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Dr Maria Fragoulaki
INVESTIGATING THE ANCIENT WORLD:
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HS3103
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28/04/2022
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SKILLS AND EVIDENCE
Source Criticism of Pseudo-Aristotle’s Constitution of
the Athenians 26.3–27.1
796
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Pseudo-Aristotle’s writing here is part of the full recording of the Athenian constitution
and is suggested to have been written between 328BC and 322BC.1 It was written as
an historical account of Pericles’ enactment of the new Athenian citizenship law in
450BC, as well as a recounting of his actions towards his advancement in Athenian
society.2 However, since Pseudo-Aristotle is not singularly Aristotle it is unclear who
originally wrote this, although according to P.J. Rhodes3 it was far more likely that a
student of Aristotle simply attributed it to him.
Pseudo-Aristotle focuses on the enactment of Pericles’ citizenship law as he sought
to combat aristocrats and his audit of Cimon. This is common among contemporary
sources as writers such as Plutarch who focused extensively on Pericles’ audit of
Cimon and Pericles’ return to public life.4 Additionally, Aelian makes a reference, albeit
in a different phrasing, to the law three times in his Varia Historia ensuring the source
is reinforced by historical contemporaries.5
As an historical account of the Athenian constitution Pseudo-Aristotle gives a deeper
insight into how the law was enacted. The depth of knowledge stated here leads many
historians to believe Pseudo-Aristotle as having access to the Athenian government’s
records, meaning that the writings are based on fact rather than anecdote.6
However, some historians doubt that Aristotle, and thus any writings from PseudoAristotle, are unbiased in their recordings of Pericles.7 This is due to Aristotle’s criticism
of Thrasybulus and his plan to extend citizenship8 resulting in the belief that Aristotle
and Pseudo-Aristotle were not only influenced by antidemocratic criticism but also
agreed with Pericles’ restrictive law.9 This is severely detrimental to the usefulness of
the source as it limits how historians can interpret Pericles’ actions within a democratic
context.
1 Rackham 2013, 29.
2 Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution, 29.
3 Rhodes 1984, 1-208.
4 P. Papageorgiou 1997, 8.
5 Eliano and Johnson 1997, 1-245.
6 Hammond 1969, 203.
7 Jordović 2011, 47.
8 Rhodes 1993, 474-477.
9 Rhodes 1993, 474-477.
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Nevertheless, some aspects of the source are far more reliable; when PseudoAristotle states “he challenged the audits of Cimon who was a general, it came about
that the constitution became still more democratic”,10 we know that his challenging is
reliable because of the wide recording of Cimon’s audit by Plutarch.11 Furthermore,
scholars such as Breebaart permit the source a greater sense of reliability as they
agree with Pseudo-Aristotle that Pericles pushed Athens to become more democratic
when he gave the common people of Athens Cleruchies and gratifications,12 a move
which despite heavy criticism ultimately led to a more democratic constitution.
Pseudo-Aristotle generally portrays Pericles positively, demonstrating how “having
first distinguished himself when while still a young man”13. One example of this is within
Pericles’ challenging of the Aeropagus, an important legal institution which at times
ruled over Athens or acted as a court of law.14 Pseudo-Aristotle writes that “he took
away some of the functions of the Areopagus… which resulted in emboldening the
multitude, who brought all the government more into their own hands”,15 effectively
praising Pericles as an anti-tyrant against what was known as the oligarchic like
“Cleisthenic” period of governing.16 The idea of Pericles taking power away from the
Aeropagus and enacting a new more democratic system can be supported by
evidence with historians such as Morrison who state “The Cleisthenic constitution, with
its election of the archons by vote and its powerful Areopagus, was more aristocratic
than the Periclean.”17 arguing that Pericles’ reforms were a major change away from
aristocracy.
On the other hand, however, Plutarch writes that “Pericles may have been an
important influence behind the events, but it was Ephialtes who actually brought about
the reforms”18, stating that while Pericles was a major factor within this, he was not the
leading figure. This disagreement undermines Pseudo-Aristotle’s writings as it can be
10 Pseudo-Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians, 26.3–27.1.
11 Breebaart 1971, 260-272.
12 Breebaart 1971, 261.
13 Pseudo-Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians, 26.3–27.1.
14 Blackwell 2003.
15 Pseudo-Aristotle, Constitution of the Athenians, 26.3–27.1.
16 Gomme and Morrison 1950, 76.
17 Gomme and Morrison 1950, 76.
18 Blackwell 2003.
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interpreted as personal bias towards Pericles, critically undermining the usefulness of
this source.
Overall, this excerpt has key insight into Pericles’ actions within Athenian politics as it
demonstrates his citizenship law enactment, his challenging of the Areopagus and the
result of his audit of Cimon. Although there is debate over the reliability of PseudoAristotle as a source on Pericles, due to the anti-tyrant and anti-democratic views and
possible bias towards Pericles, his reliable work can be seen in its corroboration with
Plutarch as well as his access to evidential sources at the time. In conclusion, the
extract can be interpreted as useful historical evidence but Pseudo-Aristotle’s bias
towards anti-tyrant/democratic movements and possible personal bias towards
Pericles must be considered when using the writings as evidence.
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Bibliography:
Aristotle et al. 2013. The Athenian Constitution. University of Alberta., p. 29.
Blackwell,
C.
2003.
The
Council
of
the
Areopagus.
Available
at:
https://www.stoa.org/demos/article_areopagus@page=all&greekEncoding=Unicode
C.html [Accessed: 28 April 2022].
Breebaart, A. 1971. Plutarch and the Political Development of Pericles. Mnemosyne
24(3), pp. 260-272.
Carawan, E. 2008. Pericles the Younger and the Citizenship Law. Classical Journal
103(4), pp. 383-406.
Eliano, C. and Johnson, D. 1997. An English translation of Claudius Aelianus' "Varia
historia". Lewinston: Edwin Mellen Press.
Gomme, A. and Morrison, J. 1950. Pericles Monarchos. The Journal of Hellenic
Studies 70, pp. 76-77.
H. Blok, J. 2009. Perikles' Citizenship Law: A New Perspective. Historia: Zeitschrift für
Alte Geschichte 58(2), pp. 141-170.
Hammond, N. 1969. Aristotle and Pericles - Johan Hendrik Schreiner: Aristotle and
Pericles: A Study in Historiography. (Symbolae Osloenses, Fasc. Supplet. xxi.) Pp.
138. Oslo: Universitetsforlag, 1968. Paper. The Classical Review 19(2), pp. 203-206.
Jordović, I. 2011. ARISTOTLE ON EXTREME TYRANNY AND EXTREME
DEMOCRACY. 6 1, pp. 36-64.
J. Sammons II, L. 2010. The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Pericles. Phoenix
64, pp. 153-178.
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Meyer, E. 1993. Epitaphs and citizenship in Classical Athens. The Journal of Hellenic
Studies 113, pp. 99-121.
P. Papageorgiou, A. 1997. The Citizenship Law of Perikles, 451/0 B.C., pp. 1-124.
Rackham, H. 1952. Aristotle, Athenian Constitution,chapter 42. Available at:
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=aristot.+ath.+pol.+42 [Accessed: 26
April 2022].
Rhodes, P. 1993. A commentary on the Aristotelian Athenaion politeia. Clarendon
Press., pp. 474-477.
Rhodes, P. 1984. The Athenian Constitution. Penguin Classics., pp. 1-208.
Walters, K. 1983. Perikles' Citizenship Law. Classical Antiquity 2(2), pp. 314-336.
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