Module 6: Genetic Change Mutation Inquiry question: H ow does mutation introduce new alleles into a population? Syllabus Dot-point Content Explain how a range of mutagens operate: - Electromagnetic radiation sources - Chemicals - Naturally occurring mutagens Mutagens are environmental agents that modify the DNA sequence. DNA undergoes structural change in base pairing as a result of mutagenesis. T he resulting mutations are termed induced mutations. ● Many mutagens are carcinogenic ( cancer-causing) as some mutations occur in genes that regulate the cell cycle and thus play an important role in promoting or suppressing cell division. Some carcinogenic mutagens can lead to increased cell division will no differentiation which results in masses of cells called tumours, responsible for cancer. ○ Main genes where mutations cause cancer: proto-oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes Chemical mutagens ● Mutagenic chemicals cause mutations in cells when exposed at high frequencies and for prolonged periods of time ● These are usually structurally similar to bases in DNA and are often incorporated into DNA during replication → mispairing r esults in production of non-functional protein, impairing cellular processes - INTERFERES WITH CELL CYCLE ○ Ingested chemicals → alcohol, tobacco, chemicals in charred and fatty foods, food additives/preservatives (nitrates) ○ Environmental irritants/poisons → organic solvents (benzene), asbestos, cleaning products, pesticides Naturally-occurring mutagens ● Are present at normal levels in natural environment and the likelihood of such mutations increase with exposure and frequency ● Biological mutagens may trigger cancers from causing DNA damage and reducing the efficiency of DNA repair systems (releasing free radicals - oxygen species that cause oxidative stress) ○ Biological ■ Microbes → viruses (hepatitis B, HIV), bacteria ■ Transposons → sections of DNA that spontaneously fragment and relocate within the genome and can disrupt DNA sequencing and functioning when inserted into chromosomal DNA ■ End-products of metabolism by fungi, animal or plant cells ○ Non-biological → metals such as mercury, cadmium Physical mutagens ● Ionising radiation has enough energy to break chemical bonds in DNA and free electrons from atoms or molecules due to shorter wavelengths and higher energy frequencies ○ Electromagnetic radiation ○ UV radiation → produces pyrimidine dimers where two adjacent T or C bases attach and prevent normal DNA replication ■ Direct impact → removing an electron ■ Indirect impact → formation of free radicals (H2O + radiation) DNA repair systems: ● Base excision repair → by nuclease enzyme ● Mismatch repair → DNA polymerase I Compare the causes, processes and effects of different types of mutation: - Point mutation - Chromosomal mutation What is a mutation? Molecular level A mutation is a change in the genetic material of a cell where the sequence of nucleotides in DNA is altered. Cellular level Type o f cell affected by mutation determines the extent of its influence ● Somatic or germline Individual Mutations in certain genes can be translated into physical, behavioural, physiological or biochemical changes, affecting an organism’s entire phenotype. Population Mutations are the direct source of new alleles → introduces variation. Natural selection can act upon these differences so that undesirable mutations are removed and desirable mutations remain. Point mutation: affects only a single gene (single gene mutations) Chromosomal mutation: move blocks of genes to different parts of a chromosome or to another entirely Causes Can arise as a result of spontaneous o r i nduced-mutagenic factors Large-scale alterations to the structure of one or more chromosomes Processes Single nucleotide variation Deletion: section of DNA removed → reduction in number of genes Insertion: section of DNA is duplicated and inserted. Effects on phenotype is dependent on size of the duplicate, location on chromosome and number of repeats Inversion: a piece of chromosome is removed, inverted and re-inserted so that the sequence is in reverse order Translocation: when a section of chromosome joins with Frameshift mutations Point mutation that involves the insertion or deletion of a single nucleotide another non-homologous chromosome leading to gene fusion translocated region joins two normally separate genes Effects on DNA Most result in a base substitution → this may result in a different amino acid being inserted into a polypeptide during synthesis if the triplet does not code for the same acid as the original codon FM → the insertion or deletion of a base may shift the entire ‘reading frame’ of RNA if not a multiple of 3 (as codons are triplets), leading to a non-functional protein Effects on phenotype Distinguish between somatic mutations and germ-line mutations and their effect on an organism Nonsense mutations: changes amino acid to stop codon, cutting protein short Missense mutations: amino acid change → sickle cell anaemia Silent mutations: when altered base codon triplet codes for the same amino acid, leading to no phenotypic change Somatic mutations Overall structure of chromosome is changed or number of chromosomes in a cell is altered Change in chromosome number: Aneuploidy occurs when an organism has an abnormal number of chromosomes - change in ploidy ● Down syndrome Dependent on whether the mutation induced is neutral/silent, or potentially fatal (missense, nonsense) Germline-mutations Description Occurs in somatic cells (non-reproductive) and arises as a result of spontaneous mutations not being corrected in G2 phase during DNA replication prior to mitosis. ● Can be passed onto daughter cells via mitosis ● Usually caused by environmental factors (external mutagens) Occurs in germline cells (sperm or ovum) in the gonads with produce gametes. ● Causes can be internal or external Effect on organism Localised effect → development of a tumour in one part of Mutations in the genetic composition of a gamete will be passed down to offspring which inherit this information. The mutation is replicated in every cell of the embryo as it divides and grows via mitosis, therefore affecting all cells in the resulting child. - E.g. sickle-cell anaemia, cystic fibrosis, colour an organism, but will n ot be inherited by offspring The earlier a mutation occurs, the greater its effect will be on an organism’s phenotype as successive divisions of the cell by mitosis will induce spread of mutation with growth. - Assess the significance of ‘coding’ and ‘non-coding’ DNA segments in the process of mutation As affected cell divides, a specific area of tissue with the mutation may develop, but the mutation will not alter the genetic composition of other cells. - E.g. cancer blindness Maintaining the integrity of DNA is essential for cell functioning. Coding DNA Definition Mutations in region of DNA DNA that codes for proteins ● ● Assess its significance in process of mutation Directly affects the sequence and type of amino acids in a protein and therefore its function, which may lead to a phenotypic change Eukaryotes → may affect gene splicing (excision of introns non-coding nucleotides) Mutations of genes in coding DNA becomes serious when proteins involved in DNA repair are affected. These enzymes are responsible for correcting errors in the sequence of bases, and if affected, will increase the chance and rate of mutations arising from errors in replication. Mutations in tumour suppressor genes may be carcinogenic and mutations that trigger proto-oncogenes can reduce cell death by promoting cell division, which can be fatalistic to an organism’s survival. Non-coding DNA Does not code for proteins Scientists have recently discovered the fatal consequences of mutations in non-coding DNA, especially in those that have a r egulatory function. Gene expression Despite there being no protein end-product, non-coding DNA contain regulatory sequences that promote ‘ switch-on’ or ‘ switch-off’ genes and code for products other than proteins such as rRNA and nuclear RNA, which have important functions in the process of gene expression. ● Small nuclear RNA determines which introns are spliced out of DNA ● rRNA is the machinery that regulates translation of DNA Embryonic development Research also showed that such mutations in germline cells were linked to developmental and congenital abnormalities (birth defects) Disease susceptibility Some mutations in regulatory DNA (enhancer, promoter, silencer) are associated with higher predisposition to non-infectious and infectious disease ● Obesity, heart disease → non-infectious However, can hold evolutionary advantage: ● Act as buffer area where the introns (gaps) can minimise the changes of a frameshift mutation Junk DNA → serves neither protein-coding or regulatory function. Research has suggested its origins from viruses where t ransposons a nd retrotransposons introduce variation and keep the genome diverse in a population. Investigate the causes of genetic variation relating to the processes of fertilisation, meiosis and mutation Some notes included in previous Module (Under heading, ‘How is genetic variation introduced?’) Genetic variability is crucial in populations as minimal variation may create a static and unchanging population susceptible to extinction in the future by natural selection. Fertilisation Meiosis RECOMBINATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL ● Independent assortment as a result of genes occurring on separate chromosomes introduce new combinations of parental genes that increases variability ● Further variation is induced when two random gametes fuse Variation during meiosis and fertilisation may also arise as a result of mutations: ● Replication errors → often results in point mutations ● Chromosomal errors → often results in chromosomal mutations ○ Errors in crossing over can introduce chromosomal aberrations ○ Nondisjunction → chromosome does not split into sister chromatids during nuclear division Chromosomal changes can be brought about as a result of exposure to mutagens. Female gametes may remain in meiosis I for a long time, thus exposure to mutagens at any stage during reproductive life may be detrimental. Mutation Evaluate the effect of mutation, gene flow and genetic drift on the gene pool of populations INCREASING ALLELES ● A greater number of alleles for a particular trait introduces new combinations of genes in gametes produced by individuals ○ Aneuploidy → abnormal distribution of daughter chromosomes Such factors can only be evaluated in conjunction with knowledge and understanding of the relationships that exist between Mendelian genetics and Darwinian evolution. Mutation Formation of new alleles due to errors in DNA that arise during gametogenesis (meiosis). Very few mutated alleles are a dvantageous and selected to increase in frequency. This is because if an environment is stable and an abnormal phenotype is introduced into the population, it is highly likely that the mutation will not benefit the organism’s survival. D eleterious mutations are usually acted upon by natural selection and removed from the population. Neutral mutations are considered an ‘evolutionary back-up’ as they can provide variations that have no immediate effect but may provide a selective advantage in0 the future if sudden changes to the environment were to ensue. Factors other than natural selection that affect the distribution of genetic variation Gene flow Change in allele frequency due to mixing of new alleles or loss of original alleles. Involves existing individuals leaving and new ones entering the population by e migration and immigration. Does not necessarily have to be of the same species. Genetic drift Change in allele frequency due to r andom chance which may not necessarily be of benefit to the surviving alleles. The remaining individuals in a population may not be an accurate representation of the allele and genotype frequencies of the original. ● Bottleneck effect → natural disasters ● Founder effect → individuals becoming geographically isolated from original population Biotechnology Inquiry question: H ow do genetic techniques affect Earth’s biodiversity? Investigate the uses and applications of biotechnology (past, present and future): - Analysing the social implications and ethical uses of biotechnology, including plant and animal examples - Researching future directions of the use of biotechnology - Evaluating the potential benefits for society of research using genetic technologies - Evaluating the changes Biotechnology → exploitation of living systems and biological processes to develop tools and products that individuals can harness for human benefit. Involves the use of genetic techniques/engineering (methods, tools, skills) to study genetic phenomena and apply refined knowledge of biological processes to make efficient use of technologies. ● ● ● Biodiversity - the variety and variability within and between species and ecosystems Gene technology - manipulation of DNA where the end products are precisely obtained Bioethics - ethical and moral implications of new biological discoveries and biomedical advances, particularly in genetic engineering and drug research. Study of the moral dimension of decision making in the treatment, improvement, prolongation and termination of biological systems. to the Earth’s biodiversity due to genetic techniques (Printed in OneNote) Genetic Technologies Inquiry question: D oes artificial manipulation of DNA have the potential to change populations forever? Investigate the uses and advantages of current genetic technologies that induce genetic change Technology Selective breeding IVF Gene therapy Processes Advantages Process whereby humans are able to control which males and females are bred and produce offspring with desirable traits. Both parent individuals are different varieties of the same species so that the resultant offspring is fertile. - Egg is fertilised outside of the female and in a petri dish. Resulting zygotes are cultured until they have progressed to an early stage of development. The fresh/frozen cultured embryo is inserted using a c atheter i nto the uterus of the biological mother, a surrogate, or stored for research. Often carried out in conjunction with M OET t o maximise the genetic merit of the female and increase their rate of reproduction (usually, cows give birth once a year) - The correction of genetic disorders by introducing normal functioning genes into cells Gene augmentation therapy inserted genes are linked to cell function - - - Disadvantages Hybrid vigour - healthier offspring with enhanced characteristics from parents Allows farmers to improve the quality and longevity of livestock and reap the benefits of products derived these animals - Favoured when there is decreased fertility in one or both parents Can increase biodiversity in the short-term by introducing new alleles Allows for geneticscreening of embryos to avoid disease and birth defects - - - - - Allows for the treatment of diseases such as cystic fibrosis Drives research to treat other diseases e.g. Alzheimer’s disease - Hybridisation can potentially mix undesirable genes with desirable traits, producing harmful or unprecedented phenotypes Time-consuming and costly - no guarantee for success of mating, requires transportation of whole animals, risk of injury while mating Reduction in genetic diversity if large numbers of viable embryos are produced from a small selection of parents Can potentially introduce infertility into a population (against n.s) Favourable traits may outcompete competitive alleles and eliminate or reduce the frequency of important genes (disease resistance etc.) Based on trial and error - death of some embryos Expensive The way it is being delivered poses risks to the patient’s immune response Viruses as vectors can cause organ failure and interfere with immunity - Gene inhibition therapy insertion of a ‘blocking’ gene to render another dysfunctional Somatic/germline gene therapy - editing cells that have descended from the ameliorated cell/gamete - Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay is an analytical biochem tool used to detect the presence of antigens/antibodies in a liquid sample Is able to exploit the binding affinity between antigens and antibodies. By fixing either of the two to the surface, levels of the corresponding species can be measured. - Gene-editing tool which comprises of: An RNA sequence complementary to targeted gene, bound to… Cas9 endonuclease enzyme which cuts DNA - - ELISA CRISPRCas9 Compare the processes and outcomes of reproductive technologies: - Artificial insemination - Artificial pollination Can make lasting changes to an individual’s health, rather than solely mitigating symptoms - - - Processes Artificial insemination Involves collecting and banking sperm from male and inserting it into the vagina of a female Semen containing the sperm can be cryogenically stored indefinitely and used to impregnate females around the world even after the male has died - Allows for the diagnosis of disease Useful in forensic epidemiology studies to trace the spread of an infectious disease - Can edit genes with pinpoint accuracy Potential to improve the efficacy of gene therapy; reverse point mutations responsible for c.f etc - - Reversion of virus once it is introduced into the body If the new gene is wrongly inserted, it can cause harmful mutations in DNA Expensive - may not be covered by insurance Micro-titre plates used in ELISA cannot be reused as the antibodies that bind to a surface during the assay are difficult to remove Measures exposure and vaccine response but not acute infection Issues regarding intellectual property and disclosure of genetic information Outcomes - - Transporting frozen sperm overcomes the problem of transporting whole animals over long distances, which is cost-effective and reduces risk of injury in transit or during mating Many females can be inseminated by the Assessment - - Use of sperm from one male reduces the biodiversity of a species across the world However, can be used to save an endangered species for rapid and human-controlled fertilisation Is costly due to the requirement for specialised equipment - Semen is divided into straws and frozen in liquid-nitrogen (allows for longevity). It is then thawed and deposited into the female reproductive tract. spermatozoon of one male - Has the potential to cause injury to the female during the transfer In terms of reaping the benefits for humans, the pros far outweigh the harms. It has become the principal method of assisted reproductive technology for the breeding of livestock and the conservation of endangered species. Desired combinations of alleles are subjectively selected by the breeder rather than by natural selection, and a species’ survival is dependent on the presence of alleles that enable them to increase the output of a product that is useful to and can be harnessed by humans This raises the issue of the suitability of alleles in terms of the environment and for natural reproductive success Artificial pollination Involves removing the stamens of a plant (prevent self-pollination) and transferring pollen onto the stigma - Investigate and assess the effectiveness of cloning: - Whole organism cloning - Gene cloning Gene cloning Definition Processes Producing identical copies of a gene 1. Desired gene is isolated and cut from the source cell via restriction enzymes (produced by bacteria) 2. Gene fragments produced have matching sticky-ends. Plasmid is cut at two ends with same enzymes. 3. Gene is pasted into the vector DNA/plasmid from a bacterium by ligation to form recombinant DNA 4. Transformation: plasmid is inserted back into the host bacterial cell Enables the creation of new varieties with higher-quality traits Hybridisation: e.g. Maize (corn) is a hybrid with an increased germination rate, greater uniformity and increased yield - - Gives the breeder total control of which breeds are crossed Overuse can create a monoculture with increased susceptibility to disease and other abiotic/biotic stresses Decreasing dependence on biotic pollinators can interfere with natural ecosystems Whole organism cloning Creating genetically-identical offspring with the exact genes as the parent Derived from the somatic cells of a mature organism by the process of SCNT (somatic cell nuclear transfer) 1. Somatic cell is extracted and starved of nutrients to stop cell division in a laboratory 2. Egg cell from another organism is enucleated using a micropipette (nucleus is removed) 3. Somatic cell is inserted into the enucleated egg cell and treated with electricity, forcing them to fuse together to form a ‘fertilised’ egg cell 4. Electric shock triggers cell division and embryo develops in-vitro 5. Embryo is implanted into surrogate 5. Host cell replicates the v ector DNA when it makes copies of its own DNA PCR - form of in-vitro DNA cloning Process is used in research to amplify a particular section of DNA in a test-tube. Process is carried out in a thermal cycler where varying temperature conditions allow the DNA to be denatured, annealed (binding of primers) and synthesised (extension). Assessment - - Allows genes that are lacking in certain organisms to be amplified at a relatively fast and efficient rate E.g. human insulin growth hormone Time-efficient Artificial embryo twinning Comparatively inexpensive - embryo is split before cell specialisation Micropropagation/vegetative propagation Using tissue cuttings from a plant to form new plants - Ethical assessment Describe techniques and applications used in recombinant DNA The ability to produce new clones from m ature adult cells creates a problem when certain genes have been ‘switched-off’ in differentiated cells, requiring reprogramming Costly with low rate of success Took 276 attempts before D olly in 1996 Cloning is most commonly used in agriculture to produce uniform livestock Overcomes the trial-and-error nature of selective breeding Reduces the ‘unknown’ element in selective breeding as characteristics can be precisely identified and controlled Conserving entire genomes increases the frequency of desired genotypes and can eliminate natural gene combinations Genes that serve an essential function are conserved by evolution. If a desired genome eliminates these genes, the organism is at a higher risk of susceptibility to foreign pathogens and sudden change. Whole-organism cloning Exacerbation of pre-existing low animal welfare in large-scale farming practices Same techniques used in animal and human cloning raises moral, legal and religious concerns Religious perspective - certain religions prohibit activities that uphold humans as superior over animals Unforeseen health risks and consequences Is not cost-efficient - raises issues of equity of access Recombinant DNA: contains DNA from two species Process: (refer to gene-cloning + include diagram in notes) Once multiple copies have been produced, the gene can be inserted into an egg cell of another species where, after technology: - The development of transgenic organisms in agricultural and medical applications fertilisation, becomes part of the newly formed offspring’s DNA Transformation techniques: 1. Microinjection of DNA directly into the nucleus of an egg cell (transgenic species) 2. Biolistics - gene ‘gun’ fires target cells with DNA under high pressure/voltage 3. Electroporation - increasing membrane permeability of a cell by an electrical current 4. Transduction by a viral vector (e.g. aerosol delivery by nasal or oral spray) Transgenic species: arises as a result of recombinant DNA being perpetuated in an species’ germline genome Considered a reproductive tech if new species increases the reproductive capacity of an animal Transgenesis: introduction of exogenous genetic material into an organism Agricultural Bt cotton Used by inserting a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis i nto the cotton plant embryos as a countermeasure to the parasitic caterpillar of the H elicoverpa zea m oth which, over time, became resistant to pesticides ● ● ● Produced by tissue culturing and transformation via the vector, A grobacterium (secondary bacterium used to replicate the gene multiple times) Bt gene codes for toxic protein that is in an inactive form and is harmless to humans and most animals Reduced the need to use pesticides ○ Better for the environment ○ Reduces development of pesticide resistance in caterpillars Farmers plant ‘refuge crops’ to prevent moths acquiring double recessive alleles for resistance to transgenic cotton by forcing them to interbreed with moths who feed on the original ‘refuge crop’ Medical Allows scientists to c onduct trials on treatments for genetic diseases ● Transgenic sheep in Australia - used to amplify gene for blood-clotting that is lacking in haemophilic patients, which can be extracted from sheep’s milk and used for human treatment Used to infer the functions of specific genes ● ‘Knock-out’ mouse - an existing gene is deactivated and replaced with an artificial copy during blastocyst stage to observe differences from normal behaviour and functioning ● Oncomouse - mice that lack the tumour-suppressor gene is useful in cancer research, enabling the symptoms and effectiveness of cancer treatments and drugs to be studied Recombinant vaccines Are projected to be effective due to low risk of side effects and are relatively cheap to produce, allowing for use in developing countries against m alaria, cattle tick etc. ● Recombinant vaccine against hepatitis B - involves selecting a gene that codes for a particular antigen on the virus rather than the whole genome. Gene is amplified in yeast cells and purified to form HB vaccine Xenotransplantation: transplanting organs from other animals ● Assessment: ● Increases biodiversity in short-term as it can confer resistance on species that were previously susceptible to pests/disease ● Long-term - reduction in biodiversity and potential loss of original genes ● Pests can develop resistance in the long-term Evaluate the benefits of using genetic technologies in agricultural, medical and industrial applications Agricultural ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Medical ● ● E.g. organs from t ransgenic pigs that have human surface markers (proteins on cell surface that identify the cell lineage and determine differentiation) can inhibit the activation of organ rejection in humans and function as viable organs Assessment: ● Exploitation of biological living systems for human benefit and profit ● Is beneficial for cancer research ● Can alter the genetic composition of animals, but if it is carefully regulated and biodiversity is prioritised, it can aid in addressing and providing treatment for human diseases ○ The extent of influence on all parties involved Improved food quality and supply ○ Biofortification - crops with enhanced nutrient levels (higher protein, lipid content etc) can be used to address nutrient deficiency in third-world countries and can be furthered in the industrial setting by producing lipid-dense plants f or the production of animal feed, fuels and oils. Selective breeding coincides with cost-effective production and higher economic return for farmers who produce quality animals/crops that meet consumer demand Ability to supply consumers with sustainable and nutritional food sources to address the trend of growing populations, especially in resource-scarce communities Increased food security (regulation, labelling, restrictions etc.) as a solution to alleviate global poverty and food scarcity Reduced dependence on harmful pesticides - better for environment and human consumption Transgenic organisms allows farmers to better utilise their available resources and produce crop/animal varieties that are suited to specific environments. This provides an opportunity to increase their productivity levels by making use of marginalised/segregated land and to reduce post-harvest losses. GMO food sources as an alternative to their conventional varieties - contains higher nutritional value and is more efficient to produce in commercial quantities ○ GM Atlantic salmon - available in US market Improved access to pharmaceuticals Improved techniques used in research, especially in the fields of oncology and pharmacology ○ Pharmaceutical products can be developed artificially and efficiently through recombinant DNA technology (e.g. humulin - prior to its development in 1982, insulin was extracted from the pancreas of pigs and cows), which is better tolerated by diabetic patients MABs (monoclonal antibodies) can be grown in-vitro or through transgenic mice to clone antibodies that target specific antigens. They have varying functions dependent on the targeted antigen. Potential to influence medical care and individualise treatments to yield better patient outcomes ○ ● Industrial ● ● Use of GM plants and bacteria to aid in bioremediation - absorption of heavy metals (mercury), cleaning up polluted and contaminated sites to reduce harm to surrounding ecosystems Cloning recombinant enzymes to hasten food production - precisely obtained substrate specificity of enzymes, purer and with fewer contaminants ○ Particularly useful in dairy production a nd wine brewing Current research: ○ GM plants to produce environmentally-friendly and sustainable materials, polymers and energy sources/biofuels (replace plastics, fuels, paints etc.) ○ CSIRO - starch used as a substitute to synthetics in the production of paper and textiles Limitations: ● Ethical implications include causing detriment to human health, animal welfare, confidentiality of genetic information and intellectual property rights being exploited by patents ● If long-term biodiversity is compromised or if benefits fail to outweigh the harms, the practicality of the technology must be re-assessed Evaluate the effect on biodiversity o f using biotechnology in agriculture Advantages SHORT TERM: broaden the gene pool ● Potential to effectively increase genetic diversity in crops through transgenics IF natural varieties are properly maintained ● Ameliorate issues of biodiversity in areas facing desertification or pollution by producing GMOs that are suited to thrive in such environments Disadvantages LONG TERM: higher risk of extinction due to reduced variability. A species’ survival and continuity is compromised at the expense of creating a desirable monoculture. ● Over time, the practice of selectively breeding ‘purebred hybrids’ can be of detriment to the ability of the species to counteract any unprecedented abiotic/biotic stresses ● Horizontal gene transfer into surrounding, native ecosystems - competitive advantages can lead to genetic erosion ● If capital gains/profit is prioritised over long-term sustainability, the continuity of un-modified crops and existing alleles in a gene pool will be compromised Assessment: It is also important to consider the competing considerations/factors that coincide with an effect on biodiversity (economic return, quality of crops, consumer demand etc.). The effect of altering the gene pool of a crop will not only pose an impact on its own variability, but can also pose an indirect threat on the biodiversity of neighbouring species/close varieties (GM soybeans). Case study: GM soybeans ● Soybeans are an economically important crop in certain countries (Argentina, Brazil, USA etc). GM soybeans have been developed as a resistance against the glyphosate herbicide used by farmers to destroy surrounding weeds and is produced via biolistics insertion of recombinant DNA into the nuclei of soy plant cells. ● Even though the herbicide is harmless for human consumption in small amounts, some weeds have become resistant to glyphosate and require additional herbicides to destroy them. This can potentially add to the residual amount of herbicides in the soy product and can therefore affect human health if not monitored - can also breach consumer autonomy due to inappropriate labelling etc. ● Due to increasing concerns over the exposure of sensitive ecosystems to the herbicide, excessive spraying of herbicides must be minimised. Seed dispersal of resistant GM soy strains to ecologically sensitive areas must also be prevented to conserve natural biodiversity and avoid interference with other species. Interpret a range of secondary sources to assess the influence of social, economic a nd cultural c ontexts on a range of biotechnologies Dependent on the country the genetic technology is implemented in ● Science should involve robust dialogue with the society it is trying to help. An assessment of the impacts of genetic technologies should be in light of its potential benefits to research and to its implementation in the community. Social FOCUS ON GM foods Transgenic crops: Bt cotton, GM Atlantic salmon, GM soybeans Factors that dictate social implications: ➔ Specific needs of a country based on government choices/laws ➔ Relative wealth and economic status Ethical issues that pertain to social contexts include: ● Potential for discrimination by patented insurance companies ● Increase socio-economic disparity ● Ownership and privacy issues ● Misuse of genetic information can act as a precursor for bioterrorism ● GM production requires less tillage (preparation of soil) which promotes fewer greenhouse gas emissions ● Production of drought-resistant crops enables water conservation and reduces poverty Economic Ethical issues: ● Need for producers to make profit on their products while allowing consumers to purchase at an affordable price ● Patented GMOs gives biotechnology companies the opportunity to monopolise ● Exacerbating the unequal distribution of wealth ○ Farmers in third-world countries may find it difficult to buy GM seeds - raises issue of equity of access ● Bridging the socio-economic gap - farmers can produce GM foods at greater volumes and at a faster rate in comparison to their natural varieties, which stimulates demand due to reduced prices and increases the income flow for the producers Cultural Factors that dictate a party’s opinion towards the use of genetic technologies: ● Educational background ● Moral and religious beliefs/ideals Ethical issues: ● Traditional, region-specific farming practices may be superseded by large-scale industrial methods, eradicating jobs and leading to a loss of indigenous cultures ● Lack of sufficient scientific communication in regards to G M foods have led to mistrust between national communities and the emergence of anti-science beliefs ● Criticism from religious institutions on the ethics of animal/human rights may lead to divisive debates ● However, can aid in preserving the practice of crop cultivation by providing access to GM seed banks
