Research Article
Ethnic Identity Impact on
Consumers’ Ethnocentric
Tendencies: The Moderating
Role of Acculturation and
Materialism
Management and Labour Studies
45(1) 31–53, 2020
© 2019 XLRI Jamshedpur, School of
Business Management
& Human Resources
Reprints and permissions:
in.sagepub.com/journals-permissions-india
DOI: 10.1177/0258042X19890245
journals.sagepub.com/home/mls
Manish Das1
Debarshi Mukherjee1
Abstract
In the era of globalization and technological advancements, ethnic identity (EID) is creating both opportunities as well as challenges for domestic and international marketers in formulating suitable marketing
and branding strategies. This study attempts to investigate the role of EID in shaping consumers’ ethnocentric tendencies (CET). By analyzing data obtained from 385 surveys completed by Indian consumers, the study assessed the association of EID dimensions and consumer ethnocentrism. The findings
showed that Association with Local Culture, Preserving Local Culture, Feelings towards Local Culture and Local
Interpersonal Relationship enhance consumers’ CET. Materialism strengthens the effects of association
for three EID dimensions and ethnocentrism, whereas acculturation weakens the association for three
dimensions of EID. This study contributes to the literature, especially in the understanding of social
identity theory. Practically, the findings are useful to marketers and retailers dealing with consumers in
India in formulating their cultural branding strategies.
Keywords
Consumer ethnocentrism, ethnic identity, acculturation, materialism, social identity theory, hierarchical
moderated regression
Introduction
Ethnocentrism analyzes the world from one’s own cultural perspective. It views one’s own culture
superior over others. William Graham Sumner (1906) originated the term ethnocentrism in the field of
1
Department of Business Management, Tripura University, Suryamaninagar, Agartala, Tripura, India.
Corresponding Author:
Manish Das, Department of Business Management, Tripura University, Suryamaninagar, Agartala, Tripura 799022, India.
E-mail: manishdas@tripurauniv.in
32
Management and Labour Studies 45(1)
sociology. Sumner (1906) viewed ethnocentrism as the tendency to analyze the world from one’s
in-group perspective and considering in-group superior to out-group. Shimp and Sharma (1987)
popularized this term in management parlance as consumer ethnocentrism to represent the beliefs of
consumers about the appropriateness and morality of purchasing foreign-made products. Ethnocentric
consumers believe that their personal and national well-being would be under threat from imported
products (Shimp & Sharma, 1987). Initial studies on consumer ethnocentrism considered this phenomenon
applicable to advanced nations (Okechuku, 1994; Vida & Fairhurst, 1999); however, subsequent research
(Klein, Ettenson, & Krishnan, 2006; Reardon, Miller, Vida, & Kim, 2005; Supphellen & Gronhaug,
2003) identified its applicability in advancing countries also (Renko, Karanovic, & Matic, 2012).
Assessing ethnocentric tendency (CET) would give an idea about consumers’ inclination towards
accepting or rejecting foreign/domestic made products and brands.
The above discussion indicates that ethnocentric people will be more inclined towards their own
country-made products and brands over imported one. Associated CET will serve either as an opportunity
or as a threat for both domestic and imported products and brands to become successful in a particular
market. One factor that may potentially influence the CET of a consumer is his/her associated ethnic
identity (EID) as Rahman, Morshed, and Takdir (2011) observed that an ethnocentric person will assign
highest importance to his/her own national and EID. When identity is articulated based on one’s own
ethnic group affiliation, it is known as EID (Driedger, 1978). Ethnic identity can also be identified by
one’s ethnic attitudes and values (White & Burke, 1987). EID reflects a persons’ belonging with his/her
own ethnic group (Laroche, Kim, Hui, & Joy, 1996). In broad terms, EID is one’s identification based on
personal or parental place of beginning (Pires & Stanton, 2000). Socialization process during childhood
forms the basis for EID through learning of cultural values and behaviours (Rosenthal & Cichello, 1986).
Since, socialization is a dynamic learning process, EID can vary over time (Pires, Stanton, & Cheek,
2003) and can be adjusted, altered as well as changed (Lindridge, 2010).
The above discussion indicates that consumers’ EID has a significant bearing on their ethnocentrism
tendency, which, in turn, will affect their intention to purchase domestic as well as imported items and
brands. Since, successes for global as well as local brands require its acceptability among consumers, it
is imperative to know the impact of consumers’ EID on CET. However, this relationship has not been
studied in India. This indicates a gap in the literature. This gap will create challenges for both domestic
and international marketers and retailers to market their products and brands among consumers in India.
A lack of knowledge and understanding of consumers’ EID and its impact on CET hinders the marketers
and retailers in developing an appropriate cultural branding and marketing strategies to effectively serve
these consumers in India. A lack of knowledge in this regard will be a barrier to domestic and imported
marketers and retailers in drawing this segment to purchase their products and brands through cultural
branding. Hence, this study investigates the role of EID in shaping consumers’ CET. An integrated
conceptual model is proposed for this purpose and it is empirically tested. Accordingly, this study first
examines the influence of the dimensions of EID on CET among consumers in India. Second, this study
examines the moderation effects of both acculturation (Acculturation to Global Consumer Culture,
AGCC) and materialism (MAT) on the association between the dimensions of EID and CET among
consumers in India. Acculturation and MAT have been considered as moderators due to the fact that, in
the last couple of decades, increased globalization has resulted in the emergence of a ‘global culture’
(Carpenter, Moore, Alexander, & Doherty, 2012, 2013; Cleveland & Laroche, 2007; Lysonski, 2014;
Lysonski & Durvasula, 2013) which is more or less synonymous with Western culture (Özsomer, 2012)
due to Western dominance in global order (Raikhan, Moldakhmet, Ryskeldy, & Alua, 2014). Literature
identified global consumers as those who are cosmopolitan in nature, speaks in English, more or less
similar in their food habits, attire and life styles and try to measure success by materialistic pursuits
Das and Mukherjee
33
(Cleveland, Laroche, & Takahashi, 2015; Lysonski, 2014; Özsomer, 2012). It means, for a believer of
global culture, the tendency to deviate from own cultural identity (EID) and moving behind materials
can probably be high. It indicates the possibility of acculturation and MAT as possible negative and
positive moderators respectively, which will be elaborated in the literature review section in detail.
This study has both theoretical and practical implications. Theoretical contribution of the study is to
propose and empirically test a comprehensive model involving moderating role of acculturation and
MAT in the EID impact on consumers’ CET in India. Apart from that, it will also significantly contribute
to the existing literature of Social Identity Theory. This theory will be elaborated in the literature review
section as well as in the research contribution section.
Practically speaking, this study will inform both domestic and foreign marketers and retailers
interested to market their items in India about the EID influence in shaping CET. This study will also
give an idea about this impact in the light of acculturation and MAT as moderators in the association
between EID and ethnocentrism. Findings from this study will support domestic and foreign marketers
as well retailers immensely in formulating their cultural branding strategy while targeting consumers
across India in particular as well as other closed Asian sub-continental nations due to the similarities with
India in Hofstede’s dimension of national culture (Hofstede, 1984) in general.
Literature Review
Ethnic Identity
Identity signifies one’s own characteristics and value systems (De Mooij, 2004). Thus, EID indicates
one’s own characteristics and value systems based on the ethnic group with whom he/she associates by
virtue of proximity by affiliation or origin. It is the natural identity with which a person was born and
brought up (Pires & Stanton, 2010). EID is one’s assumed affiliation with a particular group, which can
change, develop as well as renovate (Lindridge, 2010). EID is a behavioural guide that serves as a base
while interacting with others (Burke & Stets, 2009). Extensive research has utilized EID as a measure for
social and psychological change (Hirschman, 1981; Laroche, Kim, Tomiuk, & Bélisl, 2005). Researchers
also tried to view consumption from EID perspectives contributing to consumer culture theory. For
example, Dmitrovic, Vida, and Reardon (2009) opined that comparison of local and global consumption
items (items belonging to different ethnic traditions) can be one important indicator for assessing strength
of EID. Researchers also assumed national identity as a broader aspect of EID and tried to assess national
identity from the consumption preference of multiple local and global items (Bardhi, Eckhardt, &
Arnould, 2012; Cleveland et al., 2015).
Consumer Ethnocentrism
Shimp and Sharma (1987) coined the term consumer ethnocentrism (CE) to indicate the superiority
feelings a consumer possess towards domestic products and brands vis-à-vis foreign alternatives. Thus,
CET identifies the emotional and moral feelings of consumers’ in evaluating domestic products compared
to foreign goods (Shimp & Sharma, 1987). Consumer ethnocentrism is a reflection of the view that
consumption of foreign products is amoral, unpatriotic and has a negative impact on the domestic
economy (Pentz, Terblanche, & Boshoff, 2015). Consumer CET is negatively correlated with purchase
attitude of imported products and positively correlated with the purchase intension of domestic products
34
Management and Labour Studies 45(1)
(Sharma, Shimp, & Shin, 1995). Ethnocentric consumers evaluate purchase of imported items and
brands based on its impact on domestic economy (Shimp & Sharma, 1987). On the contrary, nonethnocentric consumers do not consider the origin of a product during purchase. They evaluate products
and brands based on their own characteristics (Cutura, 2006). Ethnocentric consumers provide great
emphasis and favour to the products that are produced in home country compared to the imported one
(Jain & Jain, 2013) due to their superior view about domestic alternatives above the imported one
(Auruskeviciene, Vianelli, & Reardon, 2012). Shimp and Sharma (1987) developed and validated an
instrument known as ‘CETSCALE’ to measure people’s ethnocentric inclinations.
Theoretical Linking
Social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) links the association of consumer ethnocentrism and EID.
Social identity theory posits that people’s association with a particular social group makes them behave
more favourably towards that group. This favourable impression regarding a particular group forms the
basis and norms for individual behaviour. In order to increase self-image, people enhance the status of
the group to whom they associate. Therefore, people divide the world into ‘them’ and ‘us’ through the
process of social categorization. Social identity theory states that the ‘in-group’ will discriminate against
the ‘out-group’ to enhance their self-image. Tajfel and Turner (1979) proposed that through the mental
process of social categorization, social identification and social comparison, people evaluate others as
either ‘us’ or ‘them’. This categorization also influences consumption decision of a person. Consumers
are usually attracted to those products and brands that are linked to their social as well as national
identity (Forehand, Deshpande, & Reed, 2002), that is, ‘us’. Alternatively, we can say that people will
get attracted to those products and brands that represent their ‘in-group’. As EID also reflect national
identity (Cleveland et al., 2015), it is expected that consumers with high EID will be usually attracted to
national/domestic products and brands (in-group) compared to imported items (out-group). Since, CET
measures consumers attitude towards domestic as well as imported items and brands, based on social
identity theory, it can be conceived that people with high EID will have strong CET.
EID Dimensions and Its Impact on Ethnocentric Tendency
This section discusses about the dimensions of EID and its association with CET. Measurement of EID
needs a multi-dimensional approach since one dimension cannot perfectly reflect people’s EID (Phinney,
Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001). Some of the significant dimensions of EID are self-attachment
and identification with an ethnic group, urge to maintain own culture, ethnic involvement through
customs, rituals, etc., extent of ethnic language use, ethnic media consumption, ethnic interpersonal
relationship, etc. (Driedger, 1978; Hui, Annamma, Kim, & Laroche, 1992; Laroche et al., 2005; Mendoza,
1989; Peñaloza, 1994). Incorporating these dimensions, Cleveland and Laroche (2007) conceptualized
and used one multi-dimensional instrument for measuring EID. Those dimensions were use of local
media, association with local culture, preserving local culture, feelings towards local culture, local
interpersonal relationship and use of local language. Present research used these dimensions as
dimensions of EID.
As discussed in theoretical linking, the association of EID and consumer ethnocentrism can be
conceptualized with the underpinnings of ‘The social Identity Perspective’ that includes social identity
theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) and self-categorization theory (Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell,
1987). Social identity theory postulates that human beings are a combination of multiple identities:
Das and Mukherjee
35
personal, social, and super ordinate (e.g., human). Social identity is central to group membership and
ethnocentrism indicates a persons’ self-concept of membership towards a particular group (Tajfel, 1981).
Two most important psychological variables according to Tajfel and Turner (1979) that affect
ethnocentrism in a group are group categorization and the need for positive group distinctiveness. With
identification of a particular group, people perceive themselves interchangeable with other members of
the in-group and distant from members of out-group (Turner et al., 1987). Hence, group identity overtakes
personal identity and people start discriminating and showing favourable behaviour towards their
in-group to exhibit group superiority. Hence, once people categorize themselves as ethnic group
members, they treat their ethnic group superior to other out-groups and starts putting favourable
impression towards all components including diet, attire, customs, rituals, etc., of their ethnic group over
other out-groups. Hence, CET in people increases. From the above discussion, it seems that EID enhances
the CET that exist in an individual. Consequently, the dimensions of EID also seem to enhance the CET.
The first dimension is use of local media (ULM). The exposure to the contents disseminated in the
media influences people to learn culture (Alden, Steenkamp, & Batra, 1999; Appadurai, 1990). Thus, the
more people are exposed to local media, the more likely they will have an inclination towards local
culture. Types of television channel people frequently see, types of newspaper and magazines they
frequently read, and types of songs and music they listen will have a significant bearing on their attitude
and behaviour (Kim & Chao, 2009). As local media portrays favourable marketing communications for
local items and brands (Kim & Chao, 2009), it is expected that interest towards local media will
eventually create favourable impression towards local products and brands over foreign alternatives. It
will strengthen their CET. Thus, we can articulate that,
H1: Use of Local Media (ULM) will have a positive association with CET.
The next dimension is association with local culture (ALC). People associate with local cultures through
various socialization agents, which enable them to learn about that particular culture (Ger & Belk, 1996;
Graddol, 2000). When people interact with and learn a new culture, they tend to use items widely
accepted in that culture (Kim, 2015). Hence, the more a person will be associated with local culture and
tradition, the more will be the tendency to exhibit favourable impression towards that culture (Laroche
et al., 1996) and cultural items subsequently enhancing their CET. Thus, we argue that,
H2: Association with Local Culture (ALC) will have positive association with CET.
The next dimension is tendency to preserve local culture (PLC). The more people will be inclined to
preserve local culture, the more will be their tendencies to identify with that cultural items and brands
(Zhang & Shavitt, 2003). Thus, the more a person is inclined towards his/her local culture customs,
habits, values and rituals, the more will be the tendency in him/her to preserve those habits, values and
rituals (Vida, Dmitrović, & Obadia, 2008; White & Burke, 1987), which will gradually enhance the
associated CET. Hence, we propose that,
H3: Tendency to preserve local culture (PLC) will have a significant positive association with CET.
The fourth dimension of EID is feeling towards local culture (FLC). People with high feelings of pride
towards a particular culture will try to glorify that culture by claiming superiority of that culture over
others (Vida et al., 2008). To glorify that culture, they may tend to associate more with the items of that
culture while skipping other alternatives including foreign one (Vida et al., 2008). Hence, they will be
36
Management and Labour Studies 45(1)
more ethnocentric in their consumption tendencies, indicating that FLC may have a positive association
with ethnocentrism. Hence, we articulated that,
H4: Positive feeling towards local culture (FLC) will influence CET positively.
The next dimension of EID is local interpersonal relationship (LIR). People with strong interpersonal
relationship tend to favour existing norms, traditions and belongings of that culture (Javalgi, Khare,
Gross, & Scherer, 2005). It means, people with high local interpersonal relationship will cherish existing
local culture norms, relations and social institutions (Javalgi et al., 2005), leading them to become more
ethnocentric. Hence, we propose that,
H5: High local interpersonal relationship (LIR) will influence CET positively.
The final dimension of EID is use of local language (ULL). People tend to exhibit a superior image for
that culture whose language they use during communication (Wiseman, Hammer, & Nishida, 1989).
This is because language indicates bonding with a particular culture. Hence, the more people will use
local language during communication, the more they will be bonded with local culture leading to
increased CET. Thus, we can hypothesize that,
H6: Use of local language (ULL) will have a significant positive association with CET.
Moderating Role of MAT
MAT can moderate the association between dimensions of EID and consumer CET. MAT indicates a
person’s inclination towards material possessions is defining major life goals (Alden et al., 1999; Richins,
2004). Materialists tend to demonstrate their success and social statuses to others through acquisition of
status and conspicuous items (Richins & Dawson, 1992; Vigneron & Johnson, 2004). MAT is associated
with both consumer ethnocentrism as well as EID. Cleveland, Laroche, and Papadopoulos (2009),
Cleveland et al. (2011), Cleveland, Laroche, and Hallab (2013) conducted multiple research across the
world involving both Western and Asian countries concerning MAT’s association with EID. None of the
studies observed any significant negative association between EID and MAT. However, studies by
Cleveland et al. (2011, 2013) showed significant positive association of EID dimensions and MAT
concluding that MAT is an ethnically compatible phenomenon. Majority dimensions of EID exhibited
either significant positive association with MAT or no association.
Again, MAT can have association with consumer ethnocentrism also. Though, consumer ethnocentrism
is one of the significantly researched area in the parlance of consumer behaviour research; interestingly,
there is a scarce in literature that investigated MAT as an antecedent of consumer CET (Tantray, 2018).
However, a four-country study by Clarke et al. (2000) observed a significant positive association of MAT
and ethnocentrism.
The above discussion indicates that MAT may have a significant positive association with EID as well
as consumer ethnocentrism. Hence, the following hypotheses are formulated in relation to moderation
impact of MAT in the association of EID dimensions and consumer ethnocentrism:
H7: MAT positively moderates (enhances) the association between the customers’ (a) use of local
media; (b) association with local culture; (c) preserving local culture; (d) social feelings towards
local culture; (e) local interpersonal relationship and (f) use of local language; and their CET.
Das and Mukherjee
37
Moderating Role of Acculturation
Acculturation tendencies of a consumer can also influence the association of EID dimensions and
ethnocentrism. Acculturation studies socio-cultural change (Trimble, 2003) and researchers (Craig,
Douglas, & Bennet, 2009; Lysonski, Durvasula, & Madhavi, 2012; Yaprak, 2008) are convinced that
local cultures in the developing countries are exhibiting rapid changes. Globalization drives
acculturation (Cleveland & Laroche, 2007; Cleveland et al., 2009; Craig & Douglas, 2006) and in the
process reflects cultural changes through the adoption of products, lifestyles and rituals (Craig &
Douglas, 2006) mainly of the developed nations (Ger & Belk, 1996). Acculturation can be viewed
from two perspectives: unidirectional and bi-directional. Unidirectional view considers acculturation
as shifting of one culture to another while decaying the first. Bi-directional view calls for maintaining
own culture and acquiring the alternative cultural traits and values either by assimilation or integration
(Cleveland et al., 2015; Strizhakova, Coulter, & Price, 2012). Consumer acculturation is one sub-set
of acculturation, where acculturation is reflected through consumption of products and brands by the
consumers. Consumer acculturation is the phenomenon of changing consumption culture where
consumers start consuming items that are symbols of other cultures (Cleveland et al., 2009). For
measuring consumer acculturation, Cleveland and Laroche (2007) conceptualized one multi-item
multi-dimensional instrument popularly known as AGCC scale. The dimensions identified by
Cleveland and Laroche (2007) are Cosmopolitanism, Exposure to global media, Exposure to marketing
activities of MNC’s, Self-identification with global consumer culture, Contact with foreigners through
travel, and Openness to global consumer culture. According to Cleveland and Laroche (2007), a high
tendency towards all these dimensions will ensure an overall acculturation tendency of a person
towards global consumer culture.
Strength of acculturation tendency plays a significant role in shaping consumer’s EID (Cleveland &
Laroche, 2007). Though, not a single study investigated this phenomenon in Indian context, but there are
many studies that viewed the association of consumer acculturation and EID from multiple country
perspective as well as from migrated consumers’ perspectives. Majority of the findings reported a
significant negative association of consumer acculturation and EID (Cleveland & Laroche, 2007;
Cleveland et al., 2009, 2013; Li, Marbley, Bradley, & Lan, 2016; Sobol, Cleveland, & Laroche, 2018).
Again, consumer acculturation can have association with CET also. Since ethnocentric people prefer
local made products and brands over global one, and consumer acculturation studies the tendency of
consumers culture change towards global culture through acquisition of items and brands, a negative
association among consumer acculturation and CET is expected. In fact, studies (Cleveland et al., 2009;
Sobol et al., 2018) also recorded a significant negative association between consumers CET and
acculturation tendencies.
The above discussion indicates that consumer acculturation will play a significant role as a moderator
in the association between EID dimensions and consumer ethnocentrism. Most expectedly, consumer
acculturation will weaken the strength of association among EID dimensions and CET. Hence, the
following hypotheses are drawn in relation to the moderating role of consumer acculturation in the
association of EID dimensions and consumer ethnocentrism.
H8: Consumer acculturation negatively moderates (weakens) the association between customers’ (a)
use of local media; (b) association with local culture; (c) preserving local culture; (d) social
feelings towards local culture; (e) local interpersonal relationship and (f) use of local language;
and their CET.
38
Management and Labour Studies 45(1)
The Proposed Conceptual Model
Based on the review of literature and the preceding hypotheses, a conceptual model is proposed for
empirical validation given in Figure 1.
Research Method
Sample and Survey Administration
Responses were collected from consumers in India. Presently India is world’s sixth largest economy with
an estimated size of $2.6 trillion (IMF, 2018). The economy had grown at a rate of above 7 per cent for
the last three consecutive years and expected to grow at 8 per cent and above in coming years (IMF,
2018). The above statistics suggest that assessing the EID impacts on consumer ethnocentrism will have
significant bearing for marketers and retailers dealing with culturally sensitive items and brands in India.
Furthermore, their acculturation and materialistic tendencies will be likely to influence the association of
EID dimensions and CET, which will subsequently influence the consumption habits of Indian consumers.
Hence, Indian consumers are considered as appropriate sample for this study.
Survey method was employed for data collection purpose and a structured questionnaire is used for
survey purpose. Data were collected through both online and offline modes. The online questionnaire
Figure 1. Conceptual Model for This Study
Source: The authors.
39
Das and Mukherjee
was administered via email. Apart from that, respondents were also approached through other networking
sites, such as Facebook, LinkedIn and WhatsApp. A total of 262 usable surveys were received and used
for analysis. A reminder email was sent 10 days after the first mail.
Offline data were collected by visiting shopping malls, standalone retail outlets and educational
institutes. Formal permission to administer the survey was sought form respective authorized person of
the institution. Both on the spot response and own convenience based reply options were given to the
survey respondents. To respondents who opted to respond at a later point of time, postage paid selfaddressed envelopes were provided. 123 usable responses were received and used for analysis through
offline survey.
A total of 385 fully usable responses were obtained through offline and online mechanisms of data
collection. Data were collected during January 2018–April 2018. Independent sample T-test was
employed to observe whether any significant difference exists among the early and late respondents in
relation to their demographic attributes. No significant difference in responses indicated a non-response
bias (Armstrong & Overton, 1977). To observe representativeness, accuracy and non-response bias
between online and offline survey respondents, independent sample T-test was further used. No
significant difference among online and offline respondents in relation to demographic profiles or study
constructs justified validity of both the mechanisms for data collection (Deutskens, Ruyter, & Wetzels,
2006). Demographic profiles of the samples are given in Table 1.
Measures and Instrument Development
Previously validated instruments were used for survey purpose. However, certain modifications in the
wordings are made to suit the context of the study. The instrument comprised three parts: Part A contains
the screening question; Part B measured the study constructs; and Part C collected demographic
information of the respondents presented in Table 1. EID was measured by items and dimensions adopted
from Cleveland and Laroche (2007). Specifically, use of local media was operationalized using three
items, association with local culture using six items, preserving local culture by using three items, social
feelings towards local culture by using three items, local interpersonal relationship by using three items
Table 1. Demographic Profiles of the Respondents (n = 385)
Category
Gender
Male
Female
Income (1$ = 70 Indian Rupees)
Less than USD200/month
USD 201–400/month
USD 401–600/month
Above USD 600/month
Educational Qualification
Higher Secondary
Bachelor’s Degree
Postgraduate Degree or higher
Source: The authors.
N(385)
%
209
176
54
46
95
113
87
90
24.7
29.3
22.6
23.4
133
180
72
34.6
46.7
18.7
40
Management and Labour Studies 45(1)
and use of local language was operationalized by using six items. For measuring consumers’ materialistic
tendencies, a four items version of Richin’s (2004) ‘materialism scale’ was used. Consumer ethnocentrism
was operationalized using a five-item version of CETSCALE (Shimp & Sharma, 1987). Consumer
acculturation was measured using AGCC scale by Cleveland and Laroche (2007). Acculturation tendency
was measured through four dimensions obtained from AGCC scale namely Cosmopolitanism, English
language usage, Global mass media exposure and Exposure to marketing activities of MNC’s.
Cosmopolitanism was conceptualized by using five items, English language usage by six items, Global
mass media exposure by five items and Exposure to marketing activities of MNC’s was operationalized
by using four items. All the responses were obtained in a 7-point Likert measurement format (1 = strongly
disagree, 7 = strongly agree). Past literature identified the role of demographic variables like education,
employment status and gender in determining consumer CET (Javalgi et al., 2005; Sharma et al., 1995);
hence, these variables were controlled during analyses. A group of marketing and consumer behaviour
professors content tested the instrument for ensuring face validity.
Analysis and Results
Measurement Model
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed using AMOS version 21 to determine the validity,
reliability and dimensionality of the constructs. In obtaining the final set of items for each construct, one
item was deleted from cosmopolitanism dimension, two from use of local media dimension, and one
each from preserving local culture and feeling about local culture dimensions based on item-to-total
correlations and the standardized residual values (Byrne, 2010). The items were examined with original
conceptual definition of the constructs. The remaining items were subjected to CFA. The standardized
solution using AMOS 21 through the maximum likelihood method indicated an acceptable factor loading
for the remaining items in their respective factors. This indicates the instruments’ unidimensionality and
validity.
Table 2 indicates the values of the CFA measurement model. Average variance extracted (AVE) and
composite reliability (CR) values were above 0.5 and 0.7 respectively, indicating convergent validity of
the variables (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). A factor loading of 0.7 and above for all the
constructs (p < 0.01) also ensured the additional indication of convergent validity for the constructs (Hair
et al., 2010). Discriminant validity was measured by using procedures proposed by Fornell and Larcker
(1981). The results given in Table 3 show that the diagonally presented square root of the AVE values of
each construct were higher than the correlation coefficient of the corresponding construct, indicating the
discriminant validity of the constructs (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Table 2 indicates the fit statistics of the
CFA model as CMIN/DF = 3.85 ( p < 0.001), CFI = 0.91, GFI = 0.88, AGFI = 0.87, NFI = 0.90, TLI =
0.91, RMSEA = 0.061. All the fit statistics are within the prescribed limit as identified by Hair et al.
(2010).
Table 3 indicates the mean, standard deviation and correlation coefficients among the measurement
dimensions. As evident from Table 3, the square root of AVE (presented in diagonal) is greater than the
dimensional correlation coefficients indicating the discriminant validity of the instrument. All the
correlation values were less than 0.9, confirming the absence of multicollinearity (Tabachnick & Fidell,
2012).
41
Das and Mukherjee
Table 2. Construct for Measurement with Validity and Reliability
Acculturation
I am interested in learning more about people who live in other
countries
I like to learn about other ways of life
I like to try restaurants that offer food that is different from that
in my own culture
I enjoy exchanging ideas with people from other cultures or
countries
I find people from other culture stimulating
English Language Usage (ELU)
I feel very comfortable speaking in English
I often speak English with my family and friends
AVE (0.69), CR (0.88),
I speak English regularly
α = 0.88
The songs I listen are almost all in English
Most of the textbooks and articles I read are in English
Many of my favourite shows of TV are in English
Global Mass Media Exposure (GMM) I enjoy watching Hollywood films at the theatre
Some of my favourite actors/actresses are from Hollywood
AVE (0.74), CR (0.95),
I am listening to music that is popular in the United States
α = 0.91
I enjoy watching Hollywood movies that are in English
In general, I do not like American Television(r)
Ads for foreign of global products are everywhere
Exposure to Marketing of MNC’s
When I read a newspaper, I come across many advertisements
(EXM)
for foreign or global products
AVE (0.67), CR (0.82),
When I am watching Television, the number of advertisements
α =0.84
for foreign brands is quite high than local brands
I often watch TV programming with advertisements from outside
my country
Ethnic Identity
Use of Local Media (LM)
Most of the TV channels I observe are local channels
AVE (0.63), CR (0.72),
Most of the newspaper and magazine I study are local
α = 0.75
I prefer local videos/movies over Hollywood one
Association with Local Culture (AC) I always celebrate (local culture) holidays
AVE (0.77), CR (0.91),
I like to celebrate birthdays and weddings in the (local culture)
α = 0.87
tradition
I like to cook (local culture) dishes/meals
I like to eat (local culture) foods
I like to listen (local culture) music
Participating in (local culture) events is very important to me
Preserving Local Culture (PC)
I consider it very important to maintain my own culture
I believe that it is very important for children to learn the values
AVE (0.66), CR (0.79),
of own culture
α =0.79
I was to live elsewhere; I would still want to retain my own
culture
Cosmopolitanism (COS)
AVE (0.61), CR (0.82),
α = 0.81
0.72
0.76
0.81
0.75
0.77
0.82
0.75
0.87
0.88
0.79
0.86
0.81
0.91
0.80
0.88
0.76
0.76
0.82
0.67
0.81
0.70
0.71
0.73
0.84
0.83
0.70
0.78
0.86
0.82
0.76
0.62
0.71
(Table 2 continued)
42
Management and Labour Studies 45(1)
(Table 2 continued)
Feelings towards Local Culture (FLC) I feel very proud to identify with my own culture
AVE (0.69), CR (0.87),
I consider my culture rich and precious than all other cultures
α =0.86
My local culture people has the most positive impact on my life
Local Interpersonal Relationship (LIR) Most of my friends are members of my own cultural group
AVE (0.73), CR (0.85),
Most of the people that I go to parties or social events with are
α =0.84
members of my own culture group
Most of the people at the places I go to have fun and relax are
members of my own culture group
Use of Local Language (L)
I speak my own local language regularly
AVE (0.67), CR (0.82),
The songs I listen to are almost all in local language
α =0.81
Many of my favourite television shoes are in local language
I always speak/spoke local language with my parents
Many of the books I read in are in local language
I prefer to watch local language television over any other
language I may speak
Consumer Ethnocentrism
Indian should not buy foreign products, because this hurts Indian
businesses and causes unemployment
Consumer Ethnocentrism (CET)
AVE (0.71), CR (0.84),
It may cost me in the long run, but I prefer to support Indian
α = 0.84
products
Foreign products should be taxed heavily to reduce their entry
into India
Indian consumers who purchase products made in other
countries are responsible for putting their fellow Indians out of
work
Purchasing foreign made products is Un-Indian
Materialism (MAT)
AVE (0.71), CR (0.73),
α = 0.82
Materialism
I admire people who own expensive homes, cars and cloths
I like to own things that impress
The things I own say a lot about how well I am doing in life
I try to keep things simple, as far as possessions are concerned
(r)
0.80
0.76
0.83
0.79
0.82
0.83
0.76
0.73
0.79
0.81
0.78
0.75
0.77
0.78
0.81
0.79
0.78
0.72
0.76
0.78
0.79
Source: The authors.
Notes: CMIN/DF = 3.85 (p < 0.001), CFI = 0.91, GFI = 0.88, AGFI = 0.87, NFI = 0.90, TLI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.061
FL = Factor Loading, α = Cronbach’s Alpha, CR = Construct Reliability, AVE = Average variance extracted, DF = Degrees of
Freedom, CFI = Comparative Fit Index, GFI = Goodness Fit Index, AGFI = Adjusted Goodness Fit Index, NFI = Normed Fit
Index, TLI = Trucker-Lewis Index, RMSEA = Root Mean square Error of Approximation, r = reverse coded.
3.61
2.39
2.88
4.27
3.01
4.02
4.76
4.24
4.12
3.11
4.93
3.23
0.79
1.23
1.02
0.99
0.83
1.42
0.79
1.06
0.71
1.21
0.72
1.1
SD
2
0.83a
0.57**
0.43**
−0.25*
−0.41**
−0.33**
−0.17*
−0.38**
0.21*
−0.07ns
0.12ns
0.78
0.31**
0.53**
0.27*
−0.18*
−0.33**
−0.09ns
−0.32**
−0.19*
−0.09ns
−0.21*
0.26*
a
1
0.86a
0.51**
−0.29*
−0.26*
−0.32**
−0.21*
−0.21*
−0.18*
−0.22*
0.57**
3
0.82a
0.02ns
−0.35**
−0.11ns
−0.10ns
−0.37**
−0.19*
−0.08ns
0.49**
4
0.79a
0.51**
0.39**
0.23*
0.23*
0.17*
0.12ns
0.34**
5
Source: The authors.
Notes: ** Correlation is significant at p < 0.01, * Correlation is significant at p < 0.05, nsNot Significant
a
Diagonal value indicates the square root of AVE of individual latent construct
1. Cosmopolitanism
2. English Language Usage
3. Global Mass Media Exposure
4. Exposure to Marketing of MNC’s
5. Use of Local Media
6. Association with Local Culture
7. Preserving Local Culture
8. Feelings towards Local Culture
9. Local Interpersonal Relationship
10. Use of Local Language
11. Consumer Ethnocentrism
12. Materialism
Mean
Table 3. Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Matrix for the Study Constructs
0.88a
0.65**
0.38**
0.31**
0.34**
0.56**
0.44**
6
0.81a
0.52**
0.56**
0.23*
0.42**
0.09ns
7
0.83a
0.35**
0.55**
0.36**
0.21*
8
10
11
0.85a
0.28* 0.82a
0.41** 0.12ns 0.84a
0.31** 0.11ns 0.23*
9
0.84a
12
44
Management and Labour Studies 45(1)
Common Method Bias
One vital consideration during survey research is occurrence of common method bias (CMB). Marker
variable method as suggested by Malhotra, Kim, and Patil (2006) is used to test CMB. Accordingly, one
variable is added as a marker in the study, which is conceptually unrelated to the study constructs. The
low correlation between the marker and the study constructs was indicated the non-occurrence of CMB
(Lindell & Whitney, 2001).
Hypotheses Testing
Hierarchical moderated regression method was employed to test the hypotheses formulated in this study.
The predictor variables were considered as input to generate interaction terms (Aiken, West, & Reno,
1991). Across the three regression analysis models, the highest VIF value was 3.96. It was much lesser
than the prescribed limit of 5 (Hair et al., 2010). This indicates the absence of multicollinearity in the
models. In all the three models, consumer CET was the outcome or dependent variable. The impact of
the control variables was evaluated in Model 1. The direct association of the six dimensions of EID with
consumer CET was evaluated in Model 2. Both the moderator variables, that is, consumer acculturation
and MAT were also included in Model 2 to observe the direct effects of the moderators in the outcome
variable. The R2 difference between Model 1 and Model 2 was observed to be significant. It indicates the
direct effects on consumer ethnocentrism by the dimensions of EID. In Model 3, the moderator variables
were introduced. The interaction terms of moderator variable and independent variables were put as
separate independent variables while running the model. A significant change in R2 value between Model
2 and Model 3 will indicate significant moderation effects.
As evident in Table 4, the results of Model 1 (i.e., all the control variables included in the study)
explained 11 per cent variance in CET and Model 2 (i.e., the six dimensions of EID, consumer
acculturation, and MAT along with the control variables) explained 43 per cent variance in consumer
ethnocentrism, with a F-value of 3.52 (p < 0.001). A significant difference in R2 between Model 1 and
Model 2 (ΔR2= 0.32, F = 3.52, p < 0.001) suggests the presence of direct effects of EID dimensions on
consumers’ CET. Model 2 showed that Association with Local Culture (β = 0.26, p < 0.01), Preserving
Local Culture (β = 0.24, p < 0.01), Feelings towards Local Culture (β = 0.16, p < 0.05), and Local
Interpersonal Relationship (β = 0.34, p < 0.001) had significant positive influences on consumer CET,
whereas Customer Acculturation had a significant negative influence (β =−0.25, p < 0.01) on
ethnocentrism. Use of Local Media (β = 0.014, p > 0.05), Use of Local Language (β = 0.01, p > 0.05) or
MAT (β = 0.06, p > 0.05) had no significant effects on CET. Thus, H2, H3, H4 and H5 were accepted where
as H1 and H6 were not accepted concerning the direct effects on consumer CET.
Model 3 assessed the moderation effects of acculturation and MAT in the direct association of EID
dimensions and consumer ethnocentrism. The model explained 66 per cent variance in consumer CET.
A significant R2 difference between Model 2 and Model 3 (ΔR2= 0.23, F = 9.18, p < 0.001) suggested the
presence of interaction effects of consumer acculturation and MAT. The test of individual interaction
effects of MAT suggests that the interaction terms of Use of Local Media and MAT (β = 0.14, p < 0.05);
Association with Local Culture and MAT (β = 0.19, p < 0.05); and Local Interpersonal Relationship and
MAT (β = 0.23, p < 0.01) were positive and significant. Thus, MAT positively moderates the association
of three EID dimensions and consumer ethnocentrism, indicating acceptance of H7a, H7b and H7e. The
interaction terms of Preserving Local Culture and MAT (β = 0.08, p > 0.05); Feelings towards Local
Culture and MAT (β = 0.04, p > 0.05); and Use of Local Language and MAT (β = 0.01, p > 0.05) were
not significant. Thus, H7c, or H7d or H7f were not supported.
45
Das and Mukherjee
Table 4. Results of Hierarchical Moderated Regression Analyses
Dependent Variable: Consumer Ethnocentrism
Independent Variables
Control Variables
Gender
Education
Employment
Direct Effect Variables
Use of Local Media
Association with Local Culture
Preserving Local Culture
Feelings towards Local Culture
Local Interpersonal Relationship
Use of Local Language
Acculturation
Materialism
Interactions
Use of Local Media X Acculturation
Association with Local Culture X Acculturation
Preserving Local Culture X Acculturation
Feelings towards Local Culture X Acculturation
Local Interpersonal Relationship X Acculturation
Use of Local Language X Acculturation
Use of Local Media X Materialism
Association with Local Culture X Materialism
Preserving Local Culture X Materialism
Feelings towards Local Culture X Materialism
Local Interpersonal Relationship X Materialism
Use of Local Language X Materialism
R2 value
Δ R2
F value
F significance
***
p < 0.001
**
p < 0.01
*
p < 0.05
ns
not significant
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
0.14*
0.01ns
0.12*
0.19*
0.02ns
0.08ns
0.17*
0.05ns
0.07ns
0.014ns
0.26**
0.24***
0.16*
0.34***
0.01ns
−0.25**
0.06ns
0.02ns
0.28**
0.37***
0.18*
0.37***
0.07ns
−0.32**
0.03ns
0.43
0.32
4.52
(p < 0.001)
−0.02ns
−0.24**
−0.16*
−0.32***
−0.04ns
0.02ns
0.14*
0.19*
0.08ns
0.04ns
0.23**
0.01ns
0.66
0.23
8.18
(p < 0.001)
0.11
–
0.597
(p > 0.05)
Source: The authors.
Individual interaction effects of consumer acculturation indicated that the interaction terms of
Association with Local Culture and Acculturation (β = −0.24, p < 0.01); Preserving Local Culture and
Acculturation (β = −0.16, p < 0.05); and Feelings towards Local Culture and Acculturation (β = −0.32,
p < 0.001) were negative and significant. Thus, consumer acculturation negatively moderates the
association of three EID dimensions and CET, accepting H8b, H8c and H8d. The interaction terms of Use
of Local Media and Acculturation (β = −0.016, p > 0.05); Local Interpersonal Relationship and
Acculturation (β = −0.04, p > 0.05); and Use of Local Language and Acculturation (β = 0.02, p > 0.05)
were not significant. Thus, H8a, or H8e or H8f were not supported.
46
Management and Labour Studies 45(1)
Auto-correlation is another significant aspect in hierarchical moderated regression to ensure robustness
of a model. To ensure the phenomenon of auto correlation, the Durbin–Watson test was employed during
analysis. The analysis resulted a test value of 1.972, which is within the prescribed limit (Thomas,
Fomby, Carter, & Johnson, 1984) ensuring its absence.
Predictive Validity
Predictive validity measure of the model was also ensured by applying cross-validation procedure
(Woodside & MacDonald, 2012). Accordingly, all the 385 samples were randomly grouped into two
categories of 192 and 193 samples and Model 3 of hierarchical moderated regression was run for both
the sub-samples. The associations of the variables in the sub-samples showed the same pattern of positive
or negative significance. The R2 values of consumer CET for both subsamples were very close to each
other (between 64.9% and 69.5%), indicating the predictive validity of the model.
Discussion
This study proposed one comprehensive moderation model to understand how consumers’ EID is
associated with ethnocentrism tendency. Three sets of hypotheses are specifically designed and tested in
this regard. The first set of hypotheses examined the direct association of EID dimensions and CET. The
findings indicate that four dimensions of EID (Association with Local Culture, Preserving Local Culture,
Feelings towards Local Culture, and Local Interpersonal Relationship) had significant positive association
with CET of the consumers in India. However, Use of Local Media and Use of Local Language
dimensions do not have any significant association with ethnocentrism. The findings of the four positive
significant dimensions are consistent with the past findings given in the literature review section (Banna,
Papadopoulos, Murphy, Rod, & Mojas-Mendex, 2018; Javalgi et al., 2005; Zarkada-Fraser & Fraser,
2002). However, Use of Local Media and Use of Local Language dimensions had not any significant
association with CET for consumers in India. The justification for Use of Local Media impact on
ethnocentrism can be attributed to the fact that communication carried out by local media in India in
present time are more or less homogeneous with global media houses. Though aired in local language,
the content deliberation pattern and style, content structure is similar to their global counterparts. Even,
multinationals also frequently air their global advertisements with minor changes to target consumers
through local media houses. Hence, use of local media as a determinant failed to enhance CET of the
consumers in India. Insignificant association of local language usage and ethnocentrism impact can be
attributed to the fact that along with local language, consumers in India are equally compatible and
familiar with English as a second language. Even, Indian consumers frequently use ‘Hinglisha portmanteau of Hindi and English’ in their day-to-day conversations with others. Hence, usage of local
languages failed to enhance CET for the consumers in India.
The second set of hypotheses in this study dealt with the moderating effect of MAT in the association
between EID dimensions and ethnocentrism among consumers in India. The findings show that MAT
acts as a positive moderator for the association between three dimensions of EID (Association with
Local Culture, Local Interpersonal Relationship and Local Media usage) and ethnocentrism. These
findings are in line with the expected outcome discussed in literature review section. However, MAT
failed to explain the moderation hypotheses for Preserving Local Culture, Feelings towards Local
Culture, and Use of Local Language dimensions. Materialists tend to demonstrate their success and
Das and Mukherjee
47
social statuses to others through acquisition of status and conspicuous items (Richins & Dawson, 1992;
Vigneron & Johnson, 2004). Since, the purpose of materialistic tendencies is to exhibit success and
status to others; it has no bearing on any of these dimensions, that is, preserving local culture, positive
feeling towards local culture and use of local language. Another possible reason could be that, in India,
MAT prevailed since ancient in different forms across cultures (Bhattacharya, 2016). Materialistic
instinct among Indian’s is not culture or ethnicity specific rather it is more independent and self-governed
by nature without consideration for right and wrong (Bhattacharya, 2016). Hence, it is quite possible that
there is no association of these EID dimensions with MAT in the context of India.
The third set of hypotheses relates to the moderation effects of consumer acculturation. Acculturation
acts as a negative moderator for the association between three EID dimensions (Association with Local
Culture, Preserving Local Culture, and Feelings towards Local Culture) and CET. These findings indicate
that as people become acculturate, the positive effects of these dimensions on the CET weakened. These
findings are consistent with the discussions in the literature review section.
However, consumer acculturation does not have any significant moderation effect on the impact of
the remaining three dimensions of EID (i.e., Use of Local Media, Local Interpersonal Relationship, and
Use of Local Language) on the CET. Since, Use of Local Media and Use of Local language dimensions
do not have any significant direct impact on CET of consumers; consumer acculturation plays an
insignificant role in these effects. Though Local Interpersonal Relationship is observed to have a
significant direct positive effect with consumer ethnocentrism, the moderation effect of consumer
acculturation in this direct effect becomes insignificant. This may be attributed to the fact that India
being a collectivist country, local interpersonal relationship is prominent and vital irrespective of
associated level of acculturation. Hence, consumer acculturation does not play any significant role as a
moderator for this dimensions impact on CET.
Academic Implications
This study has investigated how dimensions of EID influence consumers’ CET in India. It also analyzed
the moderating role of MAT and acculturation in the direct association of dimensions of EID and
consumer ethnocentrism. A conceptual model was proposed in this regard and the findings obtained from
this study more or less supported the proposed model though the findings relating to some hypotheses
were not significant. EID, acculturation, consumer ethnocentrism and MAT are some of the important
cultural constructs affecting consumer behaviour significantly post globalization era. However, their
interrelationship has not yet been investigated extensively in India. By proposing one conceptual model
and empirically testing it, this study fills this gap.
This study also contributes in better understanding of Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
Social identity theory claims that people association with a particular social group indulge them to
behave more favourably towards that group and gradually this favourable impression regarding the
group becomes the norms for individual behaviour. As EID is a form of social identity, we can say,
people association towards a particular ethnic group tends them to act favourably towards that ethnic
group. Explaining the association further, it can be told that people with particular national identity will
act favourably towards that nation as well as nation made products. Hence, social identity theory tells
that EID will have a significant positive association with consumer ethnocentrism. The findings of this
study validate this phenomenon to a greater extent as it shows that, out of six dimensions of EID, four
dimensions have positive association with ethnocentrism for consumers in India. Hence, it is a significant
contribution in the existing knowledge base of social identity theory with a new application area of
consumption and culture.
48
Management and Labour Studies 45(1)
Apart from EID association with consumer ethnocentrism, our study also assessed the moderating
role of acculturation and MAT in the association between EID dimensions and consumer ethnocentrism.
Our study identified acculturation as a negative moderator and MAT as a positive moderator in the direct
association of EID dimensions and consumer ethnocentrism. By doing so, our study further expanded
the current literature base of social identity theory in the light of moderation role of MAT and acculturation.
It is also noteworthy that this study was conducted in India. India is the second most populated
country after China, with huge young and middle-aged population having a high disposable income
(Saxena, 2010). The Indian economy has exhibited an impressive GDP growth during the last decade.
With its high disposable income, Indian consumers are an attractive market for multinational as well as
domestic firms. However, due to accelerated globalization and technological revolution, customers in
India are witnessing cultural transitions and modernization (Ghosh, 2012) creating behavioural
uncertainties while taking purchase decision. These cultural paradoxes are creating both opportunities as
well as challenges for marketers in formulating and executing their cultural branding strategies; thus
contributing towards cultural branding domain of consumer behaviour confining to Indian consumer.
Managerial Implications
This study provides several managerial contributions for marketers and retailers who primarily rely on
cultural branding while market their offerings to consumers in India. These implications are briefly
elaborated as follows:
Of the dimensions of EID, consumers’ association with local culture has significant positive influence
on their CET indicating that with increased association with local culture, consumers’ CET increases.
Thus, marketers interested to target consumers based on their ethnocentric feeling, can encourage them
to associate with local culture. In addition, they can encourage consumers to enhance local interpersonal
relationship and preservation of local culture. For example, marketers can arrange promotional offers
based on contests encouraging local association. They can also organize events to popularize local
cultural songs and singers and in the process can contribute in preserving local cultural traditions. These
promotional activities among target customers will enhance ethnocentric feelings and fetch additional
benefits for marketers through cultural branding.
Again, findings from this study also indicate a significant positive association of feeling towards local
culture and CET. It means, while targeting consumers in India, marketers as well as retailers can glorify
local cultural feelings and sentiments through advertisement and public relation activities. For example,
they can highlight the unique aspects of local cultures in their advertisement through emotional
advertisement appeal. They can also take steps towards preserving the local cultural heritage, customs
and traditions. Service-oriented organizations can incorporate cultural traditions as an integral part of
their service delivery process. These initiatives and activities will enhance consumers’ ethnocentric
image and will benefit the marketers tremendously.
Our findings also indicated that MAT act as a positive moderator for the direct association of three
dimensions of EID (Association with Local Culture, Local Interpersonal Relationship and Local Media
usage) and CET. These findings suggest that promoting materialistic appeals and thoughts while
focussing on these three dimensions of EID will arouse more ethnocentric feeling among consumers. It
is therefore recommended that while glorifying these three dimensions (as discussed in the previous
section) through marketing communications, marketers can promote materialistic values. It will further
enhance the ethnocentric feeling of the target consumers.
Das and Mukherjee
49
The findings also indicated that the consumers’ acculturation tendency weakens the association of
three dimensions of EID (Association with Local Culture, Preserving Local Culture, and Feelings
towards Local Culture) and CET. These findings are vital for marketers and retailers who mainly market
imported and foreign items and brands in India. These marketers and retailers may use acculturation
appeals while focussing these dimensions to reduce consumers’ CET. For example, they can use slogans
like ‘Global by Look Local by Heart’ to manifest their global nature along with love for local culture.
They can also promote and organize events (e.g., ‘Fusion’ theme based music and fashion shows) to
promote global culture and at the same time showing bond with local culture. Overall, these findings will
support practising marketers and managers in effective design and execution of their communication and
branding strategies while targeting Indian market.
Limitations and Directions for Future Research
This study has certain limitations that future researchers may resolve. First, this study is confined to
consumers in India. In India also, offline data were mainly collected from East and Northeastern parts.
Due to huge population and socio-cultural differences within India as well as with other countries,
generalizing these findings is questionable. So, the proposed model should be replicated in other parts of
India as well as other counties across the world for better generalization. The second inherent limitation
for this study is its cross-sectional nature, which can only detect association between variables but cannot
detect cause-and-effect relationships between the variables (Hair Jr., Lukas, Miller, Bush, & Ortinau,
2014). From the study perspective, it means that EID dimensions cause variations in CET for consumers
in India. Future researchers can carry out longitudinal studies to observe these associations.
This study opens multiple dimensions for future research. First, the model proposed in this study is a
generalist one and not confined to any particular product or product categories. Future researchers can
use this model to investigate how the EID dimensions drive consumers’ intentions to purchase different
types of products and brands in the light of CET; for example, imported Western food, imported
technology products, fashion items, etc. Second, the proposed model can further expanded by including
other moderators as well as new mediators in the moderated associations. Future researchers could
identify these factors from the literature, incorporate them into the model, and expand the study.
Third, similar studies could be conducted between different groups of consumers based on their
demographic profiles (e.g., between married and single customers, and between customers with different
educational or occupational backgrounds) to see whether based on demographic attributes is there any
significant difference in the model. Such studies may provide insights to the marketers and retailers who
intend to apply cultural branding while market brands and items to the consumers in India.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of
this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Manish Das
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0579-2807
50
Management and Labour Studies 45(1)
References
Aiken, L. S., West, S. G., & Reno, R. R. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. New
York, NY: SAGE Publications.
Alden, D. L., Steenkamp, J.-B. E. M., & Batra, R. (1999). Brand positioning through advertising in Asia, North
America, and Europe: The role of global consumer culture. Journal of Marketing, 63(1), 75–87.
Appadurai, A. (1990). Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy. Theory, Culture & Society, 7(2/3),
295–310.
Armstrong, S. J., & Overton, S. T. (1977). Estimating nonresponsive bias in mail surveys. Journal of Marketing
Research, 14, 396–402.
Auruskeviciene, V., Vianelli, D., & Reardon, J. (2012). Comparison of consumer ethnocentrism behavioural patterns
in transitional economies. Transformations in Business and Economics, 11(2/26), 20–35.
Banna, E. A., Papadopoulos, N., Murphy, A. S., Rod, M., & Mojas-Mendex, I. J. (2018). Ethnic identity, consumer
ethnocentrism, and purchase intensions among bi-cultural ethnic consumers: ‘Divided loyalties’ or ‘dual
allegiance’? Journal of Business Research, 82, 310–319.
Bardhi, F., Eckhardt, M. G., & Arnould, E. (2012). Liquid relationship to possessions. Journal of Consumer
Research, 39(3), 510–529.
Bhattacharya, R. (2016). From proto-materialism to materialism: The Indian scenario. confluence. Journal of World
Philosophies, 3. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.iu.edu/iupjournals/index.php/confluence/article/view/544
Burke, P. J., & Stets, J. E. (2009). Identity theory. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming
(2nd ed.). Multivariate Applications Series. New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Carpenter, J. M., Moore, M., Alexander, N., & Doherty, M. A. (2012). Acculturation to the global consumer culture:
A generational cohort comparison. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 20, 411–423.
Carpenter, J. M., Moore, M., Alexander, N., & Doherty, A. M. (2013). Consumer demographics, ethnocentrism,
cultural values, and acculturation to the global consumer culture: A retail perspective. Journal of Marketing
Management, 29, 271–291.
Cleveland, M., & Laroche, M. (2007). Acculturation to the global consumer culture: Scale development and research
paradigm. Journal of Business Research, 60(3), 249–259.
Cleveland, M., Laroche, M., & Hallab, R. (2013). Globalization, culture, religion, and values: Comparing
consumption patterns of Lebanese Muslims and Christians. Journal of Business Research, 66, 958–967.
Cleveland, M., Laroche, M., & Papadopoulos, N. (2009). Cosmopolitanism, consumer ethnocentrism and
materialism: An eight country study of antecedents and outcomes. Journal of International Marketing, 17(1),
116–146.
Cleveland, M., Papadopoulos, N., & Laroche, M. (2011). Identity, demographics, and consumer behaviors:
International market segmentation across product categories. International Marketing Review, 28(3), 244–266.
Cleveland, M., Laroche, M., & Takahashi, I. (2015). The intersection of global consumer culture and national
identity and the effect on Japanese consumer behavior. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 27(5),
364–387.
Cleveland, M., Papadopoulos, N., & Laroche, M. (2011). Identity, demographics, and consumer behaviors:
International market segmentation across product categories. International Marketing Review, 28(3), 244–266.
Craig, C. S., & Douglas, P. S. (2006). Beyond national culture: Implications of cultural dynamics for consumer
research. International Marketing Review, 23(3), 322–342.
Craig, C. S., Douglas, P. S., & Bennet, A. (2009). Contextual and cultural factors underlying Americanization.
International Marketing Review, 26(1), 90–109.
Cutura, M. (2006). The impacts of ethnocentrism on consumer’s evaluation processes and willingness to buy
domestic vs. imported goods in the case of Bosnia-Herzegovina. South East European Journal of Economics
and Business, 1(2), 54–63.
Deutskens, C. E., Ruyter, D. K., & Wetzels, M. G. M. (2006). An assessment of equivalence between online and mail
surveys in service research. Journal of Service Research, 8(4), 346–355.
De Mooij, M. (2004). Consumer behavior and culture: Consequences for global marketing and advertising.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Das and Mukherjee
51
Dmitrovic, T., Vida, I., & Reardon, J. (2009). Purchase behaviour in favor of domestic products in the West Balkans.
International Business Review, 18(5), 523–535.
Driedger, L. (1978). The Canadian ethnic mosaic. Toronto, ON: McClelland and Stewart.
Forehand, R. M., Deshpande, R., & Reed, A. (2002). Identity salience and the influence of differential activation of
the social self-schema on advertising response. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(6), 1086–1099.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, F. D. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement
error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18, 382–388.
Ger, G., & Belk, W. R. (1996). Cross-cultural differences in materialism. Journal of Economic Psychology, 17(1),
55–77.
Ghosh, B. (2012). Globalisation and social transformation: Yogendra Singh on culture change in contemporary
India. In M. Ishwar (Ed.), Modernization, globalization and social transformation (pp. 242–256). Jaipur, India:
Rawat Publications.
Graddol, D. (2000). The future of English. London: The British Council.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hair Jr, J. F., Lukas, B. A., Miller, K. E., Bush, R. P., & Ortinau, D. J. (2014). Marketing research (4th ed.). North
Ryde, NSW: McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Limited.
Hirschman, E. C. (1981). American Jewish identity: Its relationship to some selected aspects of consumer behaviour.
Journal of Marketing, 45, 102–110.
Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE Publications.
Hui, M. K., Annamma, J., Kim, C., & Laroche, M. (1992). Acculturation as a determinant of consumer behavior:
Conceptual and methodological issues. In C. T. Allen, T. J. Madden, T. A. Shimp, R. D. Howell, G. M. Zinkhan, D. D.
Heisley, R. J. Semenik, P. Dickson, V. Zeithaml, & R. L. Jenkins (Eds.), Marketing Theory and Applications (pp. 466–
473). Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association.
Jain, S. K., & Jain, R. (2013). Consumer ethnocentrism and its antecedents: An exploratory study of consumers of
India. Asian Journal of Business Research, 3(1), 1–18.
Javalgi, R., Khare, V., Gross, A., & Scherer, R. (2005). An application of the consumer ethnocentrism model to
French consumers. International Business Review, 14(3), 325–344.
Kim, S. Y., & Chao, R. K. (2009). Heritage language fluency, ethnic identity, and school effort of immigrant Chinese
and Mexico adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(1), 27–37.
Kim, Y.Y. (2015). Finding a “home” beyond culture: The emergence of intercultural personhood in the globalizing
world. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 46, 3–12.
Klein, J. G., Ettenson, R., & Krishnan, B. C. (2006). Extending the construct of consumer ethnocentrism: When
foreign products are preferred. International Marketing Review, 23(3), 304–321.
Laroche, M., Kim, C., Hui, M., & Joy, A. (1996). An empirical study of multidimensional ethnic change: The case
of the French-Canadians in Quebec. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27(1), 114–131.
Laroche, M., Kim, C., Tomiuk, M. A., & Bélisl, D. (2005). Similarities in Italian and Greek multidimensional ethnic
identity: Some implementation in food consumption. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 22(2),
143–163.
Li, J., Marbley, A. F., Bradley, L., & Lan, W. (2016). Attitudes toward seeking counseling services among Chinese
international students: Acculturation, ethnic identity, and language proficiency. Journal of Multicultural
Counseling and Development, 44(1), 65–76.
Lindell, M. K., & Whitney, D. J. (2001). Accounting for common method variance in cross-sectional research
designs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 114–121.
Lindridge, A. (2010). Are we fooling ourselves when we talk about ethnic homogeneity? The case of religion and
ethnic sub-divisions amongst Indians living in Britain. Journal of Marketing Management, 26(5/6), 441–472.
Lysonski, S. (2014). Receptivity of young Chinese to American and global brands: Psychological underpinnings.
Journal of Consumer Marketing, 31(4), 250–262.
Lysonski, S., & Durvasula, S. (2013). Nigeria in transition: Acculturation to global consumer culture. Journal of
Consumer Marketing, 30(6), 493–508.
52
Management and Labour Studies 45(1)
Lysonski, S., Durvasula, S., & Madhavi, D. A. (2012). Evidence of a secular trend in attitudes towards the macro
marketing environment in India: Pre and post economic liberalization. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 29(7),
532–544.
Malhotra, K. N., Kim, S. S., & Patil, A. (2006). Common method variance in is research: A comparison of alternative
approaches and a reanalysis of past research. Management Science, 52(12), 1865–1883.
Mendoza, R. H. (1989). An empirical scale to measure type and degree of acculturation in Mexican–American
adolescents and adults. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 20(12), 372–385.
Okechuku, C. (1994). The importance of product country of origin: A conjoint analysis of the USA, Canada,
Germany, and the Netherlands. European Journal of Marketing, 28(4), 5–19.
Özsomer, A. (2012). The interplay between global and local brands: A closer look at perceived brand globalness and
local iconness. Journal of International Marketing, 20(2), 72–95.
Peñaloza, L. (1994). Atravesando fronteras/border crossings: A critical ethnographic exploration of the consumer
acculturation of Mexican immigrants. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(1), 32–54.
Pentz, C., Terblanche, N., & Boshoff, C. (2015). Antecedents and consequences of consumer ethnocentrism:
Evidence from South Africa. International Journal of Emerging Markets, 12(2), 199–218.
Phinney, J. S., Horenczyk, G., Liebkind, K., & Vedder, P. (2001). Ethnic identity, immigration, and well-being: An
international perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 57(3), 493–510.
Pires, G., & Stanton, J. (2000). Marketing services to ethnic consumers in culturally diverse markets: Issues and
implications. Journal of Services Marketing, 14(7), 607–618.
Pires, D. G., & Stanton, J. P. (2010). Ethnicity and acculturation in a culturally diverse country: Identifying ethnic
markets. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2010, 42–57.
Pires, D. G., Stanton, J. P., & Cheek, B. (2003). Identifying and reaching an ethnic market: Methodological issues.
Qualitative Market Research, 6(4), 224–235.
Rahman, H. Md., Morshed, M., & Takdir, M. (2011). Identifying and measuring consumer ethnocentric tendencies
in Bangladesh. World Review of Business Research, 1(1), 71–89.
Raikhan, S., Moldakhmet, M., Ryskeldy, M., & Alua, M. (2014). The interaction of globalization and culture in the
modern world. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 122, 8–12.
Reardon, J., Miller, C., Vida, I., & Kim, I. (2005). The effects of ethnocentrism and economic development on
the formation of brand and ad attitudes in transitional economies. European Journal of Marketing, 39(7/8),
737–754.
Renko, N., Karanovic, B. C., & Matic, M. (2012). Influence of consumer ethnocentrism on purchase intentions:
Case of Croatia. Retrieved from http://hrcak.srce.hr/file/138614
Richins, L. R. (2004). The material values scale: Measurement properties and development of a short form. Journal
of Consumer Research, 31(1), 209–219.
Richins, L. R., & Dawson, S. (1992). A consumer values orientation for materialism and its measurement: Scale
development and validation. Journal of Consumer Research, 19(3), 303–316.
Rosenthal, D. A., & Cichello, A. M. (1986). The meeting of two cultures: Ethnic identity and psychological
adjustment of Italian–Australian adolescents. International Journal of Psychology, 21(4–5), 487–501.
Saxena, R. (2010). The middle class in India: Issues and opportunities. Deutsche Bank Research. Retrieved from
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.616.3527&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Sharma, S., Shimp, T. A., & Shin, J. (1995). Consumer ethnocentrism: A test of antecedents and moderators. Journal
of the Academy of Marketing Science, 23(1), 26–37.
Shimp, T. A., & Sharma, S. (1987). Consumer ethnocentrism: Construction and validation of the CETSCALE.
Journal of Marketing Research, 24, 280–289.
Sobol, K., Cleveland, M., & Laroche, M. (2018). Globalization, national identity, biculturalism and consumer
behavior: A longitudinal study of Dutch consumers. Journal of Business Research, 82(1), 340–353.
Strizhakova, Y., Coulter, R., & Price, L. (2012). The young adult cohort in emerging markets: Assessing their glocal
cultural identity in a global marketplace. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 29(1), 43–54.
Sumner, W. (1906). Folkways. Boston, MA: Ginn.
Supphellen, M., & Grønhaug, K. (2003). Building foreign brand personalities in Russia: The moderating effect of
consumer ethnocentrism. International Journal of Advertising, 22(2), 203–226.
Das and Mukherjee
53
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2012). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Person Education.
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.),
The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33, 47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Tantray, S. (2018). Consumer ethnocentrism in 21st century: A review and research agenda. Business and Economics
Journal, 9(3), 368–380.
Thomas, B., Fomby, R., Carter, H., & Johnson, R. S. (1984). Advanced econometrics methods (pp. 225–228).
New York, NY: Springer Verlag.
Trimble, J. E. (2003). Introduction: Social change and acculturation. In K. Chun, M. Organista, P. Balls, & M.
Gerardo (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement, and applied research (pp. 3–13). Washington,
DC: American Psychological Association.
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group:
A self-categorization theory. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
Vida, I., & Fairhurst, A. (1999). Factors underlying the phenomenon of consumer ethnocentricity: Evidence from
four central European countries. The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, 9(4),
321–337.
Vida, I., Dmitrović, T., & Obadia, C. (2008). The role of ethnic affiliation in consumer ethnocentrism. European
Journal of Marketing, 42(3/4), 327–343.
Vigneron, F., & Johnson, L. W. (2004). Measuring perceptions of brand luxury. Journal of Brand Management,
11(6), 484–506.
White, L. C., & Burke, P. (1987). Ethnic role identity among White and Black college students: An internationalist
approach. Sociological Perspective, 30(3), 310–331.
Wiseman, R. L., Hammer, M. R., & Nishida, H. (1989). Predictors of intercultural communication competence.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 13(3), 349–370.
Woodside, A., & MacDonald, R. (2012). Moving beyond multiple regression analysis to algorithms: Calling for
adoption of a paradigm shift from symmetric to asymmetric thinking in data analysis and crafting theory.
Journal of Business Research, 66(4), 463–472.
Yaprak, A. (2008). Culture study in international marketing: A critical review and suggestions for future research.
International Marketing Review, 25(2), 215–229.
Zarkada-Fraser, A., & Fraser, C. (2002). Store patronage prediction for foreign-owned supermarkets. International
Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 30(6), 282–299.
Zhang, J., & Shavitt, S. (2003) Cultural values in advertisements to the Chinese x-generation: Promoting modernity
and individualism. Journal of Advertising, 32(1), 23–33.