Element 5: Logistics and Transport operations v2.1
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Element 5: Logistics and Transport Operations.
Element 5: Logistics and Transport Operations.
Specific intended learning outcomes:
On completion of this element, candidates should be able to demonstrate understanding of the
content through the application of knowledge to familiar and unfamiliar situations. In particular you
should be able to:
1.0 - Identify the main hazards of and suitable controls for marine transport in the oil & gas
industries.
2.0 - Identify the main hazards of and suitable controls for land transport in the oil & gas
industries.
Recommended tuition time:
Recommended tuition time for this unit is not less than 2 hours.
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1.0 - Hazards of Vessels and Working Over Water.
There are a variety of vessels that support the offshore industry. They range from large
construction barges to small survival boats.
In addition to the hazards associated with the work activities on the respective vessels, the
following need to be considered.
Hazards of Vessels.
Collision with other vessels or structures such as the rig platform (such as the Bombay
High North disaster).
Extremes of weather (wind, rain, rough seas) causing possible capsizing or collisions, or
loss/movement of loads.
Accelerated levels of corrosion due to salt water.
The hazards associated with any substances being handled or stored (flammability,
corrosiveness, toxicity, etc.).
Product transfer operations: the potential for spillages.
Capsize of vessel during transfer operations if the ballast is not managed carefully.
Leaks from lines and joints.
Working Over Water.
Exposure to water and sea spray. Wet clothing increases the wind chill and the likelihood of
hypothermia. Warm and dry clothing is essential. There is also the potential for electric
shock if the water comes into contact with electrical equipment.
Falls from height into the water. Platforms and vessels can be very tall. The greater the
height the higher the potential severity upon impact with the water. Thick clothing can
absorb a large quantity of water making it heavy, increasing the chances of drowning.
People can fall during boarding, rough seas and during transfer operations. Crossing
pontoons from one vessel to another can be hazardous due to the swell of the waves.
Slips on wet or icy surfaces, possibly leading to falls.
Wind and solar radiation can damage the skin and eyes, cause dehydration and heat
stress.
Other hazards.
Lone working.
Distance from medical facilities.
Diving operations.
Piracy.
Terrorist attacks.
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1.1 - Control Measures When Working Over Water.
For any work being carried out which necessitates personnel working at heights above water the
following precautions should be considered:
Permit to work system must be used for high risk activities.
Fences or barriers must be provided to any structure or scaffold where there is a risk of
persons falling into the water.
Correct PPE: fall arrestors/life jackets as well as watchmen/standby boat (e.g. Fast Rescue
Craft).
Where an independent electrically or mechanically operated hoist is used a competent
operator must be provided.
Any hoist must be checked and maintained as per manufacturers' requirements.
Warning signs posted (e.g. overhead work).
Adequate lighting (consider weather conditions and time of day).
Personnel instructed in how to raise an alarm.
Supervisor to make frequent checks to ensure control measures are being followed.
No lone workers i.e. minimum of two people at all times and consideration given to the
number of first aiders required on site.
Special care in adverse weather conditions (wind, rain, etc.).
Figure 1. Erection of scaffolding over water.
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1.2 - Marine Transport.
In this section we will look at:
Floating Liquefied Natural Gas (FLNG).
Floating Production Storage & Offloading Units (FPSO).
Floating storage units (FSU).
Floating offloading.
Supply vessels.
The types of Drilling rigs.
Construction barges.
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1.3 - Floating Liquefied Natural Gas (FLNG).
FLNG refers to water-based liquefied natural gas (LNG) operations employing technologies
designed to enable the development of offshore natural gas resources. While no FLNG facilities
currently exist, a facility is in development by Royal Dutch Shell, and is due to be completed by
around 2017. Floating above an offshore natural gas field, the FLNG facility will theoretically
produce, liquefy, store and transfer LNG (and potentially LPG and condensate) at sea before
carriers ship it directly to its destination. To read more about Shell's new facility please visit their
website here: http://www.shell.com/global/aboutshell/major-projects-2/prelude-flng.html
LNG is natural gas (predominantly methane) that has been converted to liquid form for ease of
storage or transport. LNG achieves a higher reduction in volume than compressed natural gas
(CNG) so that the energy density of LNG is 2.4 times heavier than that of CNG. This makes LNG
cost efficient to transport over long distances where pipelines do not exist. LNG ships have double
hulls to protect them from damage and leakage. Additionally, effective insulation keeps the LNG
cold. Inevitably, a small amount of heat leakage into the LNG will occur.
Figure 2. 3D image of a FLNG facility being serviced by an LNG carrier.
Moving LNG production to an offshore setting presents a demanding set of challenges. In terms of
the design and construction of the FLNG facility, every element of a conventional LNG facility
needs to fit into an area roughly one quarter the size, whilst maintaining the utmost levels of safety
and giving increased flexibility to LNG production.
Once a facility is in operation, wave motion will present another major challenge. LNG containment
systems need to be capable of withstanding the damage that can occur when the sea's wave and
current motions cause movement of the liquid in the partly filled tanks. Product transfers also need
to deal with the effects of winds, waves and currents in the open seas.
Many solutions to reduce the effect of motion and weather are again to be found in the design
which must be capable of withstanding, and even reducing, the impact of waves. In this area
technological development has been mainly evolutionary rather than revolutionary, leveraging and
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adapting technologies that are currently applied to offshore oil production or onshore liquefaction.
For example, traditional LNG loading arms have been adapted to enable LNG transfers in open
water, and the development of hose-based solutions for both side-by-side transfers in calmer seas
and tandem transfers in rougher conditions is nearing fruition.
A unique feature of Shell's FLNG design is its ability to stay safely moored in harsh weather
conditions, including Category Five cyclones. Potentially, this could result in more uptime for the
facility.
Additionally, Shell designers have optimised safety on the facility by locating storage facilities and
process equipment as far from crew accommodation as possible. As a result of this, the
accommodation areas of visiting LNG carriers are also at maximum distance from critical safety
equipment. Safety gaps have been allowed between modules of process equipment so that gas
can disperse quickly in the event of a gas leak.
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Question 1.
What is a risk unique to FLNG?
The effect of sea movement on partially filled tanks.
Score: 1
The danger of storms and typhoons on the large installation.
Score: 0
The difficulty of mooring such a large facility.
Score: 0
The proximity of storage facilities to crew accommodation.
Score: 0
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1.4 - Floating Production Storage OffloadingUnits (FPSOs).
FPSOs have been used safely and reliably throughout the oil industry for several years. They are a
floating vessel used for the processing and storage of hydrocarbons. In the 1980s, due to a
downturn in the tanker market, some tankers were converted into FPSOs. They are designed to
receive and process the hydrocarbons from a nearby platform or subsea template. The oil is stored
until it can be offloaded to a tanker or transported through a pipeline. FPSOs are especially
effective in deep water and remote areas where the construction of a pipeline is not possible or
cost prohibitive.
When a tanker solution is chosen, it is necessary to accumulate oil from production into some form
of tank storage. This means that an oil tanker is not continuously occupied while sufficient oil is
being produced to fill the tanker. Often the solution is a decommissioned oil tanker which has been
stripped down and equipped with facilities to be connected to a stationary mooring offshore
location. Oil is accumulated in the FPSO until there is a sufficient amount to fill a transport tanker,
at which point the transport tanker arrives and connects either to the stern of the floating storage
unit or moors up onto an infield mooring buoy for loading cargo. These buoys are commonly known
as Single Buoy Moorings (SBM) which allow the tanker to moor and connect to a system of floating
strings all at a single point. The system being a single mooring, it also allows the vessel to work in
poor weather and cope with different currents as it turns according to these forces acting on the
Tanker and its loading operation.
Figure 3. An FPSO and a tanker.
The FPSO design will depend on the area of operation. In benign waters the FPSO may have a
simple shape or it may be a converted tanker. For more harsh environments like the North Sea the
vessel should have a refined shape.
An FPSO has the capability to carry out some form of oil separation process obviating the need for
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such facilities to be located on the oil platform. Partial separation may still be done on the oil
platform to increase the oil capacity of the pipeline to the FPSO.
The FPSO is subject to high safety systems of work and strict adherence is exercised at all times.
Personnel visiting the vessel are subject to strict familiarisation programs and control measures.
Security surveillance for FPSOs is essential to be considered due to the level of potential terrorist
attacks. Terrorism may be both local or international. The views of the local community may vary.
While the oil and gas industry can provide local employment, some fishing communities have
different views to oil and gas operations in traditional rich fishing grounds. They may seek
compensation which is not always satisfactory.
When poor weather is forecasted, such as typhoon warnings, only a small but essential skeleton
crew remain onboard and all other workers are evacuated. Due to its essential nature, the FPSO
must remain on site during all weather conditions. The poor weather may limit maintenance,
deliveries of essential parts, food and even support vessel assistance from supply vessels.
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Question 2.
What is a benefit of using FPSOs?
FPSOs can be used in remote and deep waters where a fixed pipeline would be cost prohibitive.
Score: 1
Their facilities tend to be more comfortable. As such workers prefer working on them instead of on
platforms.
Score: 0
Relatively expensive due to high conversion and scrapping costs.
Score: 0
Easy to defend against terrorist attacks.
Score: 0
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1.5 - Floating Storage and Offloading Units.
A floating storage and offloading unit (FSO) is essentially a simplified FPSO without the capability
for oil or gas processing. Most FSOs are converted single hull supertankers.
The vessels can carry liquids other than the typical hydrocarbon content: drilling fluids, mud, brine,
cement and base oils. In addition they can carry supplies for the personnel (food and water) and
engineering supplies.
Figure 4. Oil tanker and floating storage unit size compared with other marine vessels.
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1.6 - Platform Supply Vessels.
A platform supply vessel (often abbreviated as PSV) is a ship specially designed to supply offshore
oil platforms. These ships range from 20 to 100 meters in length and accomplish a variety of tasks.
The primary function for most of these vessels is transportation of goods and personnel to and
from offshore oil platforms and other offshore structures.
In the recent years a new generation of Platform Supply Vessel entered the market, usually
equipped with Class 1 or Class 2 Dynamic Positioning Systems which reduces the risk of collisions
with the platform and facilitates the transfer of cargo to and from the vessel.
Helicopter supplies tend to be restrictive by cargo weight and volume as well as suitable weather
and distance range. Supply vessels however can transport and tow barges of any size over long
distances.
Cargo tanks for drilling mud, pulverized cement, diesel fuel, potable and nonpotable water, and
chemicals used in the drilling process comprise the bulk of the cargo spaces. Fuel, water, and
chemicals are almost always required by oil platforms. Certain other chemicals must be returned to
shore for proper recycling or disposal. Crude oil product from the rig is usually not a supply vessel
cargo.
The main hazards associated with supply vessels are often exacerbated by inclement weather
conditions. Environmental factors must be addressed.
Hazards arise during the offloading of the supplies, involving lifting and transfers, involving
dynamic load movements. Due to inclement weather the loads can sway when the offloading crane
on the platform starts to lift the load from the supply vessel. The swaying load can hit the supply
vessel causing damage and also it can hit the platform again sustaining damage to the platform. It
is therefore necessary that the lifting operation is only carried out by qualified and trained
personnel following a strict procedure. Lifting and mechanical handling operations account for a
significant proportion of the total of injuries and dangerous occurrences offshore.
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Figure 5. FPSO lifting goods from a supply vessel.
Other hazards include anchor handling, maintenance and navigation next to a platform in
inclement weather (potential for collision), and the vessel activities leading to ignition sources
within a marine zone for an offshore field (within 500m).
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Figure 6. Supply Vessel in a moderate swell.
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1.7 - Moveable Offshore Drilling Rigs.
There are two basic types of offshore drilling rigs: those that can be moved from place to place,
allowing for drilling in multiple locations, and those rigs that are permanently placed. Moveable rigs
are often used for exploratory purposes because they are much cheaper to use than permanent
platforms. Once large deposits of hydrocarbons have been found, a permanent platform is built to
allow their extraction. Types include:
Drilling barges.
Suitable for still, shallow waters, usually inland.
Figure 7. Inland drilling barge.
Jackup rigs.
Once a jackup rig is towed to the drilling site, three or four 'legs' are lowered until they rest on the
sea bottom. This allows the working platform to rest above the water surface, as opposed to a
floating barge. Suitable for shallow water.
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Figure 8. Jackup Rig.
Submersible rigs.
Also suitable for shallow water, are like jackup rigs in that they come in contact with the ocean or
lake floor. These rigs consist of platforms with two hulls positioned on top of one another. The
upper hull contains the living quarters for the crew, as well as the actual drilling platform. The lower
hull works much like the outer hull in a submarine. When the platform is being moved from one
place to another, the lower hull is filled with air, making the entire rig buoyant. When the rig is
positioned over the drill site, the air is let out of the lower hull, and the rig submerses to the sea or
lake floor. This type of rig has the advantage of mobility in the water, however once again its use is
limited to shallow water areas.
Semisubmersible rigs.
Semisubmersible rigs are the most common type of offshore drilling rigs, combining the
advantages of submersible rigs with the ability to drill in deep water. A semisubmersible rig works
on the same principle as a submersible rig: through the 'inflating' and 'deflating' of its lower hull.
The main difference with a semisubmersible rig, however, is that when the air is let out of the lower
hull, the rig does not submerge to the sea floor. Instead, the rig is partially submerged, but still
floats above the drill site. When drilling, the lower hull, filled with water, provides stability to the rig.
Semisubmersible rigs are held in place by huge anchors, each weighing upwards of 10 tons.
These anchors, combined with the submerged portion of the rig, ensure that the platform is stable
and safe enough to be used in turbulent offshore waters. Semisubmersible rigs can be used to drill
in much deeper water than the rigs mentioned above.
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Figure 9. Semisubmersible Rig.
Drilling ships.
As the name suggests, they are ships designed to carry out drilling operations. These boats are
specially designed to carry drilling platforms out to deep-sea locations. A typical drillship will have,
in addition to all of the equipment normally found on a large ocean ship, a drilling platform and
derrick located on the middle of its deck. In addition, drillships contain a hole (or 'moonpool'),
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extending right through the ship down through the hull, which allows for the drill string to extend
through the boat down into the water. Drillships are often used to drill in very deep water, which
can often be turbulent. Drillships use what is known as 'dynamic positioning' systems.
Figure 10. A semisubmersible rig and a drilling ship.
Figure 11. The different types of rigs discussed above.
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1.8 - Fixed Offshore Drilling and Production Platforms.
As mentioned, moveable rigs are commonly used to drill exploratory wells. In some instances,
when exploratory wells find commercially viable natural gas or petroleum deposits, it is economical
to build a permanent platform from which well completion, extraction, and production can occur.
These large, permanent platforms are extremely expensive, and generally require large expected
hydrocarbon deposits to be economical to construct. Some of the largest offshore platforms are
located in the North Sea where, because of almost constant inclement weather, structures able to
withstand high winds and large waves are necessary. A typical permanent platform in the North
Sea must be able to withstand wind speeds of over 100 knots, and waves over 60 feet high.
Correspondingly, these platforms are among the largest structures built by man. There are a
number of different types of permanent offshore platforms, each useful for a particular depth range.
Figure 12. Types of fixed platforms.
Fixed Platforms.
In certain instances, in shallower water, it is possible to physically attach a platform to the sea floor.
This is what is shown above as a fixed platform rig. The 'legs' are constructed with concrete or
steel, extending down from the platform, and fixed to the seafloor with piles. With some concrete
structures, the weight of the legs and seafloor platform is so great, that they do not have to be
physically attached to the seafloor, but instead simply rest on their own mass. There are many
possible designs for these fixed, permanent platforms. The main advantages of these types of
platforms are their stability, as they are attached to the sea floor there is limited exposure to
movement due to wind and water forces. However, these platforms cannot be used in extremely
deep water. It is simply not economical to build legs that long.
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Figure 13. Fixed Platform Rig.
Compliant Towers.
Compliant towers are much like fixed platforms. Each consists of a narrow tower, attached to a
foundation on the seafloor and extending up to the platform. This tower is flexible, as opposed to
the relatively rigid legs of a fixed platform. This flexibility allows it to operate in much deeper water,
as it can 'absorb' much of the pressure exerted on it by the wind and sea. Despite its flexibility, the
compliant tower system is strong enough to withstand hurricane conditions.
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Figure 14. Compliant Tower.
Seastar Platforms.
Seastar platforms are like miniature tension leg platforms (see below). The platform consists of a
floating rig, much like the semisubmersible type discussed previously. A lower hull is filled with
water when drilling, which increases the stability of the platform against wind and water movement.
In addition to this semisubmersible rig however, Seastar platforms also incorporate the tension leg
system employed in larger platforms. Tension legs are long, hollow tendons that extend from the
seafloor to the floating platform. These legs are kept under constant tension, and do not allow for
any up or down movement of the platform. However, their flexibility does allow for side-to-side
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motion, which allows the platform to withstand the force of the ocean and wind, without breaking
the legs off. Seastar platforms are typically used for smaller deep-water reservoirs, when it is not
economical to build a larger platform. They can operate in water depths of up to 3,500 feet.
Figure 15. Seastar Platform.
Tension Leg Platforms.
Tension leg platforms are larger versions of the Seastar platform. The long, flexible legs are
attached to the sea floor, and run up to the platform itself. As with the Seastar platform, these legs
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allow for significant side-to-side movement (up to 20 feet), with little vertical movement. Tension
leg platforms can operate at around 7,000 feet.
Figure 16. Tension Leg Platform.
Subsea System.
Subsea production systems are wells located on the sea floor, as opposed to at the surface. Just
as in a floating production system, the petroleum is extracted at the seafloor, and then 'tied back' to
an already existing production platform. The well is drilled by a moveable rig, and instead of
building a production platform for that well, the extracted natural gas and oil are transported by
riser or even undersea pipeline to a nearby production platform. This allows one strategically
placed production platform to service many wells over a reasonably large area. Subsea systems
are typically in use at depths of 7,000 feet or more, and do not have the ability to drill, only to
extract and transport.
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Figure 17. Multiple subsea wells, attached to a FPSO.
Spar Platforms.
Spar platforms are among the largest offshore platforms in use. These huge platforms consist of a
large cylinder supporting a typical fixed rig platform. The cylinder does not extend all the way to the
seafloor, but instead is tethered to the bottom by a series of cables and lines. The large cylinder
serves to stabilise the platform in the water, and allows for movement to absorb the force of
potential hurricanes. The first Spar platform in the Gulf of Mexico was installed in September of
1996. Its cylinder measured 770 feet long and was 70 feet in diameter, and the platform operated
in 1,930 feet of water.
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Figure 18. Spar Platform.
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Figure 19. Fixed Platform Types.
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1.9 - Offshore Construction Barges.
The hazardous activities involved in offshore construction include:
Lifting operations.
Welding.
Non Destructive Testing.
Pipelaying.
Diving support.
Personnel transfer.
Materials/food/water/fuel transfer.
Material/equipment storage.
Construction and precommissioning is typically performed as much as possible onshore. To
optimise the costs and risks of installing large offshore platforms, different construction strategies
have been developed.
One strategy is to fully construct the offshore facility onshore, and tow the installation to site
floating on its own buoyancy. Bottom founded structures are lowered to the seabed by
deballasting, whilst floating structures are held in position with substantial mooring systems.
Figure 20. Process Module being transported into position.
The size of offshore lifts can be reduced by making the construction modular, with each module
being constructed onshore and then lifted using a crane vessel into place onto the platform. A
number of very large crane vessels were built in the 1970s which allow very large single modules
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weighing up to 14,000 tonnes to be fabricated and then lifted into place.
Specialist floating hotel vessels known as "flotels" are used to accommodate workers during the
construction and hookup phases. This is a high cost activity due to the limited space and access to
materials.
Other key factors in offshore construction are the weather window which defines periods of
relatively light weather during which continuous construction or other offshore activity can take
place. Safety is another key construction parameter, the main hazard obviously being a fall into the
sea from which speedy recovery in cold waters is essential.
Figure 21. Crane barge assembling gas production platform in the North Sea.
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Figure 22. A modern construction barge.
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Figure 23. Underwater diving bell.
Pipelaying.
A pipelaying ship is a maritime vessel used in the construction of subsea infrastructure. It serves to
connect oil production platforms with refineries on shore. To accomplish this goal a typical
pipelaying vessel carries a heavy lift crane, used to install pumps and valves, and equipment to lay
pipe between subsea structures.
Pipelaying ships make use of dynamic positioning systems or anchor spreads to maintain the
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correct position and speed while laying pipe.
Recent advances have been made, with pipe being laid in water depths of more than 2,500
metres. Laying pipe on the seafloor can pose a number of challenges, especially if the water is
deep.
Buoyancy affects the pipelay process, both in positive and negative ways. In the water, the pipe
weighs less if it is filled with air, which puts less stress on the pipelay barge. But once in place on
the sea bed, the pipe requires a downward force to remain in place. This can be provided by the
weight of the oil passing through the pipeline, but gas does not weigh enough to keep the pipe
from drifting across the seafloor. In shallow-water scenarios, concrete is poured over the pipe to
keep it in place, while in deepwater situations, the amount of insulation and the thickness required
to ward off hydrostatic pressure is usually enough to keep the line in place.
The hazards include handling rigging gear such as wire ropes, blocks and tackle in the inclement
conditions and also the possibility of being knocked or washed overboard. All workers on this type
of vessel must be competent to carry out the tasks required of them and required to attend offshore
survival training.
Figure 24. Pipelaying vessel.
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Question 3.
What type of rig is this?
Jackup Rig
Score: 1
Semisubmersible
Score: 0
Compliant tower
Score: 0
Seastar.
Score: 0
A Spar platform.
Score: 0
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1.10 - Mooring Systems.
A mooring system is made up of a mooring line, anchor and connectors, and is used for station
keeping of a ship or floating platform in all water depths. A mooring line connects an anchor on the
seafloor to a floating structure. We will focus on mooring Mobile Offshore Drilling Units (MODUs)
and Floating Production Systems.
The mooring line can be made up of synthetic fibre rope, wire and chain or a combination of the
three. Environmental factors (wind, waves and currents) determine which materials make up the
mooring system.
Chain is the most common choice for permanent moorings in shallow water up to 100 m, whereas
steel wire rope is lighter weight and has a higher elasticity than chain, which is a better choice in
water depths greater than 300 m. However, synthetic fibre rope is the lightest weight of all three.
Figure 25. Grouted Screw Mooring.
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Dynamic positioning does not use mooring lines. Instead a computer controls the vessel's thrusters
and propellers to maintain position. Dynamic positioning can be used in combination with other
mooring systems to provide additional redundancy.
Figure 26. How dynamic positioning maintains the vessel's position in the face of wind and
currents.
Single buoy mooring (SBM).
A SBM is a loading buoy anchored offshore that serves as a mooring point and an connection for
tankers loading or offloading gas or liquid products to and from platforms or subsea oil wells. They
are capable of handling any size ship, even very large crude carriers where no alternative facility is
available.
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Figure 27. Tanker moored to a single buoy.
Figure 28. Typical mooring set up for an FPSO.
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1.11 - Loading and Unloading of Vessels at Marine Terminals.
Marine transfer operations are conducted at many ports around the world between tanker ships,
barges, and marine terminals. Specifically, once the marine vessel is secure at the dock a loading
arm or transfer hose is connected between a valve header on the dock and the manifold header on
the vessel. A marine transfer of petroleum products cannot be conducted unless it is supervised by
a 'person in charge' (PIC) on the vessel and another PIC on the dock.
Figure 29. Vessel unloading at a tank farm.
Information prior to arrival.
Prior to arrival the terminal representative should provide ships visiting their berths with information
on all pertinent terminal safety requirements, and any relevant regulatory requirements.
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Mooring.
Mooring equipment should be appropriate for the sizes of vessel using the berths. The equipment
provided should allow the vessel's mooring arrangements to hold the vessel securely alongside the
berth in the weather and tidal conditions expected at the berth.
Operating Limits.
Terminals should establish operating limits for each berth, defining the thresholds for stopping
cargo transfer, disconnecting cargo connections and removing the vessel from the berth.
Access/Egress.
Responsibility for the provision of safe ship/shore access is jointly shared between the vessel and
the terminal. Where the terminal does not provide a shore gangway, it should provide space on the
berth for the vessel to land its gangway, allowing for changes in tide and vessel freeboard.
Static Electricity.
Safety procedures for the transfer of static accumulator cargoes require the linear flow rates of the
cargo within the loading lines, both ashore and onboard, to be managed to avoid the generation of
static charges during the cargo transfer. The most important countermeasure that must be taken to
prevent an electrostatic hazard is to bond all metal objects together to eliminate the risk of
discharges between objects that might be charged and electrically insulated. To avoid discharges
from conductors to earth, it is normal practice to include bonding to earth ('earthing' or 'grounding').
On ships, bonding to earth is effectively accomplished by connecting metallic objects to the metal
structure of the ship, which is naturally earthed through the sea.
Electrical Zones.
Terminals should ensure that any electrical equipment is provided in accordance with a site
specific area electrical classification drawing, which shows hazardous zones at the berths.
Terminals should delineate the zones and establish the type of equipment that is to be installed
within each zone. The continued integrity of the equipment provided to meet zone requirements
should be addressed within the terminal's planned maintenance system.
Lighting Levels.
Terminals should have a level of lighting sufficient to ensure that all ship/shore interface activities
can be safely conducted during periods of darkness. Lighting levels should meet national or
international engineering standards as a minimum.
Electrical Arcing.
Large currents can flow in electrically conducting pipework and flexible hose systems between the
tanker and shore. The sources of these currents are:
Cathodic protection of the jetty or the hull of the tanker provided by sacrificial anodes.
Stray currents arising from galvanic potential differences between tanker and shore or
leakage effects from electrical power sources.
An all metal loading or discharge arm provides a very low resistance connection between tanker
and shore and there is a very real danger of an incendive arc when the ensuing large current is
suddenly interrupted during the connection or disconnection of the arm at the tanker manifold.
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Similar arcs can occur with flexible hose strings containing metallic connections between the
flanges of each length of hose.
To prevent electrical flow between a tanker and a berth during connection or disconnection of the
shore hose or loading arm, the terminal operator should ensure that cargo hose strings and metal
arms are fitted with an insulating flange. An alternative solution with flexible hose strings is to
include, in each string, one length only of nonconducting hose without internal bonding. The
insertion of such a resistance completely blocks the flow of stray current through the loading arm or
the hose string. At the same time, the whole system remains earthed, either to the tanker or to the
shore.
Spillages and Pollution.
To minimise the risk of leakage, and pollution, the ship's manifold flange face must be smooth and
free of rust. Care should be taken when connecting a mechanical coupler to ensure that the
coupler is centrally placed on the manifold flange and that all claws or wedges are pulling up on the
flange. Where 'O' rings are used in place of gaskets, these should be renewed on every occasion.
Oil cargo hoses should conform to recognised standard specifications, as laid down by a national
authority, such as the British Standards Institution or as recommended by the Oil Companies
International Marine Forum (OCIMF) and confirmed by established hose manufacturers. Hose
should be of a grade and type suitable for the service and operating conditions in which it is to be
used.
Ship and shore personnel should maintain a close watch for the escape of oil at the
commencement of and during cargo transfer operations. In particular, care should be taken to
ensure that pipeline valves, are closed when not in use. Cargo or bunker tanks which have been
topped up should be checked frequently during the remaining loading operations to avoid an
overflow.
If leakage occurs from a pipeline, valve, hose or metal arm, operations through that connection
should be stopped until the cause has been ascertained and the defect has been rectified. If a
pipeline, hose or arm bursts, or if there is an overflow or other spill, all cargo and bunker operations
should be stopped immediately and should not be restarted until the fault has been rectified and all
hazards from the released oil have been eliminated.
Means should be provided for the prompt removal of any spillage on deck. Any oil spill should be
reported to the terminal and port authorities and the relevant ship and shore oil pollution
emergency plans should be activated.
Vapours.
Some terminals are equipped with vapour emission control systems which are designed to receive
and process vapours displaced from a vessel during loading operations. This reduces the risk of a
build up of flammable vapours in the area. The terminal's operating manual should include a full
description of the installed system and the requirements for its safe operation. The terminal's
information booklet should also include details of the vapour recovery system for the information of
visiting vessels.
Fire Precautions.
For a terminal to be safe, there must be an appropriate balance between good design features,
safe operational procedures and good emergency planning. Fire protection alone will not provide
an acceptable level of safety if preventive measures are not effective in limiting the frequency and
size of spills, vapour emissions or in minimising sources of ignition.
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Automatic detection of fire, and the subsequent rapid response of emergency personnel and fire
protection equipment, will limit fire spread and the hazard to life and property at unmanned
locations or at locations having limited numbers of personnel.
Communication.
The provision of adequate means of communication, including a backup system between ship and
shore, is the responsibility of the terminal. Communication between the PICs should be maintained
in the most efficient way. When telephones are used, the telephones, both on board and ashore,
should be continuously manned by persons who can immediately contact their superior.
Additionally, it should be possible for that superior to override all calls. Before loading or
discharging commences, the system should be adequately tested.
Figure 30. Vessel unloading at a marine terminal.
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1.12 - Control of Marine Operations.
The shipping industry is regulated by various UN agencies, primarily the International Maritime
Organisation (IMO), which develops and maintains the framework of global maritime safety
regulations. British maritime regulations also originate from EU legislation and UK legislation.
The IMO is a specialised agency of the United Nations with 170 Member States. The IMO's
primary purpose is to develop and maintain a comprehensive regulatory framework for shipping
and its remit today includes safety, environmental concerns, legal matters, technical cooperation,
maritime security and the efficiency of shipping.
The IMO is the source of approximately 60 legal instruments that guide the regulatory development
of its member states to improve safety at sea, facilitate trade among seafaring states and protect
the maritime environment. The most well known is the International Convention for the Safety of
Life at Sea (SOLAS), as well as International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response
and Cooperation (OPRC).
The IMO regularly enacts regulations, which are broadly enforced by national and local maritime
authorities in member countries, such as the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at
Sea (the ColRegs). The IMO has also enacted a Port State Control (PSC) authority, allowing
domestic maritime authorities such as coast guards to inspect foreign ships calling at ports of the
many port states.
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS).
SOLAS is an international maritime safety treaty. It ensures that ships flagged by signatory States
comply with minimum safety standards in construction, equipment and operation. The SOLAS
Convention in its successive forms is generally regarded as the most important of all international
treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships. Many countries have turned these international
requirements into national laws so that anybody on the sea who is in breach of SOLAS
requirements may find themselves subject to legal proceedings.
International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation
(OPRC).
Parties to the OPRC are required to establish measures for dealing with pollution incidents, either
nationally or in cooperation with other countries.
Ships are required to carry a shipboard oil pollution emergency plan. Operators of offshore units
are also required to have oil pollution emergency plans or similar arrangements which must be
coordinated with national systems for responding promptly and effectively to oil pollution incidents.
Ships are required to report incidents of pollution to coastal authorities and the convention details
the actions that are then to be taken. The Convention calls for the establishment of stockpiles of oil
spill combating equipment, the holding of oil spill combating exercises and the development of
detailed plans for dealing with pollution incidents.
Parties to the convention are required to provide assistance to others in the event of a pollution
emergency and provision is made for the reimbursement of any assistance provided.
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Question 4.
Which of the following is a safety consideration when loading and unloading vessels at marine
terminals?
Static electricity.
Score: 1
Vehicles.
Score: 0
Permits to Work.
Score: 0
Toxic Gases.
Score: 0
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1.13 - Classification, Certification, Inspection and Approval of
Vessels.
Shipping is probably one of the most regulated industries in the world. In order to be permitted to
engage in maritime trade ships require various certificates issued on behalf of their flag state
confirming their compliance with various international conventions related to safety and
environment protection.
Certification necessitates examination by an independent third party to demonstrate 'compliance'.
In recent years, many certification regimes have been complimented by safety case regulations
(such as in the UK following the Piper Alpha investigation findings).
Usually certification is a prescriptive regime, associated with regulations or guidance notes. The
extent and nature of the requirements do however differ considerably from country to country, from
comprehensive specific stand alone rules, to simple sets of one line requirements which may cover
all aspects of the installation or just certain parts.
Classification Societies.
Vessels are classified and certificated by 'Classification Societies'. Classification societies carry out
the following functions:
Set technical rules.
Confirm that designs and calculations meet these rules.
Inspect ships and structures during the process of construction and commissioning.
Periodically inspect vessels to ensure that they continue to meet the rules.
Classification societies are also responsible for classing oil platforms, other offshore structures,
and submarines. This survey process covers diesel engines, important shipboard pumps and other
vital machinery.
There are a number of classification societies, the largest of which are Nippon Kaiji Kyokai, the
American Bureau of Shipping, Lloyd's Register, and Det Noriske Veritas. Classification societies
employ ship surveyors, material engineers, piping engineers, mechanical engineers, chemical
engineers and electrical engineers, often located at ports and office buildings around the world.
Marine vessels and structures are classified according to the soundness of their structure and
design for the purpose of the vessel. The classification rules are designed to ensure an acceptable
degree of stability, safety, environmental impact, etc.
As well as providing classification and certification services, the larger societies also conduct
research at their own research facilities in order to improve the effectiveness of their rules and to
investigate the safety of new innovations in shipbuilding.
There are more than 50 marine classification organisations worldwide.
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Figure 31. Logos of major international Classification Societies.
Inspections, Approvals and Certificates.
Vessel safety surveys are important during the life of a vessel for better safety and security. These
controls are directed by the classification societies and can be very different depending on the
equipment being surveyed (safety equipment, security, hoist, dock survey).
Construction surveys depend on the age and type of the vessel. The certificates given by the
classification societies are valid for five years. They focus on the condition of the hull, mooring,
anchoring and propulsion systems.
Sea going ships are also required to have a variety of safety certificates relating to safety
equipment and procedures such as radios, life rafts and fire fighting equipment.
The certificates that are required vary depending on which country the vessel is from. Oil and gas
industry merchant vessels usually require:
International Load Line Certificate.
International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate.
Safety Management Certificate.
Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate.
Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate.
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1.14 - Roles and Responsibilities of Marine Personnel.
Communications between the Ship and Terminal clearly play a big part in ensuring that loading
and unloading activities can be carried out safely. To this end, 'ship/shore checklists' play an
important role in ensuring that both parties have discharged their duties, to ensure that the
loading/unloading activities pass smoothly and without incident.
Marine Coordinator.
The Marine Coordinator or Terminal Representative is the Marine Terminal's 'Person In Charge'
and is responsible for all onshore activities pertaining to the ship's arrival and departure. This
includes: passing on prearrival information, mooring, loading/unloading and emergency response.
The Marine Coordinator should have detailed knowledge and experience of managing the activities
of the Marine Terminal. They play an important role in tracking vessels, activities and personnel
across the site. They also ensure that site inductions are carried out and that emergency response
planning takes place.
They will have good working knowledge of the capabilities and constraints of the Marine Terminal
and of the types of ships loading/offloading. In addition to liaising with the local regulatory
authorities they will also carry out regular audits of all marine activities on site.
The Marine Coordinator's office should be manned 24 hours a day to ensure constant supervision
of the operation and also to provide immediate emergency response if required.
Daily tasks of a Marine Coordinator are broad, but include:
Supervision of all site activities and liaising with personnel via radio and telephone.
Tracking of personnel across site including issuing of site passes.
Management of the induction and safety briefings.
Oversight of the marine operations process.
Communication with marine stakeholders.
Acting as a focal point for the Emergency Response Cooperation Plan.
Large busy marine terminals may require more than one Coordinator on shift to deal with the large
number of vessels and activities.
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Figure 32. Jeddah's lighthouse and Port Control Tower.
Sea Captain.
A sea captain (also called a captain or a master or a ship's master) is a licensed mariner in
ultimate command of the vessel. They are the vessel's 'Person in Charge'. The captain is
responsible for its safe and efficient operation, including cargo operations, navigation, crew
management and ensuring that the vessel complies with local and international laws, as well as
company and flag state policies. All persons on board, including officers and crew, other shipboard
staff members, passengers, guests and pilots, are under the captain's authority and are his
ultimate responsibility.
A ship's captain commands and manages all ship's personnel, and is typically in charge of the
ship's accounting, payrolls, and inventories. The captain is responsible for compliance with
immigration and customs regulations, maintaining the ship's certificates and documentation,
compliance with the vessel's security plan, as mandated by the International Maritime
Organisation. The captain is responsible for responding to and reporting in case of accidents and
incidents, and in case of injuries and illness among the ship's crew and passengers.
A ship's captain must have a master's license or certificate, issued by the ship's flag state.
Ship's Crew.
All crew and others onboard the vessel has a moral and legal responsibility to take care of their
own safety, and also the safety of others who may be affected by what they do (or do not do). They
must cooperate with their supervisor and others in the interests of health and safety.
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They must also avoid recklessly interfering or tampering with any equipment provided in the
interests of health and safety.
Any person has the authority to stop a job if there is an immediate and serious risk of injury. Job
shut down is to be reported immediately to the Supervisor.
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1.15 - Personnel Transfer.
One of the activities specific to offshore operations is the transfer of personnel between vessels
and other offshore structures. Such transfers can include movements of personnel at crew change
and shift change:
From vessel to vessel.
Between vessels, offshore structures, barges and crew boats.
To and from the quayside.
The primary methods of personnel transfer covered are:
Small boat or launch.
Larger crew boat or support vessel.
Personnel transfer capsule.
Gangways, bridge or accommodation ladders, including motion compensated hydraulic
gangways.
Helicopter.
General Issues.
Personnel being transferred should be briefed prior to the transfer and should be familiar with the
method of transfer and the equipment being used. Personnel involved in a transfer should be
physically able to make the transfer, should understand the intended activity and should have
agreed to the transfer method being proposed.
Where available personal protective equipment, including a safety helmet, should be worn.
Personnel joining or leaving a vessel or offshore structure at crew change may not be wearing
appropriate PPE - such as safety boots, for example. A risk assessment, including these factors
and consideration of the length of time personnel have been travelling and their tiredness, should
be conducted prior to the transfer.
Where appropriate, an approved inflatable life jacket, fitted with light and whistle, should also be
worn. In selecting the type of life jacket to be used the possibility of a fall from height should be
taken into account.
In medical evacuation cases, specific risk assessments and methods would be required.
All luggage should be transferred as a separate operation. Personnel should not carry luggage
during the transfer.
Risk Assessment.
All personnel transfers at sea, irrespective of the method, should be treated as a stand-alone
operation, and a formal risk assessment should be carried out beforehand. Should conditions
change at the time of the transfer, the impact of these changes should be considered and
appropriate management of change procedures implemented as necessary. If there are any
concerns regarding the safety of the operation, the transfer should be prevented.
If the transfer is not considered to be part of normal operations, or if specifically required as part of
an operating procedure, then it should be covered by a valid permit to work or crew transfer permit
and recorded as such.
Account should also be taken of any international or local regulations, codes of safe working
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practice, or company or client requirements governing transfer of personnel at sea.
Risk assessment of personnel transfer at sea should include (but not be limited to) the following
issues:
Necessity of the transfer and alternatives available.
Frequency of transfers and numbers of personnel involved.
Environmental conditions.
Vessel movement (pitch, roll and heave).
Action of the water upsurging between vessels or structures in close proximity.
Lighting in all areas of the transfer operation.
Slip/trip hazards.
Station keeping ability of the vessel(s) involved.
Communications.
Any simultaneous operations or other relevant activities in the area.
During personnel transfer, the potential for man overboard is always present. Consideration
should be given to the recovery of personnel from the water.
Training and Competence.
Whatever method of transfer is employed all personnel involved in the transfer, whether making
the transfer or assisting with it, should be competent to do so and should have received
appropriate training. This is particularly the case for crane operators, for the crews of small boats,
and for the crew of larger vessels or 'crew boats' involved in personnel transfer.
Responsibility.
The responsibility for the safety of personnel during the transfer lies with the respective Masters or
Offshore Installation Managers (OIMs) of the vessels or offshore structures involved. There should
be full cooperation between the respective Masters or OIMs. They should consider and evaluate,
with appropriate input from other relevant personnel, whether or not the transfer can safely take
place.
The responsibility and final authority to determine if the transfer should or should not take place
remains with the Master of the vessel from or to which the personnel are being transferred.
Communications.
Radio and visual communications between the personnel involved should be established prior to
transfer operations. Communications should be maintained during operations and should be
tested and verified at regular intervals throughout the transfer operation. All participants involved in
the transfer should be briefed prior to the transfer to ensure that the procedures to be followed are
understood.
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1.16 - Vessel to Vessel Transfer Using a Small Boat.
A small boat is any craft of a type likely to be stowed on a larger vessel, platform, barge or offshore
structure, and most often launched and recovered from some form of davit. Typically such craft are
less than 10m in length. Vessel to vessel transfer using a small boat should only be undertaken
when alternative means for the transfer are impracticable or less safe. Such transfers can be
particularly challenging, particularly for inexperienced personnel. A person should be available in
the small boat and on the vessel or offshore structure to assist those being transferred.
Figure 33. Boat suspended by a mechanical davit.
Weather and sea conditions should be assessed by the Masters of the vessels involved so as to
determine if it is suitable for the use of a small boat and to allow close approach and safe transfer.
A Fast Rescue Craft and crew should be standing by and available for launching from one of the
vessels.
Vessel to vessel transfer should be planned to avoid transfer during the hours of darkness. If
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transfer of specific personnel becomes unavoidable at night, this should be dealt with in a specific
and dedicated risk assessment and the operation only undertaken when it is considered safe to do
so.
Figure 34. Transfer of a crew member to another vessel.
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1.17 - Crew Boat Transfer.
Personnel transfer can also be accomplished using larger vessels, sometimes referred to as 'crew
boats'. The sea worthiness, size and type of the crew boat to be used in the personnel transfer
should be carefully considered, as should the length of the voyage and the means of transfer from
the crew boat to the destination vessel.
The crew boat used should be appropriate to the area of operations (for example, the prevailing
sea and weather conditions). It may be appropriate to obtain documentary confirmation of the
competence of the personnel handling the crew boat, as well as the condition of the vessel being
used, before going ahead with a crew boat transfer.
Embarkation/Disembarkation.
The means of embarking and disembarking personnel to and from the crew boat at either end of
the transit is very important. This should be conducted in as safe a manner as possible, as it can
prove to be the most hazardous part of the operation. In practice, personnel transfer by crew boat
may also include transfer by small boat, basket, gangway, or accommodation ladder. Participants
involved in the transfer should be briefed on the procedures and on the life-saving and emergency
equipment available.
When the crew boat comes alongside a vessel or offshore structure, relative movement should be
taken into consideration, as should the relative heights of the decks between which personnel
transfer is made. Assistance should be available at either end of the personnel transfer and there
should be an experienced person present to supervise the moment of transfer and maintain
communications with the bridge.
Personnel should only step across with the ability to freely use both hands and some form of hand
rail or support should be provided. Where necessary there should be access in or through
bulwarks using movable gates, such that personnel need not climb over rails or bulwarks during
transfer. The relative position of fenders on vessels and units should be taken into account,
together with any likely action of the water surging up between the crew boat and the vessel or
structure when in close proximity.
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Figure 35. Crew boat.
Passenger Accommodation and Safety Equipment.
Crew boats should have sufficient life jackets and life rafts for all personnel onboard. A safety
briefing should be provided before the start of the voyage. It should include alarm signals, muster
stations, location of life jackets and life rafts, firefighting equipment, escape routes in the event of
emergencies, location of emergency equipment such as flares, location of toilets and other comfort
facilities and the approximate length of the voyage. Escape routes should also be clearly signed.
Crew boats should have sheltered seating areas with comfortable seating appropriate to the
duration of transit, sufficient drinking water available for the number of personnel in transit and
appropriate toilet facilities. Crew boats engaged in longer voyages should have further relevant
facilities available which could include a galley to prepare meals for personnel in transit, an
appropriate supply of fresh water, a mess room and appropriate sleeping areas. Where this is
necessary the crew boat should have sufficient personnel and stores to prepare meals for
personnel in transit.
Appropriate care should be taken to minimise seasickness and fatigue amongst personnel in
transit. Luggage should be stored in a sheltered area and separate arrangements should be made
for the safe transfer of luggage to and from the crew boat at either end of the journey.
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1.18 - Gangways, Bridge and Ladder Personnel Transfer.
Gangways and accommodation ladders are the primary means by which personnel transfer
between a vessel and the quayside, and occasionally from one vessel or offshore structure to
another. There is a wide variation in types of gangway. Gangways and accommodation ladders
should be constructed of appropriate material, be of appropriate width and should be fitted with
nonslip walkways and handrails.
Equipment should be regularly inspected and maintained, including a visual check to ensure it is
clean and free of slip/trip/fall hazards. Appropriate certification of the gangway or accommodation
ladder may be required. Where there is the possibility of personnel falling from the gangway or
accommodation ladder, an appropriate safety net should be used. Where required, a life buoy fitted
with a line and water activated light should be available.
Gangways and accommodation ladders should be adequately lit along their full length. Their
approaches and egress routes should be kept free of obstructions and trip hazards and should
provide direct and safe access to the deck at each end.
Gangways and ladders should not be used at angles of inclination which render their use unsafe.
All gangways and personnel using them should be monitored and controlled. The fittings, such as
stanchions and handrails, should be monitored and adjusted as required.
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Figure 36. Ship to shore gangway.
Bridges.
Some larger vessels (for example heavy-lift crane vessels, pipelay barges, accommodation
vessels or MODUs) have long (around 50m) bridges to effect the transfer of personnel. These can
be fixed at one end and slide on rollers at the other end to allow for relative movement. Such
equipment can also be hydraulically controlled and lifted into place and supported by a crane or
else have its own dedicated support mechanism.
They may be fitted with alarm systems activated by a certain amount of movement. The bridges
and the personnel crossing them should be closely monitored and controlled.
Figure 37. Motion compensated and telescopic bridge extending to an offshore wind turbine.
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Figure 38. Telescopic gangway.
Hydraulic Gangways.
These are purpose designed gangways mounted on a vessel which connect to another
vessel/offshore structure to allow personnel to pass safely across. They are fitted with hydraulic
heave compensation which adjusts the gangway length and/or horizontal/vertical angles to
compensate for the vessel's relative movement. Such equipment may also be fitted with a 'traffic
light' system to prevent movement of personnel onto the gangway if any automatic adjustments are
taking place.
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1.19 - Personnel Transfer Baskets.
Subject to local regulations, company and client procedures, basket transfers by personnel basket
to or from vessels or offshore structures can be undertaken using a number of different devices.
The three main devices used today are:
Billy Pugh: the oldest personnel transfer basket design, in which personnel are transferred
whilst holding onto the outside of the lifted structure.
Esvagt: a rigid framed construction with buoyancy ring and fenders, in which personnel
stand inside the basket.
Personnel transfer capsule: a rigid framed device with buoyancy panels, in which personnel
sit strapped in bucket seats.
Figure 39. Billy Pugh (please note the lack of tag lines and life jackets).
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Figure 40. Esvagt with tag lines attached.
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Figure 41. Personnel Transfer Capsule with tag lines attached.
In some situations, basket transfer may be the only feasible means of transferring personnel at sea
(for example, when there is a significant height difference between respective decks). All basket
transfers should be considered a high risk operation at all times and they should only be
undertaken when transfer is essential and cannot be undertaken by other means. It would not be
appropriate to use personnel baskets for routine crew changes in open waters when other more
appropriate methods of transfer are available.
The following additional factors should be taken into consideration:
The necessity of the transfer and alternatives available.
The ability of the vessel(s) to maintain station.
The likely route of the basket during transfer and any differences in freeboard between the
vessels or offshore structures involved.
Any wind speed, vessel movement or other operating limitations of the crane to be used.
It should be ensured that:
The crane operator is competent for man riding operations.
The crane is fully operational and validated for man riding operations.
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The transfer basket is visually inspected before starting the transfer.
Communications between banksmen, crane and vessel are in place and working.
Environmental and vessel motion conditions are suitable.
Relevant crane operator and banksmen have good visibility of the pick up, transfer and
landing area.
Equipment Safety, Inspection and Certification.
The crane used in the transfer operation should be adequate and suitable for lifting persons and
should be certified for man riding. Freefall or nonpowered lowering should not be used during
personnel basket transfer operations. The transfer basket should be correctly rigged onto the crane
prior to transfer and the crane hook pennant should be of sufficient length to keep the hook well
clear of the personnel being transferred.
The certification, security and integrity of the entire lifting system, including wire ropes, rigging,
shackles, safety slings and hooks, should be checked as appropriate for man riding. Tag lines are
often attached to the underside of the basket to enable control of the swing when raising and
lowering the basket. Consideration should be given to the length/position of the tag lines to guard
against the possibility of the tag lines becoming snagged. The personnel basket should be checked
before use and should be in good condition at the time of use.
The basket should be marked with its safe working load. It should be appropriately certified with a
current certificate of test and/or inspection. The basket must not be operated beyond its safe
working load. Procedures should be available setting out methods of maintenance and storage
together with instructions related to inspection before use.
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1.20 - Personnel Transfer by Helicopter.
Helicopter travel to and from offshore installations generates one of the main sources of risk for
offshore workers. Particularly on more modern installations where other risks are low, helicopter
transport may be the dominant risk.
Helicopters are the normal means of transport for personnel to and from offshore installations due
to their speed, convenience, flexibility of operation and use in even rough weather. Apart from
these considerations, helicopter transport may be healthier and less hazardous in terms of reduced
travel sickness and easier personnel transfer onto an installation compared with travel on ships.
The risks from helicopter travel are:
Risks to personnel while they are in the air (passengers and aircrew) from collision impact,
fire or drowning.
Risks to personnel onboard an installation due to helicopter impact with the installation.
Possible hydrocarbon events such as helifuel fires escalating to fires and explosions
elsewhere.
Other health related hazards such as exposure to loud noise, whole body vibration and
inhalation of exhaust fumes.
Figure 42. Helicopter and helideck in the Gulf of Mexico.
Causes of accidents can be divided between aircraft mechanical failure and human factors, usually
pilot error. Historically, most fatalities to passengers and crew have been from drowning as a result
of mechanical failure leading to aircraft ditching in the sea. In recent years, aircraft systems have
become more reliable and a greater proportion of accidents can now be attributed to human error.
Nearly all accidents can be traced back to show a human factors contribution at the operational,
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maintenance, manufacturing or design stage.
Helicopter landing areas, whether on land or offshore, require areas suitable for liftoff, for the
airborne part of the take-off manoeuvre and for touchdown. Offshore, the take-off and landing
areas are colocated and there is no run on area. Such an arrangement produces the smallest area
overall where a helicopter can operate.
Due to the high risk of drowning in the event of a sea landing, helicopter survival and evacuation
are part of the BOSIET offshore survival training for offshore personnel.
Helicopter hazards at an installation.
Hazards identified in the UKOOA Guidelines for the Management of Offshore Helideck Operations
include:
Excessive wind turbulence due to adjacent structures.
Process thermal effects, e.g. turbine exhausts, normal and emergency hydrocarbon cold
venting.
Obstructions in the approach and departure sectors.
Fuel spillage during refuelling requiring rapid emergency response.
Aircraft engine or cabin fire requiring emergency response by aircrew and helideck and
firefighting crews on the installation.
Personnel contact with main or tail rotors while on deck.
Aircraft accident on the helideck, with associated passenger injuries and/or fuel spillage,
requiring rapid emergency response.
Loose items (of baggage, equipment, etc.) being sucked into rotors or air intakes by
structure induced turbulent air flow or rotor downwash.
Flying debris, e.g. from disintegrating rotor, hitting personnel following a crash.
Aircraft or rotor plane movements while the helicopter is on the deck after landing,
(especially when the deck is subject to significant movements as on mobile installations
and FPSOs in bad weather).
Figure 43. Rescue footage of a helicopter that has ditched in the North Sea.
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1.21 - Suitability of Personal Protective Equipment.
When selecting PPE it is important to properly consider the task and the risks. What must the PPE
protect the wearer against? Types of PPE vary greatly. They include:
Full body clothing (survival/immersion suits or overalls).
Safety shoes.
Hard hats.
Gloves.
Glasses/goggles.
Hearing protection.
Respiratory Protection.
Fall restraints/harnesses.
Breathing apparatus.
High visibility workwear.
The considerations for selecting immersion suits or life jackets for personnel transfer and general
marine safety should include:
What level of water resistance is required? Must it be impermeable?
Will the PPE be subjected to wear/tear on any particular parts? For example: elbows,
knees, etc.
Does it need to keep the wearer warm? What temperature is the working environment and
water?
Maintains freedom of movement. Will it reduce dexterity?
Does it impede the wearer's vision?
Does the wearer have to be visible? Does it need to be high visibility or be equipped with
emergency lights.
Breathability to evacuate moisture and sweat when necessary.
As lightweight as possible.
Limited risk of entanglement with ropes, slings, moving machinery, etc.
Integrated buoyancy when submerged if submersion is a risk.
Is fire/heat resistance necessary?
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Figure 44. Immersion suit characteristics.
When does PPE increase risks?
It is important that PPE protects the wearer from the risks without unexpectedly increasing risk.
Examples where PPE can inadvertently increase risk:
Warm clothing and safety shoes can absorb water and increase the risk of drowning by
becoming heavy.
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Warm gloves can prevent the workers from unattaching themselves from seatbelts or
harnesses.
Ear muffs can prevent people from hearing instructions.
Loose clothing can become entangled with moving equipment.
Hoods can impede visibility to the sides and above head height.
Survival suits can be impermeable and buoyant, but might have limited heat resistance in
the event of a fire.
Poor colour selection of the PPE might make the wearer less visible depending on the
weather conditions and time of day.
Poorly maintained PPE can give a false impression of safety while not providing any real
protection.
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1.22 - Diver Operations.
Figure 45. Diver Operations.
Subsea work involves remote intervention and human intervention better known as diving
operations. Commercial diving related to the oil and gas petrochemical industry is carried out in
support tasks such as inspection (asset integrity), repair and construction. Commercial diving
operations require a competency based certification that differs to recreational diving. The oil and
gas offshore industry accept IMCA diving accreditations for commercial divers. In the UK,
commercial divers were the first offshore workers to require a government competency certificate
of compliance. Diving contractors and marine operators, as members, promise to comply with the
IMCA code of practice relevant to their service within the industry [e.g. diving operations, Remotely
Operated Vehicle (ROV) operations, marine operations, etc.].
Diver operations are amongst the highest risk activities associated with any oil and gas project and
are recognised as a 'critical activity'. As with any work task, planning and preparation are
fundamental, and required under the national and international codes of practice for conducting
commercial diving activities.
In the UK there are approved codes of practice for onshore/inland and offshore commercial diving.
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There are similar regulations in Australia, New Zealand, USA, Norway, Holland and other
countries. However, for offshore commercial diving where a country has no code or regulations the
IMCA has several guidance documents and an international code of practice which is the main
benchmark for the industry.
Dive Plan.
For every dive there must be a 'dive plan' which outlines in detail what the diver is going to do,
what equipment is going to be used and how they are going to do it. Within the dive plan must be a
risk assessment that has been established by the project team and dive team (often an onsite
review by the dive team).
The dive plan will need to consider:
The work to be carried out.
The equipment required.
The safety aspects.
Type of diving (surface supplied air or saturation diving).
Duration and depth of dive.
Competencies of divers.
Water intakes and discharges.
Surface visibility.
Underwater currents.
Electrical equipment.
High Pressure Water Jetting.
Use of lift bags.
Abrasive cutting discs.
Diving from a diving bell or surface installation.
Diving from a fixed installation or floating structure.
Quantity of gas required.
Contents of gas mixes.
Length of divers' umbilicals.
Daily dive time, duration of stay in the diving bell and rests between dives.
Pressure differentials inside the diving bell.
Underwater obstructions.
Objects falling from above.
Effluent and waste dumping.
Use of ROVs.
Simultaneous operations.
Environmental Considerations.
Water depth.
Visibility.
Temperature.
Pollutants.
Water movement and sea state.
Weather.
Currents.
Ice.
Hazardous Marine Life.
This list is not exhaustive as each dive has its own specific issues and challenges which must be
considered during the planning stage.
Decompression Sickness (DCS).
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Also known as 'the bends', this is a condition arising from dissolved gases (usually nitrogen)
forming bubbles inside the body on depressurisation (for example, when a diver ascends towards
the surface). Since bubbles can form in or migrate to any part of the body, DCS can produce many
symptoms, and its effects may vary from joint pain and rashes to paralysis and death. The risk of
DCS increases when diving for extended periods or at greater depth, or when ascending to the
surface too quickly.
To prevent decompression sickness divers must carry out 'decompression stops' where they
ascend to a certain depth and wait for a period of time to allow the nitrogen to naturally flush out of
their body. Personal dive computers monitor the divers' rate of ascent and alert them if they are
ascending too quickly.
Diving Methods.
There are three methods of carrying out a dive:
Surface supplied air diving.
Surface supplied mix gas diving.
Saturation diving.
Note: Self contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) diving is not permitted for
commercial diving activities under the international code of practice for offshore diving. The use of
scuba has inherent limitations and risks that must be managed to ensure the dive is carried out
safely.
Surface supplied air diving.
This method of diving is used for depths up to 50m. The diver breathes compressed air that is
supplied to them via an umbilical into their diving helmet or mask.
Mix Gas Diving is where the diver is supplied a mixture of helium and oxygen. This increases the
possible depth and duration of diving operations without using saturation techniques.
The safety items provided while using surface supplied air diving are:
The diver uses a full face mask/helmet that can provide head protection and security of the
breathing device around his nose and mouth.
The umbilical has a communication cable hardwired in so communication can be
maintained with the diving supervisor.
Within the umbilical a video cable can be used so the surface can watch in real-time the
working activity of the diver.
The umbilical acts as lifeline securely clipped to the diver so they will not get lost.
The surface air supplied provides an unlimited air supply for the diver.
The diver also carries an emergency cylinder on their back so that in the event the umbilical
is trapped or cut they have enough air to get back to a safe location or the surface.
However, using surface air supply diving has its limitations:
The diver's bottom time is limited by the time and depth of work as the body tissues absorb
nitrogen while at pressure (depth). As discussed, when the diver's body has absorbed a
certain level of nitrogen, they will need to carry out decompression stops during the ascent
back to the surface. This means the task will take longer to complete.
Surface decompression intervals between dives which also delay progress of the work.
Saturation diving.
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This method of diving is used for depths from 18m to 200m, although deeper dives are possible. It
is the main method of diving used as the diver and dive team can work with little or no downtime
due to decompression. The divers live within a pressurised chamber complex on a vessel or
platform for the duration of the work (up to 28 days). They are lowered into the water and to the
work site using a pressurised diving bell. Once the diving bell is at the working depth and the
pressure on the inside and outside of the bell are equalised, the divers can open the bottom of the
bell. Once dressed with their diving equipment they leave the bell and go to work. There is always
a diver that remains in the bell as the stand by emergency diver who will monitor equipment of the
working divers. There are usually two or three men in the bell, with one diver remaining inside the
bell for the duration of the dive.
However using saturation diving has its limitations:
The size of the saturation system is very big and requires a large deck area so it can be
placed on a vessel/platform.
There are a large number of personnel involved with running a saturation diving system
and accommodation is required.
Diving Emergency Considerations.
The emergency considerations for diving must be assessed and outlined in the planning stage.
These range from the basic life support activity that we all take for granted, such as being unable
to breathe air, to the more complex activity of evacuation of an injured diver. When something goes
wrong while diving (particularly saturation diving) it is not a simple case of evacuating to the
nearest safe location or fire/emergency muster point.
A saturated diver who needs to be evacuated should preferably be transported without a significant
change in ambient pressure. Hyperbaric evacuation requires pressurised transportation equipment,
and could be required in a range of situations:
The support vessel at risk of capsize or sinking.
Unacceptable fire or explosion hazard.
Failure of the hyperbaric life support system.
A medical problem which can not be dealt with on site.
A 'lost' diving bell.
A hyperbaric lifeboat or rescue chamber may be provided for emergency evacuation of saturation
divers from a saturation system. This would be used if the platform is at immediate risk due to fire
or sinking, and allows the divers under saturation to get clear of the immediate danger. A
hyperbaric lifeboat is self-contained and can be operated from the inside by the occupants while
under pressure. It must be self-sufficient for several days at sea, in case of a delay in rescue due
to sea conditions. The occupants would normally start decompression immediately after launching.
Emergency considerations are:
Loss of divers gas/air supplies.
Loss of pressure (chamber pressure or bell pressure).
Loss of communications.
Loss of hot water.
Loss of bell/diver.
Injured diver recovery.
Launch and recovery system failure.
Fire onboard the vessel/platform.
Vessel damage/collision.
Contaminated gas/air supplies.
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Contaminated bell/chamber.
Thermal balance/temperature.
Evacuation of divers (hyperbaric evacuation).
Figure 46. Hyperbaric rescue chamber.
There are three primary means of evacuating divers that are in saturation and under pressure:
1. Hyperbaric rescue chamber: this is a chamber that has been designed and built to be used
as a standalone chamber that floats and has no support personnel.
2. Hyperbaric rescue lifeboat: this is a lifeboat that has a chamber built into the hull and has
support crew that can maintain the chamber operations.
3. Self-propelled hyperbaric rescue lifeboat: this is a self-propelled lifeboat that has a chamber
built into the hull and has support crew that can maintain the chamber operations.
4. Helicopter medivac (last resort due to the danger of decompression sickness).
Use of Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs).
ROVs are often on the same vessel/work site as a diving system. They are used for specific ROV
tasks but can also be an integral safety tool for the diving activity by monitoring the divers, diving
bell and other items subsea.
Hazards of ROVs:
Diver's umbilical becoming entangled in the thrusters.
ROV entanglement around subsea structures, or vessel referencing systems.
Electrical hazard (some ROVs have 400v power supplies or more).
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Figure 47. ROV in operation.
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Question 5.
Which of the following is a hazard associated with diving operations?
Poor visibility.
Score: 1
Fire.
Score: 0
Working at Height.
Score: 0
Slips and trips.
Score: 0
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1.23 - Example Exam Questions on Marine Transport.
Here is a selection of past exam questions on marine and landtransport. As we have said
previously, there is no guarantee that these questions will ever be asked again. But these will give
you a good idea of the types of questions you could be asked.
Q1:
(i) Identify THREE marine hazards associated with all types of Floating Platform Storage
Offloading Units (FPSO’s). (3)
(ii) Identify suitable controls that minimise risk when operating Floating Platform Storage
Offloading Units (FPSO’s). (5)
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Answers to 1.23
Here is a selection of past exam questions on marine and landtransport. As we have said
previously, there is no guarantee that these questions will ever be asked again. But these will give
you a good idea of the types of questions you could be
asked.
Q1:
(i) Identify THREE marine hazards associated with all types of Floating Platform Storage
Offloading Units (FPSO’s). (3)
Adverse weather.
Stability.
Spillages, leading to pollution.
Collision with other vessels.
Slippery surfaces.
(ii) Identify suitable controls that minimise risk when operating Floating Platform Storage
Offloading Units (FPSO’s). (5)
Good anchorage.
Well maintained hoses, connections.
Spill control measures.
Anti slip decking.
Adverse weather procedures.
Control of high risk activities (e.g. diving, work over water, hot work).
Regular inspection of pipe work, pumps, tanks.
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1.24 - Summary of Marine Transport.
The learning outcome for this section was:
1.0 - Identify the main hazards of and suitable controls for marine transport in the oil & gas
industries.
In summary we have learnt about:
The hazards of vessels.
The hazards and controls of working over water.
About FPSOs, FLNGs, FSUs, supply vessels, the different types of offshore platforms and
construction barges.
Mooring systems.
Loading and unloading vessels at marine terminals.
The regulation and control of marine operations, and the classification and approval of
vessels.
The roles and responsibilities of marine coordinators and ships' captains.
The methods of personnel transfer.
The suitability of PPE for marine transport.
Diver operations.
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2.0 - Land Transport of Dangerous Goods.
Carrying goods by road or rail involves the risk of traffic accidents. If the goods carried are
dangerous, there is also the risk of an incident, such as spillage of the goods, leading to hazards
such as fire, explosion, chemical burns or environmental damage.
'Dangerous goods' (also known as "hazardous materials" or "HAZMAT" in the United States) are
liquid or solid substances that have been tested and assessed against internationally agreed
criteria (a process called classification) and found to be potentially dangerous when carried.
Dangerous goods are assigned to different Classes depending on their predominant hazard.
Figure 1. Road Transport of dangerous goods.
The general hazards of land transport of oil and gas include:
Striking plant/overhead lines at a terminal.
Theft/hostile threats.
Driver fatigue leading to errors or crashes.
Defective/poorly maintained vehicles.
Manual handling injuries (such as when moving/connecting discharge hoses).
Slips, trips & falls from height.
Spillage.
Flammable vapours and ignition sources.
Overpressure or vacuum during loading and unloading.
Electrostatic buildup.
Collision with plant or other vehicles.
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Collision with pedestrians.
Driving away before uncoupling.
Vehicle/wagon rolling away due to faulty brakes or not being properly immobilised.
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2.1 - UN Classification and Transport of Hazardous Materials.
UN Classifications.
The Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is an
internationally agreed upon system, created by the United Nations. It is designed to replace the
various classification and labelling standards used in different countries by using consistent criteria
for classification and labelling on a global level. Its development began at the United Nations Rio
Conference in 1992, when the ILO, the OECD, various governments and other stakeholders met at
a United Nations conference. It supersedes the relevant European Union (which has now
implemented the United Nations' GHS into EU law as the 'CLP Regulations') and United States
standards.
In the UK and Europe, the Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use of Transportable Pressure
Equipment Regulations 2009 (CDGR) and the European agreement ("Accord européen relatif au
transport international des marchandises dangereuses par route", also known as ADR) regulate
the carriage of dangerous goods by road. There are nine classification types, with subdivisions, as
follows in Figure 2.
Figure 2. UN Classification of Dangerous Goods.
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Documentation in the form of a 'Dangerous Goods Note' must accompany the transportation. It
includes the following information:
The UN Number.
Proper shipping name.
Class (with subsidiary hazard, if any, in brackets).
Packing group (where assigned).
Quantity of dangerous goods.
Total quantity of each item of different UN Number.
Name/address of consignor.
Name/address of consignee(s).
HazChem Signs.
In some countries (including the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Malaysia) 'HazChem signs'
(warning signs) are used on vehicles to alert emergency services and other road users that a
vehicle is carrying dangerous goods which pose a greater risk to people, property and the
environment than ordinary loads.
Figure 3. HazChem Sign.
The signs are normally displayed on three sides of the vehicle. The information is used by the
Emergency Services in the event of an accident or spillage.
The sign provides information on:
What the substance is (UN substance ID number).
The Emergency Action Code (see below).
The nature of the hazard.
The telephone number for specialist advice.
The name/address of the consignor.
There are variations on this signage in other countries. For examples in the United States
hazardous material carriers are labelled with a four digit number which can be referenced by the
emergency services in their 'Emergency Response Guidebook'.
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Figure 4. American HazMat transportation sign.
Emergency Action Code.
The Emergency Action Code (EAC) is a three character code displayed on all HazChem signs, and
provides a quick assessment to the emergency services of what actions to take should the carrier
carrying such goods become involved in an incident (traffic collision, for example). EACs are
characterised by a single number (1 to 4) and either one or two letters (depending on the hazard).
The number indicates what extinguishing media should be used.
The letters indicate:
What PPE should be used.
Whether there is a possibility of a violent reaction.
Whether the substance should be diluted or contained.
Trem Cards.
In Europe, the consignor of a vehicle carrying dangerous goods must provide the driver with details
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of the hazards associated with their dangerous goods loads and instructions on emergency action
to take if an accident occurs. These instructions are in the form of an international Transport
Emergency Card, known as a 'Trem Card'.
Trem Cards usually contain information such as:
Description of substance.
Nature of danger.
PPE required.
General and special actions required by the driver in the event of an incident.
Fire instructions.
First aid instructions.
Supplementary information for the emergency services.
Emergency telephone number.
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Figure 5. Example of a Trem Card.
Similar requirements are in place in other countries. For example, in the United States hazardous
materials must be accompanied by shipping papers containing similar information. There is also a
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legal requirement for training of all people who are involved in the transportation of hazardous
materials.
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2.2 - GHS Warning Symbols.
Figure 6. The nine warning symbols for dangerous goods according to GHS.
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Question 6.
Which of the following is information provided by an Emergency Action Code?
The extinguishing media that should be used.
Score: 1
Whether the substance is flammable.
Score: 0
What first aid measures are required.
Score: 0
Name of the consignor.
Score: 0
The type of substance.
Score: 0
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2.3 - Protection of Plant Against Vehicle Collisions.
Vulnerable parts of the workplace and plant (such as cast iron columns, partitions, pipes, services,
storage tanks, vessels, etc.) need to be protected from vehicles hitting them. The standard of
protection should be based on how severe a collision could be and the severity of the
consequences.
Barriers, bollards and wheel stops can be used to warn drivers that they need to stop. Even if a
collision does happen, these measures can help prevent more serious injury or structural damage.
They should be highly visible, and sensibly positioned. Flexible barriers may be an option and can
prevent damage to vehicles.
Figure 7. Bright yellow protective bollards around a tank.
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Figure 8. Bright yellow barriers around an LPG tank.
Figure 9. Plastic and flexible barrier, provides a high level of protection but deforms on impact,
minimising the damage to the vehicle.
Another method of protecting plant is to ensure the layout and traffic routes on the site are well
designed and minimise reversing. Reversing is a major cause of collision damage because of the
reduced visibility. Where reversing is necessary then a banksman should be provided to supervise
the manoeuvre and guide the driver. Reversing should only be carried out in wide open areas,
where there is no vulnerable plant or equipment.
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2.4 - Driver Training.
In addition to holding a driving licence for the class of vehicle that they are driving, all drivers of
vehicles carrying dangerous goods must attend an approved basic training course. These courses
equip drivers with information and tools so that they:
Are aware of the hazards arising in the carriage of dangerous goods.
Have practical experience of the actions they will need to take.
Can take all necessary measures for their own safety and that of the public and the
environment to limit the effects of any incident that does occur.
Emergency Procedures.
Raising the alarm.
Use of spillage equipment.
Use of firefighting equipment.
Use of PPE.
Use of warning symbols and traffic cones for warning oncoming traffic.
Can take steps to reduce the likelihood of an incident taking place.
Prejourney checks.
Safe driving behaviours.
Procedures to follow in the event of a breakdown.
Drivers may have additional training, such as Defensive Driving Training.
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2.5 - Filling Arrangements.
Petroleum products are regularly transported by road or rail in large tanks. These tanks are usually
filled at a distribution terminal and then unloaded at the customer's, often at a service station after
delivery by a road tanker. A key function of a petroleum tanker, aside from the safe conveyance of
fuels, is the correct interfacing with a loading gantry/offloading point at a distribution terminal. This
should ensure safe operation when loading and unloading flammable substances. The key control
measures are:
The transfer area should be away from general traffic routes, so that vehicles can
manoeuvre easily without risk of collision with plant, people or other tankers.
Adequate lighting should also be at loading/unloading points. If necessary the area should
be barriered off.
Good communication with the site operator is essential, both prior to and during the filling
operation.
Tankers should be loaded and offloaded in an open area to reduce the potential of
accumulation of flammable gases.
Vapour recovery systems should be functional and used to control the spread of flammable
gases.
Unless the engine is used to drive a pump or similar part of the process, the ignition must
be switched off and the key given to a supervisor during loading to prevent premature
driveaways. A breakaway coupling may be used in case the driver inadvertently drives off
while still connected to the hoses.
The hand brake must be applied and chocks placed under the vehicle wheels to ensure the
vehicle does not roll away.
Before bulk transfer begins, all equipment including hoses must be visually checked to
ensure that they are in good condition. Hoses should be subject to an annual examination
and proof pressure test and certificates should be available.
Instrumentation should be checked for functionality (for example: high level and overfill
alarms).
If the tank is filled from the top, hand rails should be fitted to prevent falls.
To protect against static arcing, grounding/bonding lines must be fitted to help to dissipate
static charges.
The pressure relief valve must be allowed to equalise pressure inside the tank with the
external atmosphere to prevent overpressure or vacuums.
During loading the unloading valve must be kept closed.
During unloading the loading valve must be kept closed.
Other sources of ignition (such as mobile phones and smokers' items) must be excluded
from the filling area.
The site operator must have a procedure in place to deal with any spillages that occur
during delivery of petrol. A sufficient amount of dry sand or other suitable absorbent
material should be provided in a suitable receptacle, to soak up spillages.
A suitable fire extinguisher should be provided and be readily accessible to the tanker
driver and the site operator when unloading petroleum products.
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Figure 10. Road Tanker Loading Point.
Figure 11. Road Tanker Loading Point.
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Figure 12. Breakaway couplings automatically close the flow of hydrocarbon if the vehicle
inadvertently pulls away while still connected.
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Question 7.
When unloading a tank, should the loading valve be open or closed?
Closed.
Score: 1
Open
Score: 0
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Question 8.
Where should the pressure relief valve be positioned and why?
At the top of the tank, to allow the vapours to exit and be directed away from the pumps.
Score: 1
At the bottom of the tank, to allow product to flow out.
Score: 0
At the side of the tank, for ease of access (maintenance, inspection etc.).
Score: 0
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2.6 - Video: Driver Safety Training.
Please wait for the video to buffer before pressing play.
Alternatively you can download the video to watch at your convenience.
driving_safety_x264.mp4
Download Video
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2.7 - Traffic Management.
Accidents involving transport are often caused by failures in several different areas:
Site/Route.
Organisational Controls.
Vehicle.
Driver.
With regards control of the site and route, the measures depend on whether the route is off-site or
on-site.
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2.8 - On-Site Traffic Management.
A well designed and maintained workplace will make transport accidents less likely. It is important
that:
Vehicles and pedestrians are kept separate wherever possible, and are able to move
around each other and do their work safely. This is known as 'segregation'.
The site should allow plenty of room for all of the types of vehicle that are used in the
normal course of work to move and work safely. Consideration must be given to other
vehicles that might need to move around the site, such as emergency vehicles.
The roads are wide enough for the vehicles to manoeuvre and drivers should have
sufficient visibility.
Turning circles should be wide enough for the vehicles.
Wherever possible the site should use a one way system to eliminate or reduce the need
for reversing.
The traffic routes should be well lit and properly maintained.
The road surface should be made of a suitable material.
Speed limits should be decided, well communicated and enforced by supervisors.
Busy routes should avoid hazardous areas such as loading bays, filling stations and
storage tanks.
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Figure 13. Example of a turning circle.
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2.9 - Route and Journey Planning.
When planning the route and journey, the following must be considered:
The types of roads and obstacles.
Scheduling.
Time required.
Distance to be travelled.
Weather conditions.
The types of roads and obstacles.
Large roads are generally safer than small rural roads which may not always be appropriate for
larger vehicles. There may be obstacles on the route such as bridges, tunnels or sharp bends and
these should be avoided if there is a risk the vehicle will not be able to pass.
Scheduling.
Drivers should be given adequate time to rest and sleep between shifts. Many countries have
legislation which regulates driving hours and trucks will use tachograph systems. It is important
that the delivery schedules allow enough time for deliveries to be made while still allowing rest
periods to be taken.
Time.
Similar to the above, enough time should be given to allow the driver to drive safely without
exceeding the speed limits. Consideration must be given to the distance, the type of roads, the
amount of traffic and rest periods. It may be necessary to include overnight rest periods.
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Figure 14. Tachograph systems create a record of a driver's daily driving hours, rest periods and
speed.
Distance.
Wherever possible, drivers should not be expected to drive excessive distances. Alternatives such
as rail or sea transport should be considered, with road transport used to transport the load on the
final part of the journey.
As above, if drivers are expected to drive a long distance then sufficient time must be given to
allow a safe journey with adequate rest periods.
Weather Conditions.
Journeys should be avoided during extreme weather conditions such as wind, snow/ice and
torrential rain. Consideration should be given to giving extra time, or selecting a safer route, if
driving is required during moderately bad conditions.
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Strong winds in particular can have an effect on high sided vehicles. During high winds bridges and
mountain roads may be closed to large vehicles which will force the driver to either use a different
route, or to wait until the bad weather has subsided.
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2.10 - Safe Driver.
When selecting drivers consideration must be given to:
Their competency.
Their training.
Their fitness and health.
Competency.
Drivers should have the necessary experience and licences for the class of vehicle they will be
driving. During the recruitment process references from previous employers should be checked. A
process must be in place to regularly check that their licence remains valid.
Training.
In addition to their driving licence, drivers may require additional training or instructions in the
following areas:
Company policy and procedures (speed limits, use of phones, eating/drinking while driving,
etc.).
Advanced driver training for high risk drivers (high annual mileage, poor accident records,
younger drivers, etc.).
Vehicle safety checks (lights, tyres, fixings, horn, etc.).
Load safety (for example, load distribution and securing).
How to use safety equipment such as seat belts, ABS, fire extinguishers, spillage
equipment, etc.
Breakdown procedures.
The dangers of fatigue.
Fitness and Health.
Do the drivers have health issues such as vision difficulties, heart problems or epilepsy? These
drivers may require regular medical monitoring to ensure their continued fitness to drive.
Drivers' ability to drive may be impaired by the consumption of alcohol or drugs, even if they
consumed them the night before driving. Some type of medication can make people drowsy, and
drivers must be encouraged without fear of reprisal to report to their employer if they are taking
such medication so they can be given alternative duties. Employers may also consider introducing
drug and alcohol policies, including random testing.
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2.11 - Safe Vehicle.
When selecting vehicles for transporting a load, consideration must be given to:
Its suitability.
Its condition.
The safety equipment.
The necessary safety critical information.
Ergonomics.
Suitability.
The vehicle should be capable of transporting the load safely to its destination. The tank should be
large enough, and have all the required valves, including pressure relief. The motor should be
powerful enough to cope comfortably with the load it is expected to pull.
Condition.
The vehicle must be well maintained. Drivers should check the vehicle before every journey and a
system must be in place to report faults and for these to be repaired quickly. Drivers must not feel
obliged to drive a vehicle that is potentially unsafe. The load must be properly secured, and tanks
should not leak any hydrocarbon product.
Safety Equipment.
All safety equipment onboard must be regularly checked and maintained where necessary. The
drivers must be competent in its use. This includes inbuilt items such as seat belts and air bags,
and also additional features such as fire extinguishers, spillage equipment and breakdown
accessories (warning triangle, etc.).
Safety Critical Information.
The driver must have access to, and be familiar with, all safety critical information such as correct
tyre pressure, maximum load weight, adjustments of headlight angles, head rests and how to
report faults.
Ergonomic considerations.
Poor ergonomics can increase the likelihood of driver fatigue. Drivers should be able to adopt a
healthy posture. This means that seats should be adjustable so that both small, large and average
sized drivers can be comfortable when driving. Some drivers may need some instruction on the
correct posture to adopt. The cab must be of an adequate size for the driver so they have enough
room for their legs and to sit upright. This is especially important if they are expected to sleep in a
bunk bed.
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2.12 - Rail Transport.
The Convention concerning International Carriage by Rail (COTIF) applies in Europe, the Maghreb
and in the Middle East and led to the creation of The Intergovernmental Organisation for
International Carriage by Rail (French: L'Organisation intergouvernementale pour les transports
internationaux ferroviaires or 'OTIF'). This Convention includes the Regulations concerning the
International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Rail (RID) which govern the movement of
dangerous goods (such as petroleum products) by rail. Member states are required to introduce
national legislation to comply with COTIF's requirements.
Figure 15. OTIF member states.
Concerning rail transport between Europe and Asia, The Organisation for Cooperation of Railways
(OSJD), was established to create and improve the coordination of international rail transport. It
has helped develop cooperation between railway companies and other international organisations.
The members of this organisation created international rail transport laws relating to dangerous
goods carriage similar to RID.
Figure 16. Both OTIF and OSJD member states. Orange represents OTIF members. Green
represents OSJD members. Brown represents those who are members of both organisations.
Requirements for rail transport of dangerous goods are broadly the same as for road transport,
including:
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Substances must be classified.
Tankers labelled such that, in the event of an incident emergency services have the
emergency action information readily available.
Duty holders are required to ensure that suitable security arrangements are in place to
prevent unauthorised interference with the dangerous goods.
Drivers and those involved in the loading/unloading must receive training in the hazards
and controls of dangerous goods.
Carriers must ensure that tanks, wagons and loads have no obvious defects, leakages,
cracks or missing equipment.
The full text (979 pages) of the RID Regulations can be accessed here:
http://www.otif.org/fileadmin/user_upload/otif_verlinkte_files/07_veroeff/99_geschuetzt/RID_2011_
e/RID_2011_E.pdf.
Positives of using rail transport:
Move large volumes of petroleum products in one shipment over great distance.
Low accident/theft incidents during shipment.
Speed of loading/unloading and movement by rail.
Environmentally friendly way of transporting goods.
Technologically possible to automate much of the driving and signalling, thereby minimising
the risk of driver/signalling error and fatigue.
Negatives of rail transport:
Poor railway infrastructure in some countries.
Relies on onward shipment in most instances.
Due to large volume moved in each shipment, most accidents tend to be
serious/catastrophic due to the high speed, large mass of the train and volume of goods.
The fire can be difficult to fight if the accident occurs in a remote area.
Figure 17. Rail transport of dangerous goods.
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Figure 18. Aftermath of 2013 Lac Megantic, Quebec Rail Disaster.
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Figure 19. Aerial view of the 2013 Lac Megantic, Quebec Rail Disaster.
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Question 9.
Which of the following is a control measure that would reduce the risks to the driver during road
transport?
Briefing on fatigue awareness.
Score: 1
Ensuring deliveries are completed as quickly as possible.
Score: 0
Using a train wherever possible.
Score: 0
Maximising the distance for each journey.
Score: 0
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2.13 - Example Exam Questions on Land Transport.
Here is a selection of past exam questions on landtransport. As we have said previously, there is
no guarantee that these questions will ever be asked again. But these will give you a good idea of
the types of questions you could be asked.
Q2: A road tanker is to be filled with petroleum. It is correctly positioned with wheels immobilised
(chocks applied) and the handbrake on.
(a) Identify the control measures required to minimise the risks from this operation. (8)
Q3: A road tanker is being driven from a refinery to a petrol station.
(a) Identify suitable control measures that could minimise the risks to the driver, during the
journey. (8)
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Answers to 2.13
Here is a selection of past exam questions on landtransport. As we have said previously, there is
no guarantee that these questions will ever be asked again. But these will give you a good idea of
the types of questions you could be asked.
Q2: A road tanker is to be filled with petroleum. It is correctly positioned with wheels immobilised
(chocks applied) and the handbrake on.
(a) Identify the control measures required to minimise the risks from this operation. (8)
Good bonding and earthing.
Bottom fill if possible.
Avoid ignition sources (matches, mobile phones).
Communicate with local operator.
Barrier the area off and provide signage.
Good lighting.
Hoses in good condition.
Overfill protection/alarms.
Spillage procedures.
Fire fighting appliances.
Q3: A road tanker is being driven from a refinery to a petrol station.
(a) Identify suitable control measures that could minimise the risks to the driver, during the
journey. (8)
Journey planning.
Use of GPS.
Licenced driver.
Driver medically fit.
Avoidance of drugs and alcohol.
Check vehicle before journey (brakes, water, tyres, horn etc.)
Sufficient breaks on long journey.
Seat belt use.
Speed limit.
Observe national regulations.
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2.14 - Summary of Land Transport.
The learning outcome for this section was:
2.0 - Identify the main hazards of and suitable controls for land transport in the oil & gas industries.
In summary we have learnt about:
The general hazards of transporting oil and gas over land.
The UN classification of hazardous materials, HazChem signs, EACs and Trem Cards.
How vulnerable plant is protected from vehicle collisions.
Driver training.
Filling arrangements.
On-site traffic management.
Safety of driving off-site in terms of the driver, the vehicle and the route/journey.
The safety of transporting dangerous goods by rail.
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