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Module-1 Fundamentals OF Surveying
civil engineering (Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila)
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MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
Surveying - Is an art of and science of determining
angular and linear measurements to establish the form
extent, and relative position of points, lines and surfaces
on or near the Earth and other extra- terrestrial bodies
through applied mathematics and use of specialized
equipment and techniques.
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING
1. Plane Surveying - Involves survey that are limited
extent. It is used to designate work where distances or
areas involved are so small so that the CURVATURE
OF THE EARTH IS NEGLECTED without significant
error.
Assumptions:
1. A level line is considered as mathematically
straight.
2. All distances and directions are horizontal;
3. The direction of the plumb line is considered to
be same at all points within the limits of survey.
4. All angles (both horizontal and vertical are
considered to be plane angles.
5. Elevations are with reference to a datum.
2. Geodetic Surveying - Is the category of surveying
which TAKES INTO ACCOUNT THE SHAPE OF THE
EARTH. It is applicable to large areas, long lines, and is
used to establish network of points of which are
precisely located with respect to position and elevation
TYPES OF SURVEY
1. Cadastral Survey - Are usually closed surveys which
are undertaken in urban and rural locations for the
purpose of determining and defining property line.
2. City Survey - Are surveys of the areas in and near a
city for the purpose of planning expansions or
improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference
monuments, determining the physical features and
configuration of the land and preparing the map.
3. Construction Survey - Are surveys which are
undertaken at a construction site to provide data
regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground
configuration and the location and elevation of structures
which are of concern to engineers, architects and
builders.
10. Topographic Survey - Surveys made for determining
the shape of the ground, and elevation of natural and
artificial features upon it.
IMPORTANCE OF SURVEYING
➢
The planning and design of all Civil Engineering
projects such as construction of highways,
bridges, tunnels, dams etc. are based upon
surveying measurements.
➢ Moreover, during execution, project of any
magnitude is constructed along the lines and
points established by surveying.
➢ Thus, surveying is a basic requirement for all
Civil Engineering projects.
Other principal works in which surveying is
primarily utilized are:
1. To fix the national and state boundaries;
2. To chart coastlines, navigable streams and
lakes;
3. To establish control points;
4. To execute hydrographic and oceanographic
charting and mapping; and
5. To prepare topographic map of land surface of
the earth.
6. To collect field data;
7. To prepare plan or map of the area surveyed;
8. To analyze and to calculate the field parameters
for setting out operation of actual engineering
works.
9. To set out field parameters at the site for further
engineering works.
DEVELOPMENT OF SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
1. Astrolabe (Hipparchus)
➢
➢
➢
4. Forestry Survey - Type of survey executed in
connection with forest management and mensuration,
and the production and conservation of forest land.
5. Hydrographic Survey - Refer to surveying streams,
lakes, reservoirs, harbors, oceans, and other bodies of
water.
6. Industrial Survey - It refers to the use of surveying
techniques in ship building, construction and assembly
of aircraft, layout and installation of heavy and complex
machinery, and in other industries where very accurate
dimensional layouts are required.
7. Mine Survey - Surveys which are performed to
determine the position of all underground excavations
and surface mine structures.
8. Photogrammetric Survey - A type of survey which
make use of photographs taken with specially
designated cameras either from airplanes or ground
stations.
9. Route Survey - involves the determination of
alignment, grades earthwork quantities, location of
natural and artificial objects in connection with planning,
design, and construction of highways, railroads,
pipelines, canals, transmission lines, and other linear
projects.
➢
one of the best known of
measuring instrument
(ancient times)
developed sometime in 140
B.C. further improved by
Ptolemy
had a metal circle
with pointer hinged
at its center, held
by ring on top and
across staff, a
wooden rod about
1.25m with
adjustable cross-arm at right angles to it.
for determining the latitude of the stars.
2. Telescope
➢
➢
➢
1607 (invention) by
Lippershey
1609 Galileo
constructed
a refracting
telescope for
astronomical
observations.
Use as early surveying
instrument
3. Transit
➢ Young & Draper
– sometime in
1830
➢ Known to be the
UNIVERSAL
SURVEYING
INSTRUMENT.
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4. Semicircumferentor
➢ use to measure and lay
off angles, and
establish line of sight
by employing peep
sights.
division of the main scale can be determined
precisely without having to interpolate.
10. Diopter
➢ developed by the Greeks
sometime in 130 B.C.
➢ known to be their most
famous surveying instrument.
➢ used for leveling, laying off
right angles, and for
measuring horizontal and
vertical angles.
➢ Since the telescope was not
yet invented during the time
the diopter was used, peep
sights were employed for sighting and in aligning
the device.
5. Plane Table
➢ one of the
oldest type
of
surveying
instrument.
➢ used in
field
mapping.
➢ consists of a board
attached to a tripod; it can
be leveled or rotated to
any desire direction.
11. Compass
➢ The magnetic compass came
into wide use during the 13th
century
➢ for determining the direction
of lines and in calculating
angles between lines.
➢ first introduced for use in
navigation.
➢ consists of a magnetized steel needle mounted
on a pivot at the center of a graduated circle.
The needle continues to point toward magnetic
north and gives a reading which is dependent
upon the position of the graduated circle.
6. Dioptra
➢
➢
➢
➢
perfected by HERON of
Alexandria
used in leveling and for
measuring horizontal
and vertical angles
consists of a copper
tube supported on a
stand and could be
rotated in either
horizontal or vertical
plane.
for measuring horizontal
angles, a flat circular
disc with graduations in
degrees is used.
12. Gunter’s Chain
➢
➢
7. Roman Groma
➢
➢
Used as an instrument for
aligning or sighting points.
➢
invented by Sir Edmund
Gunter in 1620
was the forerunner of
instruments used for
taping distances.
66 ft. long and contains
100 links, so that
distances may be recorded in chains and in
decimal parts of the chain.
Each part, called a link, is 0.66 ft or 7.92 inches
long.
13. Chorobates
➢
➢
8. Libella
➢ Assyrians and
Egyptians (believed to
be first users)
➢ Had an A-frame with a
plumb line suspended
from its apex.
➢ Used to determine the
horizontal
➢ Archeologists are of the belief that the horizontal
foundations of the great pyramids of Egypt were
probably defined by this device.
➢
14. Merchet
➢
9. Vernier
➢ It was invented in 1631 by a
Frenchman name Pierre
Vernier.
➢ Surveying instruments
employ either a direct or
retrograde vernier.
➢ is a short auxiliary scale
placed alongside the
graduated scale of an instrument, by means of
which fractional parts of the smallest or least
designed for
leveling work.
consisted of a
horizontal
straight-edge about 6 meters
long with supporting legs, and a
groove 2.5 cm deep and, 1.5m
long on top.
Water is poured into the groove
and when the bar is leveled so
that water stood evenly in the
groove without spilling, a
horizontal line is established.
➢
➢
➢
a device for measuring time and
meridian.
first used by the Chaldeans in
about 4,000 B.C.
It consisted of a slotted palm leaf
through which to sight and a
bracket from which a plumb bob
was suspended.
By sighting through the 'slot and
past the plumb bob string, a straight
line could be projected.
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SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
❖ Measurement is the process of determining the
extent size or dimensions of a particular quantity
in comparison to a given standard.
❖ In surveying, it is usually concentrated on
angles, elevations, time, lines, areas and
volumes.
❑ DIRECT MEASUREMENT
➢ Is a comparison of the measured quantity with
standard measuring unit or units employed for
measuring a quantity of that kind.
Ex. Applying a wire or tape a line
Determining a horizontal or vertical angles with a transit.
❑ INDIRECT MEASUREMENT
➢ It is not possible to apply a measuring
instrument directly to a quantity to be measured
an indirect measurement is made.
METER
➢ International unit linear measure
➢ Proposed sometime in 1789 by French Scientist
➢ Defined as 1/10,000,000 of the Earth’s
meridional quadrant (originally)
➢ May 20, 1875 treaty signed in Paris by
representatives of 8 countries (3 from Europe, 4
American Continent and 1 from Middle East)
which created a permanent international Bureau
of Weights and Measures.
➢ Direct result, the standard linear measure was
established as the INTERNATIONAL METER
which is initially based on an iron meter bar
standardized in Paris (1799)
➢ Was defined as the distance between two lines
engraved across the surface (near the ends) of
the bar with an X-shaped cross-section,
composed of 90% platinum and 10% iridium,
when the temperature of the bar is O° C.
➢ International meter bar – deposited at
International Bureau in Servres, near Paris
France.
➢ Oct., 1960, redefined at the 11th General
Conference on Weights and measures, agreed
upon 36 countries
METER – is now defined as a length equal to
1,650,763.73 wavelength of the orange-red light
produced by the burning the element krypton
(with atomic weight of 86) at a specific energy
level in the spectrum.
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM UNITS (SI)
➢ The IBWM promulgated in 1960 the International
System of Units (SI)
➢ Ultimate goal : to modernize the metric system
by introducing a coherent and rational worldwide
system of units.
➢ Jan. 1, 1983 – English System was phased out
in the Philippines
➢ Metric conversion or change over – signed into
Law last Dec., 1978 by former Pres. Marcos.
1. LINEAR, AREA& VOLUME MEASUREMENT
LENGTH – common units are km, m, cm, & mm.
- may also refer to other linear
dimensions such as width, depth, thickness, height or
distance.
AREAS – square meter is used (small tracts of land,
floor areas of buildings and structures)
- hectares – commonly used for large
tract of land such as cities, provinces, sugar cane
plantation, rice field and forests.
VOLUME – cubic meter, liter & milliliter
1 ha = 10,000 sq. m = 100 ares
1 ares = 100 sq. m.
1 sq. km. = 1,000,000 sq. m. =10 ha
2. ANGULAR MEASUREMENT
- In the Philippines the sexagesimal units are used with
SI for angular measurements because of their practical
importance and our familiarity with it.
a. Sexagesimal Units
b. Centesimal Units
SURVEYING FIELDNOTES
➢ Constitute the only reliable and permanent
record of actual work done in the field.
➢ Official record of survey, it must be complete,
legible, concise and comprehensive and logically
arranged according to a recognized practice.
FIELD NOTEBOOK
➢ Should be of good quality rag paper, with stiff
board or leather cover made to withstand hard
usage and pocketsize.
TYPES OF NOTES
1. SKETCHES
2. TABULATIONS
3. EXPLANATORY NOTES
4. COMPUTATIONS
5. COMBINATION OF THE ABOVE
FIELD SURVEY PARTY
1. CHIEF PARTY
2. ASSISTANT CHIEF PARTY
3. INSTRUMENTMAN
4. TECHNICIAN
5. COMPUTER
6. RECORDER
7. HEAD TAPEMAN
8. REAR TAPEMAN
9. FLAGMAN
10. RODMAN
11. PACER
12. AXEMAN
13. AIDMAN
14. UTILITY MAN
ERRORS AND MISTAKE
❖ ERRORS – is defined as the difference between
true value and the measured value of a quantity.
❖ MISTAKES – are in accuracy in measurements
which occur because same aspect of surveying
operation is performed by the surveyor with
carelessness, inattention, poor judgement and
improper execution
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TYPES OF ERRORS
❖ SYSTEMATIC ERRORS (COMMULATIVE
ERROR)
➢ One which will always have the same sign and
magnitude as a long as field condition remain
constants and unchanged.
➢ EXAMPLE. Making a measurement with 30-m
tape which is 5 cm too short (same error)
➢ Conform to mathematical and physical laws:
such error can be computed and their effects
eliminated by applying corrections, employing
proper techniques in use of instruments or by
adopting a field procedure which will
automatically eliminate it.
➢ Occur due to instrumental factors, natural
causes, and human limitations of the observer.
❖ ACCIDENTAL ERRORS
➢ Are purely accidental in character. The
occurrence of such errors are matters of chance
as they are likely to be positive or negative, and
may tend in part to compensate or average out
according to laws of probability.
➢ There is no absolute way of determining or
eliminating them since the error for an
observation of a quantity is not likely to be the
same as a second observation.
➢ Are usually of minor importance in surveying
operations
SOURCE OF ERRORS
1. INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
➢ Due to imperfections in the instrument used,
either from faults in their construction or from
improper adjustment between the different parts
prior to their use.
a. Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect
length.
b. Using a leveling rod with painted
graduations not perfectly spaced
c. Determining the difference in elevation
between two points with an instrument
whose line of sight is not in adjustment.
d. Sighting of a rod which is warped.
e. Improper adjustment of the plate
bubbles of a transit or level.
2. NATURAL ERRORS
➢ Are caused by variations in the phenomena of
nature such as changes in magnetic declination,
temperature, humidity, wind, refraction, gravity
and curvature of the earth.
a. The effect of temperature variation on
the length of the steel tape.
b. Error in the readings of the magnetic
needle due to variations in magnetic
declination.
c. Deflection of the line of sight due to the
effect of the Earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.
d. Error in the measurement of the line with
a tape being blown sidewise by the
strong wind.
e. Error in the measurement of the
horizontal distance due to the slope or
uneven ground.
3. PERSONAL ERRORS
➢ Arise principally from limitations of the senses of
sight, touch and hearing of the human observer
which are likely to be erroneous or inaccurate.
a. Error in determining a reading on a rod
which is out of plumb during sighting.
b. Error in measurement of a vertical angle
when the cross hairs of the telescope
are not positioned correctly on the
target.
c. Making erroneous estimate of the
required pull to be applied on a steel
tape during measurement.
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
❑ ACCURACY
➢ Indicates how close a given measurement is to
the absolute or true value of the quantity
measured.
➢ Implies the closeness between related
measurements and their expectations.
❑ PRECISION
➢ Refers to the degree of refinement and
consistency with which any physical
measurement is made.
➢ Portrayed by closeness to one another of a set
of repeated measurements of a quantity.
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
❑ Measurement of Horizontal Distance
➢ Pacing
➢ Tachymetry
➢ Graphical & Mathematical Method
➢ Mechanical Devices
➢ Electronic Distance Measurements
➢ Global Positioning System
➢ Taping
❑ Taping Over Level Ground
❑ Taping Along Sloping Ground
❑ Surveys with Tape
DISTANCE BY PACING
PACING
➢ counting the number of steps or paces in a
required distance.
➢ defined as the length of step in walking. (heel-toheel or toe-to-toe)
➢ Sufficiently accurate for a small scale mapping,
for locating details and traversing with the plane
table and in reconnaissance survey.
❑ Stride – double steps.
❑ Pace Factor – length of one’s pace.
❑ Pedometer - mechanical device for
counting the number of paces.
❑ Passometer – register a pace by impact
each time either foot touches the
ground. (strapped to the leg of the
pacer.)
TACHYMETRY
➢ Is another procedure of obtaining horizontal
distances.
➢ based on optical geometry of the instruments
employed and is an indirect method of
measurement.
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a. Subtense Bar Method (obsolete) – the
subtense bar is a convenient and practical
device used for quick and accurate
measurement of horizontal distances.
c.
Optical Range Finder –
operates on the same
principle as a range finder
on a single-lens reflex
camera. (handheld or
mounted to a small tripod)
DISTANCE BY PHOTOGRAMMETRY
➢ Refers to the measurement of images on
photograph
DISTANCE BY ELECTRONIC DISTANCE
MEASUREMENTS
➢ Sound waves have long been used for
estimating distances.
➢ The use of either light waves, electromagnetic
waves, infrared, or even lasers offer much more
precise methods of measuring distance.
DISTANCE BY GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
➢ With GPS positions on the earth’s surface can
be quickly and accurately located by measuring
distances to orbiting satellites.
➢ This is done by determining the time required for
radio signals broadcast by the satellites to travel
to the points in question.
b. Stadia Method – this method provides a rapid
means of determining horizontal distances.
▪ (low precision) it is mostly used
in topographic or
reconnaissance survey.
𝑫 = 𝑲𝒔 + 𝑪
Where:
C – stadia constant – is the distance from the center of
the instrument to the principal focus. ( value is 0 for
internal focusing telescope. )
K – stadia interval factor of the instrument (most
instrument designed the value is equal to 100)
s – stadia interval – determined in the field by
observing the difference between the upper stadia hair
reading and the lower stadia hair reading.
DISTANCE BY GRAPHICAL OR MATHEMATICAL
METHOD
➢ Unknown distance may be determined through
their relationship with known distances
geometrically.
➢ These method are widely employed in plane
table surveys, and in triangulation work
➢ Determining distances by scaling from maps or
aerial photographs could also provide sufficiently
accurate results.
➢ Use for inaccessible terrain.
DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES
➢ Few mechanical devices which could also be
employed for measurement of distances.
➢ Only applicable for low precision surveys or
where quick measurements are desired.
a. Odometer – simple
device that can be
attached to a wheel for
purposes of roughly
measuring surface
distance. (speedometer)
b. Measuring Wheel – is
very similar in operation in
odometer except that it is
more portable and self
contained measuring
device.
SUMMARY OF MEASUREMENT METHODS
DISTANCE BY TAPING
➢ Use of a graduated tape probably the most
common method of measuring or laying out
horizontal distances
Procedure of Taping
1. Aligning the tape
2. Stretching the tape.
3. Plumbing
4. Marking full length.
5. Tallying taped
measurement.
6. Measuring fractional length.
Taping Accessories
1. Range Pole
2. Tape Clamping
Handles
3. Chaining Pins
4. Tension Handle
5. Tape
Thermometer
6. Plumb Bob
7. Wooden Stake or Hub
8. Leather Thongs
9. Hand Level and Clinometer
10. Tape Repair Kit
11. Crayons
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Breaking Tape
BREAKING TAPE FOR A DOWNHILL
MEASUREMENT
Slope Taping
➢ Taped measurement may be directly along the
slopes, when ground is of uniform inclination and
fairly smooth.
Errors in Measurement of Distances
1. Tape not standard length.
2. Imperfect alignment of tape.
3. Tape not horizontal
4. Tape not stretch straight.
5. Imperfection of observation.
6. Variations in tension/pull.
7. Variations in temperature.
8. Effects of sag. (lundo)
Surveys with Tape
➢ Tape is not necessarily limited only to the
measurement of distance.
1. Erecting perpendicular to line
a. Chord-Bisection Method.
b. 3:4:5 Method
2. Measuring angle with tape
3. Laying off angles by tape
4. Determining obstructed distances
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