Key aspects and feasibility assessment of a
proposed wind farm in Jordan
..............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
Abstract
To tackle climate change and secure energy supplies, many countries invest heavily on wind energy as it
is a clean source and is becoming more cost effective with the technological advancement and increased
capacity per unit installed. The investigation of the availability of wind resources is an essential step of any
feasibility study of a wind farm project and is vital for securing financial resources. With this intent, the
main aspects for designing a wind farm at Ajloun (north of Jordan) is investigated and wind energy potential
is determined based on available wind data. Based on the site characteristic, the required infrastructure is
highlighted, including the turbine array layout and the pattern of connections with the external transmission
lines. The investigation of the feasibility of the project includes an appraisal of social and environmental
consequences of constructing the wind farm project. The results show that the selected location for the
wind farm is encouraging and has a promising profit potential. The findings estimate the annual electricity
generation of the wind farm at 379659.51 MWh, with a breakeven selling point of around $30.03/MWh, at a
highly competitive price. However, with an estimated selling price of $36.65/MWh on average, it will settle
the interest rate demanded by the banks that have an internal rate of return of 7%. No major issues with
geotechnical and environmental issues were identified with respect to the project.
Keywords: wind farm; wind assessment; feasibility of wind farm; implications of wind farm
∗ Corresponding
author:
mohamReceived 10 August 2019; revised 23 September 2019; editorial decision 29 September 2019; accepted 29
mad.addous@gju.edu.jo
September 2019
................................................................................................................................................................................
1. INTRODUCTION
Use of renewable energy resources helps in reducing fossil-fuel
consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Wind energy has
been very effective in reducing the trends of climate change [1];
moreover, it is the fastest-growing renewable energy source which
replaces conventional energy production plants. Hence, its conversion system is considered economical and is environmentally
friendly [2].
Energy derived from wind farms is a reliable and dependable
source of energy. The maintenance and operational costs of a wind
farm are manageable and reasonable compared to other energy
sources. Using wind energy for the production of electricity is
highly efficient and reliable. Expediently, the cost of generating
electricity from wind energy is comparatively low with respect
to other renewable sources while they are in special conditions
similar to fossil fuel costs but with other sustainable advantages.
Possibly, the price will decrease further as relevant technology
improves.
Wind power is one of the most renewable energy technologies,
and the wind industry has been experiencing accelerated growth
during the recent decades from 17 GW in the year 2000 up to
around 500 GW in 2018 [3]. These come with benefits and costs
to the environment.
Wind farms face many issues regarding the location of the
turbines. Efficient locations of wind farms are often situated in
remote areas far from electricity consumers in cities and quite
often equally from the transmission. Wind farms also compete
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2020, 15, 97–105
© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press.
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doi:10.1093/ijlct/ctz062 Advance Access publication 18 November 2019
97
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Mohammad Al-Addous1, *, Motasem Saidan2 , Mathhar Bdour1 , Zakariya Dalala1 ,
Aiman Albatayneh1 and Christina B. Class3
1
Department of Energy Engineering, School of Natural Resources Engineering and
Management, German Jordanian University, PO Box 35247, Amman 11180, Jordan
2
Chemical Engineering Department, School of Engineering, the University of Jordan,
Amman 11942, Jordan; 3 Department of Basic Sciences, Ernst-Abbe-Hochschule Jena,
Carl-Zeiss-Promenade 2, 07745 Jena, Germany
M. Al-Addous et al.
2. DESCRIPTION OF THE CONSIDERED SITE
AND THE ASSESSMENT SCOPE
This paper discusses the feasibility of constructing a 100-MW
wind farm in Jordan. The selected location for this project is
Ajloun, a mountainous town in the north part of Jordan. It is
located 76 km northwest of Amman as shown in Figure 1.
98
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2020, 15, 97–105
Figure 1. Proposed location for the wind farm in Ajloun north of Jordan [30].
There is a large expanse of land in this location, and part of
it can be used for the purpose of the planned wind farm. Only
few people live in the proposed area which is an advantage for the
planned project. The existing infrastructure around the project
site includes a road network and a grid transmission line close
to the site. The site is located at 1000–1100 m above the sea level
with an excellent wind potential. There is availability of sufficient
resources with an average wind speed of 8.2 m/s. In the collected
data, the resource data indicated high wind energy potential [31].
Close to this location, there is a grid transmission line as shown
in Figure 2. Also, the access road that leads to the site will be of
great utility for the construction and future maintenance of the
site.
The weather condition of the suggested farm is favorable and
slightly turbulent, with little risk of causing damage to the wind
turbines. Other issues which arise from the site are equally favorable including the land lease from the owners and the approval
from all parties (landowners, government, council and residents).
However, plain surfaces cause low turbulence and higher wind
speeds occur only at a very close distance to the ground level
which need to be taken into account when designing the wind
farm.
The design and assessment of the proposed wind farm are
undertaken using wind data from 1998 to 2011 which are analyzed to estimate the wind energy potential at the selected site.
Moreover, the farm design and the infrastructure requirements
are elaborated thoroughly. The proposed design is assessed taking
into account social, environmental and economic aspects.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
3.1. Wind energy potential assessment at the proposed
site
Weather data for the project sits is available for the years 1998
to 2011 through weather stations in Ajloun which were set at a
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alternatively, e.g. agricultural uses of the land. Additionally, wind
turbines might cause noise and aesthetic pollution and affect the
wildlife especially birds [4].
Total costs for setting up large-scale wind farms vary significantly depending on the construction and turbine costs, cost of
the location of the proposed wind farm, wind resource assessment
and site analysis studies, utility system upgrades, transformers,
protection and metering equipment, cost of financing, insurance,
operations, maintenance and repair and warranty [5].
Jordan has very limited indigenous fossil energy resources, and
its energy supply depends at about 96% on imports of oil, oil
products, natural gas and electricity, which accounted for 26% of
total imports and 8.5% of GDP in 2017 [6]. In 2013, renewable
energy (RE) resources provide a maximum contribution to the
total energy mix of 2% [7–10]. The National Energy Strategy
for 2007–2020 is geared towards increasing reliance on local
energy sources by increasing their share from 4 to 40% by using
shale oil and alternative RE sources like wind and solar power
[11–12]. In 2018, Jordan was generating 1130 MW of power
from RE resources, accounting for about 11% of total electricity
requirements. According to the Ministry of Energy and Mineral
Resources (MEMR) report, the installed capacity in 2021 will have
more than doubled to 2400 MW [13].
Jordan has received a large influx of refugees (1.3 million
refugees) posing various challenges on the country’s economy and
infrastructure and has put pressure on all sectors including water,
municipal services and electricity supply [14–21]. Moreover,
Jordan is ranked second in the world in water scarcity and is
drastically influenced by climate change [22–27].
In 2015, three wind power plants were installed in Jordan at
three different places: one at Ibrahimyah, one at Hofa and the
third at Tafilah. The plant at Ibrahimyah is located about 80 km
north of Amman and has four wind turbines, with a rated capacity
of 0.08 MW. The second plant at Hofa, about 92 km north of
Amman, operates five wind turbines with a rated capacity of
0.225 MW. The third plant at Tafilah in the southwestern part of
Jordan has a rated capacity of 117 MW [28].
In order to increase the share of wind energy in Jordan, a new
wind farm is proposed to be constructed northwest of Amman.
This paper presents a proposed methodology for the assessment
and planning of a new wind farm in the foreseen site, as well as an
economic analysis of the project.
These discussed planning stages include initial assessment of
the project, followed by the selected site characterization, then the
validation of data and detailed profit generation projection and
finally the implications [29].
Key aspects and feasibility assessment of the proposed wind farm in Jordan
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Figure 2. Transmission lines and generators in Jordan [ 32].
height of 3 m above the ground level. In the proposed site, there is
an adequate and regular supply of wind with annual mean wind
speed of 19.9–23.1 km/h and mean temperatures between 11.2
and 21.5◦ C [31].
The wind farm shall be designed for 100 MW. However, there is
limited land area availability in Ajlun city for implementing such
huge wind farms and therefore higher power wind turbines are
recommended to limit the area needed. For instance, 2.0-MW
turbines (or higher) are preferred. Vestas V90 2.0 MW fulfills the
requirements of the project. Figure 3 depicts the power curve of
this wind turbine.
Wind speed is in a cubic relationship with output wind power,
and the wind turbine generates power only when wind speed is
high and it is between ‘cut in wind speed (4 m/s) and cut out wind
speed (25 m/s) [31]’ (Figure 3).
The data analysis and the assessment of the wind energy potential are based on the Vestas V90 2.0-MW wind turbine. Wind
speed is estimated at a height of 80 m (corresponding to the hub
height) where the turbine should be installed based on the local
site characteristics.
Wind data were recorded at around 3 m height, and the wind
turbine’s height is 80 m so it is essential to extrapolate wind
speed from 3 to 80 m height in order to acquire accurate power
output. The estimation of the wind speed bases on the logarithmic
Figure 3. Power curve for the Vestas V90 wind turbine: the blue curve for the
2.0-MW turbine and the red curve for the 1.8-MW turbine [ 33].
law [34].
ln
z
zo
u(z)
= u (zr )
ln zzor
(1)
International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2020, 15, 97–105
99
M. Al-Addous et al.
Table 1. Energy generation estimation for a single 2 MW wind turbine.
Wind speed band at
turbine heights (m/s)
Annual electricity
production (MWh)
138
48
68
384
404
542
1382
729
1498
694
613
976
367
505
149
99
102
24
24
5
3
4
1
2
0.2
0
0
8761
0
0
0
0
40
108
498
401
1229
819
919
1855
734
1009
297
198
203
49
48
10
7
8
1
3
0.4
0
0
8436
where
u(z): wind speed at 80 m height
u(zr ): wind speed at 3 m height
z o : surface roughness (some trees hedges z = 1.5 m) [9]
z = 80 m (turbine height)
zr = 3 m (reference height)
At the height of 80 m, the wind speed will be a multiplication
of the wind speed at 3 m high by factor 1.39. It can be represented
as [u(at 80 m) = 1.3925 × u(at 3 m)], where u represents the wind
speed.
Using this result and the power curve of the wind turbine
(Figure 3), the electricity production at the site can be estimated
based on the available wind data from 1998 to 2011. Table 1 shows
this estimation for the measured wind speed bands from 0 to
26 m/s for a single 2-MW wind turbine, while Figure 4 depicts
this estimation graphically.
Based on Table 1, the expected average energy production per
year and wind turbine is 8437 MWh or an average energy production of 0.96 MWh per hour.
3.2. Wind farm design and required infrastructure
3.2.1. Wind farm design
For the construction of a 100-MW wind plant, 50 units of the
chosen 2-MW wind turbine are required. The layout of the array
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International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies 2020, 15, 97–105
Figure 4. Annual electricity productions in megawatt-hours for each wind speed
band.
Figure 5. Rose of wind direction versus wind speed in kilometers per hour.
must take into account the site area and turbine characteristics to
minimize array losses.
Array losses amount to a maximum value of 10% if turbines
are spaced 8 to 10 rotor diameters apart in the prevailing wind
direction and 5 rotor diameters apart in the crosswind direction
[32]. The rotor diameter of Vestas V90 2.0 MW is 90 m [31]. This
results in the following:
Required distance in the crosswind direction: 5 ∗ 90 m = 450 m
Required distance in the downwind direction: 10 ∗ 90 m = 900 m
The proposed location experiences mainly wind from southeast as shown in Figure 5, so southeast is assumed as the prevailing
wind direction in setting the wind farm layout.
The project site has an area of 13770000 m2 . In order to guarantee the maximum array efficiency by respecting the minimum
distances of 450 and 900 m between the turbines, the 50 turbines
will be installed as depicted in Figure 6 with 16 turbines on the
first line and 17 each for the second and third lines.
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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Total
Hour per year
Key aspects and feasibility assessment of the proposed wind farm in Jordan
Figure 7. Inner road layout of the wind farm.
Figure 8. Two substations location for the proposed wind farm.
3.2.2. Infrastructure requirements
The selected location of the project is linked by a road extending
from the highway. Thus, the site needs to have a distance more
than 500 m from the road in order to minimize the noise effect
[35].
In order to meet the requirement for turbine erection, crane
transportation and construction, the main access roads should be
10 m wide. Other roads which do not need to transport the crane
may be around 6 m wide. For easy transportation of the turbine
blade, the horizontal and vertical alignments of the main access
roads should be 45 m long, so civil work requires building the road
for blade and crane transportation purposes. This is indicated in
Figure 7.
In order to connect the wind farm to the grid, a specific infrastructure is required. This comprises a substation and converter
system; the substation will be used in the conversion of the
electricity from 33 to 220 kV. There will also be a control room
and switch room. There will be two substations, one located at
the northwest corner and the second at the southeast corner. This
is shown in Figure 8.
Noise pollution is a problem that is closely linked with operating a wind farm and thus needs to be controlled. It is, therefore,
important to carefully choose a wind converter system which
is noise-free or reduce it to the barest minimum. V90-2MW is
operated with innovative technology to reduce sound production
and energy consumption effectively. The wind successfully gains
access into a cooling system (i.e. heat exchanger) in order to
cool down the electrical components and the moving parts. It
has low noise production level and could be operated in defined
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Figure 6. Turbine array for the proposed site.
M. Al-Addous et al.
3.3.2. Social and environmental issues associated with the wind
farm
Wind power is a RE source that has been in use for decades for
generating electricity for local energy supply and local consumption. However, there are certainly environmental issues which
might arise from the construction of a wind farm, and they
should be adequately considered, some of which include water
consumption, noise, visual impact, shadow flicker and wildlife
which are discussed in the following paragraphs.
sound levels. In addition, the new design of its blades is produced
with carbon fiber, and it has an area of 3∗44 m; also, many
lightweight materials are applied in V90-2MW. The design is
revolutionary and is more acceptable to people. The sensitivity
of the blades to dirt is reduced. Therefore, V90-2MW is suitable
for the proposed wind farm, and it has been chosen for that
purpose.
The power from the turbine will be transmitted to the substation via a 33-kV cable. Most of the cables will be buried along the
road, while some of them need to be above the ground for specific
conditions. Turbines in each row are connected due to their
similar output and then connected to the substations. The detailed
interconnection is as represented in Figure 9. The red lines show
the interconnection between each turbine and connection to the
substation. The external transmission connects the substations
of the proposed farmland to the national grid substation. It is
possible to connect to the national grid directly.
A network of computer systems, a signal cable from the
turbine, a transducer on the mast and an electrical transducer
will be installed and used for communication, control and data
collection.
3.3.4. Noise
Noise pollution has always been a big problem to the existence of
wind farm. However, evidence has shown that certain measures
can be put in place to bring it to the barest minimum. The
noise produced by wind turbines has two distinct sources: the
aerodynamic and mechanical ones. The first type is caused by an
interaction between rotor blades and relative wind, and the second
type is due to mechanical parts of the system such as gears. The
sound level depends on two main factors which include design
and wind speed. Although there is no evidence to show that noise
produced by wind turbines is harmful to humans’ health, we still
need to ensure a reasonably low noise level.
It has been proven by modern wind turbine design that
mechanical noise is insignificant and can be reduced by changing
the blade design and operation, so the dominant noise caused by
wind turbines is aerodynamic [37]. This type of noise ranges from
infrasound to normal audible range and can be minimized by a
careful design of the blades by manufacturers, such as changing
the blade pitch or the shape of the trailing edge. The sound level
for a 1-MW wind turbine at a distance of 300 m from is 45 dBA.
In addition, there are only a few people living around the location
of the planned wind farm.
3.3. Assessment of the proposed design
3.3.5. Visual impact
The health impact of visual burdens cannot be underestimated.
Rotating wind turbine blades interrupt the sunlight producing an
unavoidable flicker bright enough to pass through closed eyelids,
and moving shadows cast by the blades on windows can affect
illumination inside the building. Though it is difficult to set
standards to be accepted by everyone, it seems quite essential to be
supported by local communities, especially in some areas where
the landscape amenity is of high value [38]. Some studies have
shown that wind farms are more acceptable visually to people who
have been informed of the benefits derived from their use. It also
3.3.1. Energy generation
The wind farm consists of 50 wind turbines of type Vestas V90 2.0 MW which are installed (Section 3.2.) at the
required distance to achieve an efficiency of above 90% (for
instance, the efficiency includes array efficiency (mutual interference among turbines) and availability (programmed maintenance)). Based on the assumed annual power generated
by an isolated turbine of 8437 MWh (Table 1), we can calculate the expected total energy of the whole wind farm
as90% ∗ (8436.878 MWh ∗ 50) = 379.65951 GWh
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Figure 9. Interconnection layout of turbines.
3.3.3. Water consumption
More importantly, as an increasingly water-stressed country,
water consumption is vital and is a great concern especially for
Jordan. It is reported that wind energy consumes relatively much
less water (0.004 L/kWh) when compared with conventional
power plants (i.e. oil power plant consumes 1.6 L/kWh) [36].
By reducing the usage of water, water can be preserved and used
for other purposes in Jordan.
Key aspects and feasibility assessment of the proposed wind farm in Jordan
Table 2. Economic assumptions used in this study.
Assumption
Cost
Notes
Installation cost
The operation and maintenance Costs
the capital cost:
Interest rate
Inflation
Operation time
1.5$/watt
$3.75 M/year
$150 M
7%
3%
20 years
(Operation: 2.5%, other capital: 7%, site works: 24.5%, wind turbines: 66%)
annual costs for wind turbines 2.5% of the original turbine cost
30% from investors ($45 M), 70% bank loan ($105 M))
Table 3. Electricity selling prices, profitability and IRR
Electricity selling price ($/MWh)
Net profit/losses ($)
IRR
$7593190.20
$9491487.75
$11389785.30
$13,288,082.85
$15,186,380.40
$17,084,677.95
−$3806809.80
−$1908512.25
−$10214.70
$1888082.85
$3,786,380.40
$5,684,677.95
−3%
0%
3%
6%
9%
11%
has been indicated that farming and livestock are unaffected by
existing wind farms, and nearly 99% of the land is available for
farming or other uses [39]. In order to minimize the aesthetic and
amenity impacts, some special characteristics of design need to be
taken into consideration to maintain the public acceptance.
3.3.6. Shadow flicker
The constantly changing light intensity caused by moving blades
is the cause of shadow flickers. It produces shadow which is cast on
stationery objects like windows at the dwelling [40]. This shadow
is also cast on land and houses when the turbines rotate having
the sun behind it [39]. This may lead to dizziness for people
living around there, and it also causes nausea when they look at
the movement of the blades. However, this project is not affected
by this as only a few people live on this farm. Also, the impact
of shadow flickers on roads should be considered, but because
the location is 2 km away from the highway, it is therefore not
necessary to bother about this.
3.3.7. Wildlife
The great danger may be given by transmission lines and wind
turbines to wildlife especially birds considering their species, location and time. The impacts may occur in several ways [40], such
as displacement of the birds, for instance, they are sent away from
the site either temporarily or permanently. Moreover, the birds
may collide with rotating blades of the turbine, and this can cause
serious injury or death of the birds. Also, noise from construction
activities and rotation of turbines may have a negative effect on the
birds [41]. Sometimes, local birds are also affected when feeding,
breeding and laying eggs.
The birds can actually avoid collision with turbine blades; they
still continue to breed and feed when construction is going on.
However, if the migration route of the birds passes through the
project site, it may pose a serious danger to the birds. However,
the blades of large turbines rotate slowly because of aerodynamic
and acoustic reasons [42].
3.3.8. Economic analysis
After assessing the technical feasibility as well as the socioenvironmental issues related to the planned wind farm, an
economic analysis is required before a final decision regarding
the project can be taken.
The costs of constructing the wind farm are as follows: installation cost 1.5$/watt (operation: 2.5%, other capital: 7%, site works:
24.5%, wind turbines: 66%); operation and maintenance costs—
annual costs for wind turbines 2.5% of the original turbine cost
($3.75 M/year); capital cost—30% from investors ($45 M) and
70% bank loan ($105 M); interest rate 7% and inflation 3%; and
the time of operation in years: 20 years, as shown in Table 2.
The profitability of the wind farm in the proposed site depends
on the electricity selling price as shown in Table 3.
Any average price less than $30.03/MWh will lead to losses
from the capital cost while that higher than $36.65/MWh
(IRR = 7%) or more will be profitable based on the assumptions
mentioned above based on the existing roads with no extra costs
to build any roads.
4. STUDY LIMITATION AND FUTURE
INVESTIGATION
Wind speed measurements were used from 1998 to 2011 at 3 m
above the surface. Then, the annual energy production (AEP)
at 80 m has been obtained assuming a neutral logarithmic wind
profile with a 1.5-m roughness length. Due to the characteristics of
this site (which is most likely a diurnal cycle and wind directiondependent roughness length), the uncertainties in this approach
are thus considered of high significance.
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20
25
30
35
40
45
Annual return ($)
M. Al-Addous et al.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Jordan lacks energy resources and is dependent on the use of
crude oil, totally imported from neighboring Arab oil-producing
countries. The government of Jordan puts much effort to build
and conserve energy for the country in order to enhance rapid
development and usage of alternative sources of energy.
Wind assessment for a proposed wind farm in Jordan showed
that for 79% of the year, commercial turbines forming the wind
farm generate electricity and 20.8% of the year this turbine
generates electricity on a full rated power of 2 MW. A proposed
wind farm in Ajloun, north of Jordan, is feasible and can
be highly profitable with an annual electricity production of
about 380 GWh/year and an average selling electricity price of
$30.027/MWh which is highly competitive compared with the
price of other RE sources. Geotechnical, environmental and safety
requirements were outlined which do not give any counter against
proceeding with the project.
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For future investigation, and in order to assess the local
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