Assess the overall abuse of drugs and drug trafficking in Dire Dawa
University (DDU)
Research Proposal by
Mekuwanent nigatu
1st degree program
Dire Dawa University
November 2022
Table of content
Chapter One
1. Introduction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.1 Research Background---------------------------------------------------------------------
1.2.1
Overview of Drug Use and Illicit Trafficking in Ethiopia-----------------------
1.2.2
Policy, Legislation and Legal Framework------------------------------------------
2. Statement of the problem ------------------------------------------------------------------------3. Objective of the study-----------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Research questions----------------------------------------------------------------------------------5. Methodology---------------------------------------------------------5.1 Data Analysis-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6. Review literature----------------------------------7. Justification of the study------------------------------------------8. Scope the Study -----------------------------------------------------------------------------9. Limitations of the study-----------------------------------------------------------------------------10. Significance of the study--------------------------------------------------------------11. Ethical Considerations-------------------------------------------------------------12. Organization of the study--------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter Two
2.1Factors that influence students to abuse drugs and drug trafficking in university---------------------2.2 Populations at higher Risk to Drug Use (Youth and other Vulnerable Groups)Drug Use
Prevention----------------------------------------------------------
2.3 Populations at higher Risk to Drug Use (Youth and other Vulnerable Groups)----------------------------------------------------------------------2.4 Availability, Rational Use and Control of licit NPS for medical purposes--------2.4.1 Information Dissemination Strategy---------------------------------------------2.4.2 Affective Education Strategy--------------------------------------------------------2.4.3 Social Influence Strategy------------------------------------------------------------2.4.4 Person-in-environment strategy-------------------------------------------------2.4.5 Use of Peer educators------------------------------------------------------------2.5. Ways of enhancing school-based drug and alcohol abuse preventive strategies
2.6. Summary------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter Three
3.1 Methodology
3.1.1. Research Design --------------------------------------------------------------------------3.1.2. Study Sample------------------------------------------------------------------------------3.1.3 Methodological triangulation-----------------------------------------------------------------3.1.4 Data Collection Procedure--------------------------------------------------------------------3.1.5. Data Analysis----------------------------------------------------------------------------------3.1.6 Ethical Considerations------------------------------------------------------------------------3.1.7 Summary-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. 2 Presentation of research findings------------------------------------------------------3.2.1 Factors that influence students to abuse drug and drug trafficking in campus--------3.2.2 Preventive strategies for drug abuse university -based education----------------------3.2.3 Impact of drug abuse and drug trafficking university -based preventive strategies on students
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3.2.4 Ways of enhancing university -based drug abuse and drug trafficking preventive strategies------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3.2.5 Summary---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Chapter Four
Conclusion and Recommendations
4.1 Conclusion ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------4.2 Recommendations----------------------------------------------------------------------
List of acronyms
DACA- Drug Administration and Control Authority
UNODC- United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
NDCMP - National Drug Control Master Plan
DDU – Dire Dawa University
EHEECE - Ethiopian Higher Education Entrance Certificate Examination
UK – United Kingdom
USA – United States of America
EFMHACA – Ethiopian Food, Medicine and Health Care Administration and Control Authority
CNS – Central Nervous System
HIV – Human immunodeficiency virus
AIDS –acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
Abstract
The title of our legal research is assessing the overall abuse of drug and drug trafficking in Dire
Dawa University. We will discuss about the factors, the problems, the preventive strategies and
ways to enhance the preventive strategies. Moreover we will conduct a questionnaire for those
who are willing to help us by being cooperative telling us the incidents and the information they
possess regarding addictive elements mainly drugs confidentially. Our informants are mainly
students (as they are the main actors), teachers, campus officers, student Dean and student
representative in the union. The researchers have tried to gather information and collect
literatures and reviews regarding our title but it is almost counted as failure when it comes to our
surrounding. There are ample information and reviews regarding drugs as overall worldwide but
not enough in our circle. And that makes us motivated and helped us initiating the research and
the proposal from the scratch. This part is discussed on our justification and statement of the
problem parts. All the sources where the information are gathered will be accessible on reference
part in addition to citation. Our research contains four chapters in detail which are mentioned
barely above. The researchers trust that it will have impact on students and all victims while
informing them with a way of rehabilitations.
1. Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
Substance misuse is a growing problem in most countries of the world including USA,
UK& Russia. This shows us this problem is not just a problem of developing countries
only.
“The number of people suffering from drug use disorders has increased disproportionately
for the first time in six years (to more than 29 million people) despite the fact that the
percentage of adults (aged between 15 and 64 years) who used at least one drug in 2014
remained stable at 5 per cent of the adult population. Cannabis, now being legal in some
parts of the world, is the most commonly used drug worldwide, followed by
amphetamines.”1
When we come to Ethiopia substance misuse is a growing problem, as Ethiopia is second
most populous African country this problem is increasing from time to time. In Ethiopia
alcohol and khat are the most frequent substances of abuse followed by cannabis and
solvent drug abuse.2
“"Drug" means any substance or mixture of substances used in the diagnosis, treatment,
mitigation or prevention of a disease in man or animal. This shall include narcotic drugs
and psychotropic substances, pesticides, animal food additives, poisons, blood and blood
products, vaccine, sera, radioactive pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and sanitary items,
medical instruments and medical supplies.3”
“Narcotic Drug means any drug subject to control according to Narcotic Drugs
Conventions of the United Nations ratified by Ethiopia. This shall also include a drug that
is categorized as narcotic drug by the Authority.”4 “Psychotropic Substance means any
substance subject to control according to psychotropic Substances Convention of the
1
Prevention of drug use and treatment of drug use disorders in rural settings revised version who
reports the world drug report of UNODC p 36 ( 2016 )
Solvent abuse (or ‘volatile substance abuse’) is the deliberate inhalation of volatile chemicals
for the purpose of getting intoxicated or ‘high’. The fumes and gases inhaled are found in
everyday products such as cigarette lighter refills and aerosols.
2
3
Proclamation No 176/1999 proclamation to provide for Drug administration and control Art.
2/1/
4
Ibid
1
United Nations ratified by Ethiopia. This shall also include a substance that is categorized
as psychotropic substance by the authority.”5
1.1.2 Overview of Drug Use and Illicit Trafficking in Ethiopia and Universities
The use of psychoactive substances, both licit and illicit 6, is significantly contributing to
the burden of disease and to a worsening socioeconomic problem in Ethiopia. The
authorities agreed that khat, alcohol, tobacco, cannabis and inhalants are widely used while
the use of heroin and cocaine was less common. Heavy consumption of alcohol when
combined with khat and tobacco use continues to inflict a high morbidity and mortality.
Khat, alcohol and tobacco are easily available and accessible at a low cost. There is a long
history of cannabis cultivation and use in Ethiopia. There was an upsurge in use with the
arrival of the Rastafarians to Ethiopia around 1940s. While the cultivation is mostly for
domestic use, farmers are increasingly resorting to the cultivation of cannabis instead of
traditional food crops given its higher financial yields. “A UNODC Report released in 2015
has documented the use of heroin by injection in Addis Ababa and showing a higher
prevalence of HIV and Hepatitis B and C among people who inject drugs.”7 Khat, alcohol,
and cigarette are among the commonly used substances among youth in Ethiopia including
university students. Even though universities did not allow the use on such substances in
most universities, students use such substances inside universities. There is also evidence
indicating the use of illicit drugs such as hashish, cocaine, cannabis, sleeping pills,
amphetamine, opioids, and shisha. Khat or Cathaedulis is an indigenous plant with
stimulant properties widely cultivated and used by chewing the fresh bud in East African
and some Middle East countries. It produces CNS stimulant effect, euphoria & excitement
due to its cathine (norpseudoephedrine) and cathinone (a-aminopropiophenone) contents.
5
Ibid article 2(3)
6
Illicit Drugs: Mood altering substances such as hashish, cocaine, cannabis, heroin, marijuana and
other substance whose productions, sales or use is legally prohibited.
7
Ethiopian Food, Medicines and Health Care Administration and Control Authority Ministry of
Health national drug control master plan p .17 june, 2017
2
Many studies reported a higher prevalence of khat use among university students in
different parts of Ethiopia. As many students believe that, khat helps for studying longer
and helps for concentration. But it is not proven scientifically.
1.3 Policy, Legislation and Legal Framework
The Criminal Penalty Code 1957 has the provision to prosecute and punish drug users as
well as traffickers and has the provision to imprison offenders for a maximum of five year
and pay a fine of ETB 30,000. Given that this penalty was viewed to be too lenient,8 the
Government revised the legislation in 1997 (E.C 2004/05) criminal code with a harsher
penalty with the provision to imprison offenders for a maximum of fifteen years and a fine
of up to ETB 100,000. In addition, in aggravated circumstances the punishment is not less
than ten years rigorous imprisonment and a fine not exceeding ETB 200,000.9
The Government promulgated The National Drug Policy of 1993 as a follow up to the
health policy and commensurate with the Transitional period charter and the economic
policy of Ethiopia.10 This policy provides the power to the then Drug Administration and
Control Authority (DACA) of Ethiopia, now Ethiopian Food, Medicines and Health Care
Administration and Control Authority (No. 661/2009) provides to make the necessary
efforts to deter the illegal manufacturing, distribution and consumption of narcotic and
psychotropic drugs and the control of precursor chemicals. In 2013, EFMHACA developed
three important guidelines that are being implemented currently. The National Drug Policy
2015 – 2020 reinforces the provisions of the previous one. “All international agreements
8
The Criminal Penalty Code 1957 Article 510 (3)
9
2004 the criminal code article 525(2)
d) furnishes, leases or permits a house, premise or land under his ownership or
possession, for the making, composition, production sale or distribution of one of the substances
listed in (a) above, is punishable with rigorous imprisonment for not less than five years, and fine
not exceeding one hundred thousand Birr. The punishment shall be rigorous imprisonment for not
less than ten years, and fine not exceeding two hundred thousand Birr:
10
National Drug Policy of the Transitional Government of Ethiopia nov.1993
3
ratified by Ethiopia are integral part of the law of the land.”11 Since Ethiopia has ratified
all the three United Nations Conventions on drug control, they are considered as the
integral part of the national laws on drug control.
2. Statement of the Problem
For the solely cause of abusive drug use the life of many social groups are affected and
some of social group shall not take their life in a straight way due to drug addiction. At
university level some of students are affected by drug addiction problem, in DDU,
specifically in chat. This problem at hand affect performance of their study and some of
students are also unable to complete their study. And at social level drug addicted person
cannot regularly attend to work place and they exit work place without finishing their
daily work. The problem of drug addiction is not only this mentioned before. It also
affect the health of individuals and addicted individual commit accident on others life due
to their addiction. So we have interested to study the problem at hand because all problem
at hand cannot only affect individuals themselves but it also affect the family of addicted
person, society, health of individual, and the economy of our country due to their low
performance, life standard such persons family shall affected. Hence, we have need to
work in this title to reduce all problems listed before and to protect individuals and
society from such kind of problematic circumstances.
3. Objectives of the Study
3.1. General Objective
The general objective of the study is to assess the overall abuse of drugs and drug
trafficking in Dire Dawa University(DDU).
11
The FDRE Constitution Article 9/4/
4
3.2. Specific Objectives
 To explore the factors that influence pupils to abuse drugs and drug trafficking in
society and schools.
 To identify types of prevention strategies for drug abuse and drug trafficking
education used in schools.
 To evaluate the effects of prevention strategies on drug abuse and drug trafficking
on students.
 To examine the ways of enhancing prevention strategies drug abuse and drug
trafficking on students’ performance.
4. Research questions

What are the factors that influence the students to abuse in drugs and drug
trafficking in schools?

What preventive strategies for drug abuse drug trafficking education are used in
schools?

What is the effect of the preventive strategies for drug abuse on students?

How can drug abuse and drug trafficking prevention strategies be enhanced in
schools?

Why the prevention methods are not applied effectively and sufficiently on drug
and drug trafficking?

What are the possible option policies and strategies for prevention of drug and
drug trafficking?
5. Research Methodology
This part shows the method we will use on our study. We will use a qualitative and nondoctrinal research methods because it will describe our research at best. We selected these
5
methods taking the title and the problems into consideration. We will start by stating the
qualitative method and finish by the non-doctrinal with the conclusion. Students, teachers,
local dwellers, merchants will take part. Our location is the Dire Dawa community
surrounding the Dire Dawa University. We will be using a purposive sampling, as the data
will be collected from selected people who study and works in the area with concerned
offices of Dire Dawa university representatives. An inclusion criteria with measuring
instruments such as purposive sampling, methods of data collection and data sources
(which contain a valid and reliable information about the problems mentioned above). We
preferred to use these (the ones mentioned above) because they best address our intentions.
Our data sources will be including interviews, group discussions, observations and data
analysis because they are suitable for our research.
5.1 Data Analysis
We will use qualitative non-doctrinal method of data analysis to examine, to interpret, to
verify and to present the data. The analysis, verification and interpretation stand from the
legal provisions of article 525 of 2005 Ethiopian criminal code about drug abuse and illegal
drug trafficking. In order to analyze the data and again interpret the data will be using
different methods (approach) such as collecting, categorizing, segmenting, identifying
themes and the relations among the data and category whilst developing the concepts and
arrive at some generalized statements.
6. Literature Review
The review of literature that was considered relevant for the present study reflects factors
that influence students to get involved in khat and drug trafficking; the effects of these
addictions on students performance, preventing methods, the level of influence of the
preventing methods. We aimed to provide an adequate background information on the
research being proposed. From the literature it can be concluded that higher education
faculties are a convenient and natural site to conduct a khat and drug trafficking prevention
programs. Because it mainly influence the students and all the campus society which are
present in the location. “Schools and universities provide an added advantage for students
6
regarding these addictions but students state that it was not effective. And efforts to
promote affecting development through unfocused and experiential activities are also
found to be ineffective.”12 So we are going to reveal the reason therefor. The success of
chat and drug trafficking prevention does not only depend on the selected approach but
also on the implementation and delivery process. We tried to find a relevant documents
regarding chat, drug and addictive prevention strategies articles and literatures but only
inconsiderable amount and only the one referred above are found. The present study is
therefore intended to fill up this knowledge gap.
7. The Scope of the study
This study investigated drug abuse among students studying in Dire Dawa University at
one of the city administration in Ethiopia. Dire Dawa University (DDU) is a public
university located in Dire Dawa, Ethiopia. It opened on 2006–07 academic year with 754
students, as one of 13 new universities started by the Ministry of Higher Education, Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Qualified students are admitted to Dire Dawa University
based on their score on the Ethiopian Higher Education Entrance Certificate Examination
(EHEECE). Currently Dire Dawa University gives education for above 10,000 students in
different programs.13
7. Justification of Data
Qualitative research want to understand under what condtions particular behavior occurs,
not whether the behavior is representative.so we prioritizing the description of human
behavior over concerns of generalizing to border population prompts therefore we are
Qualitative researchers and we to employ non random sampling techniques.
8. Limitations of the study
12
Demisse H. and Hadiya S., the state policy and law on prevention strategy of drug abuse and
drug trafficking
13
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dire_Dawa_University
7
Time deficiency makes it difficult to review as much literature as possible this in turn
prevent as from being as through as we would have hoped. Another drawback while
performing this research is the lack of reliable and latest information. In gathering the
information needed for this study, the informants were open as expected as a result; this
affected the accuracy of the study. It was difficult to get data from all the participants due
to the sensitive nature of the study. Another limiting factor to the study was that few
females were willing to participate in the study although they also abuse drugs. Shortage
of budget also main constraints in the studying this research. The time is very short not
give chance to study very much. In addition to this a lack of relevant and easily accessible
literatures or researches in our title have affected our research.
9. Significance of the study
At a time when there is widespread concern by the community and government about drug
abuse and drug trafficking among students in Dire Dawa University, a study of this nature
is important. As a legal research this research mainly concerned on improving significance
and applicability of the laws and regulations and helps to clarify the limitations in the
regulations and their application. Its findings may help administrative and the other
concerned institutions to improve upon the strategies in preventing and reducing drug
abuse. And also it show how much drug abuse has spread in the university. In addition,
they may be aware of other challenges they have to address in their student-based drug
abuse and trafficking preventive programs.
10. Ethical considerations
The subject is sensitive by nature so ethical care is necessary. It will be giving the way or
direction by explaining its purpose making clear and avoid verbal confusion and it will be
giving accurate information based on fact and depend on reality. It will be showing its
importance and imply its merit to educational purpose. It will be noting importance of
ethics in research work. The purpose, objective and usefulness of study will be clearly
explained. The participants may not want to be revealed to the public so it will be held
confidentially.
8
11. Organization of the Study
The study is organized into four chapters.

Chapter One Presents introduction, background of the study, statement of the
problem, general objectives, methodology, scope of the study, limitation,
significance of the study and research questions. The chapter also includes specific
objectives, justification of the study, literature review, ethical consideration and
organization of the study.

Chapter two presents literature review of related researches done by different
researchers and a legal framework by looking at the existing literatures. It ends with
a summary.

Chapter three presents the methodology used in the study. It includes findings of
the study, research design, study sample, sampling procedure, research instruments,
data collection, procedure, data analysis, ethical consideration, result of the
investigation and a summary.

Chapter four presents conclusion and recommendations of the study
CHAPTER- TWO
Literature Review
9
This chapter presents a review of relevant literatures on impact of drug abuse and drug
trafficking basing on preventive strategies on students. Literature is presented in line with
the objectives of the study as follows: factors that influence students to abuse drugs,
preventive strategies, impact of drug abuse and a drug trafficking on students and ways of
enhancing preventive strategies. It ends with a summary.
2.1 Factors that influence students to abuse drugs and drug trafficking in university
Factors that push students into drug abuse and drug trafficking behaviors are varied that
“Negative peer association, myths about the prevalence of illicit drug consumption,
abusive parenting styles, school exclusion, academic failure, feelings of low self-worth,
lack of or relaxed laws and regulations about drug and alcohol use in the community and
availability of drugs and in the community influence students to abuse drugs and drug
trafficking.”14
“The need to fit in and engage in activities that their peers are doing may consequently
lead young people to abuse drugs especially if their peer abuse drugs.”15
It was found that having some pocket money, having friends or parents who are smokers
and being exposed to pro-tobacco advertisements at social gathering were contributing
factors to being a current cigarette smoker; cultural beliefs, traditional medical practices,
perception regarding its power, peer and family pressure, feeling of fun and excitement16.
In addition, widespread belief among students, of increased intellectual capacities or
perceived high academic performance in university also influences them to abuse drugs.
2.1.1 Drug Use Prevention
14
Public Safety Canada (2009) reports
15
Bourne (2005) reports
16
A study done in selected areas along the line of main rail in Zambia, by Nsemukila and
Mutombo, Identified factors that influence students to abuse cannabis.(2000)
10
Drug use prevention is the first line of defense for the protection of Ethiopians from drug
use. Factual information on drug use should be accessible to young people and parents, and
mechanisms for its dissemination identified and utilized. The role of families, teachers and
care givers in protecting young people from drug use must be emphasized. CBOs and FBOs
have a crucial role to play as well in this field. Established drug free clubs in schools and
youth centers must be strengthened and expanded to ensure they are accessible to all young
people in Ethiopia.17
Over the years, researchers have come up with drug abuse and drug trafficking preventive
strategies which have been applied in schools. These range from classical to psychosocial
strategies. Classical or traditional education strategies involve giving factual information
and making children feel good. These strategies were commonly used in the 1960s and
1970s. The psychosocial strategies include resistance skills training, personal and social
skills training. These were common in the mid 1980s. Many of these strategies have been
designed and implemented in North America, Europe and Australia.18 These include
Information Dissemination (education), Affective Education, Social Influence, and
Competence Enhancement. Information Dissemination Strategy that Information
Dissemination strategy is a conventional approach to drug abuse prevention. It is the most
commonly used strategy which involves giving students factual information about drug
abuse19. Students are provided with awareness and knowledge to the nature and extent of
substance abuse that is, the pharmacological effects, and the adverse psychosocial effects
of abuse to individuals, families and communities.
“The underlying assumption for using this strategy is that the problem of drug abuse is
caused by lack of knowledge about the dangers of using drugs. Therefore, by making
17
Indentation Ethiopian Food, Medicines and Health Care Administration and Control Authority
Ministry of Health Ethiopia National Drug Control Master Plan 2017-2022 p 23, June 2017
18
Gorman, Dynamics of the drug relationship, p 75 , 2003
19
Botvin (2006) reports on school-based drug abuse and drug trafficking preventive strategies
used in Canada and United States.
11
students be aware of the facts, they will be able to make logical and rational decisions not
to abuse drugs and drug trafficking. With regard to its methodology, it states that it is
characterized by one way communication from source to audience with limited contact
between the two20.”
2.1.2 Populations at higher Risk to Drug Use (Youth and other Vulnerable Groups)
The youth of Ethiopia have been accorded priority attention since the advent of the new
democracy. Ethiopia has ratified the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
and is committed itself to the principle of the “First Call for youth and children” in all areas.
The specific vulnerability of young people, street children, in and out of school youth and
university students, women and other groups at higher risk for drug use must be recognized.
Addiction to drugs affects people from diverse cultural, ethnic and socioeconomic
backgrounds. Specific occupational groups that seem to be especially at risk include artists,
musicians, medical personnel, farm workers, sex workers, daily labourers and transport
industry workers, especially long-distance truck drivers. Further research is required to
determine the extent of drug use among these groups and to plan intervention strategies
that take their needs into account21. “The degrading economic situation, lack of social
controls, peer pressure, weak parental guidance, availability of drugs and alcohol in the
community were major instigating factors for increased abuse of drugs and drug trafficking
among students” .22
2.1.3 Availability, Rational Use and Control of licit NPS for medical purposes
“In accordance with the international conventions, strategies and national legal
instruments, Ethiopia should strengthen the existing control mechanism that covers the
entire life cycle management including production, registration, distribution, inspection,
20
Botvin, G. J., & Griffin, K. W. (2016). Prevention of substance abuse. In J. C. Norcross, G. R.
VandenBos, D. K. Freedheim, & R. Krishnamurthy (Eds.), APA handbook of clinical psychology:
Applications and methods (pp. 485–509). American Psychological Association
21
ibid
22
conducted a survey on drug abuse and reported Boog (1999)
12
surveillance, use and disposal of Narcotic and Psychotropic Substances (NPS). The
Ethiopian Food, Medicine and Health Care Administration and Control Authority exerts
a strict control on these drugs, promotes their rational prescription and ensures they are
available for medical and scientific purposes only.23”
2.1.4 Preventive strategies for drug abuse university based education
From classical to psychosocial strategies, Classical or traditional education strategies
involve giving factual information and making children feel good. These strategies were
commonly used in the 1960s and 1970s. The psychosocial strategies include resistance
skills training, personal and social skills training. These were common in the mid
1980s. Many of these strategies have been designed and implemented in North America,
Europe and Australia.. These include Information Dissemination (education), Affective
Education, Social Influence, and Competence Enhancement.24
2.1.4.1 Information Dissemination Strategy
Information Dissemination strategy is a conventional approach to drug and drug
trafficking prevention.25 It is the most commonly used strategy which involves giving
students factual information about drug. Students are provided with awareness and
knowledge to the nature and extent of substance abuse that is, the pharmacological effects,
and the adverse psychosocial effects of abuse to individuals, families and communities.
“The underlying assumption for using this strategy is that the problem of drug abuse is
caused by lack of knowledge about the dangers of using drugs”26. Therefore, by making
students be aware of the facts, they will be able to make logical and rational decisions not
to abuse drugs .
23
ibid
24
school-based drug and alcohol preventive strategies used in Canada and United States , reports
( Botvin, 2006)
25
ibid
26
Ibid
13
2.1.4.2 Affective Education Strategy
Affective Education strategy is aimed at addressing the feelings or the moods of the
individual. The strategy focuses primarily on the development of increased self-awareness,
value clarification, decision making, assertiveness, and interpersonal relationship, by
fostering effective communication. It is a classroom based approach. The assumption for
using this strategy is that students use drugs and drug trafficking because they lack or are
deficient of self-confidence, self-esteem and effective decision making skills. The hope is
that by cultivating these anti-drug attitudes in students, they will help them engage in drug
free behaviours. It promotes interaction between the educator (teacher) and the participants
(pupil). “Students are taught assertive
skills, decision making skills and positive
community values in a classroom situation.”27
2.1.4.3 Social Influence Strategy
“It state that the Social Influence strategy or social resistance approach is based on the
assumption that students abuse drug and drug trafficking due to influence from peers,
persuasive advertising appeals, media portrayals that encourage drug use, and exposure
to drug and alcohol using models.”28
This preventive strategy aims at equipping the students with cognitive and behavioral skills
to recognize and resist pressure to indulge in drugs and drug trafficking. In this strategy,
students acquire information and develop skills to recognize and respond to high risk
situations.29 The skills are taught through interactive activities such as role-plays,
brainstorming, peer leader facilitation, modeling, rehearsal and reinforcement, group
discussion, games and videos.30 Also it explains that Social Influence strategy contains
27
Ibid
28
Botvin, G. J., & Griffin, K. W. (2016). Prevention of substance abuse. In J. C. Norcross, G. R.
VandenBos, D. K. Freedheim, & R. Krishnamurthy (Eds.), APA handbook of clinical psychology:
Applications and methods (pp. 485–509). American Psychological Association
29
Ibid
30
Barret (1986)
14
other core components such as psychological inoculation, normative education and
resistance skills training. Psychological inoculation approach assumes that pupils can be
prevented from drug and alcohol abuse by exposing them to social pressures, for example
potential pro-drug persuasive messages which facilitates development of antidrug attitudes.
In this way students develop resistance to future exposure of persuasive messages.31
Normative education on the other hand aims at correcting beliefs that it is normal to abuse
drugs and alcohol. It also corrects the perception that many young people use drug when
in fact they do not. “Drug refusal skills training focus on skills that increase pupils’ capacity
to resist negative social influences especially from peers. Students are taught how to say
no to abuse of drugs by formulating arguments against appeals from peers and media
adverts.”32 Competence Enhancement (Life Skills Training) report that competence
enhancement (life skills training) is another strategy of drug abuse prevention that teaches
personal and social skills. It emphasizes the teaching of personal self-management skills,
social coping skills and application of general skills to situations involving peer pressure
such as smoking, drinking or using other drugs. Examples of self-management skills that
are taught include problem solving, decision making and critical thinking skills for resisting
peer and media pressure.33 These skills also help to increase self-control and self-esteem.
General social skills include effective communication and assertive skills, while drug
resistance skills involve teaching drug refusal skills.
2.1.4.4 Person-in-environment strategy
Another school-based preventive strategy is the Person-in-Environment strategy. It
describes the person-in-environment strategy as one that takes into account the critical role
31
Botvin (2006) reports on school-based drug abuse and drug trafficking preventive strategies
used in Canada and United States.
32
Hansen and Graham (1991)
33
Botvin, G. J., & Griffin, K. W. (2016). Prevention of substance abuse. In J. C. Norcross, G. R.
VandenBos, D. K. Freedheim, & R. Krishnamurthy (Eds.), APA handbook of clinical psychology:
Applications and methods (pp. 485–509). American Psychological Association
15
of environmental influences in shaping and maintaining one’s anti-drug behavior. It
involves multiple components which are designed to address individuals, policies,
practices, and social norms that affect students at university and in the community. It is a
comprehensive strategy that takes place in multiple setting (i.e. home, school and
community) hence has multiple impacts. It is aimed at bringing about sustainable
individual behavioral change in the social environment that influences drug and alcohol
abuse. It is based on the assumption that changes in the pro-drug social environment may
bring change in individual students and that support of individuals in the community is
essential for implementing environmental changes.34
The person-in-environment approach involves a number of activities which are conducted
to influence many aspects of the student’s environment. These include: dissemination of
drug information, cognitive and behavior skills training for students, parents and
professionals, mass media programming, development of grass root citizen interest groups,
leadership training for organizations and community officials. These activities are
incorporated in different ways with varying target groups at different times in a
comprehensive community prevention campaign.
35
Other preventive strategies essential
to the success of preventive education in universities which have been associated with the
process of delivering drug abuse preventive education. These include: interactivity,
intensity, timing, providers, use of peer leaders and involvement of parents and the wider
community. 36 The age grade level and the nature of drug abuse and level of understanding
of what the intervention is meant for. Interventions must develop progressively. However,
that the timing strategy is most effective if instituted before pupils develop pro-drug
behavioral patterns.37 There was a need for early intervention that targets pre-secondary
34
Dusenbury and Falco (1995)
35
ibid
36
Soole et al. (2008)
37
Perry, C.L., and Kelder, S.H. (1992), “Models for Effective Prevention”, Journal of Adolescent
Health 13, 355 – 363.
16
and secondary students because these students were a high-risk group.38 Providers Strategy
report that teachers, health professionals, counselors and other program providers can
contribute greatly to the success of a school-based drug abuse prevention intervention.39
They are well placed as adults with experience. They also have a specific and a well
defined roles. Their impact is great when they are highly credible, well trained in issues of
drug abuse prevention.
2.1.4.5 Use of Peer educators
The use of peer educators in providing prevention education to pupils is another strategy
that has received increasing attention in the drug education literature. Peer educators serve
as potential role models by creating a norm that drug abuse is deviant and by providing
alternatives to drug abuse. They successfully explore controversial issues with other peers
more than with adult educators. The assumption for the use of peer educators is that young
people are likely to take ideas from their peers more seriously than adults as they look
down on them as old fashioned. These studies show that the strategy may be effective in
its effort to increase knowledge and also frequently increase anti-drug attitudes, but it falls
short in having an impact on drug use behavior change.40
2.2 Ways of enhancing school-based drug and alcohol abuse preventive strategies
38
Otieno (2009) in Kisumu town, Kenya,
39
Midford R., Lenton, S. and Hancock, L. (2000), “A Critical Review and Analysis: Cannabis
Education in Schools”, A Report for the NSW Dept. of Education and Training, Perth: Cutin
University of Technology. Retrieved 26/07/10 MOE
40
Shedlin, M.G. and Schreiber, J. M. (1994), Using Focus Groups In Drug Abuse and HIV/AIDS
Research, New York (Retrieved 06/08/10)
17
“The impact of university based interventions targeting alcohol, tobacco and marijuana
in Australia. The following variables were used to determine the impact of the intervention
strategies; increased knowledge of the effects of different substances and the potential
harm, changing beliefs about the prevalence of drug use, skills to resist pressure to use
drugs , peer support and counseling, enhancement of self-esteem, alternative strategies
for gaining peer approval, personal reinforcement, and
positive attitudes towards
abstinence. The results indicated that students performed positively on these variables. It
was therefore, concluded that school-based intervention strategies that included these
variables had greater impact on prevention of drug abuse among students”. 41
That the research findings that have supported comprehensive interventions that include
school, family and community recommend that interventions should focus on reducing
known risk factors and increasing protective factors in the school, family and community.42
They also recommend that prevention should start early before drug abuse initiation occurs
by a conducted national wide research to evaluate the impact of drug education in Scottish
schools. In this research, it was recommended that preventive education should emphasize
the importance of using evidence-based strategies particularly those which are based on
social influence and normative education strategies, encourage greater continuity in its
delivery between primary and secondary schools, encourage the adoption of strategies
proven to be effective, build teachers’ confidence to deliver drug education, provide
teachers with contextual information about drugs and drug cultures, and ensure that the
drug education provided by outside agencies is appropriate to their areas of expertise and
that it is integrated into programs conducted in schools.43
The magnitude of drug abuse, trafficking and related issue is that school management
should provide guidance and counseling services to students who are involved in drug
abuse. The research further recommended that school based drug prevention programs
41
Ballard et al. (2002 and White (1998)
42
Peterson et al. (1992)
43
Stead, et al. (2007)
18
should include drug refusal skills, self control and peer relationships.44 An evaluation of
Health Education to Prevent Drug Abuse Project, a project based in recommended that
sufficient training for teachers in drug education competencies was necessary to ensure
motivation for them to participate fully.45
Literature on state policy and law on the
prevention of drug abuse and drug trafficking on students in Dire Dawa university is non
existence. However, this does not mean that anti-drug abuse and drug trafficking education
is not conducted in university . Rather, there has been no research done specifically to
determine the impact of these prevention efforts on students. Lack of documented
information regarding the impact of the current preventive strategies on students, may
affect effective response to drug abuse and drug trafficking among students in Dire
Dawa university. Therefore, the present study had among other things, endeavored to fill
this information.
2.3 Summary
This chapter has presented a review of literature that was considered relevant to the present
study. It reflects the factors that influence students to abuse drugs and drug trafficking,
preventive strategies for drug abuse school-based education, impact of drug abuse and
ways of enhancing school-based drug abuse prevention strategies. From the literature
reviewed it can be concluded that universities are a natural and convenient site for
conducting drug abuse drug trafficking prevention programs. Universities provide an
added advantage with regards to infrastructure and multiplier effect. Studies have revealed
that preventive strategies that rely on providing students with information about the adverse
consequences of using drugs have been consistently found to be ineffective. Similarly,
efforts to promote affective development through unfocused, experiential activities have
also been found ineffective. The preventive strategies that were proved to reduce drug
44
Nchimbu, J.V. (2005), “The Evaluation of the Magnitude of Drug Abuse, Trafficking and
Related issues in selected Primary Schools in Kinandoni Municipality,
(dissertation). Edition 2011
45
Greece in 2003,
19
Dar-es Salaam Region”
abuse behavior are those that teach pupils resistance skills and anti-drug norms, either alone
or in combination with teaching personal and social skills. The success of drug abuse
prevention does not only depend on the selected approach, but also on its implementation
or delivery process. Approaches that use interactive methods, booster sessions, high
frequency of delivery, peer educators, parents and other community leaders, use of trained
teachers in issues of drug abuse and profession providers, offered a greater impact to antidrug abuse behavior change in students. Literature on the impact of drug abuse schoolbased preventive strategies in Dire Dawa university does not exist. The present study was
therefore intended to fill up this knowledge gap.
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 METHODOLOGY
This study presents the methodology that was used in the study. It begins with a Qualitative
and non-doctrinal legal research design, we select this methodological approaches from
consideration of our research title and statement of the problem. Therefore this research is
best answered with this methodology designs and it is best addressed by qualitative
designs. Study population, study sample, and sampling procedure. It proceeds to describe
research instruments, data collection procedure, methods of data analysis employed in the
study and ethical considerations. It ended with a summary.
3.1.1 Research Design
The study used a Qualitative and non-doctrinal design. This design was preferred because
it is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e. phenomenon relating to or involving
quality or kind. A researcher is interested in investigating the reasons for, or motives
behind, certain human behavior, say why people think or do certain things, or in investing
their attitudes towards, or opinions about, a particular subject or institution.
3.1.2 Study Sample

The research composed of selective Department and selective section representative
students specially

law school from 2nd year up to 4th year 4/ four /representative students participated
answering Questioner
20

The student counseling president , the student discipline committee members /2 /
The Dire Dawa university student service office coordinator and 3 servants , and
from campus security guards 4 /four/, student dormitory from male students 4/ and
from female dormitory 2 /two/ participated on answering questionnaires .

The Dire Dawa University student dean, the student disciplines committee
coordinator, the campus security affairs office coordinator & the student counseling
vice president participated in an interview with each of them.
3.1.3 Research Instruments
Two research instruments were used. These were questionnaires and interview guide.

Questionnaires
Questionnaires were mostly used to collect data from different participants. A
questionnaire is a measurement procedure that usually contains questions aimed at getting
information on topics.

Interview guide
Semi-structured interview guide was used to collect qualitative data from the university
dean, the student disciplines committee coordinator, the campus security affairs office
coordinator & the student counseling vice president. the advantage of a semi-structured
interview guide is that it allows for new questions to be brought up during the interview as
a result of what the interviewee says. The researcher was able to clarify questions and probe
the answers of the respondents, there by obtaining detailed information about the impact
of the drug abuse and drug trafficking based preventive education strategies than we would
get if we had used a questionnaire.
3.1.4 Methodological triangulation
In this study, it was found prudent to triangulate using two different methods of data
collection, namely; questionnaire, and semi-structured interview. This was done in order
to ensure validity and credibility of the findings.
3.1.5 Data Collection Procedure
The selected students were gathered in one classroom where questionnaires were
distributed to them after explaining the purpose of the research and taking care of ethical
21
issues. Respondents were given ample time to respond to the questions. They were also
allowed to seek clarifications. Questionnaires were collected upon completion and
respondents were individually thanked. Teacher-respondents were given the questionnaires
to answer and submitted them to the researcher after two days. A total number of twelve
/12 / questionnaires were distributed to students and their teachers. Interviews were
conducted to the university dean, the student disciplines committee coordinator, the
campus security affairs office coordinator & the student counseling vice president using a
semi-structured interview guide. Data collected was recorded in writing by the researcher.
3.1.6 Data Analysis
Qualitative data was analyzed using four stapes data preparation, familiarity with the data,
interpreting the data and verifying the data. Therefore we used those four steps and at the
time of interpreted data again we used four tasks such as coding the data, categorizing this
data /segmenting the data/, identifying themes and relationships among codes and
categories and developed the concepts and arrived at some generalized statements.
3.1.7 Ethical Considerations
Due to the sensitive nature of the subject, ethical precautions were taken. These included
explaining the purpose of the study, gave respondents chance to decide on whether to
participate in the study or not and kept names of all respondents anonymous.
Confidentiality was also assured by making verbal appeals that the information given
would only be used for educational purposes.
3.1.8 Summary
This chapter presented the methodology used in the study. A qualitative and non-doctrinal
design was used to describe the impact of drug abuse and drug trafficking preventive
strategies on students in university . The study population was composed of students,
teachers and university servants. It also included campus dean and officers in the
education A total number of 30/ thirty/ respondents were used for a sample. This sample
was selected through simple random sampling. Two instruments, namely, questionnaires
and interview guide were used to collect data. Data collected was analyzed both
qualitatively and non doctrinal legal method . Further, ethical issues were also considered
in the process of collecting data.
22
3.2 PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
This chapter presents the findings of drug abuse and drug trafficking university - based
preventive strategies on students. These findings are presented according to study
objectives. The findings from students are presented first, followed by those from teachers,
students, officers and campus dean.
3.2.1 Factors that influence students to abuse drugs and drug trafficking in campus
3.2.1.1 Views of students
Concerning factors that influence students drugs, firstly, the we sought to determine the
views of students on whether the problem of drug abuse drug trafficking among Students
existed. To this effect, findings showed that out of four (4) students who participated in
the study, 2 of them indicated that there was a problem of drug abuse among students in
university , while 2 of them were not sure of the existence of the problem. Secondly, we
sought to identify factors that influence students to abuse drugs and drug trafficking.
Students indicated several factors that influenced them to abuse drugs and drug trafficking.
These include: peer pressure, need to belong (that is to fit in with friends), personal and
emotional problems at home and at campus , availability of drugs and drug trafficking in
the community, belief that one becomes more intelligent, knowledgeable and clever in
campus and parents and other adults who smoke and drink, and chewing chat.
Preventive strategies for drug and alcohol abuse school-based education
3.2.1.2 Views of Teachers
Teachers pointed out a number of factors which contribute to students’ abusing drugs.
These factors include; broken homes, peer pressure, stress, poor performance in university
work, and availability of drug in the community. In addition, bad parenting styles such as
encouraging children to take beer or sending them to buy beer. Other factors include desire
to experiment on drugs and to feel fun, belief that drugs help to perform better in
examinations and lack of knowledge on the effects of drugs.
3.2.1.3 View of student dean
In regard to factors that influence students to abuse drugs and drug trafficking in university,
the representatives of students stated that the drug abuse and drug trafficking case is not
included as the part of curriculum education. Therefore the campus was not giving
23
attention to this issue. But as general knowledge
availability of cheap drugs in the
community made it easy for students to access and abuse them. They further cited peer
group influence and the need to belong as a contributing factor. Other factors were broken
homes with poor family relationships, bad influence from parents, guardians, friends and
teachers who abuse drugs. In addition, they also stated that belief that drugs help to improve
intellectual capacities influenced some students to take them. Others abused drugs because
they wanted to gain popularity in the university. Referring to availability of drugs in the
community, the student dean said:
“There is too much selling of drug/khat and cigarette here. Our boys and girls can afford it
from the little pocket money their parents give them. This is our major challenge as
university.
3.2.1.4 Views of officers
The university officers expressed their views concerning factors that influence students s
to abuse drugs and drug trafficking. They cited peer pressure. They also felt that parents
who smoked, drunk and sent their children to fetch beer for them influenced them to do the
same, students’ constant poor academic achievements were also cited as a factor that
influenced students to abuse drugs and.
“Most of the students that are caught either smoking cigarette or chewing khat are those
who came from abusive homes where parent drink and smoke in the presence of their
children. In some cases it is the children who are not doing well in school that become easy
target of drug abuse due to influence of their friends.”
46
Findings further showed that curiosity was a major factor for beginners in drug abuse.
Students who were in early adolescent stage were driven by the desire to know how it feels
to take drugs .
3.2.2Preventive strategies for drug abuse university based education
3.2.2.1 Views of students
In this question, the researcher was interested in finding out the activities used to prevent
drug abuse in university. Findings revealed that students are found information about the
46
Views of officers of DDU
24
infarct of drug information from life skill and HIV AIDS education and learnt through
media and share from one another. In addition, there is no enough role plays, video shows,
anti-drug club meetings, games, sports activities in the university.
3.2.2.2 Views of Teachers
Concerning activities that teachers use to prevent abuse of drugs among Students the
following were cited; conducting lecturing life skill and HIV training in university. As
regard to content of preventive education taught in university , findings showed that facts
about types of drug and their dangers, normative education, drug resistance skills and life
skills were taught in schools is very poor and less given attention to this topic so that
there is wider knowledge gape through teachers up students .
3.2.2.3 View of student dean
Findings from dean revealed that drug abuse prevention education is not mainly conducted
through classroom lessons by teachers, drama performances by studens. and outside
theater groups, occasional talks by officers and talks by of during university assembly.
Not stated that anti-drug abuse messages on posters are put up around the school
environment and there is no anti-drug day celebrations are practiced in Ethiopia . In regard
to the approach used to carry out drug abuse prevention in the university .
3.2.3 Impact of drug abuse and drug trafficking university -based preventive strategies on
students
3.2.3.1 Views of students
Findings showed that out of 4 students who participated in the study, 3 of them indicted
that they had not changed due to the drug abuse preventive education because it is not given
training in university, while 16 or all indicated that they had not changed despite receiving
preventive education. They first got information about prevention of drug abuse from
friends while 5 of them said they first got such information from their parents.
3.2.3.2 Views of Teachers
Findings showed that out of 5 respondents, 2 indicated that the preventive strategies used
in the university had an impact on students ’ knowledge about drug abuse prevention,
while 3 of said they had an impact on students’ behavior change.
3.2.3.3 Views of Head Teachers
25
Concerning the impact of preventive strategies on students’ knowledge, attitudes and
behavior, Head teachers stated that most of their students who receive drug and drug abuse
preventive education knew a lot of facts on types of drug, physical and emotional effect,
social and economic effect of drug abuse. However, they also indicted that some did not
refrain from experimenting with or indulging in drug abuse despite learning about them.
3.2.4 Ways of enhancing university -based drug abuse and drug trafficking preventive
strategies.
3.2.4.1
Views of students
Students suggested the following measures to prevent drug abuse in campus: punishment,
suspension, forced transfers, summoning parents and appearing before the disciplinary
committee.
“Like here at our campus, those who are caught smoking and chewing chat are mainly
punished.
3.2.4.2
Views of Teachers
Teachers suggested the following measures to prevent drug abuse in campus punishment,
suspension, establishment of guidance and counseling
department, training of peer
educators, putting up posters in the school grounds, involvement of parents in teaching
their children against drug abuse, support for anti-drug clubs and giving talks on drugs
during an assembly. Teachers further suggested that guidance teachers should have at least
one period per week to teach about effects of abusing drugs. In addition, they should have
special training in psychosocial issues of students, and that universities s should invite
other organization on regular basis to talk to students about drug abuse prevention, and
forming or strengthening anti-drug clubs.
3.2.4.3
Views of student dean
Dean suggested several measures to improve drug abuse preventive education in campus.
These included: special in-service training for teachers in drug abuse preventive education,
training of more peer educators by supporting anti-drug clubs in campus . In addition,
sensitizing parents on healthy parent-child relationship and need to take interest into the
affairs of their children, next to include in curriculum preventive education in university .
3.2.5 Summary
26
This chapter has presented the findings of the study in line with the objectives. The study
found out that factors that influenced students to abuse drugs included: peer pressure,
personal and emotional problems at home and at universities , poor parenting styles, and
ignorance of consequences, Other factors were constant poor performance in universities
work, having fun and feeling curiosity, belief that drugs help to improve intellectual
capacities, and availability of drugs in the community. Concerning preventive strategies
used in universities.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The study was conducted to determine the impact of drug abuse and drug trafficking
university -based preventive strategies on students.
4.1.1 Conclusion
The current drug abuse and drug trafficking university based preventive strategies have to
a larger extent impacted on students positively. For instance, students were now more
knowledgeable about the dangers of drug abuse and drug trafficking as they are able to
learn about drug abuse at a younger age and the involvement of parents to discuss their
children’s drug abuse behavior helped some students to change their behavior. However,
the aspect of positive behavior change has not significantly been influenced. Some
students still abuse drugs as a way of fitting in peer groups, believing that it can enhance
their intellectual capacities or feel that they are grown-ups. The study has shown that the
preventive strategies mostly used for drug
abuse education in university were not
conducted in classroom lessons, lectures, talks with officers, video shows and counselling.
Moreover very little was done on resistance skills and life skills training. Although this
strategy has a positive impact on knowledge about drugs, it did not translate into change in
behavior. In order to enhance the preventive strategies, students, teachers, Head teachers
have suggested a number of measures dissemination strategy which one be responsible for
the limited impact the drug prevention education has on students’ behavior change. It is
the view of the researcher, just as this study and many other studies have indicated that, in
27
order to have a greater impact on students in terms of behavior change, there is a need to
use preventive strategies that are interactive and skill-based.
4.1.2 Recommendations
Based on the study findings, the following recommendations are made:
•University based drug abuse prevention should be given more attention by government
on more interactive activities such as including in curriculum as one teaching program or
course and other strategies to use focus group discussions, role plays, games, anti-drug club
meetings and life skills training which stimulates active participation of all students and
provides a platform for practicing attitudes and skills for behavior change.
• Teachers, officers and other providers of drug abuse preventive education should teach
students more of drug refusal skills in combination with social life skills training other than
factual information on drugs and their dangers only, as these are more likely to lead to
behavior change.
• With regard to delivery process, providers of this education should extend it to lower
grades in basic universities in order to cater for younger students.
• University authorities should use trained peer educators as role models for behavior
change, while parents/guardians should be involved in supporting their children to live
drug free lives.
• Teachers should receive special training in drug abuse preventive education. This is
necessary to ensure effective delivery of drug and abuse related issue.
28
Supplementary part
DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF LAW
Name
Professions
Age
Sex
Year’s
I ask pleasantry to fill the following blank space by your own perspective based on the
contents of the related question
1.Do you think that drug abuse and drug trafficking is exist in the campus?
Yes
No
If your answer is “yes” what are the factors that influence students to use abuse drug and
drug
trafficking?.............................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................
2. Do you know any preventive strategies of drug abuse and drug trafficking in dire Dawa
university?
Yes
No
If your answer is “yes” what are
they? ...........................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
29
................................................ ...............................................................................................
........................................................................
If your answer is “No” what do you think any possible strategy to prevent the problem of
drug abuse and drug trafficking in your
mind ? ......................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................ ...............................................................................................
........................................................................
3. Do you think that drug abuse and drug trafficking have any impact?
Yes
No
If your answer is “yes” what are that
impact’s ..............................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................ ...............................................................................................
........................................................................
If your answer is “No”
how? ..........................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................ ...............................................................................................
.........................................................................
4.have you any possible way of enhancement to prevent drug abuse and drug trafficking
in our campus?
Yes
No
If your answer is “yes” what are
they? ......................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................ ...................
................................................................................................................................................
.....
30
If your answer is “No” what is your personal view about the way of
enhancement? ........................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................. .................................................................
....................................................................................................
31
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33