Key Concepts- ___ Key Dates- ___ Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ Ancient History Yearly Notes Weapons and Warfare- Assyrian Army Syllabus Dot points ● the nature of the sources for weapons and warfare ● the composition and role of armies and/or navies and changes in forms of weapons and military tactics ● the life of soldiers, their training and the conditions of service ● the significance of the military within society ● the evidence for at least ONE key military encounter (battle of Lachesis), including military strategy ● the political, economic and social impact of warfare and conquest ● evidence of continuity and/or change ● Basic - The Assyrians were a Semitic people whose empire, at its height, reached from Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) through Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) down to Egypt. - The history of the Assyrian Empire spans approximately 1300 years, from c. 2000 BC to 612 BC. - Divided into three periods: the Old Assyrian Empire, the Middle Assyrian Empire and the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Assyrian Empire was one of the greatest empires of the ancient world. - Old Assyrian Empire (2000-1363)BC - - Shamshi-Adid conquers Assur - With his two sons, he controls Northern Mesopotamia - Empire declines after Shamsi-Aids death - Assyrian kings became vessels Middle Assyrian Empire - Ashur-ubalit/ reasserts Assyrian power against the Mitanni and regains lands - Adad-nirari/ establishes the middle Assyrian Empire - Shalmaneser / conquers and annexes the kingdom of the Mitanni - Tukulti-Ninurta/ conquers Babylon, demolishes its walls, massacres the people and steals the statue of Marduk Key Concepts- ___ - Key Dates- ___ Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ Tiglath-Pileser / one of the greatest Assyrian conquerors extends Assyrian territory deep into Anatolia and conquers Babylon Neo-Assyrian Empire - Ashurnasirpal ii sets a pattern for future kings uses a policy of frightfulness effectively - Shalmaneser iii extends Assyrian power to the Caucasus, Israel and Syria defeats Persia - Assyrians military superiority was based on the world's first professional standing army together with the use of iron weapons and effective strategy and tactics. - Location was extremely important as it connected the Assyrians to many different trade routes as well as water to use as a modes of transportation to trade routes. - Location connected them to other groups of people to either conquer, trade with or become allies with. They also occupied fertile land that flooded. ● Assyrian Army Tactics and Weapons Changes / Composition and role of the army - The army changed throughout, but particularly during the reign of Tiglath Pileser III of the Neo-Assyrian period. - Tiglath Pileser III altered the nature of Assyrian warfare by creating the world’s first professional standing army. - Soldiers were hired from the provinces and sourced from vassal states as part of their obligations to the king. - Infantry could include a large number of foreigners, the cavalry and chariot divisions contained primarily Assyrians. - The army marched out annually, frequently led by the king. Campaigns began in the spring, usually from the capital after the customary royal inspection and performance of religious rites. - Initially, military campaigns, fought by soldiers who were conscripted farmers Key Concepts- ___ Key Dates- ___ Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ and other agricultural workers- summer between the planting of crops and harvest. Winter was unsuitable due to weather conditions. - Supplies of food in the form of barley were carried and issued as rations. For all other supplies, the army lived off the land, and local rulers were expected to provide supplies as demanded. - If the campaign went on longer, the army would spend winter in some suitable, friendly territory. - Engineers- invented and constructed siege engines dug tunnels, built bridges, and developed supply and communications systems. - Chariots: - - The chariotry made up the elite corps of the Assyrian army. Chariots were two-wheeled, open-backed and drawn by two or more horses. - Shooting from a moving chariot required skill or an archer (protected shield-bearer), dismounted to fire from the ground. - Horses tended to be untouched by the enemy- valued as war booty. - Heavier chariots were also used to drive through enemy formations to confuse and disperse the infantry. Cavalry - Horsemanship skills must have improved because archers are shown riding unattended into battle. - Horses were protected by fabric armour. - Cavalry charges were employed to break through enemy lines, while mounted spearmen chased and rounded up defeated enemy troops. - The cavalry's main function was to protect the infantry from the enemy so that the archers and slingers could operate unhindered. - The cavalry became the core of the Assyrian army. - Horses were a vital war resource and were obtained from tribute paid by vassal states ■ Aims and strategies - Attacking their enemies and destroying their ability to counter- attack was the Assyraina’ main strategy to ensure the safety of the empire. - Securing the borders of the empire in the north and south - Establishing control over areas that were not completely subdued - Suppressing rebellions in vassal states Key Concepts- ___ Key Dates- ___ Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ - Pitched battles- (common) where the infantry, covered by the archers, chariots and cavalry, engaged in hand-to-hand combat. - Midnight attacks- flooding and enemy camp by damming rivers and cutting the enemy off from their water supply. - The king and his bodyguard also made lighting attacks on the enemy leader, knowing that his death would result in surrender of his remaining troops. - Siege warfare and psychological warfare were two particularly effective tactics employed by the Assyrians. Type of strategy What it involved Effectiveness/Impact? Siege Warfare The surrounding and blocking of an enemy stronghold to force it to surrender The sieges rarely failed although they did come at a high cost in their successes Psychological Warfare Once a besieged city had fallen, the kind of punishment inflicted depended on the nature of the offence The use of psychological warfare has been called the ‘policy of frightfulness’. Deportation Deportation of whole populations of conquered people from homelands and their transportation to distant parts of the empire to live and work. (psychological warfare) Deportation was a punishment and was designed to decrease the likelihood of further uprising, it proved to be a useful policy from the empire. Colonisation The policy for colonisation worked in conjunction with deportation Colonists were encouraged to intermarry with local populations in order to create an Assyrian population with a common culture and common identity. ● The significance of the army within Assyrian society - Siege warfare aided in expanding the empire - The warfare used pioneered the new tactics of conquering and battling against different societies - The successful army sieges let the society gain large wealth and prosperity overall improving society as a whole - Culture- Brought a wide variety of people into one major group that came from a variety of different backgrounds. Diversity in the Empire lead to the incorporation of many peoples customs and beliefs - Economy- People refined their craftsmanship and brought a great expansion to the economy. Gave more people jobs in the push to create weaponry supplies or to enlist - Social- The multicultural empire lead to a vast growth in metropolitan cities. Enables an already diverse society to create new ties and grow into a metropolitan. Key Concepts- ___ - Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ Politics- Extreme power and control to the empire and its higher-ups. The tactical strategies brought prosperity to the empire and brought many advantages in the growth of the society and its people ● - Key Dates- ___ Evidence of Assyrians and what they tell us/ evidence of military encounters and the strategies The archelogical excavations In the 19th and 20th century that revealed the principal cities of Assyria- Nimrud, Kholsbad and Nineveh. - Cylinder seals, bronze sculptures, wall paintings and information about Assyrian religion and military events were found. - Written evidence- king lists, chronicles, royal letters, legal and administrative texts, and literary and scholarly works Kings such as Ashurbanipal maintained great libraries at Assur, Nimrud and Nineveh, containing hundreds of thousands of clay tablets with records of the military campaign and activities of the kings. - The Taylor Prism from the Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh, dating to 691 BC, - - - - Hexagonal clay prism that provides us with the listing of the campaigns of Sennacherib until the start of his final war against Babylon. The prism includes the Siege of Lachish and a record of the tribute received from Hezekiah, King of Jerusalem, who was defeated in 701 BC. - Explains how the Assyrians conquered 46 walled cities. They also deported large amounts of people along with livestock - Made to preserve king Sennacherib's achievements The old testament of the bible - Record of military pursuits, idea of how the Assyrians would fight in a siege - The kingdoms of Israel and Judah were allies and at other times vassal states of Assyria. - These relations with Assyria were recorded in the old testament books of 2 kings, chronicles, Micah and Isaiah. Bas-reliefs depicting the Siege of Lachish at Sennacherib's palace - Members of the king's entourage appeared in armour more suitable for campaigns - Also shows the tactical steps taken - e.g. having the archers fight first and build a ramp into Lachish Excerpt from "IRAQ" written by J.E. Reade under subheading Officials: General Remarks. (text was written analysing bas-reliefs) - Eunuchs were also seen fighting as archers, and they additionally fought in chariots. (did not discriminate) Key Concepts- ___ - - ■ Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ The importance of these figures (on earlier sculptures) suggests that they have more immediate power after the King. They dress alike, thus they are limited as individuals. Began tradin Iron with the Hitties around 1270BC - iron arrow heads were also found - - Key Dates- ___ First army to utilise iron as weapons which proved to be an advantage as many other armys were still using bronze weapons The Assyrian Infantry as depicted by bas-reliefs: - Lower rank and higher rank were differentiable by armour; lower wore leather whilst higher ranks had lamellar armour. - Archers were accompanied by shield bearers - Engineers were necessary to help construct a way of reaching a destination. Siege of Lachish - King Hezekiah of Jerusalem in Judah rebelled against the king Sennacherib refused to pay tribute and thus responded with a swift campaign to destroy Jerusalem. - Lachish was a heavily fortified hill settlement, second only to Jerusalem in the kingdom of Judah. The city was protected by two massive walls. A palace-fortress was located on top of the hill. - Built a huge ramp to reach the upper city wall. They used this to deploy five large siege machines with battering rams to break down the wall. The defenders responded by building a higher counter ramp behind the wall. Assyrian archers on the ground covered an assault by the infantry using scaling ladders. - The leader of Lachish suffered terrible torture as the populations’ majority escaped into exile. - The siege is the best-documented siege of the period. - It’s depicted in detailed reliefs at Sennacherib’s palace and in written records but also mentioned in the old testament of 2 kings and 2 chronicles ● The political, economic and social impact of warfare and conquest Key Concepts- ___ Key Dates- ___ Political - - - Leaders being killed further proving the Assyrians dominance Politicals powers were removed while citizens were forced to migrate Vasal states were forced to conscript their people after warfare Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ Economic Social - - Forced migration causing large amounts of refugees to flee the warfare - A terrorised population that most likely faced Ptsd after the attacks - People were starved and many most likely lost family members due to siege warfare (cutting social ties) - Social divide due to deportation and the removal of people from their homeland - Families remained together thus providing some sort of connection between citizens - Loss of identity due to the uprooting of many entire populations - - - - Brought a large group of talented craftsmen under the Assyrians thus creating further trade. While also perfecting their work to the highest degree Many of the victims of warfare were forced into labour to assist the Assyrians People lost many valuables due to the sacking of major places causing economic instability Economic disparities between subject people and the Assyrians Deportations lead to high growth of cosmopolitan cities Cheap foreign labour Roman Slavery ● the nature of the sources for enslaved peoples and evidence for the origins of slavery ● composition of slave groups, occupations of men, women and children, and their treatment ● the economic importance of slavery ● attitudes to slavery, the status of slaves and their relationship with masters ● the extent of slavery and significant events in the history of slavery, for example revolts ● evidence of continuity and/or change ● Extent Of Slavery - At its peak, the slave market in Delos was said to turn over 20,000 slaves per day - Slave traders captured slaves around the Mediterranean (e.g. Greece, Africa) and sold them off in Italian slave markets with signs around their necks to advertise their skills - Others were captured as prisoners of war (150,000 slaves were brought to Italy from Epirus alone in 167BC after it was conquered by the Romans) - Historians estimater that around 3 million in Italy of a population of about 7 million - At the end of the Republic, it is estimated for every 5 free men in Italy there were 3 slaves - Primary sources show Romans were afraid of the large numbers of slaves and the slaves figuring out the amount. Key Concepts- ___ - ● Key Dates- ___ Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ Seneca, On Clemency (c. A.D. 40)- “a proposal was made by the Senate to distinguish slaves from free men by their dress; it then became apparent how great would be the danger if our slaves could count our numbers.” Treatment Of Slaves (Status and Relationships with their Masters) - The treatment of slaves varied according to the attitude of their owners, and to the particular slave status within society. - There was certainly much abuse, but there were also masters who treated their slaves reasonably well. - Fresco of Roman slave called Junius working as a cook. The cook could be punished if the master and his guests were dissatisfied with the meal. - A drawing of a country estate in Italy. Note the size of the space allocated to slaves and where they were located in the villa.- The slave quarters were placed at the very back of the Italian country estate in a tiny compressed space. This reflects how they were pushed to the back and hidden away from guests and the rest of the house. - “a proposal was made by the Senate to distinguish slaves from free men by their dress; it then became apparent how great would be the danger if our slaves could count our numbers.”- Seneca, On Clemency (c. A.D. 40) - By law slaves had no rights at all, they could be bought/ sold/ hired out/punished/killed - If they had children, those children would be slaves and then their children would also be slaves - Irons on legs, clothes were mostly warn out, branded on forehead, shaved heads - Examples of Roman slave collars have been found with the master’s name inscribed and requests to return the runaway - Laws required harsh treatment of slaves - Slaves couldn’t own any money/property - Old/sick slaves were more likely to be mistreated - Women were rewarded for bearing a certain number of children- Exceptions from work or they are offered there freedom - Columella, Agriculture (c. AD 50)- “Women slaves ought to be rewarded for the bearing of a certain number of children. I have granted exemption from work and sometimes even freedom after they have reared many children.” - Treatment got worse as Rome conquered more land and many more cheap slaves were available - Later, when expansion stopped, the treatment improved again - Many Romans worked out that slaves treated well were more reliable/less trouble Key Concepts- ___ Key Dates- ___ Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ - Roman mosaic showing a slave being beaten by his master depicts how they advertised the beating of slaves - In Petronius’ novel he has the character Trimalchio, a successful merchant, say the following: “I was only as big as this candlestick when I came here as a slave from Asia…and for 14 years I was my master’s favourite (and my mistress’s too, but that’s another story). Then, by heaven’s help, I became master of the house…my master made me joint-heir to his estate, and I was worth more than a million sesterces.” Petronius, Cena Trimalchionis 75.8. He then became a merchant trading in, among other things. - Lots of primary sources show slaves as well-treated and becoming wealthy after they were freed. However, this must be treated with caution. Romans may have promoted a few famous, rich freedmen to slaves to make them hope for freedom so they would behave. They were probably more the exception than the rule. ■ Household Slaves - Household slaves were usually treated well They performed lots of chores - Poor families might have a handful of slaves, rich families could have thousands (a Senator under Emperor Nero in the 1st century AD owned close to 20,000!) - Household slaves were treated often like members of the family. Sometimes Romans would even free a slave and marry them! - Skilled/literate slaves might do work such as keeping accounts, writing letters, etc - Others would garden, cook, clean, help the family dress, mind the children. - Often a master would free his household slaves and they would take his name - Children of freedmen would be Roman citizens - Farm Slaves - Had poor living conditions and worked very hard - Most of Rome’s industry was agriculture and slaves used as labour on farms had a rough life They were kept in primitive barracks, often in chains. - Could be whipped/beaten (but Roman authors advised against this): “The slave foreman must not be allowed to use a whip to control his men, provided he can achieve the same result with words alone…Slaves will be made more eager to work by more generous treatment: more food, more clothes, longer breaks, permission to graze their own cattle on the estate or other concessions.” (Varro, Rerum Rusticarum I, 17.1, 5-7) - Mining - Mine/Quarry slaves Lived a short and horrible life - Strong but unskilled slaves were bought and then worked to death - Spartacus MAY have been a quarry slave for a time Key Concepts- ___ - Key Dates- ___ Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ Bibliotheca Historica - 1st century BCE by Diodorus Siculus conveys the extremely harsh conditions that the slaves faced while working in the mines “by virtue of their bodily strength and their persevering souls, suffer such hardships over a long period; indeed, death in their eyes is more to be desired than life”. While he also recounts the level of death caused due to the harsh working conditions. ● Attitudes Towards Slaves - - “Nowadays I make it a practice to call them [his rural slaves] into consultation on any new work, as if they were more experienced, and to discover by this means what sort of ability is possessed by each of them and how intelligent he is. Furthermore, I observe that they are more willing to set about a piece of work on which they think that their opinions have been asked and their advice followed ... Again, it is the established custom of all men of caution to inspect the inmates of the workhouse, to find out whether they are carefully chained, whether the places of confinement are quite safe and properly guarded, whether the overseer has put anyone in fetters or removed his shackles without the masters knowledge. For the overseer should be most observant of both points - not to release from shackles anyone whom the head of the house has subjected to that kind of punishment, except by his leave, and not to free one who he himself has chained on his own initiative until the master knows the circumstances”- Columella, Res Rustica, Bk 1,15-16 - He believed that rural slaves were more experienced, intelligent and had a higher level of ability. - Slaves had to be heavily guarded and shackled, he implies that they are more property that could run away than people that have their own free will which reflects the values of the time. Seen as an institution that saved slaves due to the slaves not being killed - Florentius, Institutes (c. AD 150)- “Slavery is an institution... by which a person is put into the ownership of somebody else. Slaves are so called because commanders generally sell the people they capture and therefore save them instead of killing them.” - They were perceived as property rather than people - Attitudes towards slaves changed as a result of the influence among the educated elite - The significant crime that occurred in 61 BCE- Due to an ancient custom that required that the whole slave household be executed for such a crime, the people of Rome went out into the streets and protested against such excessive harshness against the innocent. Despite some in the Senate speaking up against the punishment, those who insisted on the death penalty for the whole household, including women and children, won the day. Key Concepts- ___ Key Dates- ___ Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ However, the sentence could not be carried out due to the fact that the populace had banded together and was threatening to use rocks and burning torches. This reflects the changing nature of the Roman public as well as the declining level of harshness and inclination to fulfil old customs. DON’T COPY - Reference changing attitudes towards slave and their increasing rights over time ● Economic Importance Of Slaves - Rome contained several million slaves for twenty or more generations, - From 100 to 200 million individual slaves would have existed during the Roman period. By comparison, the transatlantic slave trade involved no more than 10 million people - could also relate to the extent of slavery - Trade supplemented by small-scale industrial production and mining also dominated Rome economy.- Needed people to work in those roles - Large scale operation - Slaves were largely gathered as prsinoners of war which became an important incentive for expansion and with expansion came more slaves to expand the economy. Without new territorial conquest there was a lack of input into the supply system - Romans did use a limited form of two tier crop rotation, but crop production was largely low output and required a vast number of slaves to operate at any volume. - “Ancient Rome was an agrarian and slave based economy whose main concern was feeding the vast number of citizens and legionaries who populated the Mediterranean region.” by United Nations of Roma Victrix Roman history - The silk road in addition to the vast lengths of Roman roads facilitated and made it economical to transport slaves on a large scale. - Caravans of camels or donkeys carried loaded baskets called panniers and some goods were hauled by slaves, providing cheap labor. Trade by land was only profitable if goods were going short distances or if the cargo was small, expensive luxury items. - Slavery is critical to our understanding of the Roman imperial economy as a product of organized violence and coercive integration. ● Significance Of Slaves - Economic importance - Played a role for every class in society - Vital to both the economy and social fabric of society - Slavery is critical to our understanding of the Roman imperial economy as a product of organized violence and coercive integration. Key Concepts- ___ Key Dates- ___ Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ - Ome impact of slavery was on technology. Greek and Roman inventors made discoveries that could have led to the industrial revolution more than a century before it really occurred. This may well have been slavery made labor so cheap. Machinery thus did not provide the economic benefits that made it so important in the 18th century. - The clientele was a way for slaves and other clients to lobby as their patrons this idea did cause levels of corruption as you were able to have as many as you want. It was more a game of loyalty than anything else. Significant to the role slaves played in poltics and the motivation of freeing slaves - ‘freeing of a slave’ was when a slave master in freed them from their duties although the former slave still had to have loyalties as they were required to in some sense lobby for their master - The two had mutual obligations to each other within the traditional patronage system. Freedmen could vote and participate in politics, but could not run for office or be admitted to the ruling class. During the empire, many freedmen had roles in the imperial bureaucracy and the emperor's household. Others got involved in commerce and became extremely wealthy and influential. - Slaves were considered less than human and in the same category as slaves are animals that are included under the head of cattle and are kept in herds. ● Slavery revolts ■ The First Servile War 135-132 BCE. - Cause- The uprising was prompted by slave revolts in Enna on the island of Sicily - Leader- The first slave revolt on Sicily was lead by a slave named Eunus who was thought to have some supernatural powers. - What actions was taken - Captured the city of Enna in the middle of the island with 400 fellow slaves. After, Cleon, a Cilician slave, stormed the city of Agrigentum, slaughtered the population, then joined Eunus' army and became his military commander. - Eunus proclaimed himself king, under the name of Antiochus. - The former slaves then moved to the eastern coast and took control of Catana and Tauromenium. - Triggered several minor revolts in Italy and as far as Delos in the Aegean Sea. - Romans Reaction- The Roman plebeians resorted to military tactics in violent attempts to end the widespread debts and break up the latifundia. - How it was squashed Key Concepts- ___ Key Dates- ___ Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ - Marched on Enna, which had become the centre of the entire revolt, where one of the slave leaders, Cleon, had taken refuge. - Cleon in turn died of wounds sustained during a sally out of the gates to try and break the Roman siege lines. - Enna fell not long after, again helped by traitors inside the walls. The remnants of the slave army on the rest of the island were quickly stamped out, with around 20,000 prisoners being crucified by Rupilius in retribution. Eunus was captured after Tauromenium fell and was found hiding in a pit. - “But they treated them with a heavy hand in their service, and granted them the most meagre care, the bare minimum for food and clothing. As a result, most of them made their livelihood by brigandage and there was bloodshed everywhere, since the brigands were like scattered bands of soldiers ... distressed by their hardships, and frequently outraged and beaten beyond all reason, could not endure their treatment. Getting together as opportunity offered, they discussed the possibility of revolt, until they at last put their plans into action.”- Diodorus Siculus. Bibliotheca historica, Bk 34. 2-2 and 4 ■ Third Servile War Sparticus Revolt - Third Servile War, also called Gladiator War and Spartacus Revolt, (73–71 BCE) slave rebellion against Rome led by the gladiator Spartacus. - Destined for the arena, in 73 BCE he and his fellow gladiators, broke out of a training school at Capua and took refuge on Mt. Vesuvius. He maintained himself as a captain of brigands, and he recruited lieutenants named Crixus and Oenomaus. Other escaped slaves joined the band, and the Romans moved to eliminate the growing threat. - 200 gladiators originally decided to make an escape, preferring to take their chances and fight for their freedom than spend their days entertaining bloodthirsty Roman citizens. - The escape plan was discovered and only 70-78 who had anticipated the situation managed to escape, using for protection various kinds of cooking utensils. - Others joined them at Mt Vesuvius, the best defensible base in the area and where they organised themselves and decided on matters of leadership. - Created a military-like hierarchy. It seems that the rebel group was divided into two factions, one under Spartacus, and another under two Gallic slaves named Crixus and Oenomaus. The rebels, were not a homogeneous group, and its individual members revealed different motivations and attracted tens of thousands of followers. - Spartacus had retired to the mountains of Petelia but he could not stop his rebellious men from making a direct attack on Crassus' army; and seeing there was no way to avoid a battle, 'he set up his army in array'. - The final battle was fought near the mouth of the MDRN Sele River in southern Campania. Key Concepts- ___ Key Dates- ___ Key Information- ___ Key People- ___ Sources- ___ - Modern estimates put the rebel dead as high as 36000. - Six thousand survivors on Crassus' orders were crucified along the Appian Way, the main Roman route from Campania to Rome. - He ordered that they were not to be taken down, but left hanging to rot (warn against rebellion). Pompey captured and killed 5000 others who had escaped and claimed victory.
