Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1
Spring 2021
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
 1.1
Scope of Engineering Ethics
 1.2
Accepting and Sharing Responsibility
 1.3
Responsible Professionals and Ethical Corporation
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 Morals
 Professionalism
 Ethics
 Honesty
 Legal
 Integrity
 Virtue
 Courage
 Accountability
 Self-Respect
 Responsibility
 Character
 Obligation
 Ideals
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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•
Morals: Concerns the goodness of voluntary human conduct that affects the
self or other living things” Human Behavior”
•
Morals: (Latin mores) usually refers to any aspect of human action.
•
Morality: Standards or principles derived from society or person about the
right or wrong, Or it can define also as synonymous with "goodness" or
"rightness".
•
•
•
It concerns respect of persons, both others and ourselves.
It involves being fair and just, meeting obligations and respecting rights
Moral Framework: (Normative) An ethical framework is a set of codes that an
individual 0r society uses to guide his or her behavior “Ex. Personal value,
society believe”
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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•
Ethics (Greek ethos) commonly refers only to professional behavior. It
studies which actions, goals, principles, policies and lows are morally
justified.
•
Ethical Framework: (Descriptive) An ethical framework is a set of
professional guidelines “Ex: Code of Ethics, Company polices, Company
Values” uses to guide professional behavior
•
Value: The personal beliefs on what right or wrong on our action and
between each other
•
Ethical or Moral Issue: a working definition of an issue of moral or ethical
concern is presented as any issue with the potential to help or harm
anyone, including oneself, set to evaluate or solve several actions as right or
wrong, ethical or unethical.
•
Ethical Responsibility: The ability to recognize, do obligation, interpret and
act upon multiple principles and values according to the standards within a
given field “Laws, Duties, and regulation set”
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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•
Legal: Set of rules or action “Law” by the government or country.
 Morals
 Principles of right
and wrong
 Ethics
 A set of moral
principles guiding
behavior and action
Classification of Actions:
Unethical
Ethical
Legal
Illegal
 Legal
 Binding codes of
conduct; formally
recognized and
enforced
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
Unethical
but Legal
Ethical but
Illegal
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Which one of the following examples consider as Moral/ Immoral, Ethical/
Unethical, Legal/ Illegal:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Respecting parents
Respecting collogues in the work
Honesty
Smoking inside the Airplane
Smoking inside your company
Smoking in an open area near to your house
Your boss asks you to throw unharmful chemical material in the desert
Produce a product with side effect while using
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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•
Seven Themes Should be explain in detail to understand Scope of Engineering Ethics :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Engineering projects are social experiments that generate both new possibilities and
risks, and engineers share responsibility for creating benefits, preventing harm, and
pointing out dangers.
Moral values permeate all aspects of technological development, and hence ethics
and excellence in engineering go together.
Personal meaning and commitments matter in engineering ethics, along with
principles of responsibility that are stated in codes of ethics and are incumbent on
all engineers.
Promoting responsible conduct is even more important than punishing wrongdoing.
Ethical dilemmas arise in engineering, as elsewhere, because moral values are
myriad and can conflict.
Engineering ethics should explore both micro and macro issues, which are often
connected.
Technological development warrants cautious optimism—optimism, with caution
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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•
Engineering projects are social experiments
possibilities and risks, to prevent risks:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Engineers
Engineers
Engineers
Engineers
Engineers
Engineers
Engineers
share responsibility for creating benefits,
must prevent harm,
must point out dangers.
must expect all possible risks and hazards
must put people life into consideration
must monitor any project done
must always be ready for any alert or danger
that
generate
both
new
1/17/2021
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Preventive Ethics
Case Study: Space Shuttle Columbia disaster 2003
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
•
The Space Shuttle Columbia disaster was a fatal incident in
the United States space program that occurred on February 1, 2003
•
Killed 7 astronauts
•
Happened because of insulation foams foam from the fuel tank
Ethical issue: similar incident happened before with Challenger
disaster in January 1986 and no extra evaluation done.
•
•
Moral issues be ignored like escape plan “Exit”, Safety, and life of
people
•
Ethical issues be ignored like Full evaluation for the joint, engineers'
action.
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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Moral values are embedded at several stages in engineering projects, including:
•
•
The basic standards of safety and efficiency
The structure of technological corporations as communities of people engaged in shared
activities
•
The character of engineers who spearhead technological progress
•
The very idea of engineering as a profession that combines advanced skill with
commitment to the public good.
•
•
Case Study: Students in a freshman course at Harvey Mudd College, “Design a
chicken coop that would increase egg and chicken production”
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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•
Student find themselves :
They had to create safe access for the villagers
They had to ensure humane conditions for the chickens
They must find way for protection from local predators
that could dig under fences
•
•
•
•
In engineering, ethics involves
•
•
•
Much more than problems and punishment, duties and
dilemmas.
Ethics involves the full range of moral values in structuring
our relationships and communities.
the ancient Greeks, “arete” translates into English as either
“excellence” or as “virtue.”
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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•
Situations in which two or more moral obligations, duties, rights, or ideals
come into conflict.
•
Situations in which moral reasons come into conflicts, or in which the
application of moral values is problematic, and it is not immediately obvious
what should be done.
•
Conflicting demands:
•
•
•
•
Loyalty to company and colleagues
Concern for public welfare
Personal gain, ambition
Ethical standards are usually relative and personal, there is seldom an
absolute standard
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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• Personal Commitment includes:
All engineering is about people as well as products
• All engineers are required to meet the responsibilities specified in
their code of ethics.
• The personal commitments of individual engineers need to be aimed
at and integrated with these shared responsibilities.
•
• Case Study: Artificial lung
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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• A team of engineers are redesigning
an artificial lung marketed by their
company.
•
They are working in a highly
competitive market, with long hours
and high stress without any contact
with customers.
•
Change in mode by family's thanks
and saving life
•
The workers were energized
concrete evidence that their efforts
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
by
1/17/2021
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 Individual should be:
 Comply to Professional Standards and Avoid wrongdoing.
 There is a need for what we have referred to as “preventive ethics”, at preventing moral
harm and unnecessary ethical problems. “Prevent wrongdoing.”
 The main emphasis in ethics should be supporting responsible conduct.
 Wild majority of engineers are morally committed.
 Underlining the connection between ethics and excellence
 Individuals and corporations should primarily be “value-driven,” rather than
simply concerned with “compliance-based” procedures, to refer terms used in
management theory
• Case Study: Enron scandal, 2001
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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•
Enron became the largest bankruptcy in
U.S. history, erasing about $60 billion in
shareholder value.
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 The moral reasons might be obligations, rights, goods, ideals, or
other moral considerations.
 Moral values are myriad, and they can come into conflict, requiring
good judgment about how to reconcile and integrate them. This
could be solved by
1.
Code of Ethics
2.
Ethical / Moral theories
• Case Study: Manufacturing Chemical Product
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 Micro Ethical Issues: Concern the decision made by individuals
and companies.
 Macro Ethical Issues: Concern more global issues, such as
 The directions in technological development
 The laws that should or should not be passed
 The collective responsibilities of groups such as engineering
professional societies and consumer groups
• Case Study: Ford explorer and Bridgestone/Firestone
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 Debates/argument about sport utility vehicle (SUVs), 300 people
had died, and thousands were injured. Ford, Bridgestone/Firestone
blamed each Other and led to breakup. As a result, hazard has
multiple sources.
 Micro issues arose, concerning the Ford explorer and
Bridgestone/Firestone who provided tires for Explorer that separated
from others and has led to blowout. Poor quality control at a major
manufacturing facility.
 Macro in the most harmful vehicle on the road SUV, (instability,
reducing vision of drivers, gas-guzzling and Excessive Pollution)
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 Technology: Improve our life but increase risk.
 Ethically: Technology can be used widely, but carful about
 Safety
 Environment
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 Ethics is the study of morality. It studies which actions, goals, principles, policies, and
laws are morally justified
 Engineering Ethics is the study of the decisions, policies and the values that are morally
desirable in engineering practice and research.
 One descriptive sense, referring thereby to what specific individuals or groups believe
and how they act, without implying that their beliefs and actions are justified.
 Another descriptive sense, social scientists study ethics when they describe and explain
what people believe and how they act; written by professional societies.
 In its normative senses, “engineering ethics” is about Morality, right and wrong, good
and bad, values and what ought to be done.
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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• It is important for contributing to
safe and useful technological
product and to engineers’
endeavor.
• It is complex that call for serious
reflection throughout a
profession.
• To responsibly confront moral
issues raised by technological
activity and to recognize and
resolve moral dilemmas.
• To achieve moral autonomy.
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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• Autonomy means “self-determining” or “independent
• Autonomous individuals think for themselves and do not
assume that customs are always right.
• They seek to reason and live by general principles.
• Their motivation is to do what is morally reasonable for its own
sake, maintaining integrity, self-respect, and respect for others.
• Moral autonomy can be viewed as the skill and habit of thinking
rationally about ethical issues on the basis of moral concern
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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1.
Moral awareness: Proficiency in recognizing moral problems and issues in
engineering.
2.
Cogent moral reasoning: Knowing, clarifying, and assessing arguments on
opposing sides of moral issues.
3.
Moral coherence: Forming consistent and comprehensive viewpoints based
upon a consideration of relevant facts.
4.
Moral imagination: Sensitive alternative responses to moral issues and
receptivity to creative solutions for practical difficulties.
5.
Moral communication: Precision in the use of a common ethical language, a
skill needed to express and support one’s moral views effectively to others
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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6. Moral reasonableness: The willingness and ability to be morally reasonable.
7. Respect for persons: Genuine concern for the well-being of others as well
as oneself
8. Tolerance of diversity: Within a broad range, respect for ethnic and religious
differences, and acceptance of reasonable differences in moral perspectives.
9. Moral hope: Improved appreciation of the possibilities of using rational
dialogue in resolving moral conflicts.
10. Integrity: Maintaining moral integrity
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 The Engineering It is a great profession, but:
 The Engineer cannot hide his mistakes in the grave like the doctors.
 The engineer simply cannot deny that he did it.
 The products of engineering are “out in the open”.
 Case Study:
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
Saving Citicorp Tower
1/17/2021
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 In 1972 well design building Citicorp design with huge
columns and church in the corner under the building
design by LeMessurier .
 1977 Group of Master Students ask for welded
connections and wind load
 Direction calculation for the wind load ignoring 16 years
diagonal wind load that may collapse the building
 Shocking moments, Contractor change welding to bolts
connection
 Fixing required mostly 2M $ for welding and done in
night after building empty
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 Ethical Issue
1. Analysis of wind loads. Check all calculations and not
rely just on building codes; these set minimum
requirements and not the state of the art.
2. Design changes. In this case change from welded to
bolted connections. Changes are considered in the
overall design context and by everyone involved and not
a spur of the moment decision.
3. Professional responsibility. To follow the codes of
conduct for every chartered institution. LeMessurier did
not consider the public safety first.
4. Public statements. In this case the public statements
issued by LeMessurier and Citigroup set out to mislead
the public deliberately.
5. Public safety. The public statement denied the public
the right to ensure their own safety and to make their
own critical decisions.
6. Advancement of professional knowledge. Concealing
this problem for almost 20 years prevented ethical and
engineering learning that could have taken place.
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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Obligation
Incumbent and role responsibility
• Types of actions that are morally mandatory. Some are:
• Incumbent on each of us. (e.g. to be honest, fair and
decent).
• Role responsibilities such are parents, employees, or
professionals. (e.g. safety engineering making regular
inspection)
Accountable
• Means being responsible.
• Means having the general capacities for moral agency,
including the capacities for moral agency, including the
capacity to understand and act on moral reasons.
• Means being answerable for meeting particular
obligations.
• Example: being careful engineer
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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Conscientious, Integrity (virtue)
• Morally admirable engineer who accept
their obligations and are conscience in
meeting them
Blameworthy/Praiseworthy
• When it is clear the responsibility of
wrongdoing becomes synonym for
blameworthy or responsibility of right
conduct is synonym for praiseworthy.
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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Moral
Causal
• consists simply in being a cause of some event
Job
• consists of one’s assigned tasks at the place of
employment
Legal
• whatever the law requires including legal
obligations and accountability for meeting them
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 The sequence of tasks that
leads from the concept of a
product to its design,
manufacture, sale, use, and
ultimate disposal
 Iterative process, with some
of the possible recursive steps
indicated by the thin lines and
arrows on either side of figure
1-2
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 The underlying failing causes can have different forms.
 Lack of vision just follow traditional vision.
 Incompetence among engineers carrying out technical tasks.
 Lack of time and poor management.
 A silo mentality that keeps information rather than shared.
 The notion that there are safety engineers somewhere down the line to catch potential
problems.
 improper use or disposal of the product.
 Dishonesty pressure by management to take shortcuts.
 Inattention to how the product is performing after it is sold and when in use.
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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Advanced
expertise
Possesses
specialized
knowledge and
skills
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
Selfregulation
Belongs to and
abides by the
standards of a
society
Public good
Serves an
important aspect
of the public good
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 a profession is any occupation that provides a means by which to earn a living.
 Profession are those form of work involve:
1.
Advanced expertise. Professions require complex skills (“knowing-how”) and
theoretical knowledge (“knowing-that”). This requires technical studies as well as
broader studies and continuing education and updating knowledge are also
required.
2.
Self-regulation. Well-established societies of professionals are allowed by the public
to play a major role in setting, standards for admission to the profession, drafting
codes of ethics, enforcing standards of conduct, a representing the profession before
the public and the government. Often this is referred to as the “autonomy of the
profession,”
3.
Public good. The occupation serves some important public good, or aspect of the
public good, and it does so by making a concerted effort by profession.
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 Companies place a high priority on concern for
worthwhile products and ethical procedures.
 Larger corporations characterized by more intense
competition and profit-making pressures face a greater
challenge in maintaining an ethical climate. But many
of them are finding ways to deal with these pressures.
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 Raised attention to product quality, the well-being of workers,
the wider community, and the environment. The movement is
reflected in what is called “stakeholder theory”
 Corporations have responsibilities to all groups that have a vital
stake in the corporation, including employees, customers,
dealers, suppliers, local communities, and the general public
 In order to ensure the confluence of good engineering, good
business, and good ethics, it is essential for engineering and
corporations, in their major dimensions, to be “morally aligned.”
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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 All the senses we distinguished in connection with
individuals also apply to corporations:
1.
Responsibilities (obligations). corporations have internal structures consisting of policy manuals and flowcharts
assigning responsibilities to individuals.
2.
Accountable for meeting their obligations, so corporations are accountable to the general public, to their
employees and customers, and to their stockholders.
3.
Virtue of responsibility it makes sense to ascribe virtues such as honesty, fairness, and public spiritedness to
certain corporations and not to others.
4.
Wrongdoing or blameworthy/praiseworthy
 Causal responsibility, which consists simply in being a cause of some event.
 Legal responsibility, which is simply what the law requires.
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/17/2021
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Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hamadan
and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1
Spring 2021
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
 2.1 Resolving Ethical Dilemmas
 2.2 Making Moral Choices
 2.3 Codes of Ethics
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
2
• “Borrowing” nuts and bolts, office supplies from employer
• Copying of Videos or CD’s
• Plagiarism
• Using the copy machine at work
• Software piracy
• Expense account padding
• Copying of homework or tests
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
3
 Ethical (or moral) dilemmas are situations in which moral
reasons come into conflict, or in which the applications of
moral values are unclear, and it is not immediately obvious
what should be done.
 Even routine moral decision making in engineering requires
weighing and balancing conflicting moral values. How do we
do this?
 Reasonable Solution to Ethical Dilemma has to be clear,
informed, and well-reasoned
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
4
• Steps in Resolving Ethical Dilemma:
1. Moral Clarity
2. Conceptual Clarity
3. Informed about the Facts
4. Informed about the Options
5. Well-Reasoned
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
5
A chemical engineer working in the environment
division of a computer manufacturing firm
learns that her company might be discharging
unlawful amounts of lead and arsenic into the
city sewer. The city processes the slug into a
fertilizer, the city imposes restrictive laws on the
discharge of lead and arsenic. Preliminary
investigations convince the engineer that the
company should implement stronger pollution
controls, but her supervisor tell her the cost of
doing so is prohibitive and the technically
company is compliance with the law. She is also
scheduled to appear before town officials to
testify in the matter. What should she do?
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
6
•
Identifying the Relevant Moral
Values:
•
Identifying the moral values and
reasons applicable in the situation
and keeping them in mind as we
investigate further – these include
obligations, duties, rights, goods,
ideals, and other moral
considerations.
•
Resources for this:
1. Talking with colleagues
2. Interpreting moral frameworks
3. Applying professional codes of
ethics
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed
Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
7
Clarify Key Concepts
• Making sure the relevant concepts are
clear in any case “e.g.”
•
a) Holding paramount
b) Safety
Welfare
d) Threat
e) Danger
f) Truthful, etc.
c)
1/23/2021
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed
Esmaail Shakfah
8
• Professionalism requires being a faithful agent of one's employer,
but does that mean doing what one's supervisor directs or doing
what is good for the corporation in the long run? These might be
different things, in particular when one's supervisor is adopting
a short-term view that could harm the long-term interests of the
corporation.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
9
•
Obtain Relevant Information
•
Gathering information that is relevant with respect to the
applicable moral values (ref. a) moral clarity).
•
This usually means being as certain as possible about the facts
of the case.
•
Sometimes the primary difficulty in resolving moral dilemmas
is uncertainty about the facts, rather than conflicting values.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
10
Certainly in the case at hand, the chemical engineer needs to
check and recheck her findings, perhaps asking colleagues
for their perspectives. Her corporation seems to be violating
the law, but is it actually doing
so? We, like the engineer, need to know more about the
possible harm caused by the minute quantities of lead and
arsenic over time. How serious is it, and how likely to cause
harm?
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
11
Consider all Options
•
•
Being careful to consider not just the obvious or usual options,
but all potential options for resolving the dilemma.
•
Openly listing all options and sub-options, regardless of how unlikely
they may seem, is a good way of making sure you’ve covered all
important options.
•
Either bow to a supervisor's orders or blow the whistle to the town
authorities. A closer look often reveals additional options. (Sometimes
writing down the main options and sub options as a matrix or decision
tree ensures that all options are considered.)
•
Unless an emergency develops, these and other steps should be
attempted before informing authorities outside the corporation
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
12
• A reasonable Decision
• Arriving at a carefully reasoned judgment by weighing all the relevant
moral reasons and facts.
• This is not a mechanical process but rather a deliberation that takes
all reasons, facts and values into account in a morally reasonable
manner.
• Codes and theories of ethics can help, but they will not resolve all
dilemmas or apply perfectly to every circumstance; and sometimes
two codes, canons, or principles will conflict. In these cases the ability
to reason well is crucial.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
13
We might divide ethical dilemmas into two broad
categories.
A.
Right or wrong dilemmas: "Right" means that
one course of action is obligatory and failing
to do that action is unethical (immoral).
B.
Better-Worse: Unfortunately, many dilemmas
have multiple solutions, none of which are
mandatory but one of which must be chosen.
The task here is to decide which one is better
than the rest, any of which might be morally
permissible. The best one is the one that will
bring about more good than the others.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
14
In most instances (Right or
wrong dilemmas) a code of
ethics specifies what is clearly
required:
Obey
the
law
and
heed
engineering standards, do not
offer or accept bribes, speak and
write
truthfully,
maintain
confidentiality, and so forth.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
15
Engineer A, an environmental engineer, is retained by a major
industrial owner to examine certain lands adjacent to an
abandoned industrial facility formerly owned and operated by the
owner. Owner’s attorney, Attorney X, requests that as a condition
of the retention agreement that Engineer A sign a secrecy
provision whereby Engineer A would agree not to disclose any
data, findings, conclusions or other in-formation relating to his
examination of the owner’s land to any other party unless ordered
by a court. Engineer A signs the secrecy provision.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
16
Engineer Ais employed by a software company and is involved in the design of specialized
software in connection with the operations of facilities affecting the public health and
safety (i.e., nuclear, air quality control, water quality control). As part of the design of a
particular software system, Engineer A conducts extensive testing, and although the tests
demonstrate that the software is safe to use under existing standards, Engineer A is
aware of new draft standards that are about to be released by a standard setting
organization—standards which the newly designed software may not meet. Testing is
extremely costly and the company’s clients are eager to begin to move forward. The
software company is eager to satisfy its clients, protect the software company’s finances,
and protect existing jobs; but at the same time, the management of the software company
wants to be sure that the software is safe to use. A series of tests proposed by Engineer A
will likely result in a decision whether to move forward with the use of the software. The
tests are costly and will delay the use of the software at least six months, which will put
the company at a competitive disadvantage and cost the company a significant amount of
money. Also, delaying implementation will mean the state public service commission
utility rates will rise significantly during this time. The company requests Engineer A’s
recommendation concerning the need for additional software testing.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
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•
Case Study: Aluminum Cans:
•
US Company start to manufacturing in 1925 and control the
market, even asking other company always to consult with
them
•
Case of monopoly “Crime in US”
•
Judge ask the company ask company A to be divided into sub
company
•
All Companies start competent in the market
•
Manager invite hi colleagues in small picnic, during this
calibration he forget to bring can opening and ask the
employee to solve, Gradually decision
•
1980, start with environmental protection
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed
Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
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• Moral decision-making is similar to engineering design process,
which is an important reason why we are teaching basic design and
ethics in the same course (the other main reason is that many ethical
dilemmas in design arise within the context of design).
• Both design and ethical decision making involve the following:
a) engaged participation
• We are agents and actors in the process, not passive or detached spectators (as we might be if we
were watching a court case on TV)
b) process similarities
I. alternative solutions to problems, more than one of which is satisfactory
II. multiple moral factors are involved and must be balanced; in many cases one possible solution
is better in some ways, but another is better in other ways
III. some solutions are clearly unacceptable, and there are ‘background constraints’ that limit the
range of reasonable options
IV. uncertainties and ambiguities are always present
V. the problem, is dynamic – not one finite problem, but a cluster of problems that evolve over time;
solving one part of the problem creates other problems
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
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• Codes of ethics state the moral responsibilities of engineers as seen by
the profession, and as represented by a professional society. They
express the profession’s collective commitment to ethics: they identify
engineers’ ethical responsibilities as well as his freedom to exercise these
responsibilities (which implies that professional judgment is crucial).
• Example of Code of Ethics:
A. NSPE
B. IEEE
C. AIChE
D. ASCE
E. ASME
F. ACM/IEEE/CS
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
20
NSPE Code of Ethics: six basic canons which can be applied
widely to ensure ethical behavior in virtually any
engineering situation:
The first five canons outline engineers’ public/social
obligations
The sixth canon outlines engineers’ obligations to the
engineering profession itself.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
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21
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the
public
Perform services only in areas of their competence.
Issue public statements only in an objective and
truthful manner.
Act in professional matters for each employer or client
as faithful agents or trustees.
Avoid deceptive acts
Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically,
and lawfully so as to enhance the honor, reputation,
and usefulness of the profession
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
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Codes have eight essential roles:
a) Serving and Protecting the Public
Professionals act to protect and serve the public (they are involved in a ‘fiduciary
relationship’), which means that the public gives its trust to engineers, and engineers
promise to be trustworthy. Codes of ethics function as a written commitment by the
profession as a whole that engineers will serve the public health, safety and welfare.
This is the primary function of codes of ethics, and the remaining functions (below) all
contribute to this one.
b) Guidance
Codes give helpful but general (therefore flexible) guidance to engineers, and also
outline their main responsibilities. Sometimes these more general guides are
supplemented by more specific guidelines, statements, and interpretations.
c) Inspiration
Codes provide for motivation to act ethically, since they outline a collective
commitment shared by all engineers to protect and ensure the public good.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
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d) Shared Standards
The diversity of moral viewpoints among engineers (and all people) makes it essential
that professions establish explicit standards – these are minimum standards (you can
perform better than these, but not worse), but usually the standards are high
(because the responsibilities are serious).
e) Support for Responsible Professionals
Codes allow engineers to refuse to do something wrong on the grounds that their
professional codes forbid it. This can be a helpful and convincing argument to make
when someone pressures an engineer to act unethically. Beyond this, the code
provides legal support when the engineer is charged with not living up to his workrelated obligations (due to the fact that those actions violate the code).
f) Education and Mutual Understanding
Codes are publically available and accordingly can help encourage a shared
understanding among professionals, the public, and government organizations about
the moral responsibilities of engineers.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
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g) Deterrence and Discipline
Codes allow for formal investigation of unethical conduct, which is a strong deterrent
to immoral behavior.
h) Contributing to the Profession’s Image
Codes that highlight ethical responsibilities contribute to an overall image of
engineering as a profession ethically committed to the public’s best interests. This can
also help engineers argue for more powers of self-regulation and less imposition of
standards and regulations set by the government.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
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a) not acted upon
Published and approved but not taken seriously or not enforced. This just
makes the public cynical of the profession and ultimately hurts engineers
themselves.
b) stifling of dissent
If taken as absolute rules, rather than flexible principles, codes can stop
engineers and the public from discussing code provisions and engineer’s
duties, and restricting honest disagreement about whether certain provisions
or practical actions are appropriate or not (possible for engineers to hide
immoral activities behind a code statute).
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
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c) restricting honest moral effort
If codes are not taken seriously, they can be used to project an image of
morality while unethical behaviors proliferate behind the scenes. They can
also be ‘protected’ to the point that engineers are afraid to tarnish the
profession’s image by admitting to failures that do not live up the standards of
the ethical codes.
d) restraining of commerce
Codes can sometimes force high levels of fees, for example, by requiring that
engineers do not compete on the basis of fees charged to clients. This can
have the effect of weakening smaller and less well-known engineering
companies because they are not able to compete in other ways (don’t have as
much experience as bigger firms, don’t have the depth of employee resources,
etc.)
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 Vague warding (Unclear warding of
code)
 Conflict between code entries
 Proliferation (close meaning to this is:
multiple-conflict between different
codes of ethics of different disciplines)
 Code can be flawed
(Flawed=Imperfect)(respect literal
meaning of words without changing to
favour certain outcomes)
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
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The view that actions are morally right
within a particular society when, and
only because, they are approved by low,
customs, or other conventions of that
society
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
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1. Subjective Relativism (Subjectivism)
The view that actions are right or wrong relative
to individual preference.
2. Cultural Relativism (Conventionalism)
The view that an action is right if one’s culture
approves it.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
30
3. Emotivism
- The view of moral judgements cannot be either true or
false, but are instead expressions of emotions or attitude
- Moral statements are used to express emotions and to try to
influence other people’s behaviour, but are not supportable by
valid moral reasons.
4. Ethical Objectivism
States that some moral judgements are universal (valid for
everyone).
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/23/2021
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5. Ethical Pragmatism
This approach of understanding code of ethics is
based on recognize and record ethical obligations
that are already practiced by the profession.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
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A. Clarity and coherent
B. Systematic and comprehensive
C. Compatible with moral conviction
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
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Genetic Engineering and Cloning:
You have been offered a full scholarship to study Genetics Engineering by
ABC biological company and eventually you will be working for ABC biological
company. The company works in multiple projects that involves cloning, stem
research, and genetic engineered product. The company is involved in
agricultural, medical and defense projects. Should the engineer accept the
job offer.
 Discuss the above point. Make sure you list:
 Ethical Dilemma
 Relevant Facts
 Involved Parties/factors
 Relevant code of ethics
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
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Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hamadan
and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1
Spring 2021
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
Ethical Theories Based on Philosophical Scholarship:
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Utilitarianism
Rights Ethics
Duty Ethics
Virtue Ethics
Self-Realization and Self-Interest
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
2
1/30/2021
•
An ethical theory is a comprehensive
perspective on morality that clarifies,
organizes, and guides moral reflection. A
good ethical theory should provide a
framework for making moral choices and
resolving moral dilemmas – not a simple
formula, but rather a comprehensive way
to identify, structure, and integrate moral
reasons.
•
Ethical
theories
also
ground
the
requirements in engineering codes of ethics
by reference to broader moral principles.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail
Shakfah
3
• We will discuss five types of ethical theories (and traditions) that have been
especially influential
Utilitarianism
a)Act-utilitarianism
b)Rule-utilitarianism
Self-realization ethics
a)Egoistic
Duty
ethics
Rights
ethics
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
a)Self-Realization and
Personal Commitments
Virtue
ethics
1/30/2021
4
as Moral Frameworks
• Utilitarianism says that we ought to maximize the overall
good for the most people, taking into equal account all people
those affected by our actions.
• Rights ethics says we ought to respect human rights.
• Duty ethics says we ought to respect individuals' rational
autonomy.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
5
as Moral Frameworks
• Virtue ethics says that good character is central to morality.
• Self-realization ethics emphasizes the moral significance of
self-fulfillment.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
6
Utilitarianism is the view that we ought always to produce the
most good for the most people, giving equal consideration to
everyone affected. Right conduct is nothing more than the
maximization of good consequences.
a) Complexity
• This
seems simple and sensible. Engineers should ‘hold
paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public’. Welfare
essentially means overall good (‘utility’). But what exactly is the
good to be maximized? Should it be the good accomplished
through individual action, or through general rules (laws,
regulations, policies, principles, codes of ethics, etc.). Depending
on how good (utility) is defined, utilitarianism takes different
forms.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
7
• Cost-benefit
analysis: identifies the good and bad
consequences of some action or policy, usually in terms of
dollars.
• Risk-benefit analysis is the comparison of the risk of a
situation to its related benefits.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
8
b) Comparison to cost-benefit analysis
• Cost-benefit analysis weighs good against bad consequences,
usually in monetary terms. On the surface this looks like
utilitarianism, but in practice it is often different. The big difference
involves whose good and bad is considered, and how good and bad
are measured. In cost-benefit analysis, it is usually corporate good,
not everyone’s good. that is considered. And it is usually a shortterm calculation (this financial quarter, the next election, etc.)
• Utilitarianism
considers the costs and benefits to everyone
affected: the interests of each person is weighed equally, rather
than holding a corporation’s or government’s interests as more
important than any other interest. Utilitarianism normally takes a
long-term view, and seldom reduces it’s evaluation of good and bad
consequences to measurement of monetary impacts
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
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• Designed to compete with foreign
import models that had better gas
mileage. Designing rushed to have
it available to the public faster.
• Cost analysis showed that the cost
• Ford knew that the gas tank would
of installing the part to be higher
than the damage resulting from
fatalities damage.
• Problem could have been avoided if
• Ford eventually did recall the Pinto
explode if hit at >20mph from rear.
a rubber bladder to cushion impact
was installed that cost $5.08
installed.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
voluntary to try and save their
reputation to reputation
1/30/2021
10
•
•
•
Act-utilitarianism: maximize the overall good for each action, in each
situation.
This approach focuses on each situation and the alternative actions
possible in the situation. An particular action is right if it is likely to
produce the most good for the most people in a given situation, compared
to alternative choices.
The right action is the one that produces the most overall good.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
11
This standard can be applied at any moment,
and according to act-utilitarians, it should be.
The problem is that actually thinking though
every situation and all possible actions is almost
impossible. So we tend to rely on ‘rules of thumb’
to provide guidance (e.g. ‘complete your work on
time’). Two problems”
i.
ii.
these rules are based on past experience, and
therefore cannot always handle novel situations
these rules are very general and although they
‘usually’ work, they have to be broken
sometimes
It is usually a good idea to finish your work on
time, but it might be a better idea to take care of
your sick mother than to spend all your available
time finishing up your house work: the best
action often depend on the specific situation
1/30/2021
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail
Shakfah
12
•
Rule-utilitarianism: says live by a set of rules that maximize the overall good
• This approach says we should in fact take rules more seriously than actions,
because justifies rules are morally authoritative and not just loose rule-of-thumb
guidelines. They are also more important than any specific isolated action. The
right action is the one required by the rule that does the most good most of the
time for the post people.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
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This might sound like act-utilitarianism, but it
isn’t. If following a generally good law actually, in
a specific situation, causes more net ham than
good:
i.
ii.
act utilitarians will say you should break
that law in that situation;
rule-utilitarians will say you should not.
However, because rules interact with each other,
rules cannot be considered independently – they
have to be considered as part of a set of rules: an
optimal moral code. This is a set of rules (like an
engineering code of ethics) which maximizes the
public good more than any alternative codes
would. Remember: if this code really optimal, it
means that its rules should be followed even
when an exception might happen to be beneficial.
1/30/2021
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail
Shakfah
14
1/30/2021
•
Case: Is paying bribe to win a contact
for the company which will benefits all
the employee acceptable or not?
•
Rule-utilitarianism: maximize the good
through following rules that maximize
good consequences, rather than through
isolated actions.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed
Esmaail Shakfah
15
Historically (in the 20th century), rule-utilitarianism was developed to
correct some problems in act-utilitarianism:
i.
act-utilitarianism allows some actions that we know are immoral.
Stealing something from someone very wealthy would do very little
harm to that person, and relatively more good to the thief. Actutilitarianism would say the theft was okay. But we consider theft
immoral. Rule-utilitarianism demonstrates how the overall good is
maximized if everyone refrains from theft; something actutilitarianism cannot do.
ii. act-utilitarianism allows injustice to individuals as long as overall
social good is maximized. If someone who is difficult to work with is
fired for something they did not do, overall morale in a company
might improve since no-one has to deal with that difficult individual
any more. However, such a firing would still be immoral.
iii. act-utilitarianism is unreasonably difficult to put into practice. If
overall good is maximized by everyone with wealth giving it away to
poor people, then the wealthy person’s well-being might be reduced
slightly, but the poor’s well-being would be increased substantially
more. This is asking too much of most people. Rule-utilitarianism
solves this problem by developing ‘reasonable’ rules: e.g. give away
as much as you can to help others, but keep enough so that you
and your family are still comfortable.
1/30/2021
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail
Shakfah
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• What is the standards of good is
another disagreement between
utilitarianism
• Act-utilitarianism seems that it
permit immoral action
• (injustice & require too much).
Stealing a
computer
Social good at the
expense of
individual expense
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
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 Suppose that stealing a computer from my
employer, an old one scheduled for replacement
anyway, benefits me significantly and causes
only miniscule harm to the employer and others.
 We know that the theft is unethical, and hence
act-utilitarianism seems to justify wrongdoing.
 Rule utilitarianism was developed as way to
correct several problems with act-utilitarianism.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
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Another issue within utilitarianism involves how ‘good consequences’ should
be measured? Intrinsic good is something good regardless of consequences;
instrumental (consequential) good is good judged by what it achieves. But
which ones are ‘intrinsic’ and how do we decide? The classis answer is that
pleasure is intrinsically good.
I.
Rational desires this view argues that intrinsic goods are those that we
can affirm after a full examination of all information about the world and
our own needs. Self-destructive desires (the ‘pleasures’ of eating too
much, for example) can be shown to be irrational, therefore not
intrinsically good. Only things alike love and creativity can be counted
intrinsically good.
II.
preference theory
this view argues that what is intrinsically good is
simply what individual prefer, as manifested by their choices (often
market choices) regardless of the consequences (good or bad) those
choices might have.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
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• The general idea behind utilitarianism is pretty simple, you
should do the thing that results in the greatest overall good.
• The problem and the criticism are simple - how do you know
what’s going to end up producing the greatest overall good?
• The answer isn’t easy - essentially, you need to use your
previous experience to guess at what will increase happiness.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
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Answer by (True) or (False)
T
1)
Cost benefits analysis identifies the good and bad consequences of some
action or policy in terms of dollars.
T 2)
Utilitarianism says the sole standard of right action is good consequences.
T 3)
There is only one general moral requirement for utilitarianism which is
producing the most good for the most people, giving equal consideration to
everyone affected.
F 4)
___
Rule-utilitarianism
seems to justify wrongdoing.
Act
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
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• Right Ethics regards human rights as fundamentals.
• Duty Ethics regards duties of respect for autonomy as
fundamentals.
• Both theories emphasize respect for individuals’
dignity and worth, in contrast with utilitarian's
emphasis of the general good.
• Rights Ethics and Duty Ethics are mirror images of
each other: because you have a right to life, I have
duty not to kill you; and if I have duty not to deceive
you then you have a right not to be deceived.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
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• Right Ethics regards human rights as fundamentals.
• Rights are moral entitlements (when you have the
right to do or have something) and valid moral claims
that impose duties on other people
• All ethical theories leave some room for rights, but
the ethical theory called rights ethics is distinctive in
that it makes human rights the ultimate appeal the
moral bottom line.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
23
Engineering:
Rights enter into engineering in several ways. Holding paramount
the health, welfare and safety of the public implies respect for a
whole range of publics rights:
right to life (not to be killed by engineering works)
right to privacy (not to have personal matters exposed by
engineering systems)
III. right to safety (not to be injured by products)
IV. right to liberty (not to have information about engineering
risks withheld – i.e. informed consent) (etc.)
I.
II.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
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Human rights as absolute
All ethical theories pay attention to rights,
but rights ethics makes human rights the
ultimate appeal and criterion of ethical
action: morality is about respecting the
inherent dignity and worth of individuals
as they exercise their liberty. In rights
ethics, we can make moral demands on
others to respect our choices, as long as
we allow others to make such demand on
us.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail
Shakfah
1/30/2021
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Influence
Rights ethics has been hugely influential:
politics (cf. US Declaration of Independence: “all men are
endowed … with certain unalienable rights… )
II. women’s liberation movement
I.
III. civil rights movement
IV. farm workers (laborers) movement
V. cross-cultural ethics (etc.)
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
26
legal rights
Note that human rights are basic rights
we have as humans, regardless of
whether or not they are supported in
the law as legal rights; this is another
example of where moral imperatives are
not always identical to legal imperatives
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon,
Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
27
1- Liberty rights
Negative rights: the right to exercise one’s
liberty (and the duty of others ‘not’ to
interfere). Liberty rights are the basis for
libertarianism, in which the emphasis is on
individual freedoms, the protection of private
property, the minimization of government
regulation (because this limits individual
freedom), and the elimination of all forms of
welfare.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon,
Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
28
2- Welfare rights
Positive rights: the right to those benefits
needed for a decent human life, especially
in situations where one cannot earn these
(because of disability of handicap, etc.).
Thus
welfare
rights
directly
imply
communities of people; and therefore these
rights have to be determined contextually
by reference to what the community
believes is moral and what the community
is able to provide to its members
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon,
Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
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Most rights ethicists agree that both kinds of rights (liberty, welfare) exist and
should be respected. In addition, there a re special rights, and limitations on
rights
a) special moral rights
These are rights that not all people have. These are grounded in human rights,
but have a highly specific character. Engineers have certain rights (control over
the engineering profession, for example) that others do not enjoy. These rights
are normally given by legislation, but other special rights are conferred by
promises and contracts (most products come with an implied contract or an
explicit guarantee that the product will be safe and useful).
b) limitations of rights
Very few rights are absolute or unlimited in the sense of having no exceptions.
Rights of freedom to pursue one’s own interests imply the right to be informed if
products have risks (informed consent), and this right to free choice does not
give engineers the freedom to design dangerous products.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon,
Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
30
• Duty ethics regards duties of respect for
individual autonomy as fundamental. Like
rights ethics (and unlike utilitarianism,
which emphasizing general good), this
approach
emphasizes
respect
for
individuals. Duty ethics is the mirror of
rights ethics: because you have a right to
life (rights ethics), I have a duty not to kill
you (duty ethics).
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon,
Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1/30/2021
31
One duty ethicist suggests the following list of important duties:
Do not kill
2) Do not cause pain.
3) Do not disable.
4) Do not deprive of freedom.
5) Do not deprive of pleasure.
6) Do not deceive.
7) Keep your promises.
8) Do not cheat.
9) Obey the law.
10) Do your duty [referring to work, family, and other special responsibilities.
1)
Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept.
UAE University
32
Lists like these (above) are familiar, but how do we
know that these really are our duties? Immanuel
Kant (1724–1804) makes the following points.
a) Autonomy:
All these duties actually derive from a single
fundamental duty: respect others; people deserve
respect because they are moral agents with the
capacity to recognize and respond to moral duty
(they are morally ‘autonomous’).
Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept.
UAE University
33
b) Mere means and ends
We are immoral if we treat others as means to an
end (as objects) rather than as ends themselves
(as morally autonomous subjects).
Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept.
UAE University
34
c) Self and other
We have a moral duty to respect others, but we also
have a duty to respect ourselves.
d) Universality
These moral principles apply universally – i.e. to all
humans without exception.
Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept.
UAE University
35
e) Categorical imperative
These moral duties are injunctions or commands
that we impose on ourselves and others; they are
categorical in the sense that we are required to
follow – to do what is right -- because it is right, and
with no special incentives. Being honest might
benefit us most of the time, but we should be honest
because being honest is a way of respecting the
autonomy of others: it is a duty, not an option.
Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept.
UAE University
36
f) Absolutism
These basic duties or moral rules (e.g. do not lie,
etc.) are absolute in the sense that no exceptions are
justified; this particular idea is usually rejected by
ethicists, generally because in human life (and
engineering practice) we tend to encounter
situations where duties come in to conflict … so they
cannot be absolute (if they were, they would be
irrational and not binding on us).
Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept.
UAE University
37
Kant thought that everyday principles of duty, such as
“Do not lie” and “Keep your promises,” are absolute in
the sense of never having justifiable exceptions. In doing
so, he conflated three ideas:
1) Universality moral rules apply to all rational agents
2) Categorical imperatives moral rules command what is
right because it is right
3) Absolutism moral rules have no exceptions
Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept.
UAE University
38
a) Exceptions
The Latin term prima facie literally means ‘on the
face’, but in the sense used here, it means ‘might
have exceptions’ (contrary to Kant, see item f) above).
Practically, most duties are prima facie in the sense
that they have reasonable permissible or obligatory
exceptions.
Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept.
UAE University
39
b) Balance
Although most duties are obvious, it is not always
obvious how to balance them and find the best
solution to a particular moral problem (i.e. how to
find our actual duty in that case). One solution is to
notice which duties are more pressing than others
(we can be fairly confident that ‘do not kill’ will
normally take precedence over ‘do not lie’, etc.)
Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept.
UAE University
40
c) Contextualism
Usually, however, things are not this simple. Our last
recourse, then, is to reflect carefully on particular
situations (contexts), weighing all relevant duties in light
of all the facts, and try to arrive at a sound judgment.
Sometimes this takes intuition, but in general it is safer
to rely on rational dialogue and reflect on the best ways
to interpret and apply general rules with specific
application.
Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept.
UAE University
41
When I am in a situation, as perhaps I always am, in
which more than one of these prima facie duties is
incumbent on me, what I have to do is to study the
situation as fully as I can until I form the considered
opinion (it is never more) that in the circumstances one
of them is more incumbent than any other; then I am
bound to think that to do this prima facie duty is my
duty sans phrase in the situation [i.e., my actual duty,
all things considered].
Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept.
UAE University
42
Engineers have a duty to maintain confidentiality
about information owned by their corporations, but
that duty can be overridden by the paramount duty
to protect the safety, health, and welfare of the
public
Dr. Mohammad O. Hamdan, ME Dept.
UAE University
43
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hamadan
and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1
Spring 2021
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
Ethical Theories Based on Philosophical Scholarship:
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Utilitarianism
Rights Ethics
Duty Ethics
Virtue Ethics
Self-Realization and Self-Interest
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
2
2/6/2021
•
An ethical theory is a comprehensive
perspective on morality that clarifies,
organizes, and guides moral reflection. A
good ethical theory should provide a
framework for making moral choices and
resolving moral dilemmas – not a simple
formula, but rather a comprehensive way
to identify, structure, and integrate moral
reasons.
•
Ethical
theories
also
ground
the
requirements in engineering codes of ethics
by reference to broader moral principles.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail
Shakfah
3
• We will discuss five types of ethical theories (and traditions) that have been
especially influential
Utilitarianism
a)Act-utilitarianism
b)Rule-utilitarianism
Self-realization ethics
a)Egoistic
Duty
ethics
Rights
ethics
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
a)Self-Realization and
Personal Commitments
Virtue
ethics
2/6/2021
4
• Virtue
Ethics
emphasizes
character more than duties and
rights.
• Character is the pattern of:
• Virtues
(morally
desirable
features)
• Vices
(morally
undesirable
features) in individual.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed
Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
5
• Virtue Ethics : We should develop and
manifest good characters as defined by
the virtues-desirable habits or tendencies
in action, commitment, motive, attitude,
emotion, ways of reasoning and ways of
relating to others.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed
Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
6
• The most important virtue is practical
sense, that is, morally good judgment,
which enables us to discern the mean for
all the other virtues.
• The
most comprehensive virtue
Professionalism
engineers is Responsible
________________________.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
of
2/6/2021
7
• The most comprehensive virtue in engineering is responsible
professionalism. We know from previous topics that this idea
of professionalism involves several criteria:
Vocation
Expertise
Self-governance
Public duty
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
8
• Types (umbrella) of virtues Ethics:
1)
Public well-being: Public-spirited virtues
2)
Professional competence: Proficiency virtues
3)
Cooperative practices: Teamwork virtues
4)
Personal integrity: self governance virtues
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
9
 Public well-being: Public-spirited virtues:
Virtues focused on the good of clients and the wider public,
including not harming others (general); actively preventing or
removing harm to others and promoting public safety
(professional); generosity in volunteering and helping others
(community); and promoting justice in corporations and
government (social)
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
10
 Professional competence: Proficiency virtues:
Virtues
involved the mastery of the technical skills that
characterize good engineering; these obviously contribute to
engineering competence and excellence, but they also have moral
implications: competence, preparation, diligence, and creativity
are ways of morally activating technical proficiency – virtues.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
11
 Cooperative practices: Teamwork virtues:
Virtues that are especially important in enabling professionals to
work successfully with other people: collegiality, cooperativeness,
loyalty, and respect for legitimate authority, leadership,
responsible exercise of authority, ability to motivate others.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
12
 Personal integrity: self governance virtues:
Virtues
required to exercise moral responsibility: selfunderstanding, good judgment, commitment, application, selfdiscipline, integrity, honesty, truthfulness, trustworthiness
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
13
 As with the previous ethical theories (rights ethics, duty
ethics, and utilitarianism), there are several forms of virtue
ethics. Among other things
Samuel Florman, for example, focuses on loyalty to employers
while Aristotle (next section) focuses on loyalty to community.
 For Florman, the essence of engineering is found in the virtue
of being conscientious.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
14
A. Conscientiousness:
 On this view, engineers who do their jobs well are morally good
engineers. As such they have the following virtues: competence,
reliability, inventiveness, loyalty to employers and respect for laws
and democratic processes. Engineers should be accountable to
laws and regulations, not to their own personal consciences.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
15
Competence
 Florman
believes
that
competence and loyalty are
the two most important of
these virtues:
Loyalty
• This means performing with requisite skill
and experience, which means exercising
due care, persistence, diligence, attention
to detail, and often also creativity and
innovative thinking
• Florman says that 98% of engineering
failures re caused by incompetence; 2%%
are caused by greed, fraud, dishonestly,
and other ‘everyday’ wrongdoing, often
combined with sloppiness.
• This means working in the best interests
of the employer, since it is competition
among
corporations
that
makes
technological progress possible … and
there is no viable competition without
engineers working loyally inside a
corporation.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
16
B. Problems
 In the end, Florman believes that duty to employers comes before
everything else, including professional codes that require
engineers to hold paramount public safety, health and welfare.
Besides the problem that engineers following this approach would
have their licenses revoked in certain cases, such an attitude can
encourage engineers to passively accept any company directive
and relying on the law alone to protect the public
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
17
 Defined the moral virtues as habits of reaching a proper
balance between extremes in conduct, emotion, desire, and
attitude.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
18
a) Golden mean:
 Aristotle defined the moral virtues as habits of reaching a proper
balance between extremes of conduct, emotion, desire and
attitude. The ‘golden mean’ is this balance between excess (too
much) and deficiency (too little).
 What would ‘truthfulness’ be? It would be the middle ground
between revealing everything in violation of tact and
confidentiality) and revealing nothing (being secretive or lacking
in candor)
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
19
b) Practical wisdom
 This is the virtue Aristotle thought was most important: practical
wisdom is morally good judgment which lets you determine the
‘golden mean’ for all the other virtues. Practical wisdom basically
comes out of the development of good habits as achieved through
proper training within families and communities.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
20
c)
Community and self
 If we have these virtues, then we can help the community achieve
the public good it needs, and also fulfill our personal needs as
human beings (i.e. find the golden mean of ‘happiness’ between
community needs and our own needs)
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
21
d) Social practices
 Recently Alasdair MacIntyre has applied Aristotle’s ideas to the
idea of professions as valuable social activities engaged in social
practices – cooperative human activities through which good is
realized by trying to achieve relevant standards of excellence.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
22
Some definitions:
Internal goods
• Good things that are so essential to a social
activity that they basically define it (e.g. the
products, activities, and experiences related
to engineering) public goods benefits provided
to the community personal goods benefits
connected with meaningful work
External goods
• Goods that can be earned through engaging
in social practices: money, power, selfesteem, prestige these are important, but
they can also threaten internal goods: they
may
even
corrupt
institutions
and
undermine social practices
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
23
Some definitions:
Standard
excellence
progress
of
• These enable internal goods to be achieved
without compromising internal goods; in
engineering these standards include technical
guidelines (specify current ideas of best
practice) and professional codes of ethics (which
apply to all engineers) these encourage
engineers to keep high standards of practice
and conduct, and usually include penalties for
failure to perform to the standards
• Human progress is made possible though social
practices, as these practices (including those in
engineering)
expand
our
understanding,
improve human life, and more generally let us
achieve public and private goods
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
24
e)
Problems
 No ethical theory is without flaws, and virtue ethics needs to be
refined to take care of two basic challenges
I.
(Dis-) unity of the virtues: this is the idea that all virtues
consistently spring from the single virtue of ‘wisdom’. But we know
that virtues can come into conflict, so they are not unified at all
(the virtue of honesty can conflict with the virtue of sensitivity, if
telling someone something might hurt there feelings). also, in
reality, we all have strengths in certain virtues (e.g. we are very
honest) and weaknesses in other ones (maybe we are not so selfdisciplined), so again virtues are not unified
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
25
e)
Problems
 No ethical theory is without flaws, and virtue ethics needs to be
refined to take care of two basic challenges
II.
Incompleteness: virtue ethics is too vague if used by itself – if the
virtues are not spelled out with rough guidelines, they do not
provide much practical guidance.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
26
 Although all ethical theories leave a certain amount of room
for self-interest, self-realization ethics makes doing good for
oneself and developing personal commitments the most
important ethical concerns.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
27
 Utilitarianism: says that self-interest should enter into our calculations of
the overall good.
 Rights ethics says we have rights to pursue our legitimate interests.
 Duty ethics: says we have duties to ourselves.
 Virtue ethics: links our personal good with participating in communities
and social practices.
 Self-realization
fulfilment.
ethics: says right actions consists in seeking self-
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
28
 Two versions of Self-Realization Ethics & Self-Interest :
 Ethical
egoism: is a more individualistic version of selfrealization ethics that says each of us ought always and only to
promote our self-interes
 Community-oriented: the self to be realized is understood in
terms of caring relationships and communities.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
29
 Ethical egoism says that each of us should promote only our
own self-interest – our sole duty is to maximize our own wellbeing
a) long-term
 Self interest is understood to mean what is best for our long term
well-being (good, happiness), rather than why is simply immediate
and short-term (instant gratification like eating too much at a party)
b) conflict with engineering
 Ethical egoism does not imply or assume community interest or
caring for others; in engineering this would mean only thinking
about oneself … which makes this an impractical ethical theory for
a discipline that must serve the public good as its first priority
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
30
 Argument (1): self‐respect, and then portrayed altruism toward
others as incompatible with valuing oneself.
 This argument contains important truth:
includes
recognition of our vulnerabilities and interdependencies, and
certainly it is compatible with caring about other persons as
well as about ourselves
 Independence is a value of great importance. Self-respect
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
31
 Argument
(2): the world would be a better place. Heroic
individuals who by pursuing their self‐interest indirectly
contribute to the good of others.
 This argument contains important truth:
ethical egoism since
it indicates that the ultimate goal is the good of others.
 Nevertheless, this argument does not support
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
32
 Argument (3): psychological egoism and that all people are
always and only motivated by what they believe is good for them
in some respect.
 This argument contains important truth:
based on
seductive and simple confusion. Also many action have
multiple motives.
 It is difficult to refute however most of this view is
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
33
 One practical reality that follows from ethical egoism is that self-
interest is indeed a very strong motive. However, self-interest
isn’t all that people care about. Everyone’s motives (including
those of engineers) involve both self and other, since even our
self-interest includes love, friendship, and community
involvement.
a) Predominant egoism
 Ethical egoism reminds us that the strongest desire of most people
is to take care of themselves before others
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
34
b) Mixed motives
 however, while self-interest is important, most of the time people believe
in helping others, so actions are usually involve a combination of selfconcern and concern for others as engineers we have various types of
motives:
1)
Proficiency motives, center on excellence in meeting the technical
standards of a profession, together with related aesthetic values of
beauty.
2)
Compensation motives are for social rewards such as income,
power, recognition, and job or career stability.
3)
Moral motives include desires to meet ones responsibilities, respect
the rights of others, and contribute to the well-being of others.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
35
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
36
This theme is expressed by F.
H. Bradley (1826-1924): "The
'individual' apart from the
community is an abstraction.
It is not anything real, and
hence not anything that we
can realize .... I am myself by
sharing with others."
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
37
 Another branch of self-realization ethics takes this ‘community’
idea into account more fully than ethical egoism does. This
version says that each individual should pursue self-realization,
but it emphasizes the importance of caring relationships and
communities in defining the ‘self’ to be fulfilled.
a) linkage to communities
 since we are social beings, our identities and meaning are linked to
communities
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
38
b) Particular commitments
 An individual’s character is partly formed and defined by the
relationships and commitments they enter into (humanitarianism,
environmental, religious, political, aesthetic, family, etc.);
c)
Limits to commitments
 In professional life, there are limits to how these commitments are
exercised; major limitations are provided by codes of ethics, but also
by basic ideals of justice and decency.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
39
d) Professional issues
 All these commitments play a role in everyday life, but we often
forget that they also affect the way we do our jobs or practice our
profession (we may have certain ideas about weapons development
that would tell us to refuse or embrace weapons engineering; we
may believe in volunteering our professional skills to community
work, etc.)
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
40
 For many people, religious beliefs and spiritual attitudes are the
most important personal commitments, and they are relevant to
all aspects of our lives, including professional work.
a) Specific religious commitments
 Principles of engineering design might be derived from a religious
perspective. The Dutch Calvinist beliefs of Egbert Schuurman
suggested to him that beyond functional, technical or broadly social
requirements, the following issues should be considered in design:
openness, harmony, stewardship, justice, caring, trustworthiness.
 Mark Pesce who invented the dial-up networking.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
41
b) General implications
 Religious beliefs can support morally responsible conduct in other
general ways:
motivation for acting ethically
II. stimulating moral reflection
III. offering practical guidance
IV. setting a high standard for conduct
I.
 (ihsan, piety and/or pursuit of excellence, in Islam)
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
42
 Ethical theories are attempts to provide clarity and consistency,
systematic and comprehensive understanding, and helpful
practical guidance in moral matters. Sound ethical theories
succeed in meeting these aims.
Clear and coherent. They rely on concepts (ideas) that are
sufficiently clear to be applicable, and their various claims and
principles are internally consistent.
2. Organize basic moral values in a systematic and comprehensive
way
3. Provide helpful guidance that is compatible with our most
carefully considered moral convictions
1.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
43
 How to choose?
 All the theories discussed here generally meet these criteria,
although they differ on what they emphasize. Like codes of
ethics, these theories are only resources or guides, not
absolutes. What we have to do is not decide which one is best
overall, but use them collectively to help our moral reasoning in
concrete situations.
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/6/2021
44
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hamadan
and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
1
Spring 2021
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by
Mohammed Esmaail Shakfah
2/13/2021
Engineering as Social Experimentation:
4.1 Engineering as Social Experimentation
4.2 Engineering as Responsible
Experimenters
4.3 Challenger
2/13/2021
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail
Shakfah
2
▪ All
products of technology present
potential dangers, regardless of how
carefully they are designed, produced and
used. Engineering should be considered
inherently risky, and even consider
experimental.
▪ Because this experimentation happens at
the social level (and not purely at the
technical level), there is always a need for
a mechanism or procedure for escape
from harm in the event of a product
failure: a ‘safe exit’.
2/13/2021
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail
Shakfah
3
▪ Engineering
projects
are
experiments that involve technology
development and humans
▪ Experiment on social scale involving
human subjects
2/13/2021
Prepared by Dr. Omar Alkhatib, Dr. Mohammed Hmadan and Jon, Modified by Mohammed Esmaail
Shakfah
4
• Experimentation is playing an essential role in the design
process.
• The normal design process is thus iterative (doing something
again and again, usually to improve it), carried out on trial
designs with modifications being made on the basis of feedback
information acquired from tests.
• At the production stage further tests are run, until a finished
product evolves.
• Beyond those specific tests and experiments, however, each
engineering project taken as a whole may be viewed as an
experiment.
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In many ways, engineering procedure is like standard experimentation:
a)
Ignorance
• any project is carried out in partial ignorance and uncertainties in the
following, and talent in engineering is partly defined by the ability to
accomplish tasks safely with only partial knowledge:
i.
ii.
iii.
The abstract models used for design calculations (cannot perfectly
simulate real-world conditions)
The precision of materials processing and fabrication (variations are
introduced in the manufacturing process)
The nature of the stresses the finished product will encounter (actual field
conditions are often unanticipated)
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b)
Unpredictability
• The final outcome of engineering projects, as with standard
experiments, are generally unknown; sometimes even the
various possible outcomes are unknown:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
The design may fail to fulfill its intended purpose
The design may produce unintended consequences
The design may be used for unanticipated purposes
There may be entirely unexpected side effects
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c)
Novelty
▪ Effective engineering relies on knowledge gained before and
after a product is released; this is especially true for new or
unusual designs:
i.
ii.
New products may not perform as expected (they
need to be monitored over time to see how they
actually perform)
Products may not perform in the field as they do in
the lab (they need to be tested under client use)
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Ignorance
They are carried out in partial ignorance.
b) Unpredictability
They have uncertain outcomes
c) Novelty
They require monitoring and feedback
d) Informed Consent
They mandate obtaining informed
a)
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Engineers need to learn from past successes and
failures, but for several reasons this sometimes
doesn’t happen:
a)
Problems
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
lack of established channels of communication
Misplaced pride in (not) asking for information
Embarrassment at failure
Fear of litigation
Simply neglecting to study previous situations
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b)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Solutions:
Learn from workers (who have a much different
and more practical perspective than handbooks
and software)
Do quick ‘back of envelope’ calculations (to check
lengthy complex calculations)
Stay alert and well-informed at all stages of the
project (including the history of the project)
Freely exchange ideas with colleagues
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Examples:
1) The Titanic lacked a
sufficient
number
of
lifeboats decades after most
of the passengers and crew
on the steamship Arctic had
perished
(pass
away
completely) because of the
same problem
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2) "Complete lack of protection against impact by shipping
caused Sweden's worst ever bridge collapse on Friday as a
result of which eight people were killed." Thus reported the
New Civil Engineer on January 24, 1980. Engineers now
recommend the use of floating concrete bumpers that can
deflect ships, but that recommendation is rarely heeded as
seen by the 1993 collapse of the Bayou Canot bridge that
cost 43 passengers of the Sunset Limited their lives.
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3) In June 1966 a section of the Milford Haven Bridge in
Wales collapsed during construction. A bridge of similar
design was being erected by the same bridge builder
(Freeman Fox and Partners) in Melbourne, Australia, when
it, too, partially collapsed, killing 33 people and injuring 19.
This happened in October of the same year, shortly after
chief construction engineer Jack Hindshaw (also a casualty)
had assured worried workers that the bridge was safe.
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4) Valves are notorious for being
among
the
least
reliable
components
of
hydraulic
systems. It was a pressure relief
valve, and a lack of definitive
information regarding its open or
shut state, which contributed to
the nuclear reactor accident at
Three Mile Island on March 28,
1979. Similar malfunctions had
occurred with identical valves on
nuclear
reactors
at
other
locations.
▪ The
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required reports had
been filed with Babcock and
Wilcox,
the
reactor's
manufacturer,
but
no
attention had been given to
them.
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• To be sure, engineering differs in some respects from standard
experimentation. Some of those very differences help to
highlight the engineer’s special responsibilities.
• Exploring the differences can also aid our thinking about the
moral responsibilities of all those engaged in engineering.
• Contrasts with Standard Experiments
• 1) Experimental Control
• 2) Informed Consent
• 3) Knowledge Gained
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i) control
• In a typical standard experiment, one group is subjected to a test,
treatment or special situation (experimental subjects), while
another group is held to the all the same conditions except for the
special procedures being tests in the experimental group (control
subjects).
• In engineering, social ‘experimentation’ happens in the real world
where no rigorous measures of control are possible. No control
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ii) randomization
• Because
specific and often self-selected populations are
‘experimented on’ in engineering, no randomization is possible
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Viewing engineering as
an experiment on a
societal scale places
the focus where it
should
be-on
the
human beings affected
by technology, for the
experiment
is
performed on persons,
not
on
inanimate
objects.
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Similarly, to other professional fields (like medicine), in engineering
subjects have a right be informed of potential risks, for the following
reasons
1.
2.
3.
4.
Real persons are involved, and we have a moral duty of care to protect
their safety and welfare
We must ensure the freedom of choice of the subject involved
Subjects have fundamental more and legal rights to know about risks
and possible consequences
This amounts to an ethical responsibility to respect people’s rights to:
knowledge (having all the available information, which requires the
cooperation of superiors and colleagues)
ii.
Voluntariness (choosing to participate without being forced, therefore interest
and receptivity by subjects)
➢
Voluntarily undertaken risks: higher risk are tolerated if they are chosen
➢
Involuntary risks: lower risks are tolerated if forced on people
i.
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Basic features of valid informed consent:
1.
Consent must be given voluntarily
2.
Consent is based on all required and requested information
3.
Consenter is competent (not too young, not mentally unfit) to make the
decision to participate or not
4.
All information has been presented clearly and distributed widely
5.
If group consent is involved, the proxies fairly represent the like subjects
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• Although standard experiments are conducted to generate new
knowledge, engineering experimentation seeks to prepare for
unexpected outcomes.
i.
Science:
ideally we discover something entirely new (in
large part this is what the Nobel Prize rewards, although these
discoveries are expected to have beneficial applications)
ii.
Engineering ideally the best outcome is one where we discover
nothing new and essentially have our knowledge confirmed.
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Scientific
experiments
are
conducted
to
gain
new
knowledge,
whereas
"engineering
projects
are
experiments
that
are
not
necessarily designed to produce
very much knowledge.
“The
best
outcome
in
engineering activity is one that
tells us nothing new but affirms
that
we
are
right
about
something”.
Taft Broome
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▪ Engineers
share
responsibility
for
technology
with
management, government and the public; however, because of
their expertise, engineers are uniquely positioned to monitor
projects, identify risks, and provide information needed for
responsible public decisions. Basic engineering responsibilities
involved in social experimentation
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▪ From the perspective of engineering as social experimentation,
four features characterize what it means to be a responsible
person while acting as an engineer:
▪ A conscientious commitment to live by moral values
▪ A comprehensive perspective
▪ Autonomy
▪ Accountability
▪
Or, stated in greater detail as applied to engineering projects
conceived as social experiments.
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‘Style of Engineering’
1.
Conscientiousness: A primary obligation to protect the safety of
human subjects and respect their right of consent .
2.
Comprehensive Perspective: A constant awareness of the
experimental nature of any project, imaginative forecasting of its
possible side effects, and a reasonable effort to monitor them.
3.
Moral Autonomy: Autonomous, personal involvement in all steps of
engineering project .
4.
Accountability: Accepting accountability for the results of a project .
A Balance Outlook on Law & Industrial Standards
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▪ People act responsibly to the extent that they conscientiously
commit themselves to live according to moral values, instead of
a consuming preoccupation with a narrowly conceived
self‐interest.
▪ By conscientious moral commitment we mean sensitivity to the
full range of moral values and responsibilities relevant to a given
situation, and the willingness to develop the skill and expend (to
use or spend especially time, effort or money needed to reach a
reasonable balance among those considerations.
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▪ Conscientiousness implies consciousness: open eyes, open ears,
and an open mind (i.e., moral vision, moral listening, and
moral reasoning)
▪ The contemporary working conditions of engineers tend to
narrow moral vision solely to the obligations that accompany
employee status
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▪ Conscientiousness
information.
is
blind
without
relevant
factual
▪ Hence showing moral concern involves a commitment to
obtain and properly assess all available information that is
pertinent (relating directly to the subject being considered)
to meeting moral obligations.
▪ This means, as a first step, fully grasping the context of one's
work, which makes it count as an activity having a moral
import.
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▪ People are morally autonomous when their moral conduct
and principles of action are their own.
▪ Viewing engineering as social experimentation can help
overcome this tendency and restore a sense of autonomous
participation in one’s work.
▪ As
an experimenter, an engineer is exercising the
sophisticated training that forms the core of his or her
identity as a professional.
▪ Responsible people accept moral responsibility for their
actions.
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▪ Too often "accountable" is understood in the overly narrow
sense of being culpable (deserving to be blamed or
considered
responsible
for
something
bad)
and
blameworthy for misdeeds.
▪ But the term more properly refers to the general disposition
(a natural tendency to do something, or to have or develop
something) of being willing to submit one's actions to moral
scrutiny the careful and detailed examination of something
in order to get information about it)and be open and
responsive to the assessments of others.
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a) Problems:
▪ There is a tendency to separate causal influence from moral
accountability in engineering, as well as in other professions and
businesses.
▪ We know that causal responsibility and moral responsibility do not
always fall on the same individuals (children may bee causally
responsible for a danger, but their parents are generally morally
accountable for the consequences); in most engineering cases,
however, causal influence leads to moral accountability
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▪ Several reasons why their tends to be a ‘psychological’ split between
these (i.e. feeling they are separate, when in fact they are not):
i.
Because large-scale engineering work is fragmented, and any engineer
only works on a small part of it, engineers tend to lose a sense of
responsibility for the work he does, as well as for the overall work of the
team
ii. Personal accountability tends to get lost in a large diffuse organization
where hierarchies of authority (wrongly) seem
accountability is held ‘higher up’ or ‘elsewhere’
to
suggest
that
iii. Pressures of a schedule often encourage moving on to new projects
before the’ old’ one is properly observed
iv. Sometimes a preoccupation with legalities (because of litigation fears)
substitute for a proper conscientious regard for moral reflections, and for
taking moral (and maybe legally liable) stances beyond one’s own narrow
institutional role
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b) Remedies
▪ There is only one: engineers must embrace and endorse the idea that
engineering is social experimentation in order to be engaged and not
divorced from personal responsibility for their work
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▪ The legal regulations that apply to engineering and other
professions are becoming more numerous and more
specific all the time.
▪ We hear many complaints about this trend, and a major
effort to deregulate various spheres of our lives is currently
under way.
▪ Nevertheless, we continue to hear cries of "there ought to
be a law" whenever a crisis occurs, or a special interest is
threatened.
▪ This should not be surprising to us in the United States
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▪ We pride ourselves on being a nation that lives under the
rule of law.
▪ We even delegate many of our decisions on ethical issues to
an interpretation of laws.
▪ And yet this emphasis on law can cause problems in regard
to ethical conduct quite aside from the more practical
issues usually cited by those who favor deregulation.
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▪ For
example, one of the greatest moral problems in
engineering , and one fostered by the very existence of
minutely detailed rules, is that of minimal compliance.
▪ This can find its expression when companies or individuals
search for loopholes (a small mistake in an agreement or
law which gives someone the chance to avoid having to do
something) in the law that will allow them to barely keep to
its letter even while violating its spirit.
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▪ Or, hard‐pressed engineers find it convenient to refer to
standards with ready‐made specifications as a substitute
for original thought, perpetuating the "handbook mentality“
and the repetition of mistakes.
▪ Society's attempts at regulation have indeed often failed,
but it would be wrong to write off rule‐making and
rule‐following as futile.
▪ Good laws, effectively enforced, clearly produce benefits.
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▪ They
authoritatively
establish
reasonable
minimal
standards of professional conduct and provide at least a
self‐interested motive for most people and corporations to
comply.
▪ Moreover, they serve as a powerful support and defense for
those who wish to act ethically in situations where ethical
conduct might be less than welcome.
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▪ Moreover, it suggests the following conclusions: Precise
rules and enforceable sanctions are appropriate in cases of
ethical
misconduct
that
involve
violations
of
well‐established and regularly re‐examined engineering
procedures that have as their purpose the safety and
well‐being of the public.
▪ Little of an experimental nature is probably occurring in
such standard activities, and the type of professional
conduct required is most likely very clear.
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▪ In
areas where experimentation is involved more
substantially, however, rules must not attempt to cover all
possible outcomes of an experiment, nor must they force
engineers to adopt rigidly specified courses of action.
▪ It is here that regulations should be broad, but written to
hold engineers accountable for their decisions. Through
their professional societies engineers should also play an
active role in establishing (or changing) enforceable rules as
well as in enforcing them.
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▪ Engineering
as social experimentation can provide
engineers with a proper perspective on laws and
regulations in that rules that govern engineering practice
should not be devised or construed as rules of a game but
as rules of responsible experimentation.
▪ Such a view places proper responsibility on the engineer
who is intimately connected with his or her "experiment"
and responsible for its safe conduct.
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Conclusion
Reasonable laws and sanctions are appropriate components
of engineering, but laws set the rules for minimal
compliance rather than providing the full substance of
engineering ethics
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Standards are explicit specifications that are intended to
ensure that stated criteria for interchangeability and quality
will be attained; they serve the purposes of allowing
interchange of components and substituting for lengthy
design specifications (as such, they can decrease design
and production costs)
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▪ Examples
range from automobile tire, sizes and load
ratings to computer protocols.
▪ Standards are established by companies for in-house use
and by professional associations and trade associations for
industry- wide use.
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Types of standards: criterion purpose examples:
a)
Uniform physical properties accuracy and interchangeability
weights, bolts, film specs.
ii. Safety and reliability prevention of injury, death, loss fire safety
codes
iii. Product quality fair value for price plywood grades, bulb life
iv. Personnel or service quality task competence accreditation and
licenses
v.
Use of accepted procedures sound design and communication
test procedures
vi. Separability freedom form interference broadcast frequencies
vii. Quality procedures (ISO, etc.) international acceptability
products, education, work
i.
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49
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b) Sources of standards
In-house standards developed by companies
ii. Professional societies and trade associations
iii. Laws and government regulations
i.
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Value of standards
c)
i.
Help manufactures achieve quality, saleable products while
still remaining competitive
ii.
Allow clients to own and operate safe and reliable products
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Problems with standards: as useful as standards are, they
sometimes cause trouble:
d)
i.
Overly specific: they can stifle innovation
ii.
Serve special interests: they can include special provisions that
serve only some manufacturers, exporters, etc.
iii.
Unimaginative: sometimes written before all likely dangers are
foreseen
iv.
Seductive: we might believe that standards exist or are
comprehensive (therefore products are safe), when they do-not
(and therefore are-not … necessarily)
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▪ The question of safe exits will be discussed in more detail
in the lecture notes of safety, but it is already clear that
engineered products can involve significant and
unexpected risks, not all of which can be accounted for or
mitigated in the design process. There must be provision
for a safe exit once a product has entered the public
domain.
▪ Safe Exits: design and procedures ensuring that if a
product fails it will fail safely and the user can safely
avoid harm from the failed product.
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https://www.history.com/news/how-the-challenger-disaster-changed-nasa
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