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Water Resources and Water Policy Initiatives in Sri Lanka
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Water Resources and Water Policy Initiatives in Sri Lanka
Sivakumar S.S.,
Introduction
Sri Lanka is an island in the Indian Ocean with an area of 65,526 km2 (25,300 sq. miles). It lies
between latitude 5˚ 55’ and 9˚ 50’ and longitude 80˚ and 82˚. For administrative purposes the country is
divided into Nine Provincial Councils and 25 District administrations. Population growth from 2005 – 2019
is given in Table 1.1. The population in 2005 was 19,544,988 with a density of 312 person/km2 and in 2019
it was 21,323,733 and density of 340 persons /km2
Table 1.1:- Population growth – 2005 - 2019
Year
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2010
2005
Population
21,323,733
21,228,763
21,128,032
21,021,171
20,908,027
20,261,737
19,544,988
Yearly
%Change
0.45%
0.48%
0.51%
0.54%
0.63%
0.72%
0.80%
Yearly
Change
94,970
100,731
106,861
113,144
129,258
143,350
153,477
Median
Age
Fertility
Rate
Density
(P/Km²)
32.6
32.6
32.6
32.6
32.3
30.4
29.0
2.21
2.21
2.21
2.21
2.21
2.28
2.26
340
339
337
335
333
323
312
Source: Central Bank annual report
Sri Lankan economy grew at a moderate pace of 3.2% in 2018, in real terms, compared to 3.4% in
2017, in the midst of headwinds from a challenging domestic and external environment. Favorable
weather conditions that prevailed in the major cultivation areas enabled a strong recovery in Agricultural
activities throughout the year, resulting in a bumper paddy harvest during the year. Meanwhile, services
activities, which provided the highest contribution to the economy in 2018, were led by growth in financial
services and wholesale and retail trade activities and were also supported by the spillover effects of the
rebounce in agricultural activities.
When considering food security, it is very important to take nutrition also as a major component
to human consumption. The domestic food availability in Sri Lanka is dependent on local production and
imports of food products, livestock products and fish. Under nutrition remains as serious concern and is
considered an obstacle to the socio economic development of the country.
The agriculture sector receives a substantial portion of government grants and assistance directly
and indirectly, given its importance for food security and in consideration of the large number of the
population dependent on the sector. However, such subsidies and price support schemes reduce the
efficiency of resource allocation and encourage less productive farming practices. While around two
million people or a quarter of the labor force are employed in the agriculture sector, its contribution
towards GDP stands at only around 7 to 8% as per Central Bank Annual Report 2018. Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) Contribution by sub sectors to National Economy is given in Table 1.2
1
The continued use of traditional, labor-oriented techniques in farming in the context of rapid
fragmentation of agricultural lands, has led to low productivity of the agriculture sector, and low incomes
for the farming community. Excessive protection extended to the sector also discourages the potential
movement of the labor force to more productive sectors, such as manufacturing and the leisure sector
that experience continued labor shortages.
Table 1.2:- Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Contribution by sub sectors to National Economy
Economic Activity
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing
Growing of cereals (except rice)
Growing of rice
Growing of vegetables
As Percentage
2017
2018
6.9
7
0.1
0.1
0.5
0.7
0.6
0.6
Growing of sugar cane, tobacco and other non-perennial crops
Growing of fruits
Growing of oleaginous fruits (coconut, king coconut, oil palm)
Growing of tea (green leaves)
Growing of other beverage crops (coffee, cocoa, etc.)
Growing of spices, aromatic, drug and pharmaceutical crops
0
0.5
0.6
0.7
0
0.7
0
0.6
0.6
0.7
0
0.7
Growing of rubber
Growing of other perennial crops
Animal production
Plant propagation and support activities to agriculture
Forestry and logging
Fishing
0.3
0.2
0.6
0.1
0.7
1.3
0.2
0.2
0.6
0.1
0.6
1.2
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing
Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply
Water collection, treatment and supply
Sewerage, waste treatment and disposal activities
26.7
2.5
15.5
1
0.1
0.3
26.1
2.3
15.5
1
0.1
0.3
7.2
56.85
23.1
6.8
7.7
23.3
0.6
0.7
13.3
14
11.5
8.3
11.6
8.1
90.4
9.6
100
90.8
9.2
100
Industries
Construction
Services
Wholesale and retail trade, transportation and storage, and
accommodation and food service activities
Information and communication
Financial, insurance and real estate activities including ownership of
dwellings
Professional services and other personal service activities
Public administration, defense, education, human health and social
work activities
Equals Gross Value Added (GVA) at Basic Price
Taxes less subsidies on products
Equals Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at Market Price
2
As Sri Lanka aspires to transform itself to an efficiency driven economy, timely measures are
required to address the prevailing issues in the agriculture sector. Agriculture or farming units need to be
transformed to profit-seeking business units by way of upskilling, mechanizing and inculcating an
entrepreneurial culture, which would help to generate higher income in the sector.
In the same vein, barriers to amalgamate these individual, profit-seeking business units to form
larger farming organizations should be eliminated. Initiatives must be encouraged to intensify
competitiveness through increased productivity, intensified research and development, diversifying by
cultivating more profitable agricultural products.
Overcoming challenges arising from climate change while reaping benefits from Good Agriculture
Practices, instead of depending on excessive protection from the government at a high social and
economic cost. Such initiatives to make the agriculture sector independent, productive and competitive
will help ensure its positive contribution towards the country’s growth momentum, going forward.
Sri Lanka is blessed with 103 rivers as in Figure 1.1, fairly distributed over the Country with the
Jaffna peninsula being the exception without any rivers.
The country receives high rainfalls in North-East and South-West monsoon periods resulting in an
average annual rainfall around 1,760 mm. However, due to uneven distribution of the rainfall over the
country, majority of lands which are in the dry zone suffer from scarcity of water. Further, the rainfall of
the dry zone is mainly concentrated to the North-East monsoon period. This area receives heavy rains in
October, November and December while the remaining nine months experience dry weather with little
rainfall.
Being an agricultural country where the staple food is rice, the irrigation sector consumes large
volumes of water. Despite the shortage of water, all the other conditions in the dry zone (flat terrain,
fertile soil and sunshine) are favorable for paddy cultivation.
To overcome the shortage of water, the ancient Kingdoms in the Country built storage reservoirs
and diversion structures throughout the country. That was the background for Sri Lanka acquiring a
supremely sophisticated and functioning cascade of ancient tanks and reservoirs many of which are
functioning even today.
Those 103 river basins cover the land extent of nearly 59,424 km2 while the remaining area is
covered by Jaffna Peninsula with 1,018 km2 including the islands of Mandativu, Karainagar, Kayts,
Eluvaitivu, Analaitivu, Punkudutivu, Nainativu and Delft, which lie to the west of the Peninsula and small
coastal basins of 5,084 km2, which makes about 65,526 km2 for the Country .
Of this 103 rivers, 20 have been designated as Wet Zone Rivers. These river basins cover about
12,676 km2 of land extent of the country. Even though this area is nearly 20% of the country’s land area,
it is responsible for around 25,830 Million Cubic Meters (MCM) of the annual yield of water, which is half
of the total yield of the country.
The other 83 river basins in the Dry Zone represent the remaining 80% of the island’s land area.
Average annual yield of these rivers is 25,495 MCM and is almost equal to the yield from the Wet Zone
Rivers.
3
Figure 1.1:-River Basin Map of Sri Lanka
4
Thirty six of all rivers have catchment area above 371 km2 and they are designated as major rivers.
Among them, Kelaniganga, Kaluganga, Bentharaganga, Ginganga, Nilwalaganga, Maha Oya and
Attanagalu Oya belong to Wet Zone Rivers. Generally these river basins receive high rainfalls from April
to September and are perennial, remaining wet even during rest of the period. These river basin areas are
highly populated and well developed.
Similarly, 26 major river basins are designated as Dry Zone Basins. Unlike the Wet Zone, these
areas form large and most extensive parts of the country which cannot be cultivated without irrigation.
These areas receive significant rainfalls during the North-East Monsoon spanning from October to
December.
Agriculture production and the prosperity of the country depend upon the irrigation development
of these areas. The ancient kingdoms of the Country going back two thousand years or more developed
many rather sophisticated irrigation works in these river basins, is by all measures, a truly amazing feat of
Civil and Hydraulic Engineering.
The two rivers, Mahawali and Walawe, receive appreciable rainfalls from both monsoons and are
sometimes designated as bi-monsoonal rivers. The Mahawali has a unique feature of receiving runoff
water from a large extent of central mountains which are benefited by both monsoons and which flows
to the eastern plains in the dry zone which are highly suitable for agriculture.
The Walawe is also an important river basin which carries runoff water from the central hills to
southern coastal area which also has ample potential for irrigated agriculture. The Deduru Oya, though
strictly not considered as a bi-monsoonal river, has its source in mid-country receiving high rainfalls in
both monsoons and flows down to the Dry Zone.
Twenty one main rivers which are most important from the Hydrological point of view and having
catchment areas above 800 km2, are listed in Table 1.4, sorted in descending order of catchment size. The
annual yield of these rivers does not necessarily follow the same order due to climatic reasons. The larger
reservoirs constructed across the largest river Mahawali or getting augmented water from Mahawali are
given in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3:-Reservoirs fed by Mahawali River
Reservoir
Capacity in MCM
Height of Dam in meter
Kotmala
175
87
Randinagala
860
94
Randembe
21
42
Victoria
722
122
Maduru Oya
400
41
Moragaganda
394
71
5
Table 1.4:-Salient Features of the Major Rivers of the Sri Lanka
Rank
Based on
Basin
Area
Name of the River
(River basin No.)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Mahawali Ganga (60)
Aruvi Aru (92)
Kalu Ganga (3)
Deduru Oya (99)
Kala Oya (93)
Walawe Ganga (18)
Kelani Ganga (1)
Gal Oya (44)
Mee Oya (68)
Yan Oya (67)
Maha Oya (102)
Maduru Oya (54)
Mandani Aru (52)
Manic Ganga (26)
Kumbukkan Oya (31)
Kirindi Oya (22)
Nilwala Ganga (12)
Maa Oya (69)
ModeragamaAru (92)
Ginganga (9)
Attanagalu Oya (103)
Catchment
Area
sq.km
Average
Annual
Discharge
MCM
10,256.00
3,291.00
2,839.00
2,622.00
2,526.00
2,424.00
2,340.00
1,911.00
1,555.00
1,518.00
1,470.00
1,439.00
1,373.00
1,301.00
1,227.00
1,156.00
1,043.00
1,042.00
1,001.00
915.00
811.00
5,314.00
1,239.00
7,767.00
1,508.00
1,060.00
2,201.00
7,166.00
1,750.00
149.00
785.00
1,937.00
1,398.00
752.00
647.00
723.00
663.00
1,493.00
474.00
311.00
1,913.00
763.00
Type
Specific
Features
Bi-monsoonal
Dry -Zone
Wet-Zone
Bi-monsoonal
Dry -Zone
Bi-monsoonal
Wet-Zone
Dry -Zone
Dry -Zone
Dry -Zone
Wet-Zone
Dry -Zone
Dry -Zone
Dry -Zone
Dry -Zone
Dry -Zone
Wet-Zone
Dry -Zone
Dry -Zone
Wet-Zone
Wet-Zone
Longest River
Oldest Civilization
Highest Yield
Most recent reservoir
Ancient Civilization
One of the Larger reservoir
Second highest discharge yield
Semi-Arid basin
One of the Larger Reservoir
Worst eroded river
Augmented by Mahawali
Ongoing project
Augmented Kirindi Oya
Proposed development
One of the Larger Reservoir
Flood Protection Scheme
Flood Protection Scheme
Frequently flooded
Climatic Zones of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is basically divided into Wet, Intermediate and Dry climatic zones based on the annual
average rainfall of the area as in Figure 1.2. The area receiving above 2,500 mm average annual rainfall is
designated as the Wet Zone, which represents the south-western part of the country
The wet zone facing the South-West monsoon receives very high rainfall during April, May and
June. The Dry Zone receives rainfalls, less than 1,750 mm, mainly during the North-East monsoon period.
The area which receives rainfall between 1,750 and 2,500 mm is considered as the Intermediate
Zone. As per the long-term records of Rainfalls, only Mannar receives rainfall less than 1,000 mm as in
Figure 1.3.
6
Figure 1.2:-Climatic Zones of Sri Lanka
7
Figure 1.3:-Spatial Distribution of Rainfall
According to the annual average rainfall records, Sri Lanka is considered as water rich country.
However due to the high rate of evaporation and the seasonal variation of rainfall, the dry zone of the
country faces scarcity of water. What ancient kingdoms in the dry zones of the Country going back two
8
thousand or more years constructed to provide water in the dry zones, are still functioning as reservoirs,
anicuts, tanks and canal systems. This is a testament to their abilities and skills in civil and hydraulic
engineering all those thousands of years ago.
Distribution of Rainfall of Sri Lanka
Average annual rainfall of the country is nearly 1,750 mm. However there exist significant spatial
and seasonal variations of rainfalls over the country. Annual rainfall depth varies from 900 mm in coastal
plains to 5,000 mm in the western slopes of central hills. The entire country receives high rainfalls in
October, November and December. Wet Zone receives considerable rainfall over April, May and June too.
Figure 1.4 presents the temporal variation of rainfalls in Dry Zone over the 12 months of the year.
According to that the dry zone suffers from scarcity of water for 8 months from February to September.
Figure 1.4:-Temporal variation of rainfalls over the Dry Zone
Figure 1.5 shows the temporal variation of rainfall over the Wet Zone. It shows that the Wet Zone
rainfalls are fairly well distributed over the year. Thus, any crop including paddy can be cultivated in this
area without supplementary irrigation.
Figure 1.5:-Temporal variation of rainfalls over the Wet Zone
9
Water Sector Policies of Sri Lanka
The Sri Lankan Government initiated several steps to develop a comprehensive and Integrated
Water Resources Management (IWRM) policy ("a process which promotes the coordinated development
and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize the resultant economic and
social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems”),
from mid-1990 and finally abandoned the effort in 2005. This process of water policy making started with
a Comprehensive Water Resources Management (CWRM) project in 1992, with funds from the Asian
Development Bank. It aimed at assessing the institutional capacity in the water sector, developing a single
overarching policy and law to govern water resources, and the establishment of an apex body to
coordinate water related activities. As a follow up, a Water Resources Management Project was launched
in 2001 to finance infrastructure construction and to enhance capacity for the proposed apex body.
Since 1996, there were several attempts to prepare a national water resources policy. As none of
those policies were implemented due to political non-willingness, they remain as only policy drafts or
policy proposals.
The National Water Resources Policy proposals of 2000 recognized the pollution of groundwater
and salinity intrusion in coastal areas. This, latter led to the Orders made by the Minister of Irrigation and
Water Resources Management under section 16(1) and 16(2) in respect of matters mentioned in section
12(1) of the Water Resources Board Act, No. 29 of 1964 via the Gazette notification No. 2010/23 Thursday, March 16, 2017.
There were subsequent draft water policies developed by various Institutions and Ministries. The
Water Resources Secretariat and the Interim National water Resources Authority made several revisions
of earlier policy drafts. The Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Lands and Irrigation developed a water
policy in 2004, which called for the abolition of amendments to Water Resources Board Act of 1999.
The effort to develop a policy for water sector was constrained by controversy from the beginning.
Among the aspects that may have contributed to this situation are:
1. Proposal for an “apex body” that was resented by some established water sector institutions;
2. Concepts of water entitlements and tariff, which appeared not to agree with the traditional
concepts of treating water as a public property or “common good”;
Again in March 2019 the Draft “National Policy, Strategies and Institutional Framework for Water
Resources Development, Conservation and Management” was released for public comments by Ministry
of Agriculture, Rural Economic Affairs, Livestock Development, Irrigation and Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources Development. The vison of this draft policy is “A society that values the sustainable use of
water resources and recognizes the goal of a balanced environment conducive to social and economic
development”.
It is interesting to note that the “Dublin Principles” aimed at managing water resources in an
integrated manner were also formulated in 1992, in the same year which Sri Lanka started the preparatory
works for water policy making. The fourth Dublin Principle states that “Water has an economic value in
all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good/commodity” Water should be
10
governed properly. The fundamental dimensions of water governance is given Figure 1.6. Moreover, the
Ministerial Conference of the World Water Forum in Hague noted that “access to safe and sufficient
water and sanitation are basic human needs”. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of
the UN Economic and Social Council has recognized the “human right to water” in 2002. It is now widely
recognized that water has a social and cultural value in addition to its economic value as clearly spelt in
the fundamental dimensions of water governance.
Therefore, it can be seen that water management and governance principles are of dynamic
nature and are changing with times. As such, some of the principles adopted for water policy making in
the 1990s were perhaps inadequately tested before application. However, no worthwhile attempt has
been made to fill the void created by lack of policies to address the emerging issues such as managing the
demand, water pollution and over exploitation by the politically, socially and financially powerful parties.
Figure 1.6:- Fundamental dimensions of water governance
This situation has led to social problems and unrest in the recent times. In addition, some subsectoral policies fail to recognize, inter alia, the linkages between surface water and groundwater, and
rural people’s dependence on water for all aspects of life. The foregoing discussion would further
elaborate on the impact of policy inadequacies to effectively address some of the water problems in the
Northern Province.
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