Design, Processes, and Practice of Curriculum Development
Doris E. Kusinu
2010.
Table of content
Introduction to Curriculum Development
Basic Concepts in Curriculum Development
Foundations of Curriculum Design
Organisation of Curriculum and Learning Experiences
Curriculum Evaluation
Curriculum Integration
Conclusion
References.
Chapter One
Introduction to Curriculum Development
Developing a curriculum - the acceptable framework that guides the transmission of knowledge, culture, and
traditions in society, entails the collaboration of the members of the society and the involvement of experts who
will interpret their ideologies in a usable model. This is vital to the continuity of any society; hence it usually
involves a deliberate systematic and planned attempt by schools or society to modify, develop or inspire
specified behavioural patterns, skills, or ideologies in the citizens. This paper aims at examining the models,
processes involved in developing a curriculum, and the underlying reasons for acceptable models in society.
Objectives
1. To explain the various models of curriculum design
2. To distinguish between the various models of curriculum design
3. To explain the various types of classification of curriculum
4. To distinguish between the various classifications of the curriculum.
Models of Curriculum Planning and Designs
A model is an example to follow, a sample to imitate. It is a three-dimensional representation of a proposed
structure typically on a smaller scale. A curriculum model, therefore, is the presentation of a design upon which
curriculum planning is based. There are a series of connected steps to be taken in the process of curriculum
planning. A complete series is a model but there are different types of series or models.
For brevity’s sake, three important models are considered here.
1. Tyler’s Model
According to Ralph Tyler, one of the earliest curriculum experts (Tyler, 1971) four basic questions must be
answered: the answers to these questions form the model for curriculum planning.
A. What educational purpose(s) are being sought? B. What educational experience(s) must be provided to
obtain the purpose or objectives? C. How can the educational experience be effectively organised to achieve
the purpose(s)? D. How can the objectives be evaluated?
A Pictorial Presentation of Tyler’s Model
2. Wheeler’s Model.
Wheeler (1967) went a step further to show the interrelatedness of each of the elements in the process of
curriculum development and how evaluation can take place in each of the stages. Wheeler opined that the
learner should be provided with an opportunity to interact with the learning environment. In this model, the
outcome of evaluation can serve as an input for further development of the step.
Wheeler’s Cyclic Model
3. Taba’s Model
Taba (1962) attempted to bridge the gap between the theory and practice of curriculum planning or
development; she presented a seven-step process to curriculum planning. Diagnosis of need or need
assessment, Formation of objectives, Selection of content, Organisation of content, Selection of the learning
experience (method/activities), Organisation of learning experiences(methods/activities), Determination of what
to evaluate, and ways to do it.
Taba (1962) emphasizes the value of the gargle of diagnosing needs before formulating objectives. She
further specified the ways and methods for carrying out the evaluation which may be both summative and
formative.
Taba’s Model
Principles of Curriculum Planning
There are certain general principles that govern the diagnosing of needs before a curriculum can be
formulated.
i . The principle of validity: This principle holds that the curriculum is valid when the learning experiences
provided are capable of achieving the objectives specified. The validity of a curriculum is predicated on its
capability to effect desired changes in the behavioural patterns of the learners based on the set objectives.
ii. Principles of comprehensiveness: This concerns the Total Package or scope of the learning
experience provided. It entails the consideration of other skills aside from intellectual development i.e.: Social
Skills, Aesthetic Capabilities, Motor Skills, etc. The Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor domains of
educational objectives must be taken into consideration.
iii. Principle of variety: This includes the wide range of varied experiences planned into the curriculum.
There must be a diversity of experiences for learning
iv. Principle of suitability: This principle considers the developmental level of the learner so that what is
taught is either not too complex to be understood at such a level or too elementary.
v. Principle of relevance: Here learning experiences must be such that the learner can relate with, and it
is applicable and relevant to the learner’s daily experiences and environment.
Types of Curriculum
There are two basic types of the curriculum which I will discuss: formal or official curriculum and Informal or
hidden curriculum. It should be noted that curriculum is a concept that can be interpreted or defined in different
ways, however, it generally refers to the totality of the learning experiences in a society which can either be
formal and consciously organised by experts or informal.
A . Formal curriculum: These are organised specified and endorsed for schools that are also testing and
evaluation programs or system put in place to ascertain if the learner acquired any knowledge or not
B . Informal curriculum: Whatever is learned in this form of the curriculum is not specified or organised with
procedures. It is also called a hidden curriculum, especially as learners learn unconsciously.
Differences between formal and informal curriculum
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
FORMAL
INFORMAL
Objectives are clearly stated
Activities are organised into timetables
It involves subjects such as Mathematics,
Economics, etc.
Activities are mostly indoors.
Evaluations are done by the teacher.
Objectives are implied
There are no time limits or timetables for learning
It involves outdoor activities such as Sports, Clubs,
associations, etc.
Activities are mostly even though not totally outdoors.
Evaluations are done by everyone or anyone in the
society and not a particular individual
Chapter Two
Foundations for Curriculum Design
In the process of formulating educational policies, the various aspects of the learner’s growth are often
considered. There are three major aspects of the learner’s growth namely: Cognitive, Affective, and
Psychomotor domains of educational objectives and design. It is referred to as the taxonomy of educational
objectives. This is to ensure balanced development in the learners' experience.
Cognitive Domain:
Benjamin Bloom alongside his associates was first to divide the cognitive domain into six levels. These levels
describe the mental or intellectual abilities of the learner. It is taken as the lowest level of learning where the
learner acquired the facts regarding a subject.
1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Synthesis 6. Evaluation
Basically, the learner acquires the facts to be able to make possible comparisons of the fact with other facts.
The learner is then able to solve problems with the knowledge and ability to know the composition of an
element such as being able to know the composition of water. He then moves to the level of synthesis where
he can put the parts of a thing together to form a distinct whole. Finally, the learner moves to the evaluation
level where he is able to make judgments.
Affective Domain
This is the domain in the learner’s experience that deals with the feelings and emotions; to control or modify
the learner’s attitude towards things or people. The affective domain was developed by David Krathwohl who
described it as a” taxonomy of educational objectives in the affective domain”
1. Receiving 2. Responding 3. Valuing 4. Organisation 5. Characterization by value or value system.
1. Receiving refers to a willingness to attend to a given stimulus. For example, after listening to a motivational
speaker an individual develops a courageous spirit.
ii. Responding refers to the resultant effects of receiving stimuli.
iii. Valuing refers to internalising the value taught. it is a level of placing value on the knowledge disseminated
and received.
iv. Organising: Here different values are brought together and organised into a value system which leads to
character formation.
v. Characterisation is the expected outcome because of the learning experience in the affective domain; it is
expected that at this stage, the learner's behaviour would have been modified.
Psychomotor Domain
This refers to physical skills training. The learner can coordinate parts of the body such as hands, legs, etc. to
play games or be involved in acrobatics, music performance, drumming, etc.
This domain has six levels.
i. Reflex movement ii. Fundamental movements iii. Perceptual Abilities v. Physical Abilities. vi. Skilled
movement vii. Non - Discursive Communications.
Reflex movement: This movement is controlled by Instinct or reflex actions such as closing the eyes when a
flying insect is about to enter the eyes.
Fundamental movements are movements that are basic to certain activities, for example passing the ball
may be the basic movement that is basic to activities like playing football
Perceptual abilities are the combination of mental processes resulting in Perception
Physical abilities refer to the physical training necessary to perform physical activities
Skilled movements involve the combination of various movements into a pattern which is referred to as skill.
Non-Discursive communication refers to using body movements to communicate feelings. These languages
are learned.
CHAPTER THREE
Educational Objectives and Prerequisites for Selecting Objectives
Educational objectives are broad statements of goals targeted to be attained in the period of the
learning experience provided; however, before the curriculum is planned or developed these
objectives must have been formulated. They are stated at different levels of education. Here are the
factors considered in selecting educational objectives.
Needs assessment as a prerequisite for selecting educational objectives: In making decisions
in this endeavor, procedures are usually evaluated. This process is referred to as needs assessment.
These are areas where data or information are gathered to form the basis for assessing needs
1. Societal Needs/ National Philosophy:
This refers to ideologies, value systems, or national philosophy which usually differs from one society
to the other and one era to another. Policy on education is difficult to formulate without first identifying
the overall philosophy and goal of a nation.
2. Students' needs and Interest:
The disposition of educational philosophers such as John Dewey and Maria Montessori is that
learners are to be extensively considered when formulating curriculum objectives. Putting the needs
and interests of learners ahead is important in curriculum development. Learners can suggest what
should be taught according to their needs. Learners can also suggest materials that will enhance
effective learning.
3. Input from academic specialists:
These are the rules of subject teachers in selecting educational objectives since they interact with
Students, they are in a good position to know their needs better. They are also in a good position to
make suggestions on ways to adequately educate learners.
4. Community sources of educational objectives
This entails enshrining the values, culture, norms, and ideologies of a community into the curriculum.
It also involves crafting the curriculum such that learners are educated to solve societal problems or
advance on existing achievements.
5 Psychological factors
Jean Piaget an educational psychologist propounded the theory of cognitive development which
holds that curriculum objectives must be formulated with the consideration for the age of the learner if
the objectives must be attained. John Locke posited that the human mind is a TABULA RASA blank
tablet which only registers what comes into it from experiences in its dealings with the material world.
With these positions, it can be deduced that the developmental level of maturity of the learner is
germane to knowledge acquisition of various levels. A child's cognitive development at a certain age
must correspond with the material presented to be studied. Jean Piaget proposed four stages of
cognitive development in humans
First Stage – Sensory-Motor Stage (0 - 2 years)
According to Piaget a child at this stage only acts as reflex actions. He responds to the environment
through the five senses without thinking hence a curriculum with objectives cannot be set up for
learning at this stage
Second Stage: Pre-operational Stage (Age 2 - 7 years)
At this stage, the child is still not capable of learning. Although the child has developed to understand
shapes, colours and sizes yet he cannot understand Concepts or ideas in conversations, so this level
is referred to as the pre-primary school stage or kindergarten stage.
Third Stage - Concrete Operations (7 - 11 years)
At this stage, children can better describe than explain. They can relate with concrete materials,
hence children at this age will learn better with concrete objects they can see and relate with.
Fourth Stage - Formal Operation (11 years and above)
At this stage, the child can think logically and also formulate ideas. The curriculum can be developed
at this stage.
CHAPTER FOUR
Organisation of Curriculum or Learning Experiences
The Organisation of learning experiences or organization is to facilitate effective achievement of the
objectives. If learning is haphazard or disorderly the learner may be confused. The organisation of the
curriculum also helps avoid loss of time and resources or efforts.
Learning takes place over time after the cumulative experience. A change of behaviours takes place
as ways of thinking change as the learner is introduced to the experiences one after the other, hence
the need for proper organisation.
Two kinds of relationships have been identified in organising curriculum namely: Vertical and
Horizontal. In the vertical relationship, subject matters are organised according to the level of difficulty
between years of schooling. What is learned at a particular level serves as a foundation that is built
upon at higher levels.
On the other hand, horizontal relationships deal with subject or course content and their method of
delivery, school learning, and home or community realities. According to Alaezi (1993), the concept of
horizontal curriculum organisation rests upon 3 arguments.
1. According to Derrey (1916), life provides the basis for learning, hence Life experiences are
sources of learning which should be integrated into formal School learning.
2. School is not an end, but an aid to living and as such, learning occurs in relationships with other
people, during recreational activities, etc.
3. School subjects, courses, and programs should be organised to show the interrelationship
between one subject and the other, and how the knowledge of one subject reinforces another.
Criteria for organising curriculum effectively
There are basically three criteria for effective organisation of curriculum: whether vertically or
horizontally. They are Continuity, Sequence, and Integration.
1. Continuity: This refers to the repeated presentation of learning material to engender a cumulative
effect of developing a skill, attitude, or grasp of a concept that has been set as the educational goal or
objective. For example, if the objective of a curriculum is to enable a learner to develop the skill of
communication through writing, the curriculum planner should repeatedly bring in subjects like essay
writing, composition, letter writing, and so on. This is an aspect of vertical relationships.
2. Sequence: This refers to the practice of arranging materials, contents, or learning experiences in
order of complexity. This progression makes a learner acquire higher levels of competence. This is a
sequential arrangement of subject matter according to the principle of simple to complex, known to
unknown, concrete to abstract, etc.
3. Integration: This refers to the Criterion that describes a horizontal relationship that helps learners
to relate what is learned to solving problems. The learner can use the knowledge derived from subject
matters. For example, the study of diseases like HIV AIDS, and the characteristics of the virus will
help a learner regulate their sexual activities and maintain sexual sanctity such as the use of
condoms.
CHAPTER FIVE
Curriculum Evaluation
Evaluation deals with determining Whether the objective of the curriculum is achieved or not. It helps
planners in decision-making as regards improving or revising the curriculum. Its devices are often in
the form of questions. Simply put, evaluation is a systematic method of appraising educational
programs to determine whether the program goals are achieved. According to Lewy (1977),
evaluation is defined essentially as the provision of information for the sake of facilitating decisionmaking at various stages of curriculum development. Bloom (1971) viewed evaluation as a”
systematic collection of evidence to determine whether in fact setting changes are taking place in the
learners as well as to determine the amount of or degree of change in individual students. Johnson
(1978) sees evaluation as the process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for
judging decision alternatives.
With all these definitions, it can be deduced that evaluation has both quantitative and qualitative
aspects. The quantitative aspect relates to scores assigned to performances based on certain criteria,
while qualitative refers to the value placed upon this course and assigned.
Types of evaluation
There are various types of evaluation especially according to the purpose which they serve or to
determine the usability (formative) or suitability (summative) of educational programs.
Formative evaluation is done at the planning stage of curriculum development specially to detect
flaws in the program and also areas where improvements are necessary before the final adoption of
the program. Tyler (1971) proposed four basic questions relevant in formative evaluation.
1. What educational purpose is sought?
2. What educational experiences can be provided to attain the purpose?
3 How can the experiences be effectively organised?
4. How to determine whether the purpose is attained or not?
Summative evaluation is an attempt to determine the effectiveness or whether a programme meets
its objectives. It takes the form of term papers, tests, quizzes, reports, etc. The students'
performances, therefore, serve as a summative evaluation of the programme and to determine how
well students have learned the materials presented.
Direct and Indirect Evaluation
Evaluation according to Daramola (1995), could also be Direct or Indirect.
Direct evaluation deals with the evaluation of the Program itself, the goals, instructional materials,
subject content, personnel, etc. Here evaluation is done on the program itself and not the students.
Indirect evaluation however involves the assessment of the students’ performance in the program.
This is done using measuring devices or tests (oral or written), examinations etc. The purpose of this
evaluation is to ascertain if the desired behavioural change in the learner has occurred or better still
to know whether the objective has been achieved.
Other types of evaluation:
a. Advisory evaluation b. predictive evaluation c. placement evaluation d. Diagnostic evaluation
A. Advisory evaluation: Here the result of this evaluation is used as advice in the process of
decision making.
B. Predictive evaluation is used to predict learners' performance in an oncoming examination or
class. For example, mock exams.
C Placement evaluation is used to determine the class in which a student will be placed. It is also
used in job interviews to determine job positions.
D. Diagnostic evaluation is to diagnose a problem. It aims at finding out what is wrong with a learner
or a learning program.
Models of Curriculum Evaluation
i. Research and Development (R&D) Model
This model was developed by Lawton (1982), where products are tested before being taken to the
market and when it's already been marketed to ascertain if the manufacturer's stated objective is
being achieved. In an Educational setting, the curriculum objectives are assessed in behavioural
terms in the students both before the curriculum is introduced and during its use to see if there are
changes
.
ii. Goal Attainment Evaluation Model was developed by Lewy (1977), based on Tyler’s (1971), four
basic questions. Here the evaluators send feedback to the designer of Curriculum on the
shortcomings that can be modified until the learner’s behaviour matches the specified objectives.
iii. Stufflebeam's CIPP Model
CIPP means Context - Input - Process - Product. Stufflebean (1969) sees evaluation from the holistic
point of view, where evaluation takes place at each level. For instance, Context evaluation deals with
an evaluation within a particular educational setting to ascertain the relevance or adequacy of the
curriculum objectives. Input evaluation refers to assessing the personnel and materials deployed for
the educational objectives. Process evaluation refers to procedures employed to determine the
efficiency, or the procedures adopted in seeking to achieve the set objectives. It is usually done after
implementation. Product evaluation is about measuring or assessing the outcome of an educational
program to either modify, continue, or terminate the program.
CHAPTER SIX
Curriculum Integration
Integration is an attempt to synthesize or put different subjects or disciplines together. For example,
processes and products of science are being integrated into science education. There is
interdisciplinary integration such as in social sciences, mathematics, natural sciences, etc. There is
also a disciplinary integration which is certain aspects of a discipline being integrated. For instance,
there are various aspects of chemistry which include, Organic chemistry, Inorganic chemistry,
Physical chemistry, etc. Merging these aspects of chemistry is what interdisciplinary integration
implies.
Justification for Curriculum Integration
Here I will examine the rationale behind curriculum integration. They include psychological reasons
philosophical reasons pedagogical reasons and practical consideration
1. Philosophical Reasons: This position is premised on the principle of Unity of knowledge,
scientific knowledge especially. Science deals with nature (epistemology) and methods
(methodology) science is concerned with discovering the unity that underlines our processes and
phenomena in nature. integrating science then should reflect the true nature of science
2. Pedagogical Reasons: This points to integrating disciplines that satisfies the principle of unity,
coherence, and efficiency. It takes cognisance of the overlap in disciplines as students are to see
unity rather than fragment knowledge
3. Practical Reasons: This brings the necessity of practical or laboratory to play. It serves as a
vehicle for developing and promoting literacy and deeper insight into the workings of things taught
theoretically.
4. Psychological Reasons: It has been established that the intellectual and emotional development
of the learner must be duly considered in setting educational goals. By integrating the curriculum of
diverse disciplines, the learner can apply the knowledge derived from one discipline to another
thereby achieving internal integration and concept formation.
CONCLUSION
Succinctly put, the curriculum is the totality of the learning experience in schools. The school on the
other hand is basically for transmitting existing knowledge, culture, and traditions of the society to
learners, which is vital to the continuity of any society. In this work, I tried to examine the processes
involved in setting up a curriculum and the various considerations put in place before a curriculum is
endorsed
Despite the root Latin word from which curriculum was derived “ Currere '' which means ‘ to run’ or “
to run a course of study” which contains a body of subject matters approved for teaching by the
Society in schools. The curriculum is however viewed from various perspectives. It has been
described as a series of structured learning outcomes. The curriculum in this description is an “input”
which results in “output. To others, it is a deliberate systematic, and planned attempt undertaken by
the school to modify behaviours of citizens of a particular society.
The processes, models, types, selection, and evaluation of curriculum discussed in this work better
gives a clearer understanding of curriculum and its essence in the learners' learning experiences
within any society
References
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Publishing Company Inc.
Daramola, A.S.(1995), Curriculum Development in Schools. Ilorin: Lekan Publishing Press.
Lewy, A. (1977), Handbook of Curriculum Evaluation. N.Y. Harpernard Row
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University of Chicago Press.