Training Models in Clinical
Psychology: Overview
James H. Johnson, Ph.D.,
ABPP/Child
Variations in Training
 Boulder (Scientist-Practitioner)
Model – 1949
 Vail (Scholar-Professional) Model –
1973
 Clinical Science Model - 1990
WW II and the Need for
Psychologists
 WW II and focus of the government on
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increasing the pool of trained mental health
professionals
Government initiatives involving VA and USPHS
and APA
Grants to Psychology departments that provided
clinical training
Funding for students pursuing graduate training
in clinical psychology
VA provided practicum sites and internships
GI Bill to support graduate training
In Search of a Training Model
 David Shakow, the Committee on Training in
Clinical Psychology – The Shakow Report –
1947
 Boulder Conference – 1949 (70 participants)
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Equal weight to science and practice
PhD as the required degree
Training within a university setting
Psychologists were to be scientist-practitioners
prepared to work in academia or clinical practice
 Since 1949 has been the dominant model for Clinical
Psychology Training
The Practitioner Model: In the
Beginning
 Questions about adequacy of the Boulder Model.
 Interest in training for practice as is the case in law,
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dentistry, and medicine
1951 Gordon Derner (PhD from Columbia) developed
the first scholar-practitioner program at Adelphi
Focus on training practitioners – Allow research finding
to inform practice but without focus on development of
research skills.
Was not able to get APA approval until 1957 and only
after a battle and a number of appeals
Derner was the founding President of the National
Council of Schools of Professional Psychology
Development of the PsyD Degree
 First Doctor of Psychology Degree program –
University of Illinois, 1968
 Developed by Donald Peterson and designed to
produce clinicians to engage in applied clinical
work.
 Coursework like Ph.D. students but focus on
clinical work – and clinical project instead of
research dissertation.
 Program was found to be incompatible with the
academic values of most Illinois faculty and was
soon discontinued.
The California School of
Professional Psychology
 In the late 1960’s California Psychological
Association notes lack of sufficient
doctoral level psychologists in the state.
 Lobbied state of CA get universities to
increase number of clinical psychologists
 Didn’t work and CPA on its own, under
leadership of Nicholas Cummings,
founded the California School of
Professional Psychology
The California School of
Professional Psychology
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Branches in LA, Berkeley, San Diego, and others.
Focus on training practicing clinicians
Offered the Doctor of Psychology Degree
Programs housed in independent schools of
Professional Psychology rather than University
departments.
 Very few full time faculty – mostly part-time training
faculty
 Large classes – little financial assistance
 Primary organization is National Council of Schools of
Professional Psychology
Vail Conference
 In 1973 the national training conference in
Vail Colorado was successful in
legitimizing practitioner oriented clinical
psychology training programs
 Despite objections from academic types,
such programs now turn out almost as
many graduates as do Boulder Model
programs
Growth of the Professional School
Movement
 In recent years the number of practitioner
oriented training programs has increased
dramatically
 Such program are found in free-standing
professional school, in psychology departments,
and separate schools of psychology within
universities.
 Again, almost half of the doctorates graduating
each year, come from professional schools
Boulder Model and Professional
School Programs Compared
 Boulder model programs still outnumber PsyD
programs, the PsyD programs enroll three times
the number of doctoral candidates.
 Boulder model programs train clinical
psychologist to conduct research; PsyD
programs train graduates to be consumers of
research
 Ph.D graduates more likely to be employed in
academic positions and in medical schools than
are clinical psychologists with the PsyD degree.
Boulder Model and Professional
School Programs Compared
 Acceptance rates and financial support
 Freestanding PsyD programs acceptance rates
average about 40%
 PsyD average number accepted = 46; Ph.D = 9
 Ph.D programs accept on average about 15% of
those applying.
 70 – 80% of students in Ph.D programs get full
financial assistance, while only 18% of students in
PsyD programs get this.
 Pay-as-you-go plan for about three-fourths of PsyD
graduate students.
 Student debt for PsyD students = 53 – 60 thousand;
Debt for Ph.D students is about $ 22,000 (median)
Boulder Model and Professional
School Programs Compared
 Length of Training
 Students in Ph.D. programs take about 1 to 1.5 years
longer to complete graduate training
 Licensure Exam performance
 PsyD students, on average, perform significantly
lower on the Examination for Professional Practice in
Psychology (EPPP). Difference likely applies to
larger free-standing PsyD programs.
 Strong link between smaller classes and more faculty
and better scores on licensure exam.
The Clinical Science Model
 Impetus for Clinical Science training was
“Manifesto for a Science of Clinical Psychology”
(McFall 1991)
 Presidential address for Section 3 of Division 12
(Section for the Development of Clinical
Psychology as an Experimental Behavioral
Science)
 Began a movement that has resulted in a number
of clinical science programs and the development
of the Academy of Psychological Clinical Science.
The Clinical Science Model:
Cardinal Principles and Corollaries
Scientific Clinical Psychology is the only Legitimate
and Acceptable form of Clinical Psychology
 Psychological services should not be administered to
the public (except under strict experimental control)
until they have satisfied four minimal criteria:
 The exact nature of the service must be described
clearly
 The claimed benefits of the service must be stated
explicitly
 These claimed benefits must be validated
scientifically
 Possible negative side effects that might outweigh
benefits must be ruled out empirically
The Clinical Science Model:
Cardinal Principles and Corollaries
 The primary and overriding objective of
doctoral training programs in clinical
psychology must be to produce the most
competent clinical scientists possible.
 General focus is on becoming a clinical
scientist and this may or may not involve
applied clinical activities.
 All applied clinical work engaged in needs
to be evidence-based.
So What Type of Training
 Scientist-Practitioner ?
 Scholar-Practitioner ?
 Clinical Scientist ?
Pros? Cons? Preferences?