Universitatea “Dunărea de Jos” din Galați
Departamentul pentru Învăţământ la Distanţă
şi cu Frecvenţă Redusă
Limba engleză contemporană
Fonetică și fonologie. Lexicologie
Gabriela Dima
Facultatea de Litere
Specializarea:
Limba și literatura română – Limba și literatura engleză
Anul I, Semestrul 1
,,Dunarea de Jos’’ University of Galati
Faculty of Letters
Limba engleză contemporană
Fonetică și fonologie
(English Phonetics and Phonology)
Prof.univ.dr. Gabriela Dima
Galaţi
2017
Table of contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................ 5
Learning Unit no. 1
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS ..................................................................... 7
1.1. The Speech Mechanism. The Vocal Organs ......................................................... 7
1.1.1. Articulation and Articulators ........................................................................... 9
1.2. Articulatory Classification of Speech Sounds ..................................................... 9
1.2.1. Contoids / Consonant - Type Sounds ........................................................... 10
1.2.2. Vocoids / Vowel-Type Sounds....................................................................... 12
Learning Unit no. 2
ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY PHONETICS ................................................ 15
2.1. Acoustic Phonetics ............................................................................................... 15
2.1.1. Acoustic Characteristics of Speech Sounds ............................................... 15
2.1.2. Acoustic Classification of Speech Sounds .................................................. 16
2.2. Auditory Phonetics ............................................................................................... 17
Learning Unit no. 3
THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM ............................................... 19
3.1. The Phoneme Theory............................................................................................ 19
3.1.1. Diachronic Apercu to the Theory of Phoneme............................................. 19
3.1.1.1. The Prague Phonological School ................................................................. 19
3.1.1.2. The London Phonological School .................................................................. 20
3.1.1.3. The American Phonological School ............................................................ 20
3.1.2. Present-Day Approach to the Theory of Phoneme ...................................... 20
3.2. Total Inventory of English Phonemes ................................................................. 22
3.2.1. Vowel Phonemes ............................................................................................ 23
3.2.2. Diphthongs...................................................................................................... 24
3.2.3. Consonant Phonemes .................................................................................... 25
3.2.4. Semi-Vowels /j,w/............................................................................................ 28
Learning Unit no. 4
SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH .......................................................... 29
4.1. Phoneme Changes in Connected Speech .......................................................... 30
4.1.1. Assimilation .................................................................................................... 30
4.1.2. Elision.............................................................................................................. 30
4.2. Stress / Accent. The Nature of Stress / Accent .................................................. 31
4.2.1. Stress Position ............................................................................................... 32
4.2.2. Stress in Connected Speech ......................................................................... 32
4.3. The Syllable. Syllable Formation ......................................................................... 33
Learning Unit no. 5
PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY ................................................. 35
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5.1. Pronunciation Standard of British English .........................................................35
5.2. Phonetic Transcription .........................................................................................35
5.3. Rules of Orthography. English Orthography ......................................................36
EXERCISES................................................................................................. 37
Part 1. Vowels ...............................................................................................................37
Part 2. Diphthongs........................................................................................................53
Part 3. Consonants .......................................................................................................60
REFERENCES............................................................................................. 73
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Learning a foreign language is always in some measure repeating an old experience,
that of communicating through words, and even if variety may be enormous, all languages
are alike because people are alike in their capacity of transmitting messages in a uniquely
human way: "Human language is a system of vocal-auditory communication using
conventional signs composed of arbitrary patterned sound units and assembled according
to set rules, interacting with the experience of its users " (Bolinger 1968: 20). No matter
how conventionalized the language may be, it enables us to interact, to construct
meaningful messages.
An important word here is ‘construct’ because for communication to be successful,
messages need to have organization and structure as language has. In connection with
that, linguists generally consider the existence of three levels: sounds, words and syntax.
In turn, each level manifests itself in three ways. The first is simply the existence of units at
each level, elements or ‘particles’ that populate it. The second is the affinities that particles
show when speakers combine them or how they assort themselves in strings, with
limitation on how many can go together or which ones precede and which ones follow. The
third is the field relationships among the particles, the way in which each fits into the
grammatical system of particles at its own level.
Since our main interest falls upon the level of sounds, the following discussion aims
at proving the rightfulness of the description above.
Thus, at the level of sound we first find the sound particles themselves, for example /
i, e, m /. Then, there are the strings -syllables and parts of syllables -within which the
particles combine in characteristic ways: one trait of the particle /s/ is that it can join with a
following / l / but not with a following / r / to form the beginning of a syllable, e.g. sleep,
slash, slide, etc. Last, there are the contrastive field relationships among the particles as
displayed, for instance, by the vowel system. It follows that part of the description of
language must read as if the sounds that entered into the organization of language were
indispensable as the organization itself. Language is sound in the same sense that a given
house is wood. We can conceive of other materials, but it is as if the only tools we had
were woodworking ones.
Though no two languages are identical, this way of structuring the level of sound is
similar enough to generalize about it and such a generalization is achieved by the science
of phonetics.The word phonetics is derived from the Greek phonema meaning sound, and
it is nowadays used to define that branch of linguistics which studies the sounds of
speech. Phonetics is an essential part of language since it gives language a definite form.
The vocabulary and grammar of a language can function only when the language has a
phonetic form.
Being a branch of linguistics, it occupies a twofold peculiar position:
a) On the one hand, it is quite independent and develops according to its own laws:
phonemes and their distribution in words; their reciprocal adaptation in words; stress;
syllable formation; intonation; the relation between oral and written speech, etc. The
following examples will illustrate this:
- Words are expressed in the phonetic form and can be analyzed into sounds. One
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
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Introduction
word may differ from another in one sound only, e.g. big [ b i g]; bag [b æ g]; bog [ b‫ כ‬g ].
- The three main forms of the so-called ‘irregular’ verbs in English, which are the
result of a long historical development of the English language, are also expressed in
phonetic form and differ from one another because of vowel alternations in the root:
e.g. rise - rose - risen
[ai] [ou] [i]
swim -swam- swum
[i]
[æ]
[Λ]
Remark:
One should avoid considering sounds in isolation without taking into account the
linguistic function they perform in view of their formal patterning and arrangement.
b) On the other hand, phonetics is closely connected with a number of other
sciences, such as physics (or rather acoustics), biology, physiology and others which help
one understand the intricate process of producing speech sounds according to universal
laws.
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Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Articulatory Phonetics
Learning Unit no. 1
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS
For methodological purposes, the science of phonetics proper has
been separated into three distinct areas:
a) Articulatory Phonetics which represents the study of the way in
which speech sounds are produced (articulated) by the vocal
organs.
b) Acoustic Phonetics which represents the study of the physical
properties of speech sounds as transmitted between mouth and
ear.
c) Auditory Phonetics which studies the perceptual response to
speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain.
These three areas are interdependent and condition each other.
Apart from the types of phonetic sciences mentioned above, there
are several other types of phonetics according to their specific field of
investigation (see Chiţoran 1978, Rogers 2000).The phonetician who
works within the field of articulatory phonetics is interested in the way in
which the air is set in motion, in the movements of the speech organs and
the coordination of these movements in the production of single sounds
and chains of sounds.
1.1. The Speech Mechanism. The Vocal Organs
In terms of the mechanisms which produce the sounds of speech, we
can consider the action of speaking as produced in four principal phases:
- The lungs, activated by the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles
of the chest, send up the air into the passages above them.
- The vocal cords, two folds of ligament and elastic tissue opening
from the windpipe into the throat, may vibrate as they allow the air to pass.
- The velum, or soft palate, may open or close off the nasal cavity.
- The mouth, the most flexible of the resonance chambers of the
system, finally determines the quality of the emerging sound.
Thus, the four stages involve the lungs, the vocal cords, the velum
and the mouth. The lungs, in turn, are acted upon by powerful muscles of
the thorax and the abdomen.
This is worth remembering: speech is far from being an activity of the
tongue or mouth, and much closer to being an activity of the whole body,
intimately bound up with breathing, upon which life itself depends. Our
speech, as many poets have perceived, is in a sense our breath. Speech
requires very considerable energy. It has been calculated that reciting for
one hour takes the same amount of energy as walking for the same time
along a road which climbs to over 300 feet.
A cross-section of the vocal organs will show:
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Articulatory Phonetics
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
The trachea or windpipe;
The larynx, a casing of cartilage and muscle protecting
the trachea;
The vocal cords, two sheets of elastic tissue;
The esophagus, or gullet, the food-passage;
The
epiglottis, a fold drawn over the windpipe when
swallowing;
The pharynx, the cavity between the back of the tongue and the
back wall of the throat;
The tongue, which has no obvious sub-divisions, but for
convenience is treated as having four parts: the tip, the blade,
the front and the back;
The uvula, the small appendage hanging at the back of the
throat from the soft palate;
The velum or soft palate, the soft, fleshy area behind the palate;
The hard palate, arched over the mouth;
The alveolar ridge, between the upper teeth and the beginning
of the curve of the hard palate;
The teeth;
The lips.
Although knowledge of the vocal organs is essential for the student, it
is probably pointless to try to memorize the diagram (see Gimson 1970: 8)
out of the relation to what the various organs do. One should accordingly
study the vocal organs in position or in movement for particular sounds,
and particularly for related sequences, e.g. / p, t, k / or / m, n, / (Rogers
2000: 44-50)
Since language depends on sound-contrasts, the main interest will
be to discover how the vocal organs establish the contrasts of speech:
(1) Contrasts of loudness or volume depending largely on the action
of the lungs and the muscles of the chest and diaphragm which control
them. These muscles provide the original power for nearly all the sounds
of speech besides controlling three important speech elements: breathgroups, syllables and stresses.
(2) Contrasts of voiced and unvoiced sounds, and contrasts of pitch,
depending largely on the vocal cords. The contrast of voiced and unvoiced
sounds distinguishes / p / and / b / and a number of other pairs of English
consonantal sounds. Referring to / v /, for instance, there is a vibration of
the vocal cords which do not vibrate in the same way as for [ f ]. We thus
call / v / a voiced and / f / an unvoiced sound. The distinction between
voiced and unvoiced sounds is very important in English.
(3) Contrasts of the third type are those of nasal and oral sounds,
controlled by the velum or soft palate which can be raised to close off the
nasal cavity from the mouth. The velum lowered, there is a closure in the
mouth and the air-stream escapes through the nose only. This is the
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Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Articulatory Phonetics
general position for the three nasal consonants / m, n, ŋ /, the three
consonantal sounds of RP morning. The velum raised, it represents the
normal position for all RP sounds except for the three nasal consonants
specified.
(4) The sound-contrasts of the fourth and most complex set arise in
the
mouth. These will be discussed in the chapter on vowels and
consonants.
1.1.1. Articulation and Articulators
Generally, sounds are classified in terms of their place and manner
of articulation in the vocal apparatus.
Articulation is the general term used in phonetics for the physiological
movements involved in modifying an airflow to produce the various types
of speech sounds, using the vocal tract above the larynx. In other words,
articulation of sounds is the work of our organs of speech. During the
process of phonation, the speech organs are constantly moving and
changing their positions. Thus, any specific part of the vocal apparatus
involved in the production of a sound is called an articulator.
Two kinds of articulators are mentioned in the literature: active
articulators which are the movable parts of the vocal apparatus, such as
the lips, the tongue, the lower jaw; passive articulators, those parts of the
vocal tract which cannot move, but which provide the active articulators
with points of reference, e.g. the roof of the mouth, the upper teeth, the
hard palate. Some authors consider the resonance chambers as
articulators, too: the pharynx, the mouth cavity and the nasal cavity.
1.2. Articulatory Classification of Speech Sounds
According to the majority of the works in the domain, speech sounds
are divided into vowels and consonants, a vowel being a voiced sound,
while a consonant a sound that goes with another sound to form a
syllable. It is evident that articulatory criteria are mixed up with linguistic
ones in order to establish this distinction. The following definitions are
usually provided in order to distinguish between vowels and consonants.
Thus, vowels have been characterized as the speech sounds in the
production of which the air-stream pushed out from the lungs does not
meet any considerable obstacle, while consonants are sounds which do
imply such an obstacle in their production.
Certain sounds [ l, r, m, n, ŋ, w, j ] will reveal characteristics which
are nearer to those of vowel sounds. This means that during their
production, the airstream escapes quite freely since it does not encounter
any major obstacle on its way out from the lungs, or, if it does, there is
always a possibility of by passing it). Because of these difficulties it has
been suggested to confine the use of the terms vowel and consonant to
phonology, where such a distinction can be based on the linguistic
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
9
Articulatory Phonetics
function of sounds, and to provide new terms such as vocoid - for the
vowel - type sounds and contoid for the consonant-type ones, for their
articulatory classification. The terms vocoid and contoid were suggested
by the American linguist Pike 1963.
Certain authors (Gimson 1970, Chiţoran 1978, O'Connor 1991)
underline the fact that the terms contoid and vocoid are used to refer
mainly to the phonetic division of sound types, whereas the terms vowel
and consonant are used to denote linguistic categories. With reference to
a strict phonetic description, contoids are better characterized in terms of
articulation since they involve easily observable movements and contact
or strictures between various organs of speech; vocoids are better
described in terms of auditory relationships which do not imply such
contacts or strictures.
The assignment of the sounds of English to one of these phonetic
classes is performed according to certain criteria observing that their
linguistic categorization does not always correspond to the phonetic one.
1.2.1. Contoids / Consonant - Type Sounds
As most speech sounds, English contoids are pulmonic egressive
sounds due to their production provided by the air-stream coming out
directly from the lungs, voiced or voiceless, with or without the vocal cords
vibration. Particularly, English contoid sounds are described and classified
also according to the following major criteria (a selection from
Gimson1970: 29-30).
a) Place of Articulation:
~
bilabial, case in which the lips are the primary active
articulators: [p, b, m]
~ labio-dental, case in which the sounds are articulated by the lower
lip against the upper teeth: [f, v]
~ dental, case in which the apex of the tongue articulates with the
upper teeth: [θ, ð]
~ alveolar, case in which the apex of the tongue articulates with the
alveolar ridge: [ t, d, s, z, n, l ]
~ post-alveolar, case in which the apex of the tongue articulates with
the back part of the alveolar ridge [r]
~ palato-alveolar, case in which the apex of the tongue is articulated
against the alveolar ridge with a simultaneous raising of the front of the
tongue against the hard palate: [ ∫, ʒ, t∫, dʒ ]
~ palatal, case in which the front part of the tongue articulates with
the hard palate:[j]
~ velar, case in which the back part of the tongue articulates with
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Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Articulatory Phonetics
the soft palate: [k, g, ŋ]
~ glottal, case in which the sounds are produced in the region of the
glottis, either by a complete obstruction or by a narrowing of the passage
between the vocal cords: [h].
b) Manner of Articulation
According to the type of obstruction met by the air- stream in the
production of English contoids, the following sounds are distinguished (a
selection from Gimson 1970: 30-31):
~ plosive, case in which a complete closure at some level within
the vocal tract is released suddenly, the sound being uttered with
some kind explosion: [p, b, t, d, k, g ]
~ affricate, case in which the complete closure is released very
slowly by separating the obstruction organs, thus leaving a narrow
passage for the air-stream to escape: [t∫, dʒ ].
~ nasal, case in which the obstruction is kept close with the
directing of the air-stream out through the nasal cavity: [ m, n, ŋ ]
~ fricative, case in which only a narrow passage is left for
the air-stream to escape, thus causing friction: [ f, v, s, z, θ, ð, ∫,
ʒ, h ]
~ lateral, case in which a partial closure takes place within the mouth
cavity, allowing the air-stream to escape on one or both sides of the cavity
/ contact: [l]
~ roll, case in which intermittent closures or taps occur when the
tongue tip touches repeatedly another speech organ, the palate: [r]
c) Force of Articulation
According to the volume of the air-stream and the tenseness of the
speech organs involved in their articulation, English contoids can be
classified into:
~ fortis, implying a larger volume of air and a firmer resistance at the
place of articulation: [ p, t, k, f, s, ∫, h ]
~ lenis, implying a smaller volume of air and a softer resistance at
the place of articulation: [ b, d, g, v, ʒ, ð, z]
Semi-vowels such as [w, j] are included among the consonant-type
sounds of English due to their marginal position in the syllable and
therefore to their lack of syllabic function; even if from the articulatory point
of view they are vowel-like sounds, since there is no major obstruction of
the speech tract in their production. Figure 1 is a schematic representation
of the classification of English consonants.
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Articulatory Phonetics
Point of
Articulation
Classes according to Mode of articulation
Stops
Plosives Affricates
Bilabial
m
f
t
Palatal
Velar
Glottal
t∫ d3
Rolls
w
v
θ, ð
s z
d
Palatoalveolar
Resonants
Nasals Laterals Semi
vowels
p b
Labiodental
Dental
Alveolar
Fricatives
∫
n
l
r
3
j
ŋ
k g
h
Figure 1. English Consonant-Type of Speech Sounds
1.2.2. Vocoids / Vowel-Type Sounds
Pulmonic egressive sounds, characterized by the free passage of the
air-stream on its way out from the lungs, vocoids in English can be
classified according to the following variables:
a) The position of the tongue and its degree of raising in relation to
the palate:
~ front, case in which the front part of the tongue is raised against
the palate: [i:, i, e, æ]
~ back, case in which the back part of the tongue is raised against
the palate: [u:,√,‫כ‬:,o, α: ]
~ central, case in which the central part of the tongue is raised
against the palate: [ 3:, ə, Λ].
~ close, case in which the tongue is high in the mouth:[ i:, u: ].
~ open, case in which the tongue is low in the mouth: [ æ, α:].
~ half-close and half-open, cases in which there take place
intermediary degrees of tongue raising against the palate (see Rogers
2000 :175-180 for the graphic representation of vowels’ production)
b) The position of the lips
~
rounded, case in which the lips may be rounded to a greater or
smaller degree: [o,‫כ‬:, u:,√ ]
~ unrounded, case in which the lips are spread: [ i:, i, e, æ, Λ, α:, 3:]
c) The degree of muscular tension
~ tense, case in which the muscles of the tongue and of the mouth
are tense:[ i:, u:, α:, 3: ,‫כ‬:]
~ lax, case in which the muscles of the tongue and of the walls
of the mouth are lax: [ √, i, e, æ, ə, Λ]
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Articulatory Phonetics
d) Duration
~ long or short, the length of the sounds depends considerably on
the actual position a given vocoid /vowel-type occupies in a word or
utterance, length which is always associated with muscular tension.
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Articulatory Phonetics
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Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics
Learning Unit no. 2
ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY PHONETICS
Any study on the nature of human speech sound-making cannot be
complete without integrating articulatory, acoustic and auditory
characteristics within a holistic approach, thus underlining the relationships
established between phonetics and such sciences as: anatomy,
physiology, psychology, physics, electronics, etc.
2.1. Acoustic Phonetics
2.1.1. Acoustic Characteristics of Speech Sounds
Acoustic Phonetics has been defined as that branch of general
phonetics which studies the physical properties of speech sounds, as
transmitted between mouth and ear. It is mostly the frequency and
amplitude characteristics of the sound waves which constitute the object of
study for both phonetics and physics.
In acoustic terms, the formation of any sound requires that a vibrating
medium should be set in motion by some kind of energy, the function of
vibrator is often fulfilled in the case of human speech mechanism by the
vocal cords, activated by the air pressure coming from the lungs.
Speech sounds, conveyed to our ears by means of waves of
compression and rarefaction of the air molecules, can have a "pure"
nature corresponding to regular patterns of vibrations and producing "tone"
e.g. in a vowel sound; or they can have an "impure" nature corresponding
to irregular patterns of vibrations and producing "noise" e.g. consonants;
both regular and irregular vibrations present can produce a "combination"
of tone and noise as in [z ].
Generally, in the production of vowels, the vibrator is normally
provided by the vocal cords; in the case of the majority of consonants, a
source of air disturbance is provided by constriction at a certain point
above the larynx with or without accompanying the vibrations of the vocal
cords.
As a matter of fact, the vocal cords vibrate in such a way as to
produce, in addition to a basic vibration over their whole length fundamental frequency - a number of overtones or harmonics, having
frequencies which are simple multiplies of the fundamental of first
harmonic (Rogers 2000). Using such experimental devices as the
spectrograph, it has been proved that the number and strength of the
component frequencies of the glottal tone will differ from one individual to
another, thus accounting for the differences of voice quality by which
speakers can be recognized.
The complex range of frequencies of varying intensity which go to
make up the quality of a sound is known as the acoustic spectrum: those
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Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics
bands of energy which are characteristics of a particular sound are known
as the sound's formants, e.g. formants of [α:] are said to occur in the
region of 800 and 1,100 c.p.s. (cycles per second).The higher the glottal
fundamental frequency, the higher our impression of pitch; pitch
judgments made on voiceless or whispered sounds without the glottal tone
are limited in comparison with those made on voiced sounds and are
induced mainly by variations of intensity or by the dominance of certain
harmonics brought about by the dispositions of the resonating cavities
(Gimson 1970: 22-23).
Apart from quality and pitch, mention must be made of such
acoustic characteristics of sounds as loudness and length providing for the
correlation between the production, transmission and reception stages of
speech.
Loudness may depend on some interdependent factors: the
intensity at the production stage which in turn is related to the size or
amplitude of the vibration and what we call the speaker's feeling for
stress, e.g. when a sound or syllable is stressed, it is being uttered
with more muscular effort, increased air pressure and greater amplitude of
vibration.
Length. Since the sounds comprising any utterance will have varying
durations, we will have the impression that some syllables are longer
than others. The duration of sounds or syllables will, of course, depend
upon the speed of utterance. In the English sound system, however, there
are only two degrees of length which are linguistically significant, long or
short sounds, all other absolute durations will be interpreted in terms of
this relationship.
2.1.2. Acoustic Classification of Speech Sounds
According to the data obtained from their spectrograms, vowels and
consonants are roughly classified into the following opposite classes:
a) compact / vs / diffuse
With compact vowels and consonants their main formants are
grouped near each other in the middle of the spectrum, e.g. the English
vowels: [æ, o ]; the English consonants: [k, g]. With diffuse vowels and
consonants their main formants are situated far apart at each of the two
extremities of the spectrum, e.g. the English vowels: [i:, u:]; the English
consonants: [t, d].
b) acute / vs / grave
The classification corresponds to the degree of frequency of the
second formant. Thus, for acute vowels, e.g. [ i:, i, e, æ ], the second
formant has a high frequency ( in the range of 1,800 - 2,300 c.p.s.); acute
consonants such as [t, d], also display a predominance of high frequency
having a sharp character. For grave vowels, e.g. [u:,√ ,‫כ‬:,o, α:], the second
formant has a much lower frequency ( in the range of 800 - 1000 c.p.s.);
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Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics
grave consonants such [p, b], display a predominance of lower
frequencies, too.
2.2. Auditory Phonetics
Auditory Phonetics deals with man's hearing mechanism, in other
words, with the perception and interpretation of speech sounds as
common areas of study for both physiology and psychology on the one
hand and phonetics on the other hand.
The main types of activities involved in the act of hearing have a
dualistic nature:
1) Physiological, which refers to the actual perception of speech
sounds and
their transmission to the brain by means of the hearing
organs. The main hearing organ which performs the audition proper is
the ear which is put to work by sound stimuli according to the following
mechanism: the surrounding air sets in motion the tympanum which in
turn activates the chain of bones; the movements of the bones convey the
reinforced vibrations to the oval window which consequently sets in
motion the liquid in the inner ear with the latter’s task of transmitting the
vibrations to the hair cells in the cochlea and from here they are
transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve.
2) Psychological, which consists in the interpretation of the sounds
in the auditory sensation area of the brain according to the following
pattern: the incoming acoustic stimulus is turned into a nervous one
which is transmitted to the brain, where the processing of the incoming
data takes place on the basis of the acoustic properties of the sounds,
frequency, amplitude and duration, and in relation to the hearer's
knowledge of his own language.
Summarizing, the functions performed by the auditory apparatus in
the perception, transmission and interpretation of speech sounds are:
- capturing of sound;
- transmission of sound;
- processing the incoming data by transforming the acoustic stimuli
into nervous ones;
- transmission to the brain;
- decoding of the information into the corresponding unit or units of
the respective language.
Concluding Remark:
Articulatory, Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics are closely interrelated
since they are the stages of one and the same phenomenon, fact proved
by referring, for instance, to the activity of the vocal cords when they are in
a state of vibration - articulatory fact-, voice will be produced - acoustic fact
-, while the auditory impression will be that of a musical tone - auditory
fact.
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Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics
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The English Phonological System
Learning Unit no. 3
THE ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM
Phonology has been generally defined as that branch of linguistics
which studies the sound systems of natural languages. Its aim is to
describe the range and function of sounds in the language and to establish
the rules according to which the types of phonetic relationships relate and
contrast words and other linguistic units. We can thus speak of a dynamic
treatment of speech sounds within phonology as opposed to the static one
within phonetics. For methodological reasons in approaching the domain,
there are usually recognized two branches of phonology: segmental
phonology which analyses speech into discrete segments, such as
phonemes; and suprasegmental phonology which analyses those features
which extend over more than one segment.
We can also mention the distinction between diachronic and
synchronic phonology, with the former studying patterns of sound change
in the history of language and the latter studying sound patterns
irrespective of the historical change.
3.1. The Phoneme Theory
3.1.1. Diachronic Apercu to the Theory of Phoneme
The history of phonology is largely taken up with the development of
ideas concerning the phoneme. Thus, a great number of linguists
belonging to various linguistic trends have written on the subject of
phonemes, their studies having much contributed to the present-day status
of the phoneme within the general phonological theory.
3.1.1.1. The Prague Phonological School
The main representative of the Linguistic Society of Prague was N.S.
Trubetzkoy who propounded his phonological views in a number of works,
the principal of which is Grundzuee der Phonologie. The aspects largely
dealt with in this study are: the separation of phonology from phonetics,
the theory of phonological oppositions and the theory of the archphoneme. In what concerns the separation of phonology from phonetics
Trubetzkoy developed de Saussure's principle of the separation of speech
(parole) from language (langue) by proclaiming a new science, phonology,
as distinct from phonetics: "The only aim of phonetics is to answer the
question how this or that is pronounced; phonology should investigate
which sound features in a given language are distinctive, what connection
there is between these distinctive elements, according to what rules they
may be combined into words or sentences"( Fischer-Jorgensen 1975:50).
Thus, a phonetician should study sounds without taking into consideration
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The English Phonological System
the meaning of what is said, while a phonologist should take into account
only those sound features which have a definite function in a language.
With reference to the theory of phonological oppositions, Trubetzkoy
further develops his system of oppositions by giving special prominence to
the most essential members:
a) the phoneme, which he defines as a unity of the phonological
relevant features of a sound.
b) the speech sound, which he defines as a unity of all the features,
both relevant and irrelevant of a sound representing the phoneme in
connected speech.
The linguist also emphasizes the fact that the inventory of the
phonemes of a language is practically a correlation of its system of
phonological oppositions.
Some oppositions may be neutralized, the phoneme in the position of
neutralization is the arch-phoneme, defined as a unity of relevant features
common to two phonemes.
3.1.1.2. The London Phonological School
Author of the most authoritative English Pronouncing Dictionary
(1965), Daniel Jones produced one of the most complex definitions of the
phoneme as "a family of sounds in a given language winch are related in
character and are used in such a way that no one member ever occurs in
a word in the same phonetic context as any other member” (Jones1965:
49). He also emphasized the fact that different members of the same
phoneme - allophones -are mutually exclusive; for instance, the [k] that is
used in keep cannot be used in call where we use a labialized [k], etc.,
underlining the importance of the phonetic context. Practice prone, Daniel
Jones gave the phoneme a practical application, useful in teaching
languages, in creating phonetic transcription, etc.
3.1.1.3. The American Phonological School
The phoneme theory in America may also be characterized as
structuralist through the synchronic and descriptive treatment of phonetics,
thus, paying full tribute to de Saussure's principle according to which all
linguistic phenomena are to be analyzed synchronically, without any
connection with history.
Frequently alluded to as one of the most representative
descriptivists, Leonard Bloomfield underlines the distinctive function of the
phoneme in his definition of the phoneme as "a minimum unit of distinctive
sound - feature" (Bloomfield1965).
3.1.2. Present-Day Approach to the Theory of Phoneme
A phoneme can be described in a preliminary way as "the smallest
contrastive linguistic unit which may bring about a change of meaning"
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The English Phonological System
(Gimson 1970:44). What this description means is evident if we compare
ten and ken. Thus, we can bring about a change of meaning for ken by
substituting /t/ for /k/, and [t] and /k/ are the smallest units which we can
exchange in order to make this alteration. We could even make a rather
long list of the phonemes of English by collecting sets of contrasts like that
of ken and ten; adding words of the same pattern to the original pair, we
arrive at the following possible list: bed, den, fen,gen, hen, ken, men, pen,
wren, ten, when, yielding eleven contrasting sound-units.
The list ought not to be limited to sounds at the beginnings of words
or syllables, but we should consider sounds in any position, such as the
middle elements of such pairs as bid and bad, or the final elements of
such pairs as bid and bit. This would yield to such lists as: bid, bit, bin, bill,
etc. varying the final element or bid, bead, bed, bad, bud, booed, board,
bard, bird, varying the middle element. Proceeding, we can compare the
words pin, tin, and kin. They are distinguished by the contrasts of the
phonemes /p/, /t/ and /k/, contrasts based on simple differences between
three units of sounds. The closure and the release are common to all
three, but they are distinguished by the point of closure: each, in other
words, is formed in a particular and distinctive way, but the three form a
set with certain elements in common.
The keyword of the above mentioned description is contrastive; our
ability to "hear" a language depends entirely on our ability to hear
contrasts between phonemes. Accordingly, we can extend the definition of
the phoneme.
A phoneme is evidently not one particular sound so much as "a
family of sounds in a given language which are related in character"
(Jones 1965) and which, in spite of minor differences, " sound the same to
a native speaker of the language" (O’Connor 1991). Such a family is the
group of sounds which in English includes aspirated and non-aspirated /p/.
The English variants of /t/ form a second family and those of /k/, a third.
Each variant or class of the /p/, /t / or /k/ families may be said to
constitute an allophone of the phonemes /p/, /t/ or /k/; for instance,
people asking Where's the car? will differ in their individual renderings
of /k/, though they will all produce a /k/ appropriate to the back vowel of
car.
The types of /k/ thus produced are said to be in complementary
distribution, which means that each "occurs in a fixed set of contexts in
which none of the others occur" (Gimson 1970). It is important to realize
that the complementary distribution of allophones ensures that they are
non-distinctive. A distinctive feature is one for which we have a choice.
Given the pattern:
Where's the /k-/?
we have a limited choice of units completing it : /i:/ if our meaning is key,
/з:/ for cur and / α:/ for car.
Allophones, generally speaking, are manifestations of a phoneme
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The English Phonological System
which are either in free variation or in complementary distribution.
To understand the role of the phoneme in English, it might be helpful
to summarize a number of points. While a basic concept like that of the
phoneme can probably never be completely defined, it is always advisable
to set up a bundle of characteristic features connected to it, features which
will give it shape:
a) A phoneme is distinctive: any phonemic contrast in a given
language, such as that of / p/ and /b/ in English, signals (in the given
language) a contrast of meaning, e.g. that of pun and bun or pin and bin.
The words contrasted by the difference of a single phoneme are called
minimal pairs.
b) A phoneme is without meaning, though it is a unit for constructing
meaningful sequences of sounds.
c) The sounds which are the manifestations of a phoneme are
variable (e.g. clear and dark /l/, aspirated and non-aspirated / p /, etc.); the
phoneme is thus, a class or family of sounds rather than a single
invariable sound-unit.
d) The variant forms or allophones of the same phoneme in a
given language are non-distinctive, e.g. no changes of meaning in
English are signaled by the contrast of aspirated and non-aspirated
/p/. Allophones are either in free variation or in complementary
distribution.
e) A phoneme is a feature of a given language; although two
different languages ay have phonemes which are relatively similar in
articulation, sound or distribution, there is no such thing as a
phoneme common to two or more languages.
3.2. Total Inventory of English Phonemes
It is possible to establish the phonemes of a language by means of a
process of commutation or the discovery of minimal pairs, i.e. pairs of
words which are different in respect of only one sound segment. The
series of words pin, bin, tin, din, kin, chin, gin, fin, thin, sin, shin, win
supplies us with twelve words which are distinguished simply by a change
in the first (consonantal) element of the sound sequence. We may
symbolize these elements of contrastive significance or phonemes, as /
p, b, t, d, k, t∫, d3, f, θ, s, ∫, w/. But other sound sequences will show
other consonantal oppositions, e.g.:
(1) tame, dame, game, lame, main, name, adding /g, l, m, n / to our
inventory;
(2) pie, tie, buy, thigh, thy, vie, adding / θ, ð ,ν/;
(3) pot, tot, cot, lot, yacht, hot, rot, adding /j, h, r /;
(4) two, do, who, woo, zoo, adding /z/.
Such comparative procedures reveal twenty-two consonantal
phonemes capable of contrastive function initially in a word. It is not
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The English Phonological System
sufficient, however, to consider merely one position in the word.
Possibilities of phonemic opposition have to be investigated in medial and
final positions as well as in the initial ones. Such an analysis of the
consonantal phonemes of English will give us a total of twenty- four
phonemes, of which four ( / h, r, 3, ŋ /) are of restricted occurrence, or six,
if /w, j / are admitted.
Similar procedures may be used to establish the vowel phonemes of
English.
3.2.1. Vowel Phonemes
A. Presentation: / i:, i, e, æ, Λ,α:,o,‫כ‬:,√,u:, З:,ə/
B. Description
The twelve vowels which make up the inventory of English vowel
phonemes have been established by applying the commutation and
substitution methods. It is important to realize that (simple) English vowels
may contrast with one another in several different ways. The most relevant
contrastive factors are tongue-position, length and lip-rounding, etc.
a) Tongue - position
This is the primary mechanism for contrasting vowels. Vowels
such as /i:,u:,i, √ /, for which the tongue is high in the mouth, are called
close in contrast to open vowels such as /α:, æ, o, Λ /, for which
the tongue is relatively low in the mouth.
b) Length
Five of the twelve simple vowels are normally long : / i:, u:, α:,‫כ‬:, З: /
The colon after the symbol is a reminder that the vowel is long. The
remaining simple vowels are normally short: / i, e, æ, Λ, o, √, ə /
The actual length of the vowels classed as “long” varies considerably
with their environment. A “long” vowel is longer in a syllable ending with a
voiced consonant, such as /d/ or /z/, and shorter in a syllable ending with
an unvoiced consonant, such as / t / or / s /.
c) Lip-rounding
Four of the five back vowels /u:, √,‫כ‬:,o / are spoken with somewhat
rounded lips. This rounding is most evident for / u:/, slighter for /√/ and /‫כ‬:/,
/o/ may have no rounding at all.
Remark:
The degree of lip-rounding decreases as we move down the series of
the back vowels: for the high back vowel /u:/ it is quite pronounced; for the
low back vowel / α: / the lips are "neutrally open".
C. Spelling:
/i:/: free, be, dream, key, machine
e/: bed, dead, any
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The English Phonological System
/æ/: cat, glad, marry, plait
/Λ /: cut, son, young, blood
/ α:/: pass, part, heart, sergeant, calm
/o /: dog, was, cough
/‫כ‬:./: for, saw, ought, all, door
/√ /: put, woman, good, could
/u:/: food, do, soup, rude, chew
/ з:/: bird, her, turn, word
/ə/: about, mother, doctor, colour
D. Sample Analysis
For a shorthand description, it is sufficient to label a vowel as:
- High, mid or low;
- Front, centre or back;
- Short or long.
Thus, /æ/ is relatively low, front and short;
/u:/ is high, back and long;
/з: / is mid-central, long;
/ə / is mid-central, short.
3.2.2. Diphthongs
A. Presentation: /ai/, /ei/,/ ‫כ‬i/, /a√/, /ə√/, /iə/, /εə , /√ə/
B. Description
Diphthongs have been defined as sequences of two (vocalic
/ consonantal) sounds. In English, diphthongs have been treated
as being made up of a vowel nucleus followed by one of the glides
/i/,/√/,/ə/, as presented below:
a) Glides to / i / : / ai /; /ei /; /‫כ‬i/
~ for /ai/,the vowel of mine or lime, the glide is from a low
front position to a higher one, i.e. from the neighboring of cardinal
[a] in the direction of /i/.
~ /ei/, the vowel of mailed, or lady or pay, is a much shorter
glide, upwards, towards /i/, from a mid-front position. Cockney
speakers usually substitute [ai], as in the lyrics The rain in Spain
stays mainly in the plain, from My Fair Lady: [laidi, spain], etc.
~ /‫כ‬i/, the vowel of toil or voice, is a glide forwards and
somewhat upwards from a lowback position.
b) Glides to /√/: /a√ /, /ə√ /
~ /a√ /, the vowel of out or cloud, is an upward glide in the
direction of / √ /, starting from a point about midway between the
positions for cardinal [a], with the lips slightly rounded.
~ / ə √ /, the vowel of bone or goal has a variable starting
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The English Phonological System
point: near schwa / ə / or farther back at about the level of cardinal
[o].
c) Glides to / ə /: /i ə/; /ε ə /; / √ ə /
~ / i ə /, the vowel of deer or fear, is a glide to a mid-central position
from a higher front one: approximately from /i/ to / ə /.
~ /εə/, the vowel of pear or dare, is also a glide towards a mid-central
position, but this time from a starting point near cardinal [ε].
~ / √ ə /, the vowel of poor or tour, is a glide towards a mid-central
position from a fairly high back one.
3.2.3. Consonant Phonemes
A. Presentation: /p, t, k, b, d, g, tſ , dʒ, f, θ, s, ð, v, z, ∫, ʒ, h, m, n, ŋ, l,
r, j, w/
The twenty-four consonants which make up the inventory of English
consonant phonemes have also been established by applying the
commutation and substitution methods. In order to get an overall view of
the whole range of consonantal sounds, we can arrange them in a number
of groups, each group having in common a certain mechanism of
articulation.Thus, it is assumed that as soon as you understand the
formation and the characteristics of particular groups, you will be in a
position to begin exploring the system as a whole.
B. Description. Types of Consonant Phonemes
a) Plosives: / p, b; t, d; k, g /
The complete articulation of an English plosive sound follows three
stages: closure, interrupting the airstream; hold, during which the air
behind the closure is compressed; release, the abrupt escape of air. Since
the compression of air behind an oral closure is a feature of all English
plosives, the velum is raised for all sounds in this group to prevent the
escape of air through the nasal cavity. The oral closure is made by the lips
for /p, b/= bilabial plosives; between the alveolar ridge and the tip and
blade of the tongue for /t, d/ = alveolar plosives; and between the back of
the tongue and the velum for /k, g/ = velar plosives.
The six English plosives are also distinguished from one another in a
number of different ways:
- by voice: /b, d, g / are normally voiced
: /p, t, k / are not voiced
- by energy: /p ,t ,k / are fortis (strong)
: /b ,d, g / are lenis (weak)
Spelling:
/p/: pun, spend, stop
/b/: boy, about, grab
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The English Phonological System
/t/: time, attend, trend, act, stopped
/d/: dice, Adam, and, add
/k /: kite, can, act, tack
/g /: goose, eager, dog
Sample Analysis
For a shorthand description, it is sufficient to label a plosive as:
e.g. /b/: bilabial, voiced, lenis
/p/: bilabial, unvoiced, fortis
/k/: velar, unvoiced, fortis
/d/: alveolar, voiced, lenis etc..
b) Fricatives: /f, v; θ, ð; s, z; ſ, ʒ, h/
For all these sounds, the velum closes off the nasal cavity, and the
airstream through the larynx and the mouth is narrowed at some point but
not stopped. The "audible friction" characteristic of the group (hence the
term "fricative") is set up by this narrowing of the airstream, which takes
place at five different points:
- for /f/ and /v/ = labiodental fricatives, the narrowing is between the
lower lip and the upper teeth ,which are pressed together so that the air
has to force its way between them; /f/ is unvoiced and fortis, /v/ is voiced
and lenis .
- for /θ/ and / ð,/ = dental fricatives, the tip and the front of the tongue
lightly touch the inner surfaces of the upper teeth; the escaping air is
forced between the tongue and the teeth; /θ/ is unvoiced and fortis, / ð,/ is
voiced and lenis.
- for /s/ and /z/ = alveolar fricatives, the contact is between the
tongue and the alveolar ridge; the tongue is hollowed to form a groove
down the middle, in which air friction takes place; /s/ is unvoiced and fortis,
/z/ is voiced and lenis.
- / ſ / and /ʒ/ = palato-alveolar fricatives, are formed in rather the
same way as are /s/ and /z/, but the contact between the tongue and the
roof of the mouth extends farther back, and friction is set up over a wider
area; / ſ / is unvoiced and fortis; /ʒ/ is voiced and lenis.
- for /h/ = glottal fricative there may be a slight narrowing of the
passage between the vocal cords, though the narrowing is as a rule too
slight to result in voice. Friction is set up throughout the vocal tract.
Spelling.
/f/: fast, affair, leaf, Philip
/v/: van, ever, leave, nephew
/θ/: thin, thigh, ether, breath
/ ð /: then, thy, leather, breathe
/s/: sit, cease, escape, loss
/z!: zeal, rose, roses, buzz
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The English Phonological System
/ſ/: sheet, Asia, douche
/ʒ /: pleasure, confusion, rouge, vision
/h/: heat, ahead, perhaps
Sample Analysis
For a shorthand description it is sufficient to label a fricative as:
e.g. /v/: labiodental, voiced, lenis.
/θ/: dental, unvoiced, fortis.
/∫/: palato-alveolar, unvoiced, fortis.
c) Affricates / t∫,dʒ /
For both sounds / t∫, dʒ /, the velum blocks off the nasal cavity and
the tongue is raised to make a make closure at about the same position
as it makes the narrowing for / ∫/and /ʒ/.The release is slower than it
would be for a plosive, resulting in a fricative sound : an affricate may be
regarded as a combination of a plosive and a fricative.
Spelling:
/ t∫/: cheese, feature, nature, wretch
/ dʒ /: gin, fragile, adjacent, major
d) Nasals: /m, n, ŋ /
All three nasals are normally voiced, and for all three the velum is
lowered to allow the free escape of air through the nasal cavity. They differ
on the point of closure in the mouth:
-for /m/ the closure is bilabial.
- for /n/ the closure is alveolar.
- for /ŋ/ the closure is velar.
Spelling:
/m/: may, remain, smite, seem
/n/:
no, and, sneeze, knife, moon
/ŋ/:
sing, singer, finger
e) Lateral: / I /
For / I /, the velum is raised to close off the nasal cavity while the
airstream escapes past the sides of the tongue o r past one side only,
hence the term lateral. There are two principal variants or allophones
/ l / in English:
- clear [l], for which the main part of the tongue slopes steeply away
from the tip and is found before vowels as in love, blow or glad, and before
/ j / as in million or failure.
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The English Phonological System
- dark [l ], for which the back of the tongue somewhat raised towards
the soft palate and found before consonants, as in help, salt, cold or at the
ends of words, as in feel, fill, little.
f) Post-alveolar frictionless continuant I r /
The phoneme / r /, as in rat, very, has a number of allophones:
frictionless continuant, fricative, alveolar tap, rolled.
For a detailed account of allophones of / r / consult Gimson (1970).
3.2.4. Semi-Vowels /j,w/
- /j/, the initial sound of year, is unrounded, palatal and voiced.
- /w/, the initial sound of will is labio-velar, rounded and voiced.
Sample Analysis to English Consonants
For a shorthand description it is sufficient to label/identify consonants
according to:
(I) Presence or absence of voice;
(II) Nasal or oral quality;
(III) Mode of articulation;
(IV) Point of articulation.
Thus: /p/ is unvoiced, oral, plosive, bilabial
/n/ is voiced, nasal, alveolar
A short description of this kind, will, of course, reflect only the broad
contrastive features of the sound-unit.
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Sounds in Connected Speech
Learning Unit no. 4
SOUNDS IN CONNECTED SPEECH
The sounds of English, in fact of any language, are not usually uttered
in isolation, independently of each other. Speech thus becomes a stream
of continuous activity: the phoneme, so to speak, is only a recurring
pattern in the stream. For any phoneme, of course, there will be a
recurrent set of movements of the speech organs, not identical for all
occasions, but broadly similar. Thus, for /f/ sounds, we shall have certain
common features: the glottis wide open, the vocal cords not vibrating; the
velum raised to close off the nasal cavity, a narrow passage between the
lower lip and the upper teeth, and the air escaping with audible friction.
This combination, however, is an episode of movement rather than a
stationary "pose". It may be helpful to regard the pose or position as a kind
of "target" for the actual movements of speech: a target which may or may
not be "hit". In articulating, for instance "fish", the vocal organs need not
wait to hold the /f/ position before moving on to /i/ and in a detailed
analysis of their movements we might distinguish the three stages in the
production of any given sound:
a) an initial stage, the onset or the on-glide, during which the organs
involved in the production of the given sound take up the appropriate
position for the pronunciation of the respective sound, that is the vocal
organs are moving up to the target position.
b) a medial stage, the retention or hold during which the speech
organs are kept for a short time in the adequate position for the sound
production, that is the vocal organs are on the target.
c) a final stage, the release stage during which the speech organs
move away to a neutral position, that is the organs are moving towards
the target of the following sound.
When articulating sounds in sequences, the three phases (onset,
hold, release) are not necessarily preserved; on the contrary, they
frequently merge into one another, the basic qualities of the respective
sounds undergoing important modifications. For example, the /k/ phoneme
in the English word actor has only the first and second phase, while the
following /t/ phoneme has only the second and the third phase. Thus, the
articulation of this combination of two plosives has a closure, a double long
pause and an explosion: the third phase of /k/ and the first phase of /t/
coalesce.
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Sounds in Connected Speech
4.1. Phoneme Changes in Connected Speech
4.1.1. Assimilation
When phonemes are pronounced in sequences, we observe the
phenomenon of assimilation, “the phonetic process by means of which two
(or more) phonemes, when joined together within the word or at word
boundaries ,influence one another in an effort to achieve some degree of
similarity” (Chitoran 1978: 250). In other words, the speech organs adjust
themselves to make a more convenient transition from one articulation to
another, displaying a certain “economy” of effort and a consequent ease of
pronunciation of the respective phonemes.
According to different criteria and taking into account the fact that the
term “assimilation” includes all changes in the characteristic features of
phonemes as a result of adjustment of articulations in sound-sequences,
we may distinguish the following types of assimilation:
a) regressive, in which the speech organs are prepared beforehand
for the articulation of a sound or sounds that follow.
b) progressive, in which the activity of one or some of the speech
organs is continued after the sound for which they were prepared
has been articulated.
c) partial or allophonic, when one or more features of the sounds in
a sequence are affected, e.g. the unvoicing of /w/ and the
rounding of /s/ in the word swan.
d) total or complete, when all the features of the sounds are adapted,
e.g. the change of /s / to /ſ/ in the sequence this year / ði∫′j З: /
e) historical, which deals with phenomena of assimilation having
taken place at earlier stages in the evolution of the English
language, e.g. classical examples are to be found in words
borrowed from Norman-French: permission is now pronounced
[pə′miſn].
f) synchronic or contextual, dealing with phenomena encountered in
present-day English:
- obligatory or established, which occurs in the speech of all
persons who speak a certain language, no matter what style of
speech is used.
- non-obligatory or accidental, which appears in rapid, careless
speech, e.g. did you [′didʒu: ].
4.1.2. Elision
Elision represents the process of dropping (omitting) one or more
sounds in their pronunciation; it takes place especially when sounds occur
in clusters in unaccented syllables; due to redundancy features, their
omission does not affect the intelligibility of the word to which they belong.
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Sounds in Connected Speech
a) Elision of Vowels
The elision of vowels is restricted to unaccented syllables,
particularly to / ə/ and /i/ situated in this position. Thus, /ə / may be
dropped in the following cases:
- when it is preceded by a consonant and followed by a liquid /l/ or
/r/: e.g. secretary / ′sekrətri/; novelist /′novəlist/; police /′plis/, etc.
- in front of other sounds, too, if the preceding one is a continuant
consonant: e.g. phonetically /fə′netikəli/; fashionably / ′fæſnəbli/.
b) Elision of Consonants
The elision of consonants is restricted to certain sounds situated in
consonant clusters or it has been established as such:
- /t/ and /d/ are usually dropped when they are medial in a three
consonant cluster: handbag, postman, dustbin, etc.
- /θ/, /ð /, /f/ may also be lost when occurring in clusters difficult to
pronounce: twelfths, clothes, etc.
- /l/ is lost in walk, talk, half, etc.
- final /b/ and /n/ when preceded by /m/, as in comb, tomb, autumn,
etc.
- /k/ and /g/ are lost in initial position and preceded by /n/: knee,
gnaw, knock, etc.
4.2. Stress / Accent. The Nature of Stress / Accent
The term stress is used to refer to the degree of force with which a
sound or syllable is uttered. A strong force of utterance means energetic
action of all the articulating organs; it involves a strong "push" from the
diaphragm and consequently strong force of exhalation, thus giving the
objective impression of loudness. Hence, the "expiratory or ynamic stress
theory".
According to this theory, it is supposed that the strongest syllable in a
word, i.e. the stressed syllable, is made more prominent than the others by
means of a stronger current of air, by a stronger expiration, and also by a
more energetic articulation of the syllable. The influence of more energetic
expiration upon stress is of little importance in comparison with the role of
the dynamic principle.
Stressed syllables usually contain a vowel, and vowels do not require
a stronger current of air in order to be intensified. What they need is an
intensification of musical tone, which is achieved by more energetic
articulation: the vocal cords, the walls of the resonance chambers, and all
the speech organs become tenser. The same is observed when the
articulation of voiced consonants is intensified.
To conclude, we quote the linguist O'Connor (1994), who specifies
that stress is the name given to the stronger muscular effort, both
respiratory and articulatory, which we can feel in connection with some
syllables as opposed to others. For instance, in English, August [′`‫כ‬:gəst]
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
31
Sounds in Connected Speech
has more effort on the first than the second syllable: but august [‫כ‬: ′gΛst]
has the greater effort on the second syllable.Thus stress is a significant
factor since it is an essential part of word-shape, words easily becoming
unrecognizable if stress is wrongly placed.
4.2.1. Stress Position
From the viewpoint of phonology, the main function of stress is to
provide a means of distinguishing degrees of emphasis or contrast in
sentences, the term used being contrastive stress. Many pairs of words
and word sequences can also be distinguished using stress variation: e.g.
′object /vs /ob′ject, black′bird /vs / ′blackbird etc.
In order to account for all such contrasts, the American structuralist
tradition considered four degrees of stress:
(1) primary /'/
(2) secondary /`/
(3) tertiary /^/
(4) weak /ˇ/
These contrasts are demonstrable, it seems, only on words in
isolation. Word-stress in languages is based, as a rule, upon a number of
principles: dynamic stress (discussed above), musical stress, qualitative
stress and quantitative stress.
Musical stress belongs to the sphere of sentence-stress under the
direct influence of intonation.
In its pure form, stress quantity manifests itself by a longer
pronunciation of vowels in stressed syllables; unstressed vowels are short.
Thus, stressed syllables become more prominent.
Stress Quality is based on the fact that vowels of full formation are a
feature of stressed syllables only and cannot occur in unstressed
positions. Vowels in unstressed syllables are weakened and reduced to a
greater or lesser degree.
4.2.2. Stress in Connected Speech
One of the most characteristic features of English word-stress is the
great number of words which have two strongly stressed syllables and
also of words with primary and secondary stress; there are even many
polysyllabic words with two primary and one secondary stress (Chitoran &
Petri, 1977; Chitoran & Pârlog, 1989). Word-stress or accent in English is
free. English accent discharges its distinctive function in two ways:
- by signaling differences in meaning, e.g. below [ bi′ lou ] vs [′ bilou];
- by signaling differences in grammatical function;
a) when the words are accented on their first syllable they are nouns:
export [′ekspo:t]; incense (n) [′insens]
32
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Sounds in Connected Speech
b) when the words are accented on their second syllable they are
verbs: export [eks′po:t]; incense (v) [in′sens]
In English polysyllabic words accent can fall on:
- the initial syllable: attitude [ ′ætitju:d]; carpet [′ka:pit]
- any of the middle syllable: important [im′po:tənt] ; satisfactory
[sætis′fæktəri]
- the final syllable: above; eighteen [ei′ ti:n]
Disyllabic words may fall into the following four accentual patterns:
1 → ● ♪ idea, unknown, cashier
2 → • ♪ alone, behind, reform
3 → ♪ ○ profile, female, invoice
4 → ♪ • under, valley, rhythm
Generally, two-syllable words of Germanic origin carry the accent on
the initial syllable, whereas those of non-Germanic origin carry the accent
on the last syllable (Crystal, 1995).
Three syllable words have got an unpredictable accent:
1. ● • ♪: magazine, understand [,mægə′zi:n]
2. ♪ • • : quantity [′ kwontiti]
3. ♪ • ○ : appetite [′ æpitait]
4. • ♪ • : important [im′po:tənt]
Four-syllable words
1. • ♪ • • remarkable [ri′ma:kəbl]
Derivatives
There is a possible correlation between accentuation and affixation in
the sense that affixes can or cannot influence the stress pattern, e.g.
béautiful → beautifully; addréss → addre′ssee; emplóy → emplo′yee
All English prefixed words with the exception of Germanic prefixes
such as a-, be- for-, in words like around, ajar, begin, forget must have
either primary stress or some type of secondary accentuation on the
prefix, while Romanian prefixes remain unstressed (Chitoran, Parlog,
Augerot, 1985).
4.3. The Syllable. Syllable Formation
Phonemes usually occur in sequences. Sound sequences are
pronounced in such a way that not all the sounds are uttered with the
same degree of force, but the energy with which we articulate is alternately
increased and diminished. Even an unpracticed ear can perceive that the
sound sequences we pronounce are acoustically broken up into smaller
units, syllables. This phenomenon is clear when the same vowel phoneme
is repeated without a pause in adjoining syllables: e.g. “We even spoke to
him […]”. We hear a distinct rise and fall of prominence in pronouncing
each of the two [i, i:] phonemes; the borderline between them is marked by
a diminution of force, while a new increase in the force of articulation
marks the second [i:].
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
33
Sounds in Connected Speech
A syllable may consist of one phoneme or of a number of phonemes
.In pronouncing a syllable, the energy of articulation increases until it
reaches its climax, peak of prominence. One or more phonemes
pronounced with diminishing force mark the boundary between two
syllables –the valley of prominence. Phonetically, the syllable may
therefore be defined as “a segment of speech containing a peak of
sonority, or as that stretch of speech between two valleys of sonority”.
(Chitoran 1978: 264). It is assumed that the peak of sonority constitutes its
nucleus or centre, its valleys of sonority are represented by the onset and
coda .Having the highest degree of sonority, English vowels usually
constitute the nucleus of a syllable but there are also consonants such as
/l/ ,/m/, /n/, / ŋ / which can acquire this function .
Phonologically, the syllable has been defined as the lowest
phonological construction into which phonemes can be combined. In point
of structure it contains three segments:
- a central segment (the nucleus)
- an initial segment (the onset)
- a final segment (the coda)
The central segment is compulsory, the initial and the final ones are
optional. The order of the phonemes in a syllable is a very important
feature of syllable construction in each language, especially in teaching
and learning a foreign language.
The English syllable has got the canonical structure CVC (consonant,
vowel, consonant). Variations are found under the structures: CV, VC,
VVCC, CCCVVCC, etc. For very good practice, consult Chitoran, Parlog,
1989.
34
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Pronunciation and Orthography
Learning Unit no. 5
PRONUNCIATION AND ORTHOGRAPHY
5.1. Pronunciation Standard of British English
The pronunciation standard of British English (Received
Pronunciation -RP) developed on the basis of the London dialect of
educated people, because London expanded rapidly into an important
centre of commerce, industry and learning as early as the 14th century.
Since the majority of specialists consider this type of pronunciation to be
generally accepted as a result of social judgment rather than an official
decision as to what is “correct” or “wrong”, RP has nowadays become the
form of pronunciation most commonly described in books on the phonetics
of British English and traditionally taught to foreigners (Roach, 2000,
2004). Although one great advantage of R.P. is its uniformity, this does not
mean that it is absolutely rigid and allows of no variations. Different
individual variants of the same phoneme are used by different speakers
and, moreover, there are variations in pronunciation of the same word. A
language is never static; it keeps on developing, changing, some
phenomena cease to exist, new features are acquired.
5.2. Phonetic Transcription
Since conventional spelling cannot and does not represent the
phonetic form of words accurately, a special script is used for this purpose.
It is loosely called “phonetic transcription“.
It is necessary to distinguish between two kinds of transcription, used for
two different purposes:
a) phonemic transcription which is used to represent the phonemic
system of language; it provides a separate letter (or a separate symbol) for
each phoneme.
b) phonetic transcription (in its narrow sense) is a type of
transcription which provides special marks to represent phonemic variants
- combinative, positional and individual. When it is necessary to represent
some features which are common to the variants of a number of
phonemes, diacritical marks are used such as: [:] to indicate vowel
phonemes, [o] to indicate labialization, [~] the sign of nasalization, etc.
Attempts to create a phonetic script for teaching and research
purposes date as far back as the 16th and 17th centuries, but it was only
after the International Phonetic Association was founded in 1887 that the
International Phonetic Alphabet was created. The International Phonetic
Alphabet uses a system of transcription which is based on the Latin
alphabet and is supposed to be universal .Its merit is that it is very simple
and can be used for all purposes (teaching and research).
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
35
Pronunciation and Orthography
5.3. Rules of Orthography. English Orthography
The rules of orthography are a set of rules which govern the spelling
of words. The spelling of concrete words is based upon one or another of
the graphical rules that exist in a language. In all European languages,
spelling systems are based upon the use of the alphabet. In all languages,
especially if the orthography (spelling) of a language dates back for many
centuries the relation between sounds and letters is sometimes very
complicated.
The same can be said about English orthography which is chiefly
based on the historical principle, the majority of words preserving their Old
English or Middle English spelling, sometimes without modifications.
The phonetic principle (one letter for one sound) is not expected to
play any role at all in the English spelling. No letter is used to represent
one sound only; most letters are used to represent several sounds each,
and many combinations of letters are sometimes used to denote the same
sounds.
The morphological principle can be traced in the following cases:
- the morpheme of the past tense is spelt (e) d, although its
pronunciation varies: [t], [d], [id] .
- the morpheme indicating the plural of nouns is spelt e (s), but it is
pronounced [s], [z], [iz], in accordance with the final sound of the singular.
- the morpheme characterizing the 3 rd person singular, Present
Simple Tense, has the same spelling and pronunciation as the plural
morpheme under the same circumstances;
- the pronunciation of the definite article is different [ðə] before
consonants; [ði] before vowels, but the spelling is the same in both cases.
- the indefinite article is always spelt a(n), although it is pronounced
[ei], in different cases.
- besides, there are other cases in which the spelling does not
change, as in: -er, -st, morphemes of the comparative and the superlative
degrees of adjectives, etc.
36
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
EXERCISES
Part 1. Vowels
The Vowel / i /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / i /, as in pit:
pit
it
is
him
Give
Live
Will
Which
his
been
think
women
big
sing
hit
Mister
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. This is it.
2. Miss Mills thinks it’s big.
3. Which children did it?
4. Is it his?
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
.................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
37
Exercises
............................................................
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...................................................................
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The Vowel / e /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / e /, as in pet:
pet
get
let
them
when
weather
dead
sell
F
ten
eleven
better
September
tell
then
friend
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Let’s get Ed a pen.
2. Many men said yes.
3. When did Susan send the letter?
4. The weather’s better in December.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
38
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
............................................................
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...................................................................
...................................................................
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The Vowel / æ /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / æ /, as in pat:
pat
at
has
have
back
catch
perhaps
matter
man
glad
cab
bag
can
bad
Saturday
Dan
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Jack can’t understand Dan.
2. That man ran after the cat.
3. Has Dad had a nap?
4. Buy that hat!
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
39
Exercises
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Vowels / i, e, æ /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds / i, e, æ /:
pit
pet
pat
→
pat
pet
pit
sit
set
sat
→
sat
set
sit
nick
neck
knack →
knack
neck
nick
knit
net
gnat
gnat
net
knit
→
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Practice the following sentences containing words with the contrastive sounds / i, e,
æ / and then provide your own examples:
1. Bill has seven children.
2. When did Dan tell him?
3. Has Ed been pretty busy?
4. The women met last Saturday.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
40
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
The Vowel / o /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / o /, as in got:
pot
not
got
box
doctor
hot
dollar
watch
a lot
October
o’clock
dot
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. The clock stopped.
2. It’s not a lot.
3. Tom got a job.
4. October is not hot.
............................................................
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
41
Exercises
............................................................
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The Vowel / Λ /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / Λ /, as in nut :
nut
cut
but
up
cup
some
none
does
sun
Sunday
son
Mum
double
love
brother
won
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. The sun comes up at seven.
2. Mother loves the summer months.
3. Does Sunday come before Monday?
4. Hasn’t Gus won enough money?
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
............................................................... ....
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
42
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
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The Vowel / ə /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / ə /, as in sitter:
sitter
mitre
waiter
but
ago
an
the
grocer
a
about
accept
among
mother
doctor
figure
aloud
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Call the waiter here!
2. Mother is the second among the sisters.
3. I met her a year ago.
4. The bird flew away.
............................................................
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...................................................................
...................................................................
.......................................................... .........
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
43
Exercises
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Vowels / o, Λ, ə, /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds / o, Λ, ə /
→
dog
bull
but
gone
done
among →
want
month
about
sorry
Monday aloud
but
dull
dog
among done
gone
→
about
month
want
→
aloud
Monday sorry
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Practice the following sentences containing words with the contrastive sounds / i, e,
æ / and then provide your own examples:
1. October is not hot.
2. It’s not a lot.
3. Mother loves the summer months.
4. I met her a year ago.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
44
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
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The Vowel / √ /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel /√ /, as in put:
put
good
would
woman
could
should
foot
wool
cook
look
push
pull
took
full
stood
mood
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Would this be a good book?
2. He shouldn’t have stood on that foot.
3. She took the book and put it away.
4. Look at that pretty woman.
....................................................... .....
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
45
Exercises
............................................................
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The Vowel /u: /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / u: /, as in too:
too
two
afternoon
do
soon
who
food
move
prove
choose
spoon
lose
shoe
through
soup
group
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Do you have a loose tooth?
2. Whose group do you belong to?
3. I’m moving to another room this afternoon.
4. Ruth had some fruit juice in her room.
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...................................................................
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
46
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
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The Vowel / ‫כ‬: /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / ‫כ‬: /, as in call:
call
because
Paul
brought
fall
applause
pause
thought
small
caught
awful
daughter
straw
bought
all
corn
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. I thought I saw Paul.
2. We ought to walk and talk together.
3. Has Mr. Hall taught law?
4. They brought all the corn.
............................................................
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...................................................................
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...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
47
Exercises
............................................................
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Vowels / √, u:,‫כ‬: /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds /√, u:,‫כ‬: /:
put
soon
call
→
call
soon
put
good
who
corn
→
corn
who
good
book
food
fall
→
fall
food
book
→
small
move
woman
woman move small
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Practice the following sentences containing words with the contrastive sounds / i, e,
æ / and then provide your own examples:
1. She took the book and put it away.
2. Ruth had some fruit juice in her room.
3. Look at that pretty woman.
4. We ought to walk and talk together.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
........................................................... ........
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
48
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
............................................................
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The Vowel / i: /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / i: /, as in see:
see
three
bee
me
he
mean
believe
seen
week
meet
please
leave
evening
keep
need
complete
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. He sees me three evenings a week.
2. These people seem to believe me.
3. Keep these letters for me, please.
4. She needed complete rest, you see.
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...................................................................
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...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
49
Exercises
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The Vowel / α: /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / α: /, as in cart:
cart
bath
car
clerk
aunt
half
after
dance
laugh
palm
branch
calm
card
march
heart
bar
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Park the car in the back yard.
2. Karl and Charles are pretty far apart.
3. She dances in a bar.
4. All the yards are barred.
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...................................................................
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
50
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
............................................................
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The Vowel / З: /
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the vowel / З: /, as in girl:
girl
were
sir
burn
first
early
work
world
skirt
shirt
earth
worst
learn
nervous
person
perform
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Were the little girls with her, sir?
2. Learn the first verbs well.
3. Don’t burn the skirt.
4. Nervous persons are worst.
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...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
51
Exercises
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Vowels / i:, α:, З: /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds / i: α: З: /:
→
girl
card
see
march were
→
were
march
three
bee
dance sir
→
sir
dance
bee
me
bar
→
me
bar
burn
see
card
three
girl
burn
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Practice the following sentences containing words with the contrastive sounds / i, e,
æ / and then provide your own examples:
1. Keep these letters for me, please.
2. Park the car in the back yard.
3. All the yards are barred.
4. Nervous persons are worst.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
52
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Part 2. Diphthongs
The Glide / ai /:
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / ai / as in sigh:
sigh
I
hi
my
like
nine
time
might
write
eye
fine
by
nice
buy
why
July
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. I’d like to buy a nylon tie.
2. My child likes ice cream.
3. Why arrive at five to nine.
4. I’ll try to find time for Friday.
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
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Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
53
Exercises
The Glide / ei /:
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / ei / as in stay:
stay
wait
say
take
they
April
way
may
place
weight
maybe
rain
same
name
lane
pay
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain.
2. Eight days in April and eight in May.
3. They say it is O.K.
4. Maybe it’s late.
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
The Glide / oi /:
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / oi / as in boy:
boy
joy
boil
enjoy
Freud
choice
toy
annoy
noise
avoid
oyster
oil
coin
join
poison
Roy
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Roy’s enjoying his toys.
2. The boys are rather noisy.
3. Avoid annoying the boy.
4. This oil is not poison.
54
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Diphthongs: / ai, ei, oi /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds / ai, ei, oi/:
sigh
say
soy
→
soy
say
sigh
try
tray
Troy
→
Troy
tray
try
by
bay
boy
→
boy
bay
by
tile
stale
groin
→
groin
stale
tile
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Practice the following sentences containing words with the contrastive sounds / ai, ei,
oi / and then provide your own examples:
1. Bill is my baby boy.
2. I like boiled rice and soy sauce.
3. What kind of a noise annoys the oyster.
4. We eat steak each day.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
55
Exercises
The Glide / aυ /:
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / aυ / as in cow:
cow
now
doubt
town
towel
sound
ground
proud
mouth
around
hour
how
house
mouse
cloudy
power
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. I doubt that he’s downtown.
2. How much is the pound?
3. I’m proud of my house.
4. He wrote about one hour.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
............................................................... ....
...................................................................
...................................................................
The Glide / əυ /:
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / əυ / as in go:
go
so
old
over
home
told
both
whole
show
no
coat
hold
nose
moment
those
telephone
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Rose and Joan don’t know yet.
2. Oh, did Joe go home?
3. Both those cars are pretty old.
4. A moment later he was at the show.
56
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Glides to /υ /: / aυ, əυ/
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds / aυ, əυ/:
nose
→
nose
cow
proud coat
→
coat
proud
town
both
→
both
town
how
home →
home
how
cow
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Practice the following sentences containing words with the contrastive sounds / aυ,
əυ/ and then provide your own examples:
1. Now’s the time to show us how.
2. Please, drive downtown slowly.
3. I doubt that you know the rules.
4. Do you know how to get a boat?
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
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Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
57
Exercises
The Glide / iə /:
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / iə / as in ear:
ear
hear
near
fear
here
deer
tear
year
merely
rear
interfere
beer
Shakespeare
superior
cheerful
weary
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Shakespeare’s King Lear showed here last year.
2. Keep the ear-phones nearer, dear.
3. Never fear, I’m here.
4. Dear, don’t interfere!
............................................................
...................................................................
........................................................... ........
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
The Glide / εə /:
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / εə / as in air:
air
hair
care
stairs
their
where
there
wear
fare
Mary
chair
spare
Clare
various
stare
pear
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Where are the stairs?
2. Careful with the hare!
3. Don’t tear it on that chair.
4. Mary and Clare paid the fare.
58
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
The Glide / υə /:
a) Words frequently used
Practice the following common words containing the diphthong / υə / as in moor:
moor
poor
cure
sure
tour
assure
fewer
lure
secure
truer
jury
sewer
tourist
Boers
endure
Moore
b) Sentences
Read aloud the following sentences and then write down their corresponding
phonetic transcription:
1. Tourists should be sure to drink pure water.
2. Be sure to check your life insurance.
3. She helps the poor.
4. There were fewer Boers.
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
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...................................................................
...................................................................
Glides to / iə/, / εə /, / υə/
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud and then repeat twice the first word from each of the following three
groups of words, noticing the presence of the contrastive sounds: / iə/, / εə /, / υə/:
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
59
Exercises
ear
air
moor
→
moor
air
ear
here
hair
poor
→
poor
hair
here
dear
care
cure
→
cure
care
dear
near
wear
sure
→
sure
wear
near
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Practice the following sentences containing words with the contrastive sounds / iə/,
/εə /, / υə/ and then provide your own examples:
1. Never fear, I’m here.
2. Here’s where we were working.
3. Where are the stairs?
4. Is it thirty years since we were there?
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............................................................. ......
...................................................................
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Part 3. Consonants
Plosives: / p, b /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /p/ and /b/:
pay
bay
→
maple
nip
nib
→
napped nabbed
pin
bin
→
pack
back
cup
cub
pound bound →
Mabel
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the contrastive sounds /p/
and /b/:
1. Pears and bananas are both fruits.
2. Paul, you’d better buy this paper.
60
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
3. The programme will probably begin at seven.
............................................................
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
............................................................
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Plosives: / t, d /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /t / and /d /:
tin
din
→
tie
die
tip
dip
→
tee
D
tell
dell
→
late
laid
bet
bed
→
latter
ladder
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the contrastive sounds /t/
and /d/:
1. Tell Dotty to do it.
2. Ted said he couldn’t stay for dessert.
3. Don’t you know the word rod?
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
61
Exercises
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Plosives: / k, g /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /k/ and /g /:
cull
gull
→
muck
mug
kay
gay
→
duck
dug
could good
→
curl
girl
Kate
→
backing lagging
gate
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the contrastive sounds /k/
and /g/:
1. Did they get Lucky Strike cigarettes?
2. I’ve got to go to the bank to cash a check.
3. Call me again some time.
62
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Fricatives: / f, v /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /f/ and /v /:
fine
vine
→
belief believe →
raffle
ravel
few
view
life
live
→
shuffle
shovel
fat
vat
→
foil
voile
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the contrastive sounds /f/
and /v/:
1. During the first fall days, the leaves turn lovely colours.
2. I live very near Avery Avenue.
3. They went to the cafeteria for some coffee.
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
63
Exercises
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Fricatives: / θ, ð /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between / θ/ and / ð /:
mouth
mouthe
→
thin
this
thigh
thy
→
sooth
soothe
lath
leather
zither
dither
wreath wreathe →
wrath
rather
→
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the contrastive sounds / θ
/ and / ð /:
1. This is the third toothbrush I’ve lost this month.
2. They have to think this thing through.
3. The baby’s teething, so her mouth is rather sore.
64
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
............................................................
................................................................. ..
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Fricatives: / s,z /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between / s / and / z /:
sue
zoo
→
sip
zip
bus
buzz
→
ice
eyes
dice
dies
→
loose
lose
cease sees
→
price
prize
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the contrastive sounds / s
/ and / s /:
1. Sara’s your sister, isn’t she?
2. His suit is the same as this one.
3. What size dress does Susie wear?
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
65
Exercises
............................................................
...................................................................
............................................................. ......
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
............................................................ .......
...................................................................
Fricatives: / ∫, ʒ /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between / ∫ / and /ʒ /:
ruche
rouge
→
Aleutian
Asher
azure
→
Confucion confusion
fission
vision
→
glaciar
glazier
mesher measure →
dilution
delusion
allusion
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the contrastive sounds / ∫ /
and / ʒ /:
1. It’s a pleasure to see you, Mr. Shaw.
2. She wore a beige suit and red shoes.
3. Shall we wash our clothes, or brush them?
66
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Fricatives: / h /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following pairs of words which differ in having, or not having, the
sound /h/:
ill
hill
→
am
ham
eat
heat
→
air
hair
add
had
→
eye
hi
all
hall
→
art
heart
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Read aloud the following sentences with words having, or not having, the sound /h/:
1. Is it his hat?
2. We hear with our ears.
3. I hate ham, but I ate it anyway.
4. Hello, Ellen.
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
67
Exercises
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...................................................................
...................................................................
Affricates: / t∫, dʒ/
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /t ∫/ and / dʒ /:
chin
gin
→
cheep
jeep
larch
large
→
chat
jet
match Madge →
chest
jest
→
choke
joke
chew
Jew
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the contrastive sounds /t ∫
/ and / dʒ /:
1. George bought that chair last July.
2. Which subject does Mr. Jackson teach?
3. Did Charles and Joe enjoy the lecture?
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
........................................................ ...........
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
68
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Nasals: / m, n, ŋ /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following groups of words containing the contrastive sounds / m, n, ŋ
/:
Kim
kin
king
→
dime
dine
dining
rum
run
rung
→
sum
sun
sung
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the contrastive sounds /
m, n, ŋ /:
1. Mr. Emerson sings tenor.
2. Kim is the name of a novel by Kipling.
3. I’m drinking ginger ale, not orange juice.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
69
Exercises
............................................................
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Consonants /l, r /
a) Words in contrast
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /l / and /r /:
lid
rid
→
reach
leach
load
road
→
rot
lot
loom
room
→
rag
lag
loyal
royal
→
rain
lain
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the contrastive sounds /l/
and / r /:
1. Remember to read lesson eleven.
2. I like rare steak.
3. Roy likes rain.
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...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Semi-vowels: /w, j /
a) Words in contrast
70
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
Exercises
Read aloud the following minimal pairs based on the contrast between /w/ and /j /:
work
York
→
ward
yard
wear
year
→
was
use
warm yam
→
wale
Yale
well
→
one
you
yell
b) Sentences with words in contrast
Read aloud the following sentences with words containing the contrastive sounds /w/
and / j /:
1. We always walk to York
2. Yale is a famous university in the United States.
3. Last year they used to work here.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
c) Specify the syllabic structure of the words in b) and comment upon the type of
accent they carry on.
............................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
...................................................................
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
71
Exercises
72
Limba engleză contemporană. Fonetică și fonologie
References
REFERENCES
1. Bloomfield , M. N. A., 1965, A Linguistic Introduction to the History of English,
New York
2. Bolinger, D., 1968, Aspects of Language, Harcourt, New York
3. Chitoran, D., 1978, English Phonetics and Phonology, EDP, Bucuresti
4. Chitoran, D. , L. Petri, 1977, Workbook in English Phonetics and Phonology,
EDP, Bucuresti
5. Chitoran, D., H. Parlog, 1989, Ghid de pronuntie a limbii engleze, ESE, Bucuresti
6. Chitoran, D., H. Parlog, J. Augerot,1985, The Sounds of English and Romanian,
Bucuresti
7. O’Connor, J.D., 1991, Phonetics, Penguin Books
8. Crystal, D., 1995, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, Blackwell
9. Fischer, J., 1975, Trends in Phonological Theory, Copenhagen
10. Gimson, A.C., 1970, An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English, London,
Arnold Publication
11. Jones, D.,1965, English Pronouncing Dictionary, Everyman’s Reference Library
12. Pike, K.L., 1963, Phonetics, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan
13. Roach, Peter (2000), English Phonetics and Phonology: a Practical Course,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
14. Roach, Peter (2004), "British English: Received Pronunciation", Journal of the
International Phonetic Association 34 (2): 239–245
15. Rogers, H., 2000, The Sounds of Language. An Introduction to Phonetics,
Longman, Pearson Education
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