IMPLEMENTATION OF ADVANCE METERING INFRASTRUCTURE
USING POWER LINE COMMUNICATION
By
Nida Qureshi
EL-046/2018
Supervised By: Dr. Rizwan Aslam Butt
ME (Industrial Electronics)
EL-600 (Independent Study Project)
NED University Of Engineering And Technology, Karachi
March 2020
1
Abstract
Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) is an integration of smart meters, communication
technologies and data management systems. It enables a bi directional communication between
service providers and consumers. Several communication technologies are available but power
line communication (PLC) is considered as the best option, because it does not require any
additional architecture, rather it sends data over existing power cables. For this reason, it is
considered to be a cost-effective scheme.
This study project narrows down to the designing of a suitable coupling circuit for interfacing a
high frequency communication signal to a low frequency electrical signal. Moreover, different
keying techniques such as frequency shift keying (FSK), amplitude shift keying (ASK) and phase
shift keying (PSK) are compared as the basis of Bit error rate (BER). Results are generated and
the best available keying technique is recommended.
2
Acknowledgements
___________________________________________________________________
I would like to express my gratitude and thanks to the patience and support of my
supervisor, Dr. Rizwan Aslam Butt who has assisted me throughout this research project. Without
his guidance, persistent assistance and support this research would not have been possible.
I express my loving and sincere gratitude to my parents and family for providing me with their
continuous support and encouragement during my study year and through the research, writing
and editing of this report.
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Declaration
I declare that the study ' IMPLEMENTATION OF ADVANCE METERING
INFRASTRUCTURE USING POWER LINE COMMUNICATION’ is the outcome of
my own research except as stated in the references. This idea was not
approved for any degree and is not presented in any other degree's candidacy at the same time.
Signature
Name
Date
:
:
:
....................................................
Nida Qureshi
May -20- 2020
4
Dedication
________________________________________________________________________
Dedicated To My Beloved Parents And Family
5
Content
CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................................ 08
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................... 08
1.1BACKGROUND ..................................................................................................................................... 08
1.2OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................................... 13
1.3MOTIVATION: ...................................................................................................................................... 13
1.4PROBLEM STATEMENT ......................................................................................................................... 17
1.5REPORT PLAN ...................................................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................................................ 18
LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................................... 18
2.1 OVERVIEW .......................................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 DESIGN OF COUPLING CIRCUIT ........................................................................................................... 21
2.3 PLC STANDARDS ................................................................................................................................ 23
2.4 MODULATION TECHNIQUES ................................................................................................................ 24
2.4.1 Amplitude Shift Keying ............................................................................................................. 25
2.4.2 Frequency Shift Keying ............................................................................................................. 25
2.4.3 Phase Shift Keying ..................................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................................................ 27
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 27
3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 27
3.2 PLC SYSTEM DESIGN ......................................................................................................................... 28
3.2.1 PLC Channel Overview ............................................................................................................. 29
3.2.1.1 Attenuation ..................................................................................................................... 29
3.2.1.2Noise ............................................................................................................................... 29
3.2.2 Fundamentals of Coupling Circuits ............................................................................................ 29
6
3.2.2.1 High Pass Filter ............................................................................................................ 30
3.2.2.2COUPLING TRANSFORMER .............................................................................................. 30
3.2.2.3Protection Circuitry ....................................................................................................... 31
3.2.3 PLC System Design Blocks ....................................................................................................... 31
3.2.3.1 Transmitter Block (TX) ................................................................................................ 32
3.2.3.1 Receiver Block (RX) .................................................................................................... 33
3.3MATLAB SIMULATION DESIGN ......................................................................................................... 35
3.4 PLC SYSTEM MODELLING USING DIFFERENT MODULATION TECHNIQUES ........................................ 36
3.4.1 Amplitude Shift Keying ............................................................................................................. 36
3.4.2 Frequency Shift Keying ............................................................................................................. 37
3.4.3 Phase Shift Keying ..................................................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................................................ 40
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ..................................................................................... 40
4.1 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF PLC SYSTEMS ...................................................................................... 40
4.2 SIMULATION RESULTS OF DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES ........................................................... 41
4.2.1Amplitude Shift Keying .............................................................................................................. 42
4.2.2Frequency Shift Keying .............................................................................................................. 43
4.2.3Phase shift keying ....................................................................................................................... 44
4.3 COMPARITIVE STUDY OF MODULATION TECHNIQUES ........................................................................ 45
CHAPTER 05 ...................................................................... ОШИБКА! ЗАКЛАДКА НЕ ОПРЕДЕЛЕНА.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................. 47
5.1 BENEFITS OF AMI...................................................................................................................... 47
5.2 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY .......................................................................................................... 47
5.3 FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS.............................................................................................................. 48
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 50
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Chapter 1
Introduction
__________________________________________________________________________________
1.1 Background
The existing electricity grid is no more reliable and giving rise to numerous problems. To
overcome these challenges, energy community is trying to incorporate information and
communication technology with electricity infrastructure to create a SMART GRID.
SMART GRID is basically a general label for the application of computer intelligence and
networking abilities to a dumb electricity grid to enhance



Grid operations
Customer services
To meet service needs in the future.
The figure (1) below shows the technological development of SMART GRID. [1]
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Fig 1: Technological development of smart grid. [1]
ADVANCE METERING INFRASTRUCTURE (AMI) is basically a key component in
the smart grid. The AMI is a network that gathers and analyses data from smart meters using bi
directional communication and giving a diligent management of different electrical based
applications and programs based on that data. A two way communication to the mart meter is
possible with the setup of AMI architecture. Its installation helps in automating the power grid
control systems and is the initial step in doing so. AMI provides a network for a digitized two way
communication between the meters installed at the consumer site and service providers. AMI
incorporates networks of smart meters, electric meters which remotely report demand over
communication network.. AMI focusses on providing service providers / electric companies with
9
actual data about how much power is being consumed and other timely information about
electricity. Power usage can be monitored by smart meters in an efficient and precise manner as
compared to a manual meter and resend the collected data at regular intervals to service provider
to identify load consumption. It also helps in analysing the quality of power being delivered
keeping in mind current, voltage and phase etc. Moreover, careful monitoring of energy theft and
bill generation also takes place. The information coming from the smart meters is also very
important for the central control system to establish a response of demand mechanism. In short,
smart meters enable the consumers to manage the usage of power and calculate how much power
is being consumed during peak hours.
AMI is not a standalone network but rather a collection of many different applications incorporated
into the already present and recently developed .procedures and approaches to work together as a
single entity. “It includes:
• Smart meters
• Wide-area communications infrastructure
• Home (local) area networks (HANs)
• Meter Data Management Systems (MDMS)
• Operational Gateways”[4]
The collected data can be transferred through the already available technologies such as broad
band over power line(BPL), PLC, fixed radio frequency (RF) alongwith the open access systems
such as landline, cellular and paging via the smart meters. This consumed data sent by the meters
to the AMI host system. This is eventually sent to MDMS. MDMS is used for collecting and
analysing the data and further passes the processed information to the electric companies in a
functional manner.
“Therefore, the key features of smart electricity meters can be summarized as follows:

Costing on the basis of time.

The data used by the customers and service providers is given.
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
Collective metering.

Power failure is notified.

Commands are sent distantly.

Load limiting for Demand Response purposes.

Communication with other smart devices.

Environmental conditions are improved by reducing emissions through efficient power
usage.
A state of the art communication system is required by the smart meters to transmit the gathered
data to the central computer and receive commands from the control centre A highly efficient
communication system is required for transmitting a humungous amount of data because of the
presence of a large number of customers and smart meters. “Many architectures can be employed
with one of the most common being the local concentrators that collect data from groups of meters
and transmit that data to a central server via a backhaul channel.
• Power Line Carrier (PLC)
• Broadband over power lines (BPL)
• Copper or optical fibre
• Wireless (Radio frequency), either centralized or a distributed mesh
• Internet
• Combinations of the above” [4].
“A HAN (Home Area Network) interfaces with a consumer portal to link smart meters to
controllable electrical devices. Its energy management functions may include[4]:
• In-home displays so the consumer always knows what energy is being used and what it is costing.
• Responsiveness to price signals based on consumer-entered preferences.
• Set points that limit utility or local control actions to a consumer specified band.
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• Control of loads without continuing consumer involvement.
• Consumer over-ride capability” [4].
“A HAN may be installed in a no. of ways like with the consumer portal located in any of several
possible devices including the meter itself, the neighbourhood collector, a stand-alone utilitysupplied gateway or even within customer-supplied equipment”[4].
“A MDMS (Meter Data Management System) is a database with analytical tools that enable
interaction with other information systems such as the following:
• Consumer Information System (CIS), billing systems, and the utility website.
• Outage Management System (OMS)
• Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) power quality management and load forecasting systems
• Mobile Workforce Management (MWM)
• Geographic Information System (GIS)
• Transformer Load Management (TLM)” [4]
“One of the primary functions of an MDMS is to perform validation, editing and estimation (VEE)
on the AMI data to ensure that despite disruptions in the communication network or at customer
premises, the data flowing to the systems described above is complete and accurate”[4].
“AMI interfaces with many system side applications such as the MDMS to support:

Advanced distribution operations (ADO)

Advanced transmission operations (ATO)

Advanced asset management (AAM)”[4]
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1.2 Objectives:
Initially a suitable communication network has to be chosen for the implementation of Advanced
Metering Infrastructure (AMI). “Design and selection of an appropriate communication network
is a meticulous process which requires careful consideration of the following key factors :

Huge amount of data transfer.

Restriction in accessing data.

Confidentiality of sensitive data.

Representing complete information of customer’s consumption.

Showing status of grid.

Authenticity of data and precision in communication with target
device.

Cost effectiveness.

Ability to host modern features beyond AMI requirements.

Supporting future expansion” [3].
Keeping these afore mentioned factors in mind and considering the current metering system in
Pakistan provided by K-Electric, our basic aim is to implement an advanced metering
infrastructure using Power line communications (PLC). Implementation of AMI involves many
aspects. This study project will primarily be focussing on designing an efficient coupling circuit,
which is the key feature of any PLC modem, for interfacing communication signal onto the power
lines. Moreover, a comparative study of different digital modulation techniques such FSK, PSK
and ASK is also presented.
1.3 Motivation:
Smart metering has become quite popular throughout the world over the last few years but
unfortunately is not being installed in Pakistan yet. In Pakistan, manual meters are still used which
requires personnel from the utility centre to come and take the reading.
Smart meter will reduce the cost of personnel to be sent to all house hold to manually read meters.
Billing can be executed remotely, by downloading the usage and bill the customers. The
13
restrictions commands can also be sent remotely when the customers have not paid their utility bill
[6].
The advantages of smart meters outweigh it’s disadvantages. “Some of the advantages are:

The smart meters reports when it is tampered with

The smart meters reports power outage

The household power can be restricted via smart meter

Load shedding can be executed remotely

The smart meter helps in real time consumption

The smart meter can help in power saving

The smart meter can reduce energy theft”[6]
“Some of its disadvantages are:

Expensive.

Security issues.

Less jobs”[6].
Security issues are associated with all communication methods but the reason for choosing PLC
is that this system already exists which not only reduces the installation cost but also that it is more
secure than wireless because of its physical medium. This network also poses danger due to the
presence of AC voltage on them (230V) which gives it security against any kind of tempering.
Power Line Communication (PLC) is a method of communication where electronic data is
transmitted over power lines back to the substation, then relayed to a central computer in the
utility's main office.” PLC systems operate by imposing a modulated carrier signal on the wiring
system. Since these power lines were originally intended to transmit AC power at typical
frequencies of 50 – 60Hz, power lines have only a limited ability to carry higher frequencies” [7].
14
In simpler words, the initial step for setting up of AMI architecture will be the installation of smart
meters in the consumer houses. These smart meters communicate via PLC using the existing power
lines. The connection starts from smart meters to PLC network and then down to the nearest
substation. From the substation, it is being carried to the Data management centre but through a
different communication network which can be fibre or wireless.
It is composed of two major categories Narrowband PLC and Broadband PLC. This technique
permit utilities to utilize the power infrastructure to exchange data flows and monitoring control
messages, and so far it is considered as a cost effective smart grid communication means, and it is
widely used in AMR applications deployment “So far, NB-PLC provides highest data rate for
applications related to smart grid. It gives 46.5 kbps for distance of 500 m and it is being applied
in Taiwan for broadcasting control of intelligent air conditioners. In Europe, PLC is providing
better coverage as compared to the Wi-Fi because it is harder for Wi-Fi to penetrate those
housing/buildings” [8].
Therefore, PLC technology is deployed in several smart grid domains from bulk generation to
distribution and end consumers. Therefore PLC can be considered as a practical solution for smart
grid communication infrastructure[9].
Since PLC uses existing electrical power grid infrastructure it is less costly and most popular. The
protocols, bandwidth, reliability, and accessibility are important aspects because these are the core
components of the robust network. PLC would be a perfect last mile candidate since it is
comparatively inexpensive as compared to fibre and the infrastructure already exists. The PLC
network advantage is that the medium also carries power which makes these medium resistant to
cable tapping attacks [10].
Therefore, in simple words, “PLC is a communication technology that uses electrical wiring to
simultaneously transmit both data and electric power without any interference as both are at
different frequency. The PLC system is very old and reliable communication medium as compare
to all other mediums. In the PLC communication, the network should be roughed, confined and
parameter like phasing etc. are taken care since beginning of network laid”[11].
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“Power-line carrier communication (PLCC) is currently being effectively used for
telecommunication, tele-protection and tele-monitoring between electrical substations through
EHV power lines and proved to be best low cost communication media but the use of PLC through
LT distribution lines from consumer meter up to the DCU would depend upon the condition of the
distribution lines”[11] .
“However, depending up on the network strength and site feasibility, PLC may be used in the
smart metering of apartments and colonies where the system is robust and data can be collected at
a central server through PLC communication. Ipv6, G3-PLC and PRIME are widely used protocols
to enable large scale PLC communication on the electrical grid”[11].
The table below shows some PLC standards i.e. different PLC bands, technology, frequency and
data rates [6]:
Bandwidth
Standards
used
Narrow band
PRIME
Narrow band
PLC G3
Broad band
P1901
Narrow band
Home plug
Narrow band
IEC
Table-1: PLC Standards
Technology
Frequency
Data Rate
OFDM
OFDM
OFDM
OFDM
SFSK
42-90kHZ
35-90kHz
2-3MHz
2-30MHz
60-76 kHz
21-128kbps
2.4-34 kbps
100 Mbps
3.8 Mbps
1.2-2.4kbps
The protocols used on PLC are: X10, CE. Some of these protocols are outdated and they have
inadequate security features on them. “The main organisations which propose different standards
worldwide are International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), the
International Electro technical Commission (IEC), and the European Committee for Electro
technical Standardisation (CENELEC)”[12].
“These organisations are assisted by many groups and alliances, the most prominent ones being
Power Line Intelligent Metering Evolution (PRIME), G3-PLC, KNX Association, Home Plug and
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)”[12].
1.4 Problem Statement:
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Some limitations of Power Line communications are [11]:

slower data transfer,

interruption on operation of switches, disconnectors in Electrical system

Distortion of signals during passing through power transformers, inductors etc .
One more disadvantage is the limited bandwidth and attenuation as the transmission distance
increases. One more problem encountered by PLC is that the channel gets mostly exposed to
severe noise interference [6]. The noise interference problem is quite profound because it’s not
only present in narrowband interference but in broadband noise as well. Therefore, when working
with a smart grid based on PLC communication network, all types of noises should be dealt with
and a proper signal modulation scheme should be selected to minimize or cancel the noise present
on the channel.
1.5 Report Plan:
Chapter 1: A summary of the context of the problem, the motivation factors, research goals
and work range.
Chapter2:
Literature
review,
in
this
chapter
published on smart Grid are discussed.
recently
work
of
various
Chapter 3: Research methodology, involves designing an appropriate coupling circuit.
Modelling of the PLC system with different types of digital modulations was
conducted.
Chapter 4: Results, the modulation schemes are compared on the basis of their application to a
practical PLC system and results are simulated on MATLAB Simulink.
Chapter 5: Results and conclusion
Chapter 2
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Literature Review
_________________________________________________________________________________
2.1 Overview
Research have been carried out in the area of Smart metering, Automatic Meter Reading
and Advanced Metering Infra structure (AMI) as a way to enhance smart metering and hence
improve efficiency of the grid. Moreover, different communication mediums have been discussed
along with their advantages and disadvantages. C. Selvam in their research argue that “the existing
power grid may not support future growing electric demand and advanced technologies can be
used to improve efficiencies and moderate electric usage by avoiding the need for new generation,
transmission and distribution plants”[1]. They proposed “smart grid technology to aid in
optimizing the amount of energy generated”[1]. “Their paper details the Advanced Metering
Infrastructure development particularly the Power Quality Analysis. The paper also briefs National
scenario of Advanced Metering Infrastructure to meet smart grid applications and its
development.”[1]
In Paper [2] “AMI based on smart meters in SG has been identified, and their state‐of‐the‐art
research activities were reviewed. In addition, the issues on security of AMI in SG have also been
discussed” [2].
Paper [3] This paper “AMI technology and its current status, as the foundation of SG, which is
responsible for collecting all the data and information from loads and consumers. In this paper SG
and its features are introduced, the relation between SG and AMI is established, the three main
subsystems of AMI are explained and related security issues are discussed” [3].
Paper [4] is a research “conducted by National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) for US.
department of energy. It summarizes that AMI is the first step to grid modernization. AMI provides
an essential link between the grid, consumers and their loads, and generation and storage resources.
It discusses the deployment approaches and it’s benefits as well” [4].
Paper [5] discusses “LAN for micro turbine systems”[5].
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Paper [6] discusses “Smart Grid security technology challenges and possible effective solutions.
Practical issues of power line communication for AMR systems are approached. Different factors
affecting system performance are highlighted. The case study is based on ARSEL system
developed in Egypt”[6].
Paper [7] “aims to create a better understanding of the value and importance of smart metering.
An introduction to smart metering as well as the general concept of electricity metering is provided
in this thesis”[7].
Paper [8] provides a “survey of the communication infrastructure in smart grids that includes
communication architecture and different network compositions, technologies, and intelligent
functions that are employed in this architecture” [8].
Paper [9] gives an “overview of smart grid reference model, and a comprehensive survey of the
available networks for the smart grid and a critical review of the progress of wired and wireless
communication technologies for smart grid communication infrastructure. Also an end to end
communication architecture for Home Area Networks (HANs), Neighbourhood Area Networks
(NANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs) for smart grid applications”[9].
Paper [10] “This study conducted a simulation based on density of the installation environment
and configuration of the communications network to analyse the economic effect of installing a
hybrid AMI communications network. The results showed that the hybrid AMI was economically
more effective than the PLC-only AMI method” [10].
Paper [11] provides various “guidelines for communication systems for smart meters such as PLC,
RF and Cellular networks (3G/4G). Their advantages and disadvantages are discussed [11].
Paper [12] presents “a review of the technology may be useful to keep the readers aware of new
update” [12].
Paper [13] describes “an application of advanced metering infrastructure concept in managing the
electricity consumption. The scopes are to reduce the energy consumption and, consequently, the
environment pollution. Different intelligent electricity pricing models, such as direct load control,
time of use, critical peak pricing and real time pricing, are studied in order to shift load
19
consumption from peak time to off-peak time. The authors propose a new campus scale demand
response platform which has the advantage of integrating different electricity pricing models into
it” [13].
In this research paper “Smart meters are connected through a Lon Work type industrial bus to a
Gateway. The Gateway commands the meters, reads data from them and communicates, through
GSM, with a Data Acquisition Centre (DAC) where data is processed. The paper details the
gateway’s software” [13].
This paper [14], the authors have discussed “the advantages and applications of PLC. According
to them “Power line communication systems include all the advantages of fibre-optic cable and
fast data communication along with the security of wireless communication methods. PLC can
also control active and passivity of distribution lines. This is essential especially for substations
located in countrified areas where there isn't any communication infrastructure. PLC technology
usually uses for data communication medium and low voltage power lines” [14]. The figure below
shows the distribution network architecture.
Fig. 2: Smart grid distribution network architecture.
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2.2 Design Of Coupling Circuit:
Power line communications have gained immense popularity over the recent years mainly because
it uses the existing power lines for data transfer. The PLC systems are divided on the basis of two
classes of frequencies namely Narrow Band and Broad band.
The researchers in [15] suggest that usually, “narrowband PLC refers to data communication over
the frequency band between 0 and 500 kHz. On the other hand, broadband PLC covers the
frequency band between 1.7 MHz and 500 MHz and high-speed data rate” [15].
The researchers in [16] specified that : “The basic principle in transmitting data through PLC
(power line communication) consists in superimposing a high frequency signal that is message
signal (1.6 to 30 MHz) at low energy levels over the 50 Hz electrical signal. This second signal is
transmitted via the power infrastructure that can be received and decoded remotely. Thus the
transmitted signal is received by any PLC receiver located on the same electrical network ”[16].
The PLC signal is transported on electrical wiring by supplementing the line frequency of the
electrical circuit usually 50-60 Hz by a high frequency modulated signal.
The signals are injected or extracted to and from the existing power lines with the help of ‘Coupling
Circuit’. With power lines transmitting AC power, the coupling circuit also filters out the AC
mains signal.
The power and communication signals work at different frequencies and voltage levels, which can
give rise to undesirable behaviour if the components of the coupling circuit are not chosen wisely.
Paper [14] represents the general architecture of PLC system.
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Fig. 3: Power line communication general block diagram.
Transmitter block generates the signal which is then coupled to the power line channel. The signal
after passing through the channel is decoupled and received at the Receiver block. The coupling
circuit comprise coupling transformer and a combination of inductors and capacitors.
Engineers in [17] further explained the” importance of the coupling circuit. The coupling circuit
performs the connection with the communication channel. It acts as a filter that passes the
communication signals, while attenuating out-of-band frequencies. Its design mainly depends on
the line characteristics, such as voltage, frequency, wiring style, etc. In some applications, the
coupling circuit can be required to provide safety isolation and protection from high voltage
disturbances” [17].
Paper [15] also presents a “detailed study of PLC couplers and their different types. Moreover, a
useful classification of PLC couplers based on the type of physical couplings, voltage levels,
frequency bandwidth, propagation modes and a number of connections is also discussed. Initially,
antenna coupling was the first type of coupling used with electric grids because it was simple, less
costly and easy to install. But it was observed that due to impedance mismatching of the power
cables, energy transfer between the power cables was reduced which led to the introduction of
capacitive couplers. They were then followed by inductive couplers. According to the authors of
this paper [15] due to the characteristics of inductive couplings such as electromagnetic isolation
between the power cable and the PLC transceiver, they have been successfully applied in MediumVoltage-based (MV) PLC systems since it is possible to install them to the live power line.
However, due to the insertion loss, they were not accepted in low voltage (LV) power systems.
For LV levels, capacitive coupling is common due to its low cost and simplicity. Most recently,
resistive PLC couplers have gained some interest due to their low cost and simple circuitry
features” [15].
22
Extensive research articles are available which highlight the issues faced in the proper design of
coupling circuit. The most common ones are: impedance mismatching, flat frequency response for
minimal distortion, cost effectiveness, proper electrical protection of the components etc. Design
considerations are further mentioned in [18] where the authors are of the view that Power line
networks, however, offers a hostile channel for communication signals, as their basic purpose is
the transmission of electric power at low frequencies (50 Hz or 60 Hz). Noise, multipath, selective
fading and attenuation are major properties of power line grids and they must be considered when
designing a PLC system. Additionally, random impulsive noise characterized with short durations
and very high amplitudes is identified as one of the major deficiencies that worsen the performance
of PLC systems.
Coupling circuits are an essential part of a power line modem. A power line modem consists of an
encoder and modulator on transmission side and a decoder and demodulator on receiver side. A
part of this study project involves designing a suitable coupling circuit which can efficiently
interface the communication signal onto the power lines and retrieve it at the output.
2.3 PLC Standards:
As discussed earlier, PLC systems have been placed mainly in two bandwidth categories,
namely: Narrow band PLC and Broadband PLC. Since this study project revolves broadly around
implementation of AMI and home automation, our bandwidth of interest will be NB-PLC as it is
suitable for applications which require long range, low power and reliable communications.
In today’s day and age, standardization of power line channel has become quite essential and
cannot be overlooked by the electricity producer and distributer. As discussed by the authors in
[16] “IEC (International Electro technical commission) was the first standardization body. There
are three International organizations that cover all the field of knowledge regarding the system, as
IEC (International Electro technical commission, Europe), the ISO and the ITU. The IEC
(International Electro technical commission, Europe) and the CENELEC (European committee for
Electro technical standardization) are in charge of electrical engineering and the ETSI (European
Telecommunication Standards Institute) is in charge of telecommunications. The ISO and CEN
(European committee for Standardization) cover all the other areas of activity” [16].
23
According to the authors in [19] “NB-PLC standards for low voltage access network are based on
various communication technologies that have emerged in the recent past, such as IEEE 1901.2,
PRIME (ITU-T G.9904) and G3-PLC (ITU-T G.9903)”[19].
It has been further clarified in [20] that “Technologies operating in the Very Low Frequency/Low
Frequency/Medium Frequency bands (3-500 kHz), which include the European CENELEC
(Comit´e European de Normalization ´Electro technique) bands (3-148.5 kHz), the US FCC
(Federal Communications Commission) band (10-490 kHz), the Japanese ARIB (Association of
Radio Industries and Businesses) band (10-450 kHz), and the Chinese band (3-500 kHz). The data
rate of PLC standards is classified into two, namely:

Low Data Rate (LDR): XI0 and Lon Works etc.

High Data Rate (HDR): PRIME, G3 & IEEE1901.2”[20]
These standards are common in almost all the research papers reviewed.
2.4 Modulation Techniques:
The second part of this study project involves comparative study of different digital
modulation techniques. Smart grid can be made energy efficient by using communication
infrastructure, smart grid, smart appliance, automated control and networking, etc. In PLC
systems, operation takes place by superimposing a modulated carrier signal to the existing power
line through a narrow band NB-PLC or a broad band BP-PLC. As explained in [21], “this
technique involves injecting a high frequency over AC carrier onto the power line and modulating
this carrier with data originating from the remote meter or central station”[21].
To overcome signal degradation due to noise, reduce error rates and improve spectral efficiency,
it is necessary to explore some form of signal modulation technique. The authors in [18] also
discussed the properties of power line networks and the vulnerability to various types of noise calls
for a proper selection of modulation schemes to be used in PLC systems.
Three major issues must be taken into account when selecting a modulation scheme for PLC:
24
• The susceptibility to different types of noise including impulsive noise with
relatively high
noise power leading to lower SNR.
• The PLC channel is a time varying channel with frequency selectivity.
• Due to electromagnetic compatibility issues, the transmit power in
PLC systems is limited to relatively low levels.
Utility providers wanting to implement smart grid, have numerous different protocols to choose
from. The digital modulation techniques discussed in this research are Amplitude shift keying
(ASK), Phase shift keying (PSK) and Frequency shift keying (FSK) for smooth data transmission.
2.4.1Amplitude Shift Keying:
In this technique, “amplitude of the carrier is changed respect to the data signal”. “Two
inputs are required here. First input is binary sequence signal and second is the carrier signal. In
demodulation carrier is removed from the modulated signal to obtain original message signal”[22].
2.4.2 Frequency shift keying:
Paper [22] further discusses that “smart grid technology such as SCADA, electricity
meters, and water meters use the standard distribution automation using the distribution line carrier
system known as Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)”[22]. “FSK consists of two sinusoidal waves with
identical amplitudes and distinct frequencies that represent binary bit 1 and 0”[21].
2.4.3Phase Shift Keying:
“The phase in Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) can be varied depending on the message
signal. BPSK is robust against interference. BPSK can be utilized to transmit measured data over
the power lines on the monitoring system”. [22]
It cannot cover long distances and the performance is greatly affected by phase noise.
25
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is also widely used. It transmits data via a
series of parallel subcarriers set at different frequencies. Theoretically, they allow high bandwidth
levels, but practically a great deal of bandwidth is lost under noisy conditions over low voltage
networks. It is costly to implement and draws significant power to operate which is the reason it
is not been considered in this study project.
Each one of them is discussed in detail with their advantages and disadvantages, implemented in
MATLAB Simulink and analysed on the basis of bit error rate (BER). The results of the
simulations were compared and their applicability to a practical PLC system is discussed.
26
Chapter 3
Research Methodology
3.1 Introduction
Power line communication (PLC) is a technology which allows data transfer at narrowband or
broad band speeds through the existing power lines by employing advanced modulation technique.
This technology is widely used all over the world. In Pakistan, electricity has reached almost every
part of the country, but the distribution lines are not supported by any communication technology.
A proper infrastructure is required similar to the one in developed countries like America, United
Kingdom, China, Japan etc. A centralized control network is required to control and analyse load
variations, support metering services and “power quality monitoring including phase, voltage and
current, active and reactive power, power factor and Energy theft detection” [3]. The latest utility
meters installed at new residential and commercial sites have option for smart metering, but due
to the absence of a proper PLC architecture, the meter reading is still done manually rather
remotely.
This chapter presents the research methodology of this study project. The chapter is divided into
3 parts. The first part explains the PLC system design, coupling circuit fundamentals, the
components of the design and their operation and implementation.
The second part focuses on simulation design. It presents MATLAB, Simulink design of the
coupling circuit which is the key feature of this research. The system design and modelling of
coupling circuit is thoroughly presented.
The third part presents the modelling of the PLC system using different modulation techniques.
These techniques prove useful in dealing with the fluctuating channel conditions. Their benefits
27
and design trade-offs were discussed. The modulation schemes were compared on the basis of
their applicability to practical PLC network. A comparative study is carried out based on the
simulation results and bit error rate (BER).
3.2 PLC System Design:
The implementation of a PLC system does not require any changes in the existing power cables
infrastructure which results in reduced capital expenditures. Every house and building these days
have a properly installed electricity line network which gives it an easy access everywhere. PLC
systems can be used as the backbone for communication system, an application for which PLC
was never designed for. The signals are sent and received on a residential and industrial network
through a 50Hz current carrying power line. PLC systems have a number of applications. However,
designing a suitable coupling circuit for a narrowband power line channel for frequencies less than
500 KHz will be the main highlight of this study project.
Despite all the benefits of PLC systems, there are some issues which need to be considered while
designing a PLC system. Power line channel is a noisy and hostile channel for communication
signals as they are required to transmit electric power at low frequencies of 50 – 60 Hz. Apart
from this, signal attenuation, multipath selective fading and noise are some other areas of concern.
28
Fig. 4: A simple PLC model
3.2.1 PLC Channel Overview:
Power line communication channel is a very harsh medium the data signals as the channel
characteristics change with the frequency, location, time and type of equipment connected. Some
characteristics are discussed below:
3.2.1.1 Attenuation:
All power cables are characterised by strong low pass properties based on the cable type, its length
and signal frequency. With the increase in frequency, line losses also increase. This is because
capacitors provide a low impedance path at high frequencies. Moreover, losses in the conductor
also increase attenuation because less conductor area is available to higher frequency current.
3.2.1.2 Noise:
Attenuation of PLC signals makes noise a major concern for data reception. In general, channel
noise is produced by electrical loads and changes with the time of the day, location and frequency.
At a certain location, noise power level is the sum of noise waveforms from different sources and
depends on the distance to noise sources. Noise increases in the higher frequency range and
decreases at low frequency.
3.2.2Fundamentals Of Coupling Circuits:
An appropriate coupling circuit is the heart of any PLC modem. It has two basic functions:

It couples signal from PLC modem to the AC mains

It prevents the alteration of the connected equipment and low voltage modem circuit by
mains high voltage.
We need to choose the components required for the design of coupling circuits carefully to obtain
maximum reliability and accuracy. Following are some of the fundamental components of
coupling circuits.
29
Fig.5: A simplified coupling circuit.
3.2.2.1 High Pass Filter:
A high pass filter is formed by using a combination of series capacitors and parallel inductors.
Capacitors provide high impedance at low frequencies so capacitor acts like an open circuit and
blocks any input signal until cut off frequency is reached.
Fc =
1
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
On the other hand, inductors provide low impedance for low frequency signals and high impedance
for high frequency signals. Because of these characteristics, the capacitor passes the high
frequency signal and blocks the low frequency signal. The small amount of low frequency that
passes through the capacitor will be eliminated by the inductor connected in parallel which shorts
the low frequency signal. For this purpose, the capacitor is placed before the transformer with a
high voltage rating. This capacitor and inductor forms multiple order filter which improves the
waveform.
3.2.2.2 Coupling Transformer:
Transformer coupling is required in PLC model because they provide galvanic isolation from
power line as well as limits the high voltage transient. These transformers have a turns ratio
between 1:1 and 4:1, low leakage inductance and 1mH of winding inductance. The appropriate
specifications and values lead to effective coupling interface. The choice of the transformer should
be such that it should have high magnetic permeability and low eddy current loss for high
frequency carrier signal.
30
Transformer capacitor coupling circuits are used especially in low voltage power line
communications.
3.2.2.3 Protection Circuitry:
PLC systems offer a very aggressive environment and there is always a threat of fast transients
which can damage not only the transmitter and receiver stages but also the components attached.
Therefore a protection circuitry is always required. Normally two protection stages are required,
one stage composed of metal-oxide varistor (MOV) before high voltage capacitor and directly
connected to mains and a second stage of suppressor diodes (TVS diodes), placed on the
transformer secondary side. Depending upon the circuit configuration, Zener diodes are also used
in some systems.
The role of MOV is to protect the circuit from high voltage spikes by varying its resistance. It has
a high resistance until the triggering voltage is exceeded. As the voltage increases, the MOV
decreases its resistance and absorbs energy from the pulse protecting coupling stage from
deterioration.
TVS or Zener diodes are used to suppress and clamp all voltage spikes that may enter the coupler
circuit. They shunt the excess current when induced voltage exceeds the avalanche breakdown
potential.
3.2.3 PLC System Design Blocks:
As mentioned earlier, PLC architecture comprises a transmitter, receiver and a coupling circuit in
the broader sense. Transmitter block consists of a modulator while the receiver block consists of a
demodulator. Therefore, a PLC system is made up of the following components:

A modulator for data transmission

Coupler circuits at transmission block and a de coupler circuit at the receiver block.

A de modulator for receiving data signal.
Line traps are also incorporated in some PLC systems for impedance matching.
31
Fig.6: Power Line Communication System
3.2.3.1 Transmitter Block (TX):
Figure 7 below shows the circuit of the transmitter block. A signal generator is connected in series
with the inductor L. A transformer is connected to a capacitor C to eliminate the residual 60Hz
voltage. A parallel combination of resistor and capacitor is used to discharge the capacitor in order
to lessen the disaster of high voltage peaks caused by the stored charge in capacitor. For
transmitting high frequency signal, 220V live wire is connected to power line and input side is
connected to low voltage high frequency source.
32
Fig.7: Simulink model of transmitter block.
3.2.3.2 Receiver Block (RX):
Figure 7 shows the Receiver block. The signal from the transmitter is transferred to the power
cables through the coupling circuit on the load side and sent to the receiver through an isolation
transformer.
33
Fig.8: Simulink model of the receiver block.
3.3 MATLAB Simulation Design:
The following system is designed and developed on a narrow band PLC model (NB PLC) and
carefully simulated in MATLAB Simulink. This system is based on the standard network values
used by the different utilities companies in Pakistan.
34
Fig. 9: Simulink model of the complete NB-PLC system.
For the transmission of high frequency signal, 220V AC is connected to the power line and a low
voltage high frequency input source is connected at the input. The cut off frequency is usually kept
in the range of 1MHz which means that only the signal above this range will be allowed to pass
through the circuit. This high frequency signal is coupled to the power line via a coupling
transformer. The low frequency voltage will be blocked by the high pass filter. However, this high
pass filter will allow the high frequency signal to pass, coupling it with the 220V AC voltage of
the power line.
35
A similar circuit is deployed at receiver end to retrieve the high frequency signal from the power
line. As the signal is injected for transmission through power lines, high frequency signal flows
from input side to power line and flows in reverse direction for the receiving signal. The Vp-p of
the high frequency carrier signal is taken 10V. Zener diodes are used here to brace any voltage
transients at the secondary side of the transformer and to limit any high voltage that might slowly
enter the coupler circuit. The purpose of connecting a resistor in parallel to the capacitor is to help
the capacitor in discharging itself. This will help to mitigate the hazard of high voltage peaks
caused by the stored charge in the capacitor.
3.4 PLC System Modelling Using Different Modulation Techniques:
Modulation is the process in which a low frequency signal from a certain source is combined with
a high frequency carrier signal and sent on its destination. Different techniques employ varying of
different properties of the waveform such as amplitude, phase or frequency. Here digital
modulation is used because analogue modulation is not suitable for PLC due to the characteristics
of the communication channel. Therefore, in this study project only digital modulation techniques
namely Frequency shift keying (FSK), Phase shift keying (PSK) and Amplitude shift keying
(ASK) are addressed. Communication systems based on these techniques are designed, simulated
and evaluated using MATLAB Simulink. Therefore, a repeatable simulation and design process
for transmission of PLC data is presented.
3.4.1 Amplitude Shift Keying:
In this technique, amplitude of the carrier signal is varied depending upon the data signal. Bit 1
represents high amplitude and bit 0 represents low amplitude. Demodulation block removes the
carrier signal from the modulated signal to obtain the original message signal.
Fig. 9a: ASK
36
The main issue with ASK is that it is vulnerable to noise interference. Noise interference causes a
decrease in the PLC performance which is the reason it is not a preferred technique for PLC. Fig
10 shows the simulated ASK model.
Fig. 10: ASK modulator and demodulator
The modulated signal from this circuit will be sent over 220V, 50Hz power line and will be
retrieved at the output by passing through a demodulator.
3.4.2 Frequency Shift Keying:
Frequency shift keying is quite commonly used in smart grid technology such as SCADA,
electric meters and water meters. In FSK, frequency of the carrier signal varies with respect to
the amplitude of the message signal. Generally, FSK is used for bit rates less than 10kbps which
allows control, signalling and transmission of only small amounts of data.
Fig. 11: FSK
The circuit is modelled by using FM receiver architecture with a frequency deviation of 50kHz
and a centre frequency of 250kHz. The frequency of band pass filter was selected to be 250 kHz
37
and a bandwidth of 150 kHz. Rate transition blocks are added for the proper interface between
analogue and digital circuit components.
Fig. 12 below shows the architecture of FSK model designed and simulated in MATLAB
Simulink.
Fig 12: FSK simulation model.
3.4.3 Phase Shift Keying:
In this technique, phase of the carrier signal is varied according to the amplitude of the message
signal. It uses 2 phases having a phase difference of 1800. It is a sturdy technique as it can handle
highest level of noise quite easily. However, it can modulate up to 1bit/symbol, therefore it’s not
recommended for high data rate applications.
38
Fig 13: PSK
The circuit is modelled in Simulink using the standard PSK modulator and demodulator blocks.
The carrier frequency is taken to be 250 kHz which is similar to FSK. PSK and FSK are almost
similar, the only difference being that PSK uses less bandwidth which enables more amount to
data to be transferred within the same bandwidth. The designed circuit is as follows:
Fig 14: BPSK modulator and demodulator.
39
Chapter 4
Performance Analysis And Results
4.1 Performance Analysis Of PLC System:
An analytical model of power line communication has been successfully developed. Signal
injection cannot take place without an appropriate coupling circuit. A coupling circuit has been
designed which allows to interface a low voltage , high frequency signal from a signal generator
to pass on to the high pass filter followed by a transformer working on a frequency range of 3500kHz. The components of the coupler circuit at the transmitter side have the same values as
that of the de coupler circuit at the receiver side. The design was developed and simulated on
MATLAB Simulink. The resulting waveform is as follows as per Figures shown below:
Fig. 15: Simulink input of the implemented circuit.
40
Fig. 16: Simulink output of the implemented circuit.
4.2 Simulation Results Of Digital Modulation Techniques:
The modulation schemes are compared on the basis of their applicability to practical PLC
system. A comparative study is carried out based on the simulation results and bit error rate
(BER). The simulation result of each scheme is shown here.
41
4.2.1 Amplitude Shift keying:
Fig 17: Effects of channel on ASK system
This graph shows the effects of noise interference caused by the channel on ASK system and
output signal. Some results deduced are:

This technique is used to increase the input amplitude characteristics in communication.

But ASK modulated waves are easily affected by noise which leads to amplitude
variations due to which there will voltage fluctuations in the output waveforms.

It has a low power efficiency. As ASK requires excessive bandwidth, it leads to power
loss in the spectrum of ASK.
4.2.2 Frequency Shift Keying:
The output seen in the following graph shows that it is similar to the input. Only a time delay and
effect of the impulse response of the filter is visible. The reason for the occurrence of impulse
response is the suddenly applied simulation signal. However, the simulation output clearly tells
42
that FSK transmission and reception was accurately modelled and is applicable for the PLC
system.
Fig.18: Input and output response.
43
Fig. 19: Effects of channel on f1 and f0
Some findings from the simulation are:

Supports high data rate

Less probability of error

More signal to noise ratio (SNR)

More immune to noise than ASK.

Error free reception is possible

Preferred in high frequency applications
4.2.3 Phase Shift Keying:
The generated PSK signal shows the effect of noise on the modulated signal in fig 20
44
Fig. 20: Effects of channel on PSK
45
Fig.21: Input and output response of PSK
Fig. 21 shows that the output of PSK is similar to that of FSK with a time delay as well. The
Difference between these two schemes is that PSK uses less bandwidth than FSK which means
more amount of data can be transferred within the same amount of bandwidth.
Therefore, the simulation results show that:

It has lower bandwidth efficiency

It carries data over RF signals more efficiently than other modulation techniques which
means it is more power efficient than ASK or FSK.

It is less susceptible to errors.
4.3 Comparative Study Of Modulation Techniques:
A comparative study was carried out based on the results from each simulation. Results show
that ASK is not suitable for PLC applications as it is highly receptive to noise. A sturdy
modulation technique is required by PLC systems which can sustain against interference
46
properly. The analysis of ASK signal in fig. 10 shows that when the input bit is 0, there is a
residual signal because of noise and channel response. This can cause an increase in the bit error
rate (BER). FSK and PSK can be used to mitigate the BER. The impulse response of these
techniques in fig 18 and 21 show that the output has a hint or no BER at all.
These results of the simulation depict that the performance of these modulation techniques using
power line channel is suitable for the transmission of digital data. Furthermore, FSK and PSK
were found apt for the PLC systems as these both are strong against the noise present in the
system. Noise effects the system in the form of Bit Error Rate. The system’s performance
deteriorates if the bits are being misread. This error rate is lessened with the deployment of FSK
and PSK systems. The core reason of low performance of ASK is that since it varies with
amplitude, it cannot withstand noise interference which cause the BER to increase. Hence, use of
FSK and PSK will enhance the performance of the system, as a result, performance of smart grid
and energy efficiency will also increase.
47
Chapter 5
Conclusion And Future Recommendations
5.1 Benefits Of AMI:
Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) has not only proven to be beneficial for the utility
companies but for the customers as well. It’s installation allows the utilities to shift from manual
meter reading to an automated process which is more accurate and reliable.
Benefits of AMI for electric power utility are listed as follows:

Perform remote meter reading

Remotely detect power outage

Able to hold variable power generation and storage options

Perform remote diagnostics
Benefits of AMI for the customers are:

Better awareness of their energy usage

Improved power quality and accurate billing

Resolution of power failures issues more rapidly

Can make and execute intelligent decisions regarding energy consumption and usage.
5.2 Summary Of The Study:
With the deployment of Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI), a reliable communication
system is also required which uses the already available power line as the communication medium
because of its existing infrastructure across the country. The primary focus of this study project
48
was the implementation of AMI using power line communication as despite being an emerging
technology, its not yet been implemented in Pakistan. The first step in this regard was to establish
an model of Power line communication system having a reliable transmit and receive capability.
Therefore, an attempt has been made to design a reliable PLC system having an efficient coupling
circuit. A coupling circuit is the heart of power line communication system which enables the
injection and extraction of data signal into and from power lines. A properly developed coupler
circuit helps to minimize signal distortion and insertion loss which improves PLC system’s
performance.
The designed system is simulated on MATLAB Simulink. Input and output waveforms are shown.
The high frequency communication signal was successfully coupled on to the 220V 50Hz power
lines and was retrieved at the receiver end via a demodulator.
Apart from this different types of modulation techniques were simulated and discussed. Results
showed that FSK and PSK were the best choice for our system as they are rugged and powerful
against noise interference. Bit Error Rate (BER) of FSK and PSK system is less as compared to
ASK. BER is a parameter which gives an accurate evidence for digital modulation techniques for
digital transmission systems.
5.3 Future Recommendations:
Amidst the challenges of modern world, the future requirements of energy management should be
fulfilled. It is recommended that AMI should be readily implemented in Pakistan and the
conventional meters should be replaced by smart meters. Our suggested model using PLC is the
best available one as it is cost effective, robust and does not require installation of any new power
cables.
K-electric along with PEPCO should make an effort and bound the construction companies to
implement PLC based AMI in their projects. It would also help to control not only electricity theft
but also control the excessive waste of electricity in our homes and small commercial units. Smart
meters provide the utility companies power consumption readings throughout the day, so power
suppliers will have more data for load forecasting which will help prevent excessive load shedding.
49
Finally, AMI will also help the country economically as it will be an investment in the technology
and a more reliable grid will be present to support industry and commerce. Moreover, if these
smart meters are designed and manufactured in Pakistan, it will give an additional boost to the
economy.
.
50
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