology and grounded theory: is there
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