Literature as communication
Elements of a short story
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Character
A character is a person, or sometimes even an animal, who takes part in the action of a short story or other literary
work.
Types of characters
 Protagonist
The main character. Every story has this type of character and evolves around it. It is the main
character or the hero and is also called the protagonist. It appears in the story from the start to end.
It is the one who fights with the situations and antagonist characters (we will be discussing this type
next) and takes the story to the happy (or unhappy) ending.
 Antagonist
Character opposing the main character. This type of character is the life of a plot along with the
main character and keeps readers interested by posing the questions and making them curious
about what will happen next. We can also say that an antagonist, i.e. a negative person or a
situation is essential for the rise of a hero. Thus, this type of character is very important while you
are writing a fiction.
 Deuteragonist
Most stories have a primary protagonist and a secondary deuteragonist (or group of
deuteragonists). This is the character who’s not exactly in the spotlight, but pretty close to it. The
deuteragonist’s “comic book” equivalent would probably be the sidekick. They’re often seen in the
company of the protagonist — giving advice, plotting against their rivals, and generally lending a
helping hand. Their presence and close relationship to the protagonist gives the story warmth and
heart, so it’s not just about the hero’s journey , but about the friends they make along the way
(awww). Of course, not all secondary figures are friends — some are arch-enemies — but even
these less-friendly deuteragonists still lend depth to a story.
 Tertiary
The reason that tertiary characters aren’t called “tertagonists” is because they’re not important
enough to really agonize anything or anyone. They flit in and out of the MC’s life, perhaps only
appearing in one or two scenes throughout the book. However, a well-rounded story still requires a
few tertiaries. We all have them in real life, after all — the barista you only see once a week, the
random guy you sit next to in class — so any realistic fictional story should include them too. In the
following list of examples, we’ve put the sources of these tertiary characters in addition to their
names, just in case you don’t recognize them.
 Love interest
Most novels contain romance in one form or another. It might be the main plot, a subplot, or just a
blip on the narrative radar — but no matter how it features, there has to be some sort of love
interest involved. This love interest is typically a deuteragonist, but not exclusively (hence why this
separate category). You’ll recognize a love interest by the protagonist’s strong reaction to them,
though that reaction can vary widely. Some love interests make their MC swoon; others make them
scoff. The protagonist often denies their feelings for this person at first, or vice-versa, which is a
great plot-thickening device. No matter what, if they’re well-written, you should find yourself
curious about (if not always rooting for) whatever love interest pops up on the page.
 Confidant
This one’s even harder to pin down, especially since many stories focus so much on their MC’s love
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interest that other relationships get left out in the cold. However, the confidant can still be one of
the most profound relationships the protagonist has in a novel. Confidants are often best friends,
but they may also be a potential love interest or even a mentor. The protagonist shares their
thoughts and emotions with this person, even when they’re reluctant to share with anyone else.
However, the confidant might also be someone the MC turns to, not because they want to, but
because they feel they have no other choice (as in the last example on this list).
Foil
A foil is someone whose personality and values fundamentally clash with the protagonist’s. This
clash highlights the MC’s defining attributes, giving us a better picture of who they truly are. Though
these two often have an antagonistic relationship, the foil is not usually the primary antagonist.
Sometimes the MC and their foil clash at first, but eventually see past their differences to become
friends… or even more. The foil’s precise relationship to the protagonist depends on the differences
between them. For example, if the MC is introverted, their foil might be super extroverted, but that
wouldn’t necessarily preclude the two of them from becoming friends. However, if the MC is kind
and selfless and their foil is extremely self-serving, they’re probably not going to get along.
Dynamic
This one’s pretty self-explanatory: a dynamic character is one who changes over the course of story.
They often evolve to become better or wiser, but sometimes they can devolve as well — many
villains are made through a shift from good to evil, like Anakin Skywalker and Harvey Dent. The
protagonist of your story should always be dynamic, and most of the deuteragonists should be as
well. However, you don’t need to make the changes super obvious in order for your audience to
catch on. In the course of your narrative journey, these changes should come about subtly and
naturally.
Static
Then on the other hand, there’s the static character — the one who doesn’t change. Many static
characters are simply flat, and having too many is usually a symptom of lazy writing. However,
certain kinds can serve a larger purpose in a story. These static figures tend to be unlikable, such as
Cinderella’s stepsisters and Harry Potter’s aunt and uncle — their ignorance to how they’re
mistreating our hero makes them people we “love to hate,” and boosts our sympathy for the
protagonist. They may also impart a lesson to the reader: you don’t want to end up like me.
Stock
Stock characters aren’t necessarily flat either, though you do have to be careful with them. Similar
to archetypes, stock characters are those familiar figures that appear in stories time after time: the
chosen one, the joker, the mentor. You don’t want to overuse them, but they can really help round
out your cast and make readers feel “at home” in your story. The trick to using this type is to not just
rely on their archetypal features. So when planning a character, you might start out with a stock, but
you have to embellish and add other unique elements to give them depth. Take Albus Dumbledore:
he might seem like a pretty “stock” mentor in his wizened appearance and sage manner. However,
his lighthearted wisecracks and weaknesses shown later in the series demonstrate that, while he
may be based on a well-worn archetype, he’s a fully fledged character in his own right.
Symbolic
As we mentioned earlier, a symbolic character is used to represent something larger and more
important than themselves, which usually ties into the overall message of the book or series. This
type must also be used sparingly — or at least subtly, so the reader doesn’t feel like the symbolism
is too heavy-handed. As a result, the true nature of a symbolic character may only be fully
understood at the very end of a story.
 Round
A round character is very similar to a dynamic one, in that they both typically change throughout
their character arc. The key difference is that we as readers can intuit that the round character is
nuanced and contains multitudes even before any major change has occurred.
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Setting
The setting of a short story is the time and place in which it happens. Authors often use descriptions of landscape,
scenery, buildings, seasons or weather to provide a strong sense of setting.
Aspects to Consider
 Place
Geographical location; where is the action of the story taking place?
 Time
Historical period, time of day, year, etc; when is the story taking place?
 Weather conditions
Is it rainy, sunny, stormy, etc?
 Social conditions
What is the daily life of the character's like? Does the story contain local color (writing that focuses on the
speech, dress, mannerisms, customs, etc. of a particular place)?
 Mood or atmosphere
What feeling is created at the beginning of the story? Cheerful or eerie?
Plot
A plot is a series of events and character actions that relate to the central conflict.
Elements of plot
 Exposition
Beginning of the story; characters, background, and setting revealed.
 Rising Action
Events in the story become complicated; the conflict is revealed. These are events between the introduction
and climax.
 Climax
Turning point of the story. Readers wonders what will happen next; will the conflict be resolved or not?
Consider the climax as a three-fold phenomenon:
• Main character receives new information.
• Main character accepts this information (realizes it but does not necessarily agree with it).
• Main character acts on this information (makes a choice that will determine whether or not objective is
met).
 Falling action
Resolution begins; events and complications start to fall into place. These are the events between climax
and denouement.
 Resolution
Final outcome of events in the story.
Conflict
The conflict is a struggle between two people or things in a short story. The main character is usually on one side of
the central conflict. On the other side, the main character may struggle against another important character, against
the forces of nature, against society, or even against something inside himself or herself (feelings, emotions, illness).
Two Types of Conflict
 Internal
Struggle within one's self.
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• Character vs. Self - Struggles with own soul, physical limitations, choices, etc.
External
Struggle with a force outside one's self.
• Character vs. Character - Struggles against other people.
• Character vs. Nature - Struggles against animals, weather, environment, etc.
• Character vs. Society - Struggles against ideas, practices, or customs of others
Theme
Central message, "moral of the story," and underlying meaning of a fictional piece; may be the author’s thoughts on
the topic or view of human nature.
1) Story's title usually emphasizes what the author is saying.
2) Various figures of speech (symbolism, allusion, simile, metaphor, hyperbole, or irony) may be utilized to
highlight the theme.
3) Examples of common themes occurring in literature, on television, and in film are:
• Things are not always as they appear to be.
• Love is blind.
• Believe in yourself.
• People are afraid of change.
• Don't judge a book by its cover.
Point of View
The angle from which the story is told. There are several variations of POV.
Variations of POV
 First Person
Story told by the protagonist or a character who interacts closely with the protagonist or other characters;
speaker uses the pronouns "I", "me", "we". Readers experiences the story through this person’s eyes and
only knows what he/she knows and feels.
 Second Person
Story told by a narrator who addresses the reader or some other assumed "you"; speaker uses pronouns
"you", "your", and "yours". Ex: You wake up to discover that you have been robbed of all of your worldly
possessions.
 Third Person
Story told by a narrator who sees all of the action; speaker uses the pronouns "he", "she", "it", "they", "his",
"hers", "its", and "theirs". This person may be a character in the story.
Types of third person POV:
• Limited - Probably the easiest :POV for a beginning writer to use, "limited" POV funnels all
action through the eyes of a single character; readers only see what the narrator sees.
• Omniscient- God-like, the narrator knows and sees everything, and can move from one
character’s mind to another. Authors can be omniscient narrators by moving from character to
character, event to event, and introducing information at their discretion.
Figures of Speech
A figure of speech is a word or phrase that possesses a separate meaning from its literal definition.
Figures of speech lend themselves particularly well to literature and poetry. They also pack a punch in speeches
and movie lines. Indeed, these tools abound in nearly every corner of life.
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Alliteration
It is the repetition of the beginning sounds of neighboring words.
Examples include:
She sells seashells.
Walter wondered where Winnie was.
Blue baby bonnets bobbed through the bayou.
Nick needed new notebooks.
Fred fried frogs' legs on Friday.
Anaphora
It is a technique where several phrases or verses begin with the same word or words.
Examples include:
I came, I saw, I conquered. - Julius Caesar
Mad world! Mad kings! Mad composition! - King John II , William Shakespeare
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness. - A Tale of Two Cities , Charles Dickens
With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right. - Abraham Lincoln
We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end... we shall never surrender. - Winston Churchill
Assonance
It is the repetition of vowel sounds (not just letters) in words that are close together. The sounds don't have
to be at the beginning of the word.
Examples include:
A - For the rare and radiant maiden whom the angels named Lenore. (Poe)
E - Therefore, all seasons shall be sweet to thee. (Coleridge)
I - From what I've tasted of desire, I hold with those who favor fire. (Frost)
O - Oh hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn. (Wordsworth)
U - Uncertain rustling of each purple curtain (Poe
Euphemism
It is a mild, indirect, or vague term that often substitutes a harsh, blunt, or offensive term.
Examples include:
'A little thin on top' instead of 'going bald.'
'Fell of the back of a truck' instead of 'stolen.'
'Letting you go' instead of 'firing you.'
'Passed away' instead of 'died.'
'Economical with the truth' instead of 'liar.'
Hyperbole
Uses exaggeration for emphasis or effect.
Examples include:
I've told you to stop a thousand times.
That must have cost a billion dollars.
I could do this forever. She's older than dirt.
Everybody knows that.
Irony
It occurs when there's a marked contrast between what is said and what is meant, or between appearance
and reality.
Examples include:
"How nice!" she said, when I told her I had to work all weekend. ( Verbal irony )
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A traffic cop gets suspended for not paying his parking tickets. ( Situational irony )
The Titanic was said to be unsinkable but sank on its first voyage. (Situational irony)
Naming a tiny Chihuahua Brutus. (Verbal irony)
When the audience knows the killer is hiding in a closet in a scary movie, but the actors do not. (
Dramatic irony )
Metaphor
A metaphor makes a comparison between two unlike things or ideas.
Examples include:
Heart of stone
Time is money
The world is a stage
She's a night owl
He's an ogre
Onomatopoeia
It is the term for a word that sounds like what it is describing.
Examples include:
Whoosh
Splat
Buzz
Click
Oink
Oxymoron
An oxymoron is two contradictory terms used together.
Examples include:
Peace force
Kosher ham
Jumbo shrimp
Sweet sorrow
Free market
Personification
It gives human qualities to non-living things or ideas.
Examples include:
The flowers nodded.
The snowflakes danced.
The thunder grumbled. The fog crept in.
The wind howled.
Simile
A simile is a comparison between two unlike things using the words "like" or "as."
Examples include:
As slippery as an eel
Like peas in a pod
As blind as a bat
Eats like a pig
As wise as an owl