Julia F. Guy • Jennifer M. Burgoon
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Learning Human
Anatomy
A Laboratory Text and Workbook
Fifth Edition
Taken from:
Learning Human Anatomy: A Laboratory Text and Workbook,
Fourth Edition by Julia F. Guy
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Cover art: CLIPAREA l Custom media,123rf.com, decade3d - anatomy online/Shutterstock.
Taken from:
Learning Human Anatomy: A Laboratory Text and Workbook, Fourth Edition
by Julia F. Guy
Copyright © 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
New York, New York 10013
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Copyright © 2021 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Pearson Custom Edition.
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This copyright covers material written expressly for this volume by the editor/s as well as the compilation
itself. It does not cover the individual selections herein that first appeared elsewhere. Permission to reprint
these has been obtained by Pearson Education, Inc. for this edition only. Further reproduction by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or
retrieval system, must be arranged with the individual copyright holders noted.
All trademarks, service marks, registered trademarks, and registered service marks are the property of
their respective owners and are used herein for identific tion purposes only.
Pearson Education, Inc., 330 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10013
A Pearson Education Company
www.pearsoned.com
Printed in the United States of America
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 XXXX 19 18 17 16
00003009_00000001 / A103000233306
EEB/MB
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ISBN 10: 0-137-35224-7
ISBN 13: 978-0-137-35224-1
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Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
1
1. Introductory Terminology, Orientation to the Body,
and the Integumentary System
2. Osteology: The Study of Bone
3. Arthrology: The Study of Joints
4. Myology: The Study of Muscles
5. Introduction to the Nervous System
6. Introduction to the Cardiovascular System
7. Review of Unit I
2
13
21
27
33
41
47
UNIT II
49
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
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OVERVIEW OF BODY SYSTEMS
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UNIT I
v
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Bones of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb
Arthrology of the Lower Limb
Muscles of the Hip and Thigh
Muscles of the Leg and Foot
Nerves of the Lower Limb
Blood Vessels of the Lower Limb
Special Areas of the Lower Limb
Review of Unit II
UNIT III
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
50
61
67
81
93
103
111
119
THE BACK AND THE UPPER LIMB
123
The Axial Skeleton
Muscles of the Axial Skeleton
Bones of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb
Arthrology of the Upper Limb
Muscles of the Shoulder and Arm
Muscles of the Forearm and Hand
Nerves of the Upper Limb
Blood Vessels of the Upper Limb
Special Areas of the Upper Limb
Review of Unit III
124
133
137
145
149
163
173
179
185
191
UNIT IV
THE HEAD AND NECK
The Skull
The Brain
Functions of the Cerebrum
Meninges and Circulation of the Brain
Spinal Cord and Tracts
Organs of Special Sense
195
196
209
219
225
233
243
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26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
THE LOWER LIMB
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iv
Contents
32. Cranial Nerves
33. Muscles and Vessels of the Head and Neck
34. Review of Unit IV
251
261
271
UNIT V
277
The Autonomic Nervous System
Muscles of the Abdomen and Pelvis
Digestive System and Peritoneum
Vessels and Nerves of the Abdomen and Pelvis
The Urinary System
The Male Reproductive System
The Female Reproductive System
The Endocrine System
The Thorax
The Respiratory System
The Heart
Fetal Circulation
The Lymphatic System
Review of Unit V
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Index
Notes
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
278
287
291
305
315
323
331
339
342
349
361
369
372
377
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35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
THE ABDOMEN, PELVIS, AND THORAX
Answers to Exercises and Student Activities
Lower Limb Muscle Tables
Upper Limb Muscle Tables
Cranial Nerves Table
Spinal Cord with Spinal Nerves Image
Worksheets
Anatomical Images
383
419
425
433
437
439
469
483
492
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Preface
•
•
•
•
•
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The fifth edition of Learning Human Anatomy: A Laboratory Text and Workbook
continues to be a unique resource for introductory human anatomy
courses/labs that use human cadavers and human organs (or models) as
demonstration tools. The book has been written in an outline format and is
designed to help students organize the anatomical material and find
information quickly. Much of the text is included within the illustration keys
so the visual image of the structure, its name, and its purpose in an anatomical
position can be related. The illustrations continue to emphasize the anatomy
that is vital for a one-term, introductory course or for general review. A
reference text will still be required by students who need great amounts of
detailed information.
The idea for this book was conceived from a need for a gross anatomy
guide for undergraduates; therefore, its treatment of embryology and histology
is minimal. Some basic understanding of biology (cell organization and
function) is assumed, but not necessary.
Because anatomy is a visual science, the lab experience is vital in
understanding three-dimensional relationships. For this reason, the more
time spent looking at the structures, relating them to the living body, and
forming mental images, the more easily the student will learn the material.
Further, it aids the student in understanding the relationships and organization of the major structures within a given body region.
To further the understanding of relationships within body regions, this book
presents a combined regional and systemic approach to human anatomy. The
book is divided into five units:
Overview of Body Systems
Lower Limb
Back and Upper Limb
Head and Neck
Abdomen, Pelvis, and Thorax
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Activities and exercises are designed to reinforce each lesson and help students
form the mental images and the understanding of positions on their own bodies,
which will help in remembering the information. The illustrations are designed
to be actively integrated into the student’s study, and instructions are noted to
direct students to make their own colored illustrations. Clinical comments make
selected information more clinically relevant.
In this fifth edition, there is a new photographic atlas section by Dr. Claudia F.
Mosley of the Division of Anatomy at The Ohio State University. There are also new
worksheets, as well as new tables—one of which the student completes.
When the course is completed and this book is used as designed, the student
will own a customized review book, created in part by the student.
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Acknowledgments
We wish to express our appreciation for the positive comments and suggestions of the many students who have used this book.
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Unit 1
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Overview of Body Systems
With Detailed Introductions to:
•
•
•
•
•
Integumentary System
Skeletal System
Muscular System
Nervous System
Cardiovascular System
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Lesson
1
Introductory Terminology, Orientation to
the Body, and the Integumentary System
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The language of anatomy must be learned in order to understand the discipline. You
will be exposed to new terminology throughout the course so we can communicate
accurately as we discuss anatomical structures.
n
Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
State the meaning of the important anatomical terms listed.
Use the terms of position in describing anatomical structures.
Describe the planes that are used in cutting anatomical material.
Define the regions of the body.
n
MethOds
1. Study the list of words below. Use your own body to locate body parts and terms
of position.
2. Listen for these new terms when they are used by the instructor; practice using
them yourself.
3. Complete the Lesson 1 activities and Exercise 1.
A. GENERAL TERMINOLOGY
2
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1. Gross Anatomy: the study of large (gross) structures that can be seen with the
naked eye.
2. histology: microscopic study of cells and tissues.
3. tissue: groups of cells that are similar in structure and that function together.
The four primary tissues are:
a. epithelial—forms the linings and coverings of free surfaces of the body.
b. connective—supportive and binding tissue found throughout the body.
Examples: bone, tendons, cartilage.
c. muscle—contractile tissue for movement.
d. nerve—communication cells capable of sending impulses.
4. Organ: groups of tissues that work together to perform a common function.
Examples: heart, lungs, kidneys, liver.
5. system: a group of organs working together to perform a common function.
Examples: circulatory, respiratory, urinary.
6. Neuroanatomy: study of the structural components of the nervous system.
7. embryology: study of the developing organism from the time of fertilization to
birth.
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Lesson 1 Introductory Terminology, Orientation to the Body, and the Integumentary System
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8. Germ cell layers: the three layers of embryonic tissue from which all body
tissues are derived.
a. endoderm—innermost of three germ cell layers. It will form most of the
linings of tubular structures of the body.
b. ectoderm—outer germ cell layer. Derivatives: skin and the nervous system.
c. mesoderm—layer between the endoderm and the ectoderm. Derivatives:
muscles and connective tissues.
9. Fascia: compact layers of connective tissue that form a fibrous membrane. It
invests the whole body, supporting and separating muscles and organs.
10. collagen: the major protein of the fibers in connective tissue structures.
11. Ligaments: thickened connective tissue (collagen fibers), which serves to hold
bones together.
12. tendons: thickened, dense connective tissue that holds muscle to bone.
13. Aponeurosis: a broad, flat tendon.
14. Regional study: all the structures in an area are studied together. Example:
lower extremity includes bones, muscles, nerves, and vessels.
15. systematic (systemic) study: studying a complete system independent of
region. Example: learning all the bones of the body.
16. Anatomic position: the body is standing erect, face toward observer, with feet
parallel and flat on the floor, the arms at the sides and palms directed forward.
B. DIRECTIONAL TERMINOLOGY
See Figure 1–1A and B (Anterior and Lateral Views).
FIGURE 1–1A
ANTERIOR VIEW—ANATOMICAL POSITION
1. Anterior (ventral): refers to the front surface of the body.
2. Posterior (dorsal): refers to the back surface of the body.
3. Superior (cranial): nearer the head end, line A.
4. Inferior (caudal): farther from head end, line B.
5. Superficial (external): nearer the surface.
6. Deep (internal): farther from the surface.
7. Medial: nearer the mid-plane of the body (C).
8. Lateral: farther from the mid-plane of the body (D).
9. Proximal: nearest the point of origin. If used with
extremities, closer to the attachment.
10. Distal: farthest from point of origin. If used with
extremities, further from the attachment.
3
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Learning Human Anatomy
Student Activities
Using the terms “proximal” and “distal,” fill in the blanks to compare the relative positions
of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist in Figure 1–1B.
n
FIGURE 1–1B
LATERAL VIEW
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
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1. a is
b is
2. c is
3. c is
a is
to a.
to b;
to c.
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b is
to b;
to a;
to c.
C. PLANES, REGIONS, AND CAVITIES OF THE BODY
To study anatomical material it is often advantageous to look at internal structures
by making cuts in specific planes. For instance, a coronal plane would be used
in some areas, but a transverse section (cross section) provides a better view of
muscles around a bone in the limbs.
FIGURE 1–2
PLANES OF THE BODY
1
3
1. Median (midsagittal) plane: a vertical plane that divides
the body into equal right and left halves. (Color it yellow.)
2. Parasagittal plane: (not illustrated) a vertical plane that
divides the body into unequal right and left portions.
4
3. Coronal (frontal) plane: a vertical plane at right angles to
the median plane. It divides the body into anterior and
posterior portions. (Color it light blue.)
4. Transverse plane: a horizontal plane at right angles to both
the median and frontal planes. It cuts the body into superior
and inferior portions.
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Note: Cross sections (or sections in other planes) will occasionally
be used to familiarize the student with that method of viewing
anatomical material. Sectional anatomy may be important to many
students because current clinical techniques (CAT scans, MRIs,
etc.) look at the body in that way.
Courtesy of Blamb/Shutterstock.
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Lesson 1 Introductory Terminology, Orientation to the Body, and the Integumentary System
FIGURE 1–3
REGIONS OF THE BODY
1. Head and neck
2. Upper limb
3. Thorax
4. Abdomen
5. Pelvis
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6. Lower limb
FIGURE 1–4
BODY CAVITIES
Many organs of the body are located in body cavities. Ventrally,
a large cavity is subdivided by the diaphragm. Above the
diaphragm, the thoracic cavity houses the lungs and the heart;
below the diaphragm, the abdominopelvic cavity contains the
major organs of digestion, reproduction, and the urinary system.
The cranial cavity houses the brain; the spinal cavity
houses the spinal cord.
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n
Label the cavities in Figure 1–4.
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Learning Human Anatomy
D. OVERVIEW OF BODY SYSTEMS
In order for the body to work as a unified whole, many systems must work together.
The anatomy of most systems will be illustrated as we encounter them in the various
regions of the body. Figures 1–5 to 1–13 introduce the systems that will be included
in more detail later in the book.
FIGURE 1–5
SKELETAL SYSTEM
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Structural Components:
• Skeletal muscle
• Cardiac muscle (heart)
• Smooth muscle (walls of hollow
organs)
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Structural Components:
• Bones
• Cartilage
• Tendons
• Ligaments
• Joints
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Functions:
• Support
• Protection (organs)
• Leverage in movement
• Production of blood cells (hematopoiesis)
• Storage of minerals
Functions:
• Movement
• Heat production
FIGURE 1–6
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Components:
• Heart
• Blood vessels
• Blood
Functions:
• Transports oxygen and nutrients to the cells, and transports
carbon dioxide and wastes away.
• Carries hormones and other substances to areas of the body
where they are needed.
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Lesson 1 Introductory Terminology, Orientation to the Body, and the Integumentary System
FIGURE 1–7
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Components:
• Lymph vessels and nodes
• Spleen
• Thymus gland
• Tonsils
(With red bone marrow, these are structures of the immune system, a functional system.)
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Functions:
• Returns lymph (formerly interstitial fluid) to the cardiovascular
system.
• Filters blood and lymph.
• Produces white blood cells to protect the body from disease.
FIGURE 1–8
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Components:
• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Nerves
• Sense organs: eyes, ears, tongue, nose, and sensory receptors in the skin
Function:
• Communication system that detects changes in internal and
external body environment and, by way of a nerve impulse,
responds by producing some effect in muscle or gland.
• Helps maintain homeostasis by regulating body activities
through mediator molecules called neurotransmitters.
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Learning Human Anatomy
FIGURE 1–9
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Components:
• Hormone-producing structures:
• Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal glands
• Ovaries, testes, and pancreas
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Functions:
• Communications system that uses hormones as chemical
messengers.
• Helps maintain homeostasis by regulating body activities.
FIGURE 1–10
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Components:
• Nasal cavity
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Lungs
Functions:
• Supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
• Helps regulate acid–base balance.
FIGURE 1–11
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Components:
• Mouth
• Salivary glands
• Gastrointestinal (GI) tract
• Liver and gall bladder
• Pancreas
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Functions:
• Physical and chemical breakdown of food into nutrients for
use by the cells of the body.
• Removes solid waste.
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Lesson 1 Introductory Terminology, Orientation to the Body, and the Integumentary System
FIGURE 1–12
URINARY SYSTEM
Components:
• Kidneys
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
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Functions:
• Filters blood to eliminate waste and excess fluid.
• Helps maintain acid–base balance in the body.
FIGURE 1–13
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Components:
• Male: testes, penis, duct system, glands
• Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina,
external genitalia. Accessory organs: mammary
gland
Functions:
• Hormone production.
• Production of germ cells for reproduction of the
organism.
• Houses developing fetus (female).
2. THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
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The integumentary system, an extensive covering of the whole body, provides
protection from loss of fluids and from environmental elements such as sunlight,
chemicals, and microorganisms. It is composed of the skin, which is a cutaneous membrane, with its accessory structures: sebaceous (oil) and sweat glands, hair, and nails.
The hair and nails are formed from the strong, dead, structural protein, keratin.
This brief study is important since the skin is what we see first and changes
seen here can often be the first indications of pathological conditions within the
body. It is also important as a sensory organ; nerve endings here are sensitive to
touch, pressure, pain, and temperature change. And, in the presence of sun, skin
is involved in the production of Vitamin D3, which is necessary for maintaining
optimal levels of calcium and phosphates in the body.
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Learning Human Anatomy
FIGURE 1–14
A MICROSCOPIC SECTION OF SKIN
Sweat pore
Sweat duct
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5
6
7
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1
2
Subcutaneous fatty
tissue
Muscle fibers
3
Courtesy of Evan Oto/Science Source.
1. Epidermis: the outermost layer of the skin. It lacks blood vessels. It is composed of cells that are continuously pushed
towards the surface, where they are shed. It is typically composed of four layers or strata (listed deep to superficial):
• Stratum basale (germinativum) – deepest layer of cells; where mitosis occurs to provide new cells; melanocytes
are found here and produce melanin, the substance that determines skin color.
• Stratum spinosum – where cells differentiate.
• Stratum granulosum – where cells begin the process of keratinization and begin to die.
• Stratum corneum – most superficial layer of cells; consists of dead, keratinized cells that are shed.
2. Dermis: deep to the stratum basale of the epidermis. The dermis is well supplied with blood vessels, nerves, and
lymph vessels. Sebaceous (oil) glands, sudoriferous (sweat) glands, and hair follicles are also located here.
3. Sudoriferous (sweat) gland: secretes onto the epidermis via ducts and pores. Helps in excretion of nitrogenous
wastes and salt. Evaporation of sweat helps cool the body.
4. Arrector pili muscle: smooth muscle tissue that attaches to the hair follicles. When arrector pili muscles contract, hairs
stand erect. We see the “goose bumps.”
5. Sebaceous (oil) gland: empties sebum (oil) into hair follicles.
6. Capillary network: found in the dermis. Provides oxygen and nutrients to the epidermis by diffusion. Dilation of these
vessels helps cool the body.
n CLINICAL COMMENTS
Nails are modifications of the epidermis and made of heavily cornified cells. The nail bed is highly vascular, so this is an excellent place to check patients for poorly oxygenated blood. Poorly oxygenated blood is
dark red and gives a bluish tint, cyanosis, to nails and skin.
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7. Hair follicle: responsible for the production of hair.
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1
Exercise One
Name
_________________________________________________________
1. Label each figure with the appropriate description from the following list:
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• Anterior view
• Medial side of left lower limb
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• Proximal upper limb (right)
• Superficial chest
• Deep abdomen
• Lateral view
• Distal lower limb (left)
• Lateral side of left thigh
a.
__________
b.
__________
2. Write a sentence to demonstrate an understanding of each of the relative pairs.
(Example: The knee is distal to the hip.)
______________________________________________
b. (superficial, deep) ______________________________________________
c. (medial, lateral) ________________________________________________
d. (proximal, distal) _______________________________________________
a. (superior, inferior)
3. Complete the following sentences with the correct directional term.
a. The wrist is __________________ to the elbow.
b. The neck is
__________________ to the abdomen.
c. To separate the thorax from the abdomen, a cut in the __________________
plane would be the most appropriate.
__________________ to bone.
e. Dermis is __________________ to the epidermis.
4. New hair growth occurs in the __________________.
d. The skin is
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Lesson
2
Osteology: The Study of Bone
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The bones of the body provide a vertical axis, the axial skeleton, from which the
bones of the upper and lower limbs, the appendicular skeleton, extend. We will study
each bone of the skeleton and its major markings. There are some general terms and
functions that should be understood before specific bones are introduced.
OBjEcTivEs
1. List the functions of the skeleton.
2. Recognize different types of bones.
3. Identify the regions of a long bone and the kinds of bony material of which it is
composed.
4. Define the microscopic unit, osteon, of compact bone.
5. Identify all the bones of the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
6. List and define the articular and non-articular bone markings.
n
METhOds
1. Observe examples of cut and broken bones.
2. Using the long bone x-rays provided, identify both developing bone and adult
bone.
3. Follow the directions as you study this lesson.
A. FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
support—for the soft tissues of the body.
movement—bones serve as levers and joints as fulcra.
protection—to vital organs.
storage of minerals—calcium and phosphorus.
production of blood cells (hematopoiesis).
B. TYPES OF BONES
Examples
1. long bones
femur, tibia, metatarsals, phalanges
2. short bones
carpals, metatarsals
3. flat bones
4. irregular bones
ribs, bones of the skull, sternum
vertebrae, os coxae
5. sesamoid bones (“seed-like” bones that
develop in certain tendons)
patella
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Types of Bones
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Learning Human Anatomy
C. GROSS ANATOMY OF A LONG BONE
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The bones you study in the laboratory are hard and dry, but remember, in the living
body they contain living cells and require blood and nerves. While the inorganic
salts (of calcium and phosphorus) are hard, the organic material (collagen fibers)
allows some flexibility, and the living cells are actively remodeling. Osteocytes are
mature bone cells, osteoclasts are cells that tear down bone, and osteoblasts build
new bone.
The strength of bone, as well as sites of certain bone functions, remain apparent
in the material available in the lab. Using these bones, find each of the parts labeled
in Figure 2–1. The marrow and arteries will not be seen.
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FIGURE 2–1
LONG BONE
In this illustration, a posterior section of the proximal end of the
bone has been removed.
1. Diaphysis or shaft.
2. Epiphysis—found at both proximal and distal ends of long
bones.
3. Epiphyseal line—where the epiphysis and the diaphysis
fuse after the cartilaginous epiphyseal plate is no longer
needed to increase bone length.
4. Spongy (cancellous) bone in proximal epiphysis—found
also in distal epiphysis; composed of bone spicules called
trabeculae; red bone marrow located between trabeculae; the
blood cell producing red bone marrow is also found in
spongy bone of flat bones.
5. Compact bone—the external coat of solid bone.
6. Periosteum—fascial covering found on the external surface
of all bones.
7. Yellow bone marrow—mostly fat. It is seen here in the
medullary cavity, a space lined with endosteum; some
osteoclasts are found here. Red bone marrow may also be
found in the medullary cavity.
8. Nutrient artery entering nutrient foramen.
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Lesson 2 Osteology: The Study of Bone
15
D. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF COMPACT BONE
Microscopic structures will not be seen in the gross bone, but you should be familiar
with the terminology. (See Figure 2–2.)
FIGURE 2–2
COMPACT BONE AND OSTEON
Osteon
Periosteum
Haversian
(central)
canal
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Diagram of a small section of bone (see
inset from Figure 2–1) magnified to show
osteons. Trabeculae of the spongy bone
are shown toward the medullary cavity.
The osteon (Haversian system) is the
structural unit of most compact bone.
Each osteon is composed of the following:
• Haversian (central) canal—for passage
Spongy
bone
of blood vessels and nerves.
• Lamellae—concentric layers of bony
tissue.
• Lacunae—spaces containing osteocytes.
• Osteocytes—mature bone cells.
• Canaliculi—connections between lacunae, containing cytoplasmic processes
of osteocytes.
Osteocyte
in lacuna
Osteoblast
Osteoclast
Nerve
Haversian
(central) canal
OSTEON
Artery
Lymphatic
vessel
Vein
Lamellae
Courtesy of designua/123RF.
Osteoporosis is a condition in which bone resorption occurs faster than bone deposition. This results in
thinner compact bone and fewer trabeculae (interconnecting pieces of bone) in spongy bone. Because the
bone is weaker, fractures are more likely to occur. Compression fractures of the spine and fractures of the
neck of the femur are most frequent. Postmenopausal women and anyone who is immobile are at risk.
Exercise and calcium are needed to keep bones strong.
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Learning Human Anatomy
E. BONE MARKINGS
Bone markings are features of bone that serve specific functions. Study this list
to help you understand the specific markings on each of the bones.
Sites for Tendon and Ligament Attachments:
Crest: a prominent narrow ridge of bone that may be roughened.
Epicondyle: a projection superior to a condyle (see below).
Line: a slightly raised elongated ridge of bone.
Process: any bony prominence.
Ramus: an arm-like extension of bone; pleural is rami.
Spine: a sharp, slender projection of bone.
Trochanter: a very large, blunt type of process found only on the femur.
Tubercle: a small, blunt or rounded process.
Tuberosity: a large, blunt or rounded process.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Depressions:
10. Fossa: a shallow depression.
11. Sulcus: a narrow groove for a tendon, nerve or blood vessel.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Passageways for Blood Vessels and Nerves:
Canal: a passageway through bone.
Fissure: a narrow slit in bone.
Foramen: a rounded hole in a bone; size is extremely variable; pleural is foramina.
Meatus: a tube-like opening into a canal.
Sites Where Joints Form:
16. Condyle: a smooth, rounded articulating structure.
17. Facet: a smooth flat surface that is slightly concave or convex for articulation.
18. Head: a rounded articular surface joined to the shaft of the bone by a constriction known as the neck.
Note: Items 16–18 are also known as articular markings. Articular refers to a joint, so
these indicate where bones are joined.
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Lesson 2 Osteology: The Study of Bone
Figure 2–3 can be used as a reference in each section of the book. It is a good illustration
to photocopy and use to draw muscles, vessels, and nerves as you learn both the
lower and the upper limbs. You may want to enlarge upper and lower limbs when
appropriate.
The articulated skeleton is shown in both anterior and posterior views. Use a
light color to shade the bones of the axial skeleton. These include: skull, vertebral column,
sternum, and ribs.
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FIGURE 2–3
ARTICULATED SKELETON
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2
Exercise Two
Name _________________________________________________________
1. Using the skeleton at the right, follow the directions below:
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a. The skeleton pictured is a (an) ____________________ view.
b. Color the most proximal long bone of the right lower limb.
c. On the left lower limb, color the leg bone in the lateral position between the
knee and the ankle. Remember: When describing anatomical structures, we
use left and right according to the position on the body being studied. So, it
may be on the right side or the left side of the picture.
2. Choose the appropriate word from the group below and write it beside its
definition.
Diaphysis
Osteon
Epiphyseal plate
Osteoblast
Yellow bone marrow
Periosteum
Red bone marrow
Endosteum
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
a. A structure not found in an adult.
b. A covering found on the exterior surface of bones.
c. Another name for the shaft of a long bone.
d. Name of a bone-forming cell.
e. A covering found on the interior surface of bones.
______________ f. Major unit of compact bone.
______________ g. Site of blood-cell formation.
______________ h. Fat found in the cavity of the diaphysis.
3. Choose the appropriate word from the group below and write it beside its
definition.
Fossa
Foramen
Condyle
Trochanter
Ramus
Crest
a. An arm-like extension of bone.
b. A smooth, rounded articulating structure.
c. A very large, blunt type of process found only on the femur.
d. A shallow depression in bone.
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______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
______________
e. A prominent narrow ridge of bone.
f. A rounded hole in bone.
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Lesson
3
Arthrology: The Study of Joints
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This brief section on joints should familiarize you with joint terminology and introduce you to the articulations—places where bones attach to bone. The detailed
anatomy of specific joints is not included in this text.
OBJECTIVES
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1. List and define the major classifications of joints.
2. Describe a synovial joint and list the types.
■
METHODS
1. Observe joint models on display.
A. CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
A joint can be classified based on the tissue between the bones (i.e., structure) and
on the freedom of movement allowed at the joint (i.e., function).
Based on structure, there are three categories of joints:
Synarthrosis—An immoveable joint; pleural is synarthroses.
Amphiarthrosis—A slightly moveable joint; pleural is amphiarthroses.
Diarthrosis—A freely moveable joint; pleural is diarthroses.
Table 3-1 summarizes the major types of joints and gives examples of each.
Figures 3-1 through 3-3 illustrate them.
TABLE 3–1. MAJOR TYPES OF JOINTS
Type of Joint
Fibrous Joints:
Suture (very short fibers
holding bones together)
Movement Permitted
Examples
Sutures of the skull
Syndesmosis (slightly longer
fibers holding bones together)
Synarthrotic or
Amphiarthrotic
Distal articulation of the tibia
and fibula
Gomphosis
Synarthrotic
Teeth in maxillae and mandible
Synarthrotic
1st costal cartilage to sternum
Amphiarthrotic
Pubic bones; intervertebral
discs
Diarthrotic—articulating
surfaces glide on each
other (translation)
Facets of vertebrae
Cartilaginous Joints:
Synchondrosis (hyaline cartilage
between articulating bones)
Symphysis (fibrocartilage
between articulating bones)
Synovial Joints:
Plane
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Synarthrotic
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Learning Human Anatomy
TABLE 3–1. (CONT.)
Type of Joint
Movement Permitted
Examples
Diarthrotic—movement in
one plane
Knee
Pivot
Diarthrotic—rotation
First cervical vertebra on
second cervical vertebra
Condyloid
Diarthrotic—movement in
two planes
Wrist
Saddle
Diarthrotic—movement in
two planes
Carpometacarpal joint of the
thumb
Diarthrotic—multiaxial
movement
Hip; shoulder
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Hinge
Ball and socket
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B. ILLUSTRATIONS TO DESCRIBE EACH TYPE OF JOINT
FIGURE 3–1
FIBROUS—SYNDESMOSIS
Fibrous connective tissue (ligaments) holds two bones together.
This joint is known as the distal tibiofibular joint.
FIGURE 3–2
CARTILAGINOUS—SYMPHYSIS
A cartilaginous disc connects the two bones anteriorly. This
example is a joint with slight give (amphiarthrosis).
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Lesson 3 Arthrology: The Study of Joints
FIGURE 3–3
SYNOVIAL JOINT
Periosteum
This is the most complicated and most common type of joint.
Hyaline cartilage covers the ends of the bones, which are
separated by an articular cavity. Synovial joints are involved
in muscle actions throughout this course. Descriptions of the
important parts of these joints are described and illustrated
here:
Synovial cavity
Articular cartilage
• Synovial (joint) cavity—contains synovial fluid that reduces the
Articular capsule
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friction of movement.
• Articular cartilage (a form of hyaline cartilage)—provides
Synovial membrane
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protection for the ends of bones during movement.
• Articular (joint) capsule—double layered; the outer fibrous layer
strengthens the joint, while the inner synovial membrane lines
the cavity and produces synovial fluid.
Bone
Courtesy of Tefi/Shutterstock.
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3
Exercise Three
Name ________________________________________________________________________________
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1. Answer the following questions:
a. What term describes a freely moveable joint?
______________
______________
c. What type of synovial joint allows multiaxial movement?
______________
e. What is the name of the hyaline cartilage found cushioning
the end of bones?
b. What is the name of a cartilaginous joint that contains
fibrocartilage?
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______________
______________
d. What is found within the synovial cavity?
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Lesson
4
Myology: The Study of Muscles
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Before you begin to learn specific muscles of the muscular system, a brief introduction
to muscle tissue and body movements is important. Our major emphasis will be on
skeletal muscle.
Objectives
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1. State the general functions of muscle tissue.
2. Describe the connective tissue elements that connect muscle cells to other body
structures.
3. List the types of muscle tissue.
4. List the actions and possible roles skeletal muscles can assume in movement.
■
MethOds
1. Study the text and illustrations included in this section.
2. Use the skeletons to see how the bones relate to each other when performing the
actions described.
3. Complete the student activities for Lesson 4.
A. MUSCLE FUNCTION
Muscle tissue, which makes up almost half the total body weight, has the unique
ability to contract or become shorter. This characteristic allows muscle tissue to
serve three major functions:
1. Production of movement such as the large muscle action required in walking, as
well as less obvious motion such as that involved in changing the size of blood
vessels or the pupil of the eye.
2. Production of heat as the result of the mechanical contraction. This heat is necessary
in the maintenance of the body temperature.
3. Maintenance of posture or ability to hold the body in stationary positions. This
is possible because skeletal muscles are always in a state of partial contraction,
called tonus (muscle tone).
B. TYPES OF MUSCLE
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1. cardiac muscle is found exclusively in the heart. This tissue is characterized by
its involuntary action and striated appearance when seen under a microscope.
2. visceral (smooth) muscle is associated with internal structures such as blood
vessels and the digestive tube. It is also involuntary, but it does not have the striated
appearance.
3. skeletal muscle is the muscle type that attaches to the bones of the skeleton. It is
usually voluntary and is striated.
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Learning Human Anatomy
C. SKELETAL MUSCLE
Because this is the muscle type encountered in the study of the gross anatomy of the
lower and upper limbs, it is described in some detail here.
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1. Parts of a muscle
a. Muscle belly—this is the fleshy or contracting part of the muscle located
between the tendons of origin and insertion.
b. Origin (usually more proximal)—the tendon or muscle attachment that is
located on the body part that is less movable.
c. insertion (usually more distal)—the tendon or muscle attachment that is
located on the body part that is more movable.
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Note: The general terms proximal attachment and distal attachment are often
preferable to origin and insertion, because the movable part and the stationary part
are interchangeable in some cases.
2. connective tissue elements
The connective tissue fibers (collagen) are continuous from the endomysium,
which surrounds the individual muscle fiber (cell), through the perimysium,
which packages the cells into fascicles, and the epimysium, which is the fascia surrounding the entire muscle. The connective tissue fibers are then continuous with
those of the tendon holding the muscle to bone. It is this continuity of connective
tissue fibers that lends great strength to muscle attachments, since the connective
tissue elements continue into the bone itself. (See Figures 4–1 and 4–2.)
FIGURE 4–1
CONNECTIVE TISSUE COVERINGS OF A SKELETAL MUSCLE
1. Endomysium—surrounds an individual muscle fiber.
2. Perimysium—surrounds a bundle of muscle fibers called a
fascicle.
3. Epimysium—surrounds the whole muscle belly.
FIGURE 4–2
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
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The striated appearance of a skeletal muscle is due to the
arrangement of thick and thin myofilaments (protein structures)
within the cells. The thick filaments consist mainly of the protein
myosin, and the thin filaments are mainly the protein actin.
These filaments can be seen as darker and lighter bands
because of their organized arrangement. This arrangement
divides muscle fibers into units called sarcomeres. When the
biochemistry of the cell causes the myofilaments within a sarcomere to slide over each other, the fiber and thus the muscle
shortens or contracts.
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Lesson 4 Myology: The Study of Muscles
■
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3. Roles of skeletal muscle in action
During any activity many muscles are involved in production of smooth
movements. Although we will learn the major actions a muscle or muscle group
can perform, that muscle or group may also be involved in many movements in
which it is not producing the major activity. Under different conditions it may
assume any of the following roles:
a. Prime mover (agonist)—major agent that initiates and maintains a particular
action.
b. Antagonist—opposes the movement of the prime mover or initiates and
maintains the converse of the prime movement.
c. synergist—steadies or eliminates unwanted movement when a muscle crosses
two joints. Example: When you make a fist, flexors bend the fingers. But to
keep the fist from flexing toward the forearm, extensors (synergists) on the
posterior forearm contract to stabilize wrist position.
d. Fixator—maintains the position of a body part not actually involved in movement. Example: Certain upper limb muscles hold your arms and forearm
steady while your fingers type.
4. Actions produced by skeletal muscle
The lower limb will be used to illustrate these actions. Refer to Figure 4–3 when
studying Lesson 10.
a. Flexion—decrease of angle between two body parts.
b. extension—increase of angle between two parts (opposite of flexion).
c. Abduction—moving laterally or away from the midline of the body.
d. Adduction —moving medially or toward the midline.
e. Rotation—movement around the long axis of the bone.
f. circumduction—circumscribing a cone with the joint as its apex. It is a combination of flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction.
Student Activities
1. Fill in the blanks in Figure 4–3 identifying the illustrated action.
2. Refer to Figure 4–4. Label and answer the questions.
FIGURE 4–3
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■ CLINICAL COMMENTS
Several muscular diseases cause a weakening of muscles. Myasthenia gravis, an immune disease, usually
starts with a weakness of the muscles of the eye and then moves down the body. Muscular dystrophy is a
genetic disease in which muscle tissue does not develop normally.
Muscle testing is important in understanding the site of muscular problems, and knowing the muscles and
their actions is an important part of testing. An electromyogram (EMG) is a recording of the electrical activity
in skeletal muscle and can be used to help determine the cause of muscular weakness.
FIGURE 4–4
Referring to the illustration below, complete the following:
__________________ a. Label all structures indicated.
__________________ b. How many muscle fibers are in the fascicle that you
just labeled?
__________________ c. Can you tell if the tendon shown is of the origin or
the insertion?
__________________ d. What is the outer covering of bone with which the
fibers of the tendon are continuous?
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4
Exercise Four
Name _______________
1. Perform with your own lower limb all actions illustrated in this lesson.
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2. Answer the following questions:
__________________ a. What is the term for the state of partial contraction of
a muscle?
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__________________ b. What muscle type is voluntary and striated?
__________________ c. Give the name of a bundle of muscle fibers.
__________________ d. What connective tissue element surrounds the whole
muscle belly?
__________________ e. Name the connective tissue structure that attaches
muscle to bone.
__________________ f. If you dissect a muscle, which connective tissue
would you find as the deepest layer?
__________________ g. Which muscle type moves your leg?
__________________ h. Would you expect any muscle type other than skeletal
to be found in the lower limb?
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Lesson
5
Introduction to the Nervous System
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The nervous system, the major communication system of the body, will be studied
in great detail later in this course. However, it is important that you have a basic
understanding of what the nerve cell processes are and where they originate before
we discuss the nerves of the lower limb. Because the nerve cells are microscopic,
they will be represented schematically.
Objectives
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1. Define general terms related to the nervous system.
2. List the structures of the central nervous system and those of the peripheral
nervous system.
3. Describe the principal parts of a neuron.
4. State the locations of both motor and sensory nerve cell bodies that are involved
in the innervation of the limbs.
■
MethOds
1. Study the information presented, then complete Lesson 5 student activities.
A. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM DIVISIONS
These divisions are the central nervous system (cNs) composed only of the brain
and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNs), which includes all other
nervous structures.
cNs structures
brain—the major control structure. It
is contained in, and protected by, the
skull.
spinal cord—a direct extension of the
brain. It is contained in, and protected by, the
bones of the spinal column.
PNs structures
cranial nerves—originate from the brain
structures.
spinal nerves—originate at the
spinal cord.
Ganglia—groups of nerve cell
bodies in the periphery.
Plexuses—intermingling of nerve
cell processes to create new nerves.
B. HISTOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. THE NEURON
y;
The neuron is the nerve cell, the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous
system. It is composed of a body, which is always found either in the central nervous
system or in a ganglion, and of one or more nerve cell processes.
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Learning Human Anatomy
Structural Characteristics
The number of processes determine the following neuron types:
a. Multipolar = many processes (motor cells, association cells)
b. Bipolar = two processes (sensory cells for special senses)
c. Unipolar = one process (general sensory cells)
FIGURE 5–1
MULTIPOLAR NEURON
Dendrites
Illustrations of these microscopic cells are schematic.
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Multipolar Neuron (Figure 5–1)
This is the most common type of neuron. It has many dendrites, which are short
processes that extend from the nerve cell body and take information toward the cell
body. It has only one axon, which is the process that takes information away from
the nerve cell body.
Included among multipolar cells are those that carry motor information to the
periphery. The cell bodies of the motor neurons for the skeletal muscles of the limbs
are in the ventral horn of gray matter in the spinal cord. Because this information
is on its way from the CNS to the periphery, these processes are also called efferent.
It is interesting to note here that the nerve cell bodies are in the spinal cord, and the
nerve impulse must reach as far as the intrinsic foot muscles. That means some of
the processes are several feet long.
If the information traveling in the processes of these motor neurons is interrupted
proximal to the muscle, the muscle is paralyzed.
Also included among mutipolar cells are association neurons (interneurons).
These association neurons are found within the CNS and are important for carrying
out the integrative functions of the CNS.
Axon
Unipolar Neuron (Figure 5–2)
This is a sensory neuron with only one process; the process probably originated as
one dendrite and one axon.
Sensory cells, also known as afferent cells, bring general information from the
periphery into the central nervous system. If the afferent processes are interrupted,
anesthesia, or absence of sensation, results.
FIGURE 5–2
UNIPOLAR NEURON
Axon
Axon
y;
The cell bodies of these sensory neurons are found in the dorsal root ganglia.
(See Figure 5–5.)
(Dendritic pole)
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Lesson 5 Introduction to the Nervous System
Bipolar Neuron (Figure 5–3)
These neurons with one axon and one dendrite are found only in cranial nerves
relating to the special senses and will be discussed later.
FIGURE 5–3
BIPOLAR NEURON
Axon
Dendrite
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Functional Characteristics
Neurons are functional because of the following characteristics:
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a. irritability: The capacity to respond to a stimulation by changing cell activity.
b. conductivity: The change in the cell activity is transmitted along the cell process
(specifically the axon) as a nerve impulse or action potential. The impulse is conducted to the structure that is to receive the message, such as a muscle in the case
of a motor neuron. Some “effect” will then result from the original stimulus. In
the case of sensory information, the effect might be in the conscious awareness of
the stimulus.
When a nerve impulse is transmitted from one nerve cell to another, the
site of the membrane-to-membrane contact is called a synapse. A chemical
neurotransmitter is usually involved in the transmission.
2. GLIAL CELLS
Glial cells, also known as neuroglia, are the supporting cells found in both the CNS and
PNS. These numerous cells are necessary for the proper functioning of the neurons.
The four kinds of neuroglia in the CNS are:
a. Microglia—found throughout the gray and white matter. These small cells are
phagocytic, and thus they serve to remove foreign material and dead cells.
b. Oligodendrocytes—the cells that produce myelin, a fatty insulating material
that aids in the conduction of nerve impulses, the electrochemical changes that
are transmitted along the membranes of nerve fibers (i.e., axons).
c. Astrocytes—cells thought to help in the repair process and in the transfer of nutrients from blood vessels to nerve cells. These cells have many processes.
d. ependymal cells—ciliated cells that line cavities in the brain and spinal cord.
These cells assist in the production and circulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
FIGURE 5–4
MULTIPOLAR NEURON
WITH SCHWANN CELLS
The two kinds of neuroglia in the PNS are:
Axon
y;
a. satellite cells—cells found clustered around neuronal cell bodies. These cells
protect and regulate neuronal cell bodies.
b. schwann cells—these cells produce a myelin coating on the nerve fibers
(i.e., axons) within peripheral nerves. In Figure 5-4, these cells can be seen wrapping around a nerve process. The space between adjacent Schwann cells is
referred to as the node of Ranvier.
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Learning Human Anatomy
C. SPINAL CORD AND PERIPHERAL NERVES
These are the structures needed to understand the innervation of the upper and
lower limbs. The brain and cranial nerves will be discussed in Unit III.
1. A NERVE
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This is a bundle of many nerve cell processes (i.e., axons) enclosed in a fascial
sheath called the epineurium. Spinal nerves are those that contain both afferent
(sensory) and efferent (motor) processes, and that leave the region of the spinal
cord at a specific level indicated by the number of the vertebra either above or
below its exit. For instance, the third lumbar spinal nerve, L3, leaves the bony
spinal column just below the third lumbar vertebra.
The sensory (afferent) fibers that are a part of this nerve will bring peripheral
information (e.g., touch, pressure, temperature, pain, position sense) from the limbs
to the nerve cell bodies located in the dorsal root ganglion. The motor (efferent)
fibers, whose cell bodies are located in the ventral horn of the spinal cord, will leave
the cord as the ventral root. (See Figure 5–5.) Spinal nerves are mixed nerves, those
that have both efferent (motor) and afferent (sensory) processes.
2. THE SPINAL CORD AND ITS FUNCTIONS
The spinal cord contains the nerve cell processes that communicate information
between the brain and the periphery. Reflex actions (spinal reflexes) occur without
input from the brain due to the ability of the spinal cord to process some sensory
information in a limited way. Neurons within the spinal cord (gray matter) assist in
the transfer of information.
The spinal cord is contained within the vertebral canal of the vertebral column;
the spinal nerves leave this enclosure via the intervertebral foramina.
In order to understand the innervation of the upper and lower limbs, the parts
of the spinal cord should be learned at this time.
■ CLINICAL COMMENTS
Most brain tumors develop from glial cells; usually they are astrocytomas. These tumors occur in different
regions of the brain and may grow as large as two inches in diameter in a year. They are difficult to remove
because they infiltrate the surrounding brain tissue.
y;
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Lesson 5 Introduction to the Nervous System
FIGURE 5–5
SPINAL CORD SEGMENT (TRANSVERSE SECTION)
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1. White matter—composed of nerve cell processes. They have a white appearance because of an insulating coat of a fatty substance
called myelin.
2. Gray matter—composed of nerve cell bodies. Because they are without the myelin coating, the groups of cell bodies appear gray.
3. Dorsal root—sensory nerve processes bringing information into the dorsal horn of the spinal cord.
4. Dorsal root ganglion—the nerve cell bodies of the unipolar, sensory neurons form this enlarged structure.
5. Ventral root—nerve cell processes of efferent fibers on their way to muscles. The bodies of the motor neurons are located in the
ventral horn of the gray matter.
6. Spinal nerve—a mixture of the incoming sensory processes and the outgoing motor processes. There are 31 pairs of these spinal
nerves; they divide to form ventral and dorsal rami.
7. Dorsal ramus—the mixture of sensory and motor fibers that branch posteriorly.
5. Ventral ramus—the mixture of sensory and motor fibers that branch anteriorly. These are the processes that will be involved in the
formation of nerve plexuses.
y;
■ Student Activities
Using Figure 5–5, with a red pencil, put a nerve cell body in the ventral horn of gray
matter and draw the efferent nerve cell process from that body out through the ventral
root, the spinal nerve, and the ventral ramus.
With a blue pencil, put a nerve cell body in the dorsal root ganglion. Draw its
afferent process out through the spinal nerve and the ventral ramus. Now, extend its
unipolar process into the dorsal horn of gray matter via the dorsal root.
You can now see that spinal nerves are “mixed” nerves; they have both sensory
and motor fibers. It is the mixed ventral rami that will intermingle to form the plexuses
and the nerves of the limbs.
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5
Exercise Five
Name
_________________________________________________________
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1. Using the illustration below:
a. Label all indicated structures on the corresponding label line.
b. With a red pencil:
1. Draw the nerve cell body of a motor neuron.
2. Draw the path the process would take to become a part of a lower-limb
nerve.
3. Indicate with arrows the direction of the impulse.
c. With a green pencil:
1. Draw a lower-limb sensory nerve cell body in its correct position.
2. Draw the nerve cell process entering the appropriate ramus and continuing
into the spinal cord.
3. Use arrows to indicate the direction of the impulse.
2. Fill in the blanks below with: cNs (Central Nervous System), PNs (Peripheral
Nervous System), or both.
a. brain
b. ganglia
c. neuron
d. femoral nerve
e. cranial nerves
y;
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
f. spinal cord
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Lesson
6
Introduction to the
Cardiovascular System
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A distribution system is necessary to supply all body tissues with nutrients and
oxygen and to take the waste products of cell metabolism from the cells to the
excretory organs. The blood vessels and heart provide this service.
The heart, a thoracic structure to be studied in detail with that region, serves
as a double pump to move the blood through the vessels. The right side of the
heart receives blood that has been depleted of its oxygen supply. It pumps this
blood, containing high levels of carbon dioxide, through the pulmonary arteries
to the lungs. Here the carbon dioxide is exchanged for a new supply of oxygen.
The blood returns to the left side of the heart by way of pulmonary veins and is
distributed to the body systems by way of the large arterial structure, the aorta.
■
Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
State the purpose of the cardiovascular system.
Define the types of vascular structures through which blood travels.
Describe the basic histology of blood vessels.
List general characteristics of vessels.
■
MethOds
1. Study the following pages, completing activities described.
■ CLINICAL COMMENTS
Atherosclerosis is one of the most common conditions that threatens the blood supply to different areas
of the body. Due to a variety of reasons (smoking, high-fat diet, excess weight, lack of exercise, high blood
pressure), fatty plaque and hypertrophied smooth muscle build up in the lumen of the vessels. This leads
to arteriosclerosis, occlusion and hardening of the vessels, which often results in death.
y;
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Learning Human Anatomy
FIGURE 6–1
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE ENCLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Draw arrows beside each blood vessel to indicate the direction of blood flow:
(1) Into the right side of the heart and out to the lungs.
(2) Into the left side of the heart and out to the body systems.
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Student Activities
Color red the vessels containing blood with high levels of oxygen; color blue the vessels
with blood containing high levels of carbon dioxide.
The right atrium and ventricle should be colored blue; the left atrium and ventricle
should be colored red.
y;
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Lesson 6 Introduction to the Cardiovascular System
A. HISTOLOGY OF BLOOD VESSELS (VASCULAR STRUCTURES)
A typical blood vessel has three layers. The thickness of each layer will vary
depending on the blood vessel type (Figure 6–4).
• tunica (coat) intima or interna: composed largely of a smooth, thin endothelial
lining and a basement membrane. In large vessels there is also a thin layer of
connective tissue.
• tunica media: the relatively thick intermediate layer containing varying amounts
of elastic fibers and smooth muscle fibers.
• tunica externa or adventitia: an outer connective tissue layer.
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B. TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS
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1. ARTERIES
These are vessels that take blood away from the heart. In the systemic circulation
this blood has a high concentration of oxygen. In pulmonary and fetal circulation
the arterial blood has a high concentration of carbon dioxide.
a. elastic or conducting arteries. The pulmonary trunk and the aorta and its main
branches are examples of these arteries, which have a great number of elastic
fibers in their tunica media. When the ventricles pump blood through these
vessels they expand; when the ventricles relax, the elastic fibers recoil, sending
the blood through the arterial system in an uninterrupted flow.
b. Muscular or distributing arteries make up the majority of the named arteries.
These vessels have a thick muscular tunica media, which helps withstand the
blood pressure and helps control the amount of blood being delivered to a
specific body region. For instance, more blood goes to muscles during exercise.
c. Arterioles are the barely visible branches whose small size provides the resistance
to blood flow largely responsible for blood pressure. Because of the small diameter
of their lumen (inner cavity), the contraction of muscle cells in their tunica media
cause constriction (decrease in diameter of lumen) to control the amount of blood
that enters the capillary beds.
2. CAPILLARIES
Capillaries are the connection between arterioles and veins, consisting of only the inner,
endothelial lining layer. It is across these thin vessel walls that oxygen, nutrients, and
wastes are interchanged between the blood and tissue fluid. During this process some
fluid leaks into spaces between cells of the body tissues. This fluid is called interstitial or
intercellular fluid, and it will be discussed later with the lymphatic system.
FIGURE 6–2 CAPILLARIES
y;
A. A highly magnified illustration of the simple histology
of a capillary.
B. A capillary bed illustrating the arrangement of anastomosing (branching and joining) capillaries as they
connect the arterial system (color it red) with the
venous system (color it blue).
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Learning Human Anatomy
3. VEINS
Veins are vascular structures formed when small venules join; venules are formed
when the capillaries merge. Veins return the blood to the heart. In systemic circulation
the venous blood has a high concentration of carbon dioxide; in pulmonary and fetal
circulation it has a high oxygen concentration.
Special characteristics of veins include the following:
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a. thin walls. While possessing the same three coats as arteries, the tunica media is
much thinner because the veins are not exposed to the blood pressure. Therefore,
the thicker walls maintain the lumen of arteries, but when empty, veins collapse.
b. Larger diameter and more numerous than arteries. The blood moves more
slowly and so more is contained in veins. This is to compensate for rate of return
so both sides of the heart have the same blood volume.
c. valves. Because blood is so far from the heart there is not enough pressure to
move the blood, and one-way valves help to prevent backflow (illustrated in
Figure 6–3).
d. More numerous anastomoses, branching and joining of vessels, are found in
veins than in arteries. Anastomoses are necessary in helping provide collateral
circulation. Collateral circulation refers to more than one source of blood to a
specific body part.
FIGURE 6–3
VALVES OF A VEIN
Arrows indicate that the valves are forced open by pressure
from below and shut by pressure from above. This allows blood
to move only toward the heart.
FIGURE 6–4
COMPARISON OF ARTERY
AND VEIN
y;
In this illustration of a mediumsized vein (left) and its accompanying muscular artery (right),
notice the much thinner wall but
larger lumen of the vein.
A small segment of the
artery is shown in greater detail.
The tunica externa blends with
the surrounding connective
tissue.
Notice the three layers:
intima, media, and externa.
Color the media pink in both.
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6
Exercise Six
Name
________________________________________________________
1. Describe the histological characteristic that permits capillaries to perform their
function: ____________________________________________________
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2. List the types of vascular structures through which the blood must flow to get
from the left ventricle to the right atrium.
__________________ d. __________________
b. __________________ e. __________________
c. __________________ f. __________________
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a.
3. Define:
a. artery:
b. vein:
____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
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Exercise
7
Review of Unit I
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This exercise is designed to be used after you feel fairly confident of the material
you have studied. Review all student activities and lab reports; then, without using
references, go through this exercise to determine your level of competence. If you
have trouble, try to concentrate on the area of concern, then come back to these
pages and try again.
1. Define the following subdivision of anatomy: gross, histology, embryology, and
neuroanatomy.
2. Name the four primary tissues of the body.
3. Define anatomic position.
4. Complete the following relative pairs and describe the meaning of each
superior — _____________________________
deep
— _____________________________
medial
— _____________________________
distal
— _____________________________
5. Name and describe the three planes through which anatomical material is cut.
6. List the five functions of the skeleton.
7. Explain the difference between diaphysis and epiphysis.
8. What is the fascial covering located on the external surface of bones?
9. What is the name of a mature bone cell? Bone-developing cell?
10. Name the structural unit of compact bone and list its components.
11. Describe the following bone markings: process, spine, foramen, crest, fossa,
condyle, and facet.
12. Name the three major joint types and one example of each.
13. Name three functions of muscle tissue.
14. Name three types of muscle tissue.
15. List the connective tissue coverings that surround muscle. Start with the
deepest tissue.
16. Define and perform each of the hip actions that follow: flexion, extension,
abduction, adduction, rotation, and circumduction.
17. What term would you use to name a muscle that performs the action opposing
the prime mover?
18. What is a neuron?
19. Where are the motor nerve cell bodies for the lower limb muscles found?
Sensory nerve cell bodies?
20. What are the structures of the central nervous system?
21. What is a nerve? What does the term “mixed nerve” mean?
22. What is the purpose of the cardiovascular system?
23. What is meant by describing the heart as a double pump?
24. Name the layers of a typical blood vessel.
25. Describe the major differences in arteries and veins.
26. The posterior tibial artery would be an example of what type of artery?
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Answer the following questions. They may be answered orally or on paper.
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Learning Human Anatomy
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
Describe the structure and function of a capillary.
What is meant by the term anastomosis? Collateral circulation?
In what type blood vessel would the greatest volume of blood be found?
What is the collective name of the top four layers of skin?
Name a vitamin produced by the cutaneous membrane.
Sebaceous glands produce what substance?
Name two ways in which the integumentary system helps the body cool.
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Appendix A
Answers to Exercises
and Student Activities
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UNIT 1
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STUDENT ACTIVITY, P 4
1. a. is distal to b;
b. is proximal to a.
2. c. is proximal to b;
b. is distal to c.
3. c. is proximal to a;
a. is distal to c.
EXERCISE 1
1. a. Lateral view
b. Anterior view
3. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
distal
superior
transverse
superficial
deep
4. hair follicle
EXERCISE 2
1. a. Posterior
b. Right femur should be colored.
c. Left fibula should be colored.
3. a. Ramus
b. Condyle
c. Trochanter
d. Fossa
e. Crest
f. Foramen
y;
2. a. Epiphyseal plate
b. Periosteum
c. Diaphysis
d. Osteoblast
e. Endosteum
f. Osteon
g. Red bone marrow
h. Yellow bone marrow
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Learning Human Anatomy
EXERCISE 3
1. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
diarthrosis
symphysis
ball and socket
synovial fluid
articular cartilage
STUDENT ACTIVITY, P 29
Extension of hip (thigh)
Abduction of hip (thigh)
Adduction of hip (thigh)
Rotation of hip (thigh)
Circumduction of hip
Flexion of knee (leg)
Extension of knee (leg)
eight
No
Periosteum
EXERCISE 4
2. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Tonus
Skeletal
Fascicle
Epimysium
Tendon
Endomysium
Skeletal
Yes, the smooth muscle of vessels.
EXERCISE 5
2. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
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1. b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
2. b.
c.
d.
CNS
PNS
Both
PNS
PNS
CNS
EXERCISE 6
EXERCISE 7
REVIEW OF UNIT I
1. Gross anatomy—the study of large structures that can be seen with the naked eye
Histology—microscopic study of cells and tissues
y;
1. Walls are one cell thick.
2. a. Elastic conducting a.
b. Muscular distributing a.
c. Arterioles
d. Capillaries
e. Venules
f. Veins
3. a. An artery is a vascular structure that takes blood away from the heart.
b. A vein is a vascular structure that takes blood toward the heart.
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2.
3.
4.
Fo
Embryology—study of the developing organism from the time of fertilization to birth
Neuroanatomy—study of the structure of the nervous system
Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue
The body is standing erect, face toward observer, with feet together and parallel,
the arms at the sides and the palms directed forward
inferior—superior is nearer the head end than that which is inferior.
superficial—deep structures are not as near the surface of the body as those
which are more superficial.
lateral—medial structures are nearer the midline than those which are lateral.
proximal—distal structures are farther from the attached end or origin than
those which are more proximal.
Sagittal—a vertical plane that divides the body into right and left portions
Coronal—a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior
portions
Transverse—a horizontal plane that cuts the body into superior and inferior
portions
The skeleton provides support, protection, leverage in movement, production of
blood cells, and storage for minerals.
The diaphysis is the long shaft of the bone; the epiphysis is the end of the bone.
Periosteum
Osteocyte; osteoblast
Osteon—composed of Haversian canal, lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, canaliculi
Process—rough bony prominence Example: tibial tuberosity
Spine—pointed projection of bone Example: ischial spine
Foramen—a hole in a bone Example: obturator foramen
Crest—a prominent border, which may be rough Example: iliac crest
Fossa—a saucer-like depression Example: iliac fossa
Condyle—a smooth, concave or convex structure for articulation with other
bone Example: medial condyle of femur
Facet—a smooth surface for articulation Example: fibular facet on tibia
Synarthrosis—distal tibia to fibula
Amphiarthrosis—pubic symphysis
Diarthrosis—knee
Production of movement, production of heat, maintenance of posture
Cardiac, smooth (visceral), skeletal
Endomysium, perimysium, epimysium
See “Actions Produced by Skeletal Muscle” and Figure 4–3.
Antagonist
A neuron is a functional nerve cell.
Motor—anterior horn of gray matter in the spinal cord
Sensory—dorsal root ganglion
Brain, spinal cord
A nerve is a bundle of nerve cell processes held together in a fascial sheath.
A mixed nerve contains both motor and sensory processes.
The cardiovascular system is the transportation system delivering nutrients and
removing wastes from all body tissues.
The right side of the heart receives poorly oxygenated blood and pumps it
to the lungs—the pulmonary pump. The left side of the heart receives welloxygenated blood and pumps it to the entire body—the systemic pump.
From superficial to deep: tunica externa, tunica media, tunica intima
Arteries have thicker walls, smaller diameter, and no valves. Veins are more
numerous, have a greater number of anastomoses, and contain valves.
Muscular or distributing artery
Typically one cell thick, the capillary provides the thin wall needed for exchange
of nutrients and wastes between the circulatory system and the body cells.
5.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
26.
27.
y;
24.
25.
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6.
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28. Anastomoses occur when structures open into each other by connecting channels.
In collateral circulation, there is more than one source of blood to the same area.
29. Veins
30. Epidermis
31. Vitamin D3
32. Sebum (oil)
33. a. evaporation of sweat
b. dilation of blood vessels
Fo
UNIT II
EXERCISE 8
EXERCISE 9
1. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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1. a. ischium
b. ilium
c. tibia; medial
d. Femur
3. Right
4. a. P, femur
b. P, tibia
c. M, tibia
d. P, femur
e. P, femur
f. L, fibula
g. A, femur
h. A, tibia
hip
femur and tibia
metatarsal and phalanx
diarthrosis
viewing instrument
FIGURE 10–2
1. Gluteus medius
2. Gluteus maximus
FIGURE 10–4. SEE EXERCISE 10.
FIGURE 10–9. SEE EXERCISE 10.
EXERCISE 10
y;
3. Figure 10–4:
a. Major action extends knee
Innervation femoral n.
b. Major action adducts hip
Innervation obturator n.
c. Major action extends hip and flexes knee
Innervation tibial n.
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Figure 10–9:
1. Gluteus medius
2. Gluteus maximus
3. Iliotibial tract
5. 1. f
2. j
3. h
4. b, h
5. i
6. d
7. g
8. a
9. e
10. c
6. a. Adductor magnus or gracilis
b. Iliopsoas
c. Biceps femoris
d. Flexed
e. Quadriceps femoris
f. Gluteus maximus or posterior femorals
g. Extends hip
EXERCISE 11
6. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
7. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Intrinsic
Calcaneal tendon
Eversion of foot
Lateral
Flexion of the knee (leg)
Gastrocnemius, medial head
Gastrocnemius, lateral head
Soleus m.
Calcaneal tendon
Tibialis anterior m.
Peroneus longus m.
Gastrocnemius, medial head
Extensor digitorum longus m.
Extensor hallucis longus m.
(Superior) extensor retinaculum
FIGURE 12–1
1. Femoral n. L2, 3, 4
2. Obturator n. L2, 3, 4
5. Sciatic n. L4, 5, S1, 2, 3
FIGURE 12–2
Gluteus medius
Gluteus minimus
Gluteus maximus
Piriformis
y;
1.
2.
3.
4.
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STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 98
Muscle Group (Position)
Anterior Hip Muscles
1. iliacus
2. Psoas major
Fo
Anterior Femoral Muscles
1. Sartorius
2. Quadriceps Femoris
a. Rectus femoris
b. Vastus medialis
c. Vastus lateralis
d. Vastus
intermedius
Major Group
Innervation
Flexes hip (trunk or thigh)
Femoral n.
Extends leg (knee)
Femoral n.
Adducts hip (thigh)
Obturator n.
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Medial Femoral Muscles
1. Pectineus
2. Gracilis
3. Adductor longus
4. Adductor brevis
5. Adductor magnus
Major Group
Action
Posterior Femoral Muscles
1. Biceps femoris
2. Semitendinosus
3. Semimembranosus
Extends hip; flexes
knee
Tibial n. (some
common peroneal n.)
Anterior Crural Muscles
1. Extensor
2. Tibialis anterior
digitorum longus 4. Fibularis (peroneus)
3. Extensor hallucis
tertius
llongus
Inverts and
dorsiflexes ankle;
extends digits
Deep fibular (peroneal) n.
Lateral Crural Muscles
1. Fibularis (peroneus) 2. Fibularis (peroneus)
longus
brevis
Everts ankle (foot)
Superficial fibular
(peroneal) n.
Flexes knee; plantar
flexes foot (ankle)
Tibial n.
Plantar flexes foot;
inverts foot (ankle)
Tibial n.
Posterior Crural Muscles
1. Gastrocnemius
2. Plantaris
3. Soleus
Posterior Crural Muscles (Deep)
1. Tibialis posterior
2. Flexor digitorum
3. Flexor hallucis
longus
longus
4. Popliteus
.
EXERCISE 12
d
a
f
b
e
c
Superficial fibular (peroneal) n.
Superior gluteal n.
Sciatic n.
EXERCISE 13
1. a.
b.
c.
d.
Deep fibular (peroneal) n.
Tibial n.
Superior gluteal n.
Obturator n.
d. Deep fibular (peroneal) n.
or common fibular (peroneal) n.
e. Obturator n.
f. Femoral n.
3. a. deep fibular (peroneal) n.
b. femoral n.
c. obturator n.
d. sciatic n.
e. tibial n.
y;
1. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
2. a.
b.
c.
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Appendix A
Common iliac a.
External iliac artery
Femoral a.
Popliteal a.
Anterior tibial a.
Anterior tibial venae comitantes
Popliteal v.
Femoral v.
External iliac v.
Common iliac v.
Deep femoral a.
Anterior tibial a.
Popliteal a.
Femoral a.
Peroneal a.
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2. c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
3. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
STUDENT ACTIVITY, P 115
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
External iliac a.
Femoral n.
Superficial fibular (peroneal) n.
Deep fibular (peroneal) n.
Femoral a.
Obturator n.
Anterior tibial a.
Dorsalis pedis a.
Popliteal a.
Tibial n.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Fibular (peroneal) a.
Posterior tibial a.
Tibial n.
Medial plantar a.
Sciatic n.
Common fibular (peroneal) n.
Deep fibular (peroneal) n.
Superficial fibular (peroneal) n.
Lateral plantar n.
EXERCISE 14
a. Popliteal fossa
b. Femoral triangle
EXERCISE 15
I.
Psoas major m.
Iliopsoas m.
Pectineus m.
Sartorius m.
Gracilis m.
Vastus lateralis m.
Tibialis anterior m.
Extensor digitorum longus m.
Soleus m.
Extensor hallucis longus m.
Extensor digitorum brevis m.
Iliacus m.
Tensor fasciae latae m.
Adductor longus m.
Adductor magnus m.
Rectus femoris m.
Vastus medialis m.
Gastrocnemius m.
Fibularis (peroneus) longus m.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
Extensor digitorum longus m.
Fibularis (peroneus) brevis m.
Extensor retinaculum
Gluteus medius m.
Adductor magnus m.
Semitendinosus m.
Iliotibial tract
Semimembranosus m.
Plantaris m.
Gastrocnemius m.
Soleus m.
Gluteus maximus m.
Biceps femoris m.
Semimembranosus m.
Gracilis m.
Gastrocnemius m.
Plantaris tendon
Calcaneal tendon
y;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
REVIEW OF UNIT II
389
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II. Asterisks indicate the most important muscles; parentheses indicate the least
important muscles.
Muscles that act on the hip to:
Extend
1. Gluteus maximus*
2. Semimembranosus*
3. Semitendinosus*
4. Biceps femoris—long head*
(Gluteus medius)
(Adductor magnus)
Abduct
1. Gluteus minimus*
2. Gluteus medius*
3. Tensor fasciae latae
4. Obturator internus
(Gemelli)
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Flex
1. Psoas major*
2. Iliacus*
3. Sartorius*
4. Rectus femoris*
5. Tensor fasciae latae
(Adductor longus)
(Adductor brevis)
(Pectineus)
Adduct
1. Pectineus
2. Gracilis
3. Adductor longus
4. Adductor brevis
5. Adductor magnus
Medially rotate
1. Tensor fasciae latae
2. Gluteus medius
3. Gluteus minimus
(Adductor magnus)
(Adductor longus)
Laterally rotate
1. Gluteus maximus*
2. Piriformis
3. Sartoris
4. Quadratus femoris
5. Gemelli
6. Obturator internus
and externus
(Adductor longus)
(Adductor magnus
and brevis)
Muscles that act on the knee to:
Flex
1. Biceps femoris*
2. Semitendinosus*
3. Semimembranosus*
4. Gastrocnemius*
5. Plantaris
6. Sartorius
7. Gracilis
8. Popliteus
Extend
1. Rectus femoris
2. Vastus lateralis
3. Vastus intermedius
4. Vastus medialis
Muscles that act on the ankle and intertarsal joints to:
Dorsiflex
1. Tibialis anterior
2. Extensor digitorum
longus
3. Extensor hallucis
longus
(Fibularis tertius)
Invert
1. Tibialis anterior*
2. Tibialis posterior*
3. Flexor hallucis longus
y;
Plantar flex
1. Gastrocnemius*
2. Soleus*
3. Plantaris
4. Tibialis posterior
5. Flexor hallucis
longus
6. Flexor digitorum
longus
7. Fibularis (peroneus)
longus
8. Fibularis (peroneus)
brevis
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Appendix A
Evert
1. Fibularis (peroneus) longus*
2. Fibularis (peroneus) brevis*
(Fibularis tertius)
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Muscles that act on the metatarsophalangeal and interphalangeal joints to:
Flex digits
Extend digits
Abduct digits
1. Flexor hallucis
1. Extensor hallucis
1. Abductor hallucis
longus
longus
2. Abductor digiti minimi
2. Flexor hallucis
2. Extensor digitorum
3. Dorsal interossei
brevis
longus
3. Flexor digitorum
3. Extensor digitorum
longus
brevis
4. Flexor digitorum
brevis
Adduct digits
1. Adductor hallucis
2. Plantar interossei
III. Answers to questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
y;
13.
Sacrum
Ilium, ischium, pubis
See Figure 8–4 (lateral view).
The false pelvic cavity is bounded by the flared portion of the iliac bones; the
true pelvic cavity is inferior to the false and is surrounded by pelvic bones. The
pelvic brim separates these regions.
See Figure 8–6.
Patella—It is located within the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscles and on
the anterior aspect of the knee. It serves as a fulcrum for the quadriceps muscles
and helps protect the knee joint.
Fibula, tibia
Crest of tibia, calcaneal tendon, medial malleolus, lateral malleolus, plantar
aspect of foot
femur: proximal = os coxae;
distal = tibia and patella
tibia: proximal = femur and fibula; distal = fibula and talus
fibula: proximal = tibia;
distal = tibia and talus
Cuboid
a. Extension of hip, flexion of knee
b. Extension of knee
c. Plantar flexion of ankle, flexion of knee
d. Abduction of hip
a. Inguinal ligament
b. Sacrospinous ligament
c. Inguinal ligament
Fascia lata is the deep fascia that invests the thigh. The iliotibial tract is a
thickened strip of fascia lata on the lateral thigh.
Adductor magnus m.; vastus lateralis (or tensor fascia lata if superior)
Gluteus maximus
Rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius
Biceps femoris
Extensor digitorum longus and flexor digitorum longus
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19. Intrinsic foot muscles include extensor digitorum brevis and any from Table 11–6.
Extrinsic foot muscles include all those muscles with bellies on the leg and
tendons to the foot. See Tables 11–1, 11–2, 11–3, and 11–4.
20. Two
21. A retinaculum is a strip of fascia with a greater collagen fiber density than the
crural fascia. This band holds tendons close to the joint.
22. Tibialis anterior; gastrocnemius
23. Interosseous membrane
24. Gastrocnemius and soleus
25. Medial: tendons of tibialis posterior, flexor digitorum longus, posterior tibial
artery, tibial nerve, tendon of flexor hallucis longus
Lateral: tendons of fibularis (peroneus) brevis then tendon of fibularis (peroneus) longus
26. Extensor digitorum brevis m.
27. Interosseous muscles between the metatarsal bones
28. A nerve plexus is an intermingling of the nerve cell processes of spinal nerves
from different cord levels of origin. The lower limb plexuses are the lumbar and
sacral.
29. Lumbar plexus = T12, L1, 2, 3, 4
Sacral plexus = L4, 5 and S1, 2, 3, 4
30. Femoral n. and obturator n.
31. Sacral only
32. Common fibular (peroneal) n. Inability to dorsiflex the ankle; eversion of the
foot would also be almost totally eliminated.
33. Sciatic n., superior and inferior gluteal nerves (plus other sacral plexus nerves to
the posterior gluteal m.)
34. Nerves that are sensory to the skin (no motor fibers); dorsal root ganglia
35. Aorta, common iliac a., external iliac a., femoral a., popliteal a., anterior tibial a.,
dorsalis pedis a.
Aorta, common iliac a., external iliac a., femoral a., popliteal a., posterior tibial
a., medial plantar a.
36. Inguinal ligament; adductor hiatus; ankle
37. Deep fibular (peroneal) n.; tibial n.; obturator n.
38. medial
39. popliteal surface; popliteal muscle
40. An opening in the tendon of adductor magnus muscle
41. The muscles—and their deep fascia
42. The greater saphenous vein arises on the medial side of the foot, ascends on the
medial leg and thigh to move antero-laterally and empty into the femoral vein
at the femoral triangle.
The lesser saphanous vein arises on the lateral side of the foot and ascends on
the posterior leg to enter the popliteal fossa and empty into the popliteal vein.
43. Sartorius
44. Soleus
45. Forked—having two branches
46. Two veins accompanying one artery
They are found largely in the leg and forearm.
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47. Completed chart
Innervation
Muscle (or group)
Bone Marking
(attachment)
Artery that
supplies blood
Femoral n.
Quadriceps
femoris
tibial tuberosity
femoral a.
8–8
medial
femoral m.
medial pelvis
[pubis]
obturator a.
8–1 or 8–4
gluteus
medius &
minimus
greater
trochanter
Inferior gluteal n.
gluteus
maximus
gluteal
tuberosity
Tibial div. of sciatic
(above split)
posterior
femoral m.
ischial
tuberosity
Tibial n.
(below split)
posterior
crural m.
calcaneus
and bones of
foot
Obturator n.
Fo
Superior gluteal n.
Figure # of
marking used
(distal)
(proximal)
8–6
inferior
gluteal a.
8–6
deep
femoral a.
8–4 or 8–5
(distal)
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superior
gluteal a.
(distal)
(proximal)
posterior
tibial a.
(distal)
Femoral n.
UNIT III
Ant. hip
muscle
lesser
trochanter
(distal)
external iliac and
femoral a. [some
common and
internal iliac]
8–6
FIGURE 16–6
See Figure 8–2
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 129
FIGURE 16–4:
3. Intervertebral foramen
6. Intervertebral disc
7. Vertebral body
FIGURE 16–5:
4. Vertebral body
EXERCISE 16
Scoliosis
Lordosis
Kyphosis
Axis
Lumbar vertebra
Cervical vertebra
Atlas
y;
1. a.
b.
c.
2. a.
b.
c.
d.
393
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3. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
e
c
d
a
g
h
b
f
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 134
Fo
2. Scapula, clavicle (humerus, os coxae)
EXERCISE 17
rc
axial
three
dorsal rami of spinal nerves
extension and rotation of vertebral column and head
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b.
c.
d.
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 141
2. humerus, ulna, scaphoid, lunate
FIGURE 18–6
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
capitulum
head of radius
medial epicondyle
trochlea
lateral epicondyle
olecranon process
head of radius
anterior
posterior
FIGURE 18–7
2. Middle phalanx of 5th digit
3. Proximal phalanx of 5th digit
EXERCISE 18
y;
1. a. scapula
b. ulna
c. radius
scaphoid
lunate
d. humerus
e. radius
3. 1. L, humerus
2. P, humerus
3. A, humerus
4. A, ulna
5. A, scapula
6. M, humerus
7. P, humerus
8. M, ulna or
L, radius
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STUDENT ACTIVITY, P 145
diarthroses
EXERCISE 19
1. a.
b.
c.
d.
glenohumeral (shoulder) joint
humerus, ulna, and radius
sternoclavicular joint
synovial (hinge)
Fo
FIGURE 20–4
2. Serratus anterior
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FIGURE 20–6
1. Supraspinatus m.
2. Infraspinatus m.
3. Teres minor m.
FIGURE 20–10
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Supraspinatus m.
Infraspinatus m.
Teres minor m.
Teres major m.
Deltoid m. (cut)
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 159
3. medial head
EXERCISE 20
Trapezius and latissimus dorsi
Levator scapulae and rhomboids
Subscapularis
Pectoralis minor, short head biceps, and coracobrachialis
Brachialis
f, b
c, i
e
a, h (g, f)
a, h, j (f)
g
c (f)
d (f)
Trapezius
Deltoid
Pectoralis major
Serratus anterior
Biceps brachii
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Teres major
Deltoid (cut)
Teres minor
y;
1. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
3. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
395
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EXERCISE 21
Fo
2. medial epicondyle
4. Opponens pollicis, opponens digiti minimi, and adductor pollicis
5. a. Brachioradialis—radial n.—flexes elbow
b. Flexor retinaculum
c. Medial epicondyle
d. Pronator teres—median n.—pronator of hand
e. Palmar aponeurosis
6. a. Extend digits
b. Abduct digits
c. Pronation
d. Supination
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
rc
TEXT, P 175
Radial n. (spinal cord levels) C5, C6, C7, C8, T1
Axillary n. (spinal cord levels) C5, C6
Musculocutaneous n. (spinal cord levels) C5, C6, C7
Median n. (spinal cord levels) C5, C6, C7, C8, T1
Ulnar n. (spinal cord levels) C8, T1
EXERCISE 22
CN XI, accessory n.
Axillary n.
Medial and lateral pectoral nerves
Long thoracic n.
Musculocutaneous n.
y;
2. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
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Appendix A
3. Completed chart:
Name
Muscle Innervated
Origin
1. Deltoid
2. Teres minor m.
Posterior cord
Radial n.
1. (group) All posterior arm
2. (group) All posterior forearm
Posterior cord
Musculocutaneous n.
1. Coracobracialis
2. Biceps brachii
3. Brachialis
Lateral cord
Median
1. (group) Anterior forearm
2. (group) Thenar eminence
Medial and lateral cord
rc
1. (group) Most hand m.
Medial cord
Fo
Axillary n.
4. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
6. a.
e.
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Ulnar
radial n.
musculocutaneous and radial nerves
median n.
ulnar n.
CN, XI, accessory n.
supraspinatus
b. infraspinatus c. teres minor
d. deltoid
axillary n., just above the labeled posterior circumflex humeral a.
EXERCISE 23
5. 1.
2.
3.
6. a.
b.
Right brachiocephalic vein
Left brachiocephalic vein
Superior vena cava
radial a.
brachial a.
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 187
2. Circumflex scapular a.; posterior circumflex humeral a. and axillary n.
EXERCISE 24
FIGURE 24–4 A & B
axillary a.
axillary n.
anterior circumflex humeral a.
musculocutaneous n.
radial n.
deep brachial a.
radial a.
deep palmar arterial arch
ulnar n.
brachial a.
median n.
ulnar a.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
ulnar n.
superficial palmar arterial arch
medial cord
ulnar n.
upper trunk
lateral cord
posterior cord
axillary n.
radial n.
deep brachial a.
radial n.
posterior interosseous a.
y;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
397
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EXERCISE 25
REVIEW OF UNIT III
I.
Deltoid m.
Latissimus dorsi m.
Biceps brachii m.
Brachialis m.
Pronator teres m.
Brachioradialis m.
Flexor retinaculum
Thenar eminence mm.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Fo
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Pectoralis major m.
Serratus anterior m.
Hypothenar eminence mm.
Trapezius m.
Latissimus dorsi m.
Deltoid m.
Triceps brachii m.
Extensor retinaculum
II. Asterisks indicate the most important muscles; parentheses indicate the least
important muscles.
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Muscles that act on the shoulder (glenohumeral) joint to:
Flex the arm
1. Deltoid* (anterior
fibers)
2. Coracobrachialis*
3. Biceps brachii
Extend the arm
1. Latissimus dorsi*
2. Deltoid (posterior
fibers)
3. Teres major
4. Triceps brachii
Abduct the arm
1. Supraspinatus
2. Deltoid
Adduct the arm
1. Pectoralis major*
2. Latissimus dorsi*
3. Teres major
4. Coracobrachialis
Medially rotate arm
1. Pectoralis major*
2. Latissimus dorsi*
3. Deltoid (anterior
fibers)
4. Subscapularis
5. Teres major
Laterally rotate arm
1. Deltoid (posterior
fibers)
2. Infraspinatus
3. Teres minor
Muscles that act on the elbow to:
Flex forearm
1. Biceps brachii*
2. Brachialis*
3. Brachioradialis*
(Pronator teres)
Extend forearm
1. Triceps brachii*
(Anconeus)
Supinate
Pronate
1. Pronator teres
2. Pronator quadratus
(Flexor carpi radialis)
1. Biceps brachii
2. Supinator
Muscles that act on the wrist to:
Extend
1. Extensor
2. Extensor
3. Extensor
4. Extensor
5. Extensor
6. Extensor
carpi radialis longus
carpi radialis brevis
digitorum communis
carpi ulnaris
digiti minimi
indicis
y;
Flex
1. Flexor carpi radialis
2. Palmaris longus
3. Flexor carpi ulnaris
4. Flexor digiti superficialis
5. Flexor digiti profundis
6. Flexor pollicis longus
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Appendix A
Abduct
1. Flexor carpi radialis
2. Extensor carpi radialis
longus
3. Extensor carpi radialis
brevis
4. Abductor pollicis longus
(Extensor pollicis brevis)
(Extensor pollicis longus)
Adduct
1. Flexor carpi ulnaris
2. Extensor carpi ulnaris
Fo
Muscles that act on the metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal joint to:
Abduct digits
1. Abductor pollicis longus
2. Abductor pollicis brevis
3. Abductor digiti minimi
4. Dorsal interossei
III.
Extend digits
1. Extensor digitorum [communis]
2. Extensor digiti minimi
3. Extensor pollicis brevis
4. Extensor pollicis longus
5. Extensor indicis
6. Lumbricals [interphalangeal]
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Flex digits
1. Flexor digitorum superficialis
2. Flexor digitorum profundis
3. Flexor pollicis longus
4. Flexor pollicis brevis
5. Flexor digit minimi
6. Lumbricales [metacarpophalangeal]
Adduct digits
1. Adductor pollicis
2. Palmar interossei
Name of Nerve
1. Musculocutaneous
a. Coracobrachialis m.
b. Biceps
brachii m.
c. Brachialis m.
3. Ulnar
4. Radial
5. Axillary
a. Pronator
teres m.
b. Pronator
quadratus m.
c. All other
anterior
forearm m.
except flexor
carpi ulnaris
and ulnar 1/2
flexor
digitorum
profundus
d. Thenar
eminence (3)
m. and
lumbricals 1
and 2
a. Flexor carpi
ulnaris m.
b. Ulnar half,
flexor
digitorum
profundus
c. Hypothenar
eminence m.
d. All hand m.
except
thenar
eminence
and
lumbricals
1 and 2
a. Triceps
brachii m.
b. Brachioradialis m.
c. Supinator m.
d. All posterior
forearm
muscles
a. Deltoid m.
b. Teres minor
y;
2. Median
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IV. Answers to Questions 1–46.
1. See Table 16–1, p 126
2. Primary—thoracic and sacrococcygeal
Secondary—cervical and lumbar
3. Scoliosis
4. They do not attach to anything anteriorly.
5. Just lateral to the spines of the vertebrae
They are the major extensors of the vertebral column and are innervated by
dorsal rami of spinal nerves.
6. Sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular, and glenohumeral
7. See Figure 18–2, pp 138 and 139
8. Thirty
9. See Figure 18–3, p 140
10. Medial—Ulna, Proximal = humerus and radius
distal = radius
Lateral—Radius, proximal = humerus and ulna
distal = ulna, scaphoid, and lunate
11. Radius
12. Sternoclavicular joint
13. Supraspinatus and deltoid; anconeus and triceps brachii
14. Extension of the elbow; radial n.
15. Pronation of the hand
16. Trapezius; levator scapulae
17. Winged scapula
18. Trapezius, infraspinatus, subscapularis, serratus anterior
19. Trapezius, rhomboids (major and minor)
20. Subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor
As a group, they help hold the humerus into the glenoid fossa and help prevent dislocation of the shoulder joint.
21. Long head of biceps brachii
22. Median n. and ulnar n.
23. Radial n.
24. Thenar eminence; hypothenar eminence
25. Biceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialis
Two nerves—musculocutaneous and radial
26. In the radial (spiral) groove
They are between the medial and lateral heads of the triceps brachii.
27. In the medial, anterior forearm
28. Radial a.
29. Brachial a.; brachial a.; brachial a.
30. Brachioradialis
31. Extension of wrist and fingers
32. Flexion of the thumb
33. Median n. and ulnar n.; median nerve
34. Median n. and radial n.
35. Deep anterior forearm and deep posterior forearm m.
36. Lumbricals
37. The brachiocephalic trunk exists on the right only. The blood to the left side
branches directly off the arch of the aorta.
38. Superior vena cava
39. Cephalic vein
40. Radial a.
41. Combine Figures 23–2 and 22–1. (Check with Figures 24–4A and B.)
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UNIT IV
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42. Flexor pollicis longus, abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis, extensor pollicis longus, abductor pollicis brevis, opponens pollicis, flexor pollicis
brevis, adductor pollicis
43. a. Behind the medial epicondyle of the humerus
b. In the cubital fossa
c. In the cubital fossa
d. Over the cervical vertebrae
44. Because it is important in extension, adduction, and medial rotation of the
arm, all actions are used in swimming.
45. Trapezius, CN XI
46. See Exercise 22, p 177
47. a. lateral cord
b. musculocutaneous n.
c. biceps brachii
d. axillary artery
e. medial cord
f. ulnar nerve
g. median nerve
h. brachial artery
i. radial nerve
j. axillary nerve
k. brachial artery
i. deep brachial a.
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 205
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Cribriform foramina of cribriform plate
Optic foramen/canal
Superior orbital fissure
Foramen rotundum
Foramen ovale
Foramen spinosum
Foramen lacerum
Jugular foramen
Internal acoustic meatus
Stylomastoid foramen
Hypoglossal canal
Foramen magnum
Carotid canal
EXERCISE 26
2.
c
j
i
d
a
h
b
f
g
e
y;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
401
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EXERCISE 27
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2. Check your own labels using Figure 27–3.
3. 1. g
2. j
3. a
4. h
5. b
6. d
7. c
8. f
9. i
10. e
4. 1. V
2. M
3. M
4. M
5. V
6. M
7. D
8. L
9. L
10. V
5. a. nuclei
b. cerebral cortex
6. a. Third
b. Fourth
c. Lateral
7. Lobes
1. Frontal
2. Parietal
3. Occipital
4. Temporal
Gyri
1. Precentral
2. Postcentral
Fissures and sulci
1. Longitudinal
2. Central
3. Calcarine
4. Lateral
8. frontal; parietal
9. A group of nerve cell bodies in the central nervous system
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 221
1. Paracentral lobule; parietal lobe (postcentral gyrus)
2. 3,1,2
EXERCISE 28
1. Paracentral lobule
2. Frontal lobe, precentral gyrus
2. pons
EXERCISE 29
1. a.
b.
c.
d.
Sight
Left upper limb and face; same
Right lower limb
More nerve fibers are involved for more sensitivity of touch and for fine motor
control.
y;
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 230
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Appendix A
middle cerebral a.
posterior cerebral a.
anterior cerebral a.
Posterior communicating a.
Anterior cerebral a.
Middle cerebral a.
Anterior communicating a.
Posterior cerebral a.
f
d
h
a
g
b
c
e
lateral ventricles
interventricular foramen
third ventricle
cerebral aqueduct
fourth ventricle
median (1) Optic foramen/canal or lateral (2) apertures
subarachnoid space
arachnoid villi(granulations)
superior sagittal sinus
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3. a.
b.
c.
4. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
7. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
8. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
FIGURE 30–1
1. Ventral horn
2. Dorsal horn
3. Dorsal root
4. Dorsal root ganglion
5. Ventral root
6. Spinal nerve
7. Dorsal ramus
8. Ventral ramus
FIGURE 30–3
4.
5.
6.
7.
Dorsal root ganglion
Ventral root
Subarachnoid space
Ventral horn of gray matter
FIGURE 30–8
1. Longitudinal fissure
4. Thalamus
1. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Dorsal ramus
Dorsal root
Dorsal horn
Denticulate ligament
Dorsal root ganglion
Spinal nerve
y;
EXERCISE 30
403
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Learning Human Anatomy
3.
5.
TEXT, P 243
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7. Ventral horn
8. Ventral root
9. Ventral ramus
1. c
2. e
3. g
4. h
5. b
6. a
7. d
8. f
a. Lateral spinothalamic; pain and temperature
b. fasciculus cuneatus
c. fasciculus gracilis
a. On left side of body
b. Left lower extremity
Flaccid paralysis
A. CN I; cribriform plate; ethmoid
B. optic n.; optic foramen
EXERCISE 31
1. Nerves that carry a special sense, the sensations they control, the foramen through
which they pass, and, where indicated, the lobe of the brain involved.
Nerve
a. Olfactory
b. Optic
c. Facial
d. Vestibular
e. Cochlear
f. Glossopharyngeal
Sensation
Foramen
Brain Structure
Smell
Sight
Taste
Equilibrium
Hearing
Taste
Cribriform foramina
Optic foramen/canal
Internal acoustic meatus
Internal acoustic meatus
Internal acoustic meatus
Jugular foramen
—
Occipital lobe
—
—
Temporal lobe
—
y;
2. a. CN XII
b. CN IV
c. CN XII
d. CN III
e. CN VI
f. CN XII
3. Malleus, incus, stapes
4. Four; trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, hypoglossal
5. 1. g
2. c
3. f
4. d
5. a
6. h
7. e
8. b
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STUDENT ACTIVITY, P 252
Sensory
1. CN I
2. CN II
3. CN VIII
Motor
1. III
2. IV
3. VI
4. XI
5. XII
Mixed
1. V
2. VII
3. IX
4. X
EXERCISE 32
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2. a. Ophthalmic n. (CN V1)
b. Maxillary n. (CN V2)
c. Mandibular n. (CN V3)
4. CN VII, facial n.
5. a. CN V3
b. CN I
c. CN VII
d. CN II
e. CN VIII
6. In the order of occurrence, from top of illustration to bottom: CN I, II, III, IV, V,
VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XII, and XI.
FIGURE 33–5
3. Right subclavian a.
4. Right common carotid a.
EXERCISE 33
Occipitalis
Frontalis
Orbicularis oculi
Orbicularis oris
Buccinator
Platysma
Temporalis
Masseter
Medial pterygoid
Lateral pterygoid
Trapezius
Sternocleidomastoid
Mylohyoid
Digastric
Stylohyoid
Geniohyoid
Sternohyoid
Omohyoid
Sternothyroid
Thyrohyoid
Temporalis
Masseter
Frontalis, VII
Orbicularis oculi, VII
y;
2. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
3. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
4. a.
b.
7. a.
b.
405
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c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
8. a.
b.
c.
d.
Buccinator, VII
Orbicularis oris, VII
Platysma, VII
Masseter, V3
Occipitalis, VII
Temporalis, V3
Heart
Aorta
Brachiocepalic trunk
Right common carotid a.
Masseter muscle
Maxillary v.
External jugular v.
Subclavian v.
Brachiocephalic v.
Superior vena cava
Right atrium
text: “B. Carotid Sinus and Carotid Body.”
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a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
9. See Figure 33–6 and the subsequent
EXERCISE 34
REVIEW OF UNIT IV
I. The eight bones of the cranial vault:
frontal
occipital
parietal (2)
temporal (2)
ethmoid
sphenoid
II. See Figures 26–1 and 26–2, pp 197 and 198
III. The Cranial Nerves
Number
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
Abducens
Facial
Motor
Mixed
Vestibulocochlear
Glossopharyngeal
Sensory
Mixed
Tongue (posterior 1/3)
Muscles of pharynx
Vagus
Mixed
Accessory
Motor
Hypoglossal
Motor
Viscera of thorax,
abdomen; larynx
Larynx, pharynx,
sternocleidomastoid m.,
and trapezius m.
Tongue
Distribution
Nasal mucosa
Eye (retina)
Eye muscles
Superior oblique m.
Face, head, tongue
Muscles of mastication
Lateral rectus m.
Anterior 2/3 tongue
Muscles facial expression
Ear
IV. See Figures 27–2 and 27–3 in Lesson 27 to check your answers.
V. See Figures 33–1, 33–2, and 33–3 to check your answers.
VI. Answers to questions:
Sensation
Smell
Sight
None
None
General
None
Taste
Equilibrium
Hearing
Taste and
general
sensations
General
sensations
None
None
y;
XII
Name
Olfactory
Optic
Oculomotor
Trochlear
Trigeminal
Mixed,
Motor,
Sensory
Sensory
Sensory
Motor
Motor
Mixed
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1. Ascending aorta; brachiocephalic trunk; common carotid artery; external
carotid artery; facial artery
2. Orbicularis oculi, orbicularis oris, buccinator
3. Temporalis, masseter, medial pterygoid, lateral pterygoid
4. choroid plexus
5. See section entitled “Ventricles of the Brain” preceding Figure 27–7.
6. Interventricular foramen, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, fourth ventricle,
median (1) or lateral (2) aperture, subarachnoid space, arachnoid granulations (villi)
7. A suture is the line of fusion between two cranial bones.
Coronal, squamosal, lambdoidal, and sagittal are four sutures.
8. Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater
9. Falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli
10. They provide reservoirs to collect venous blood from the brain and take it
toward the jugular foramen.
11. Internal jugular vein
12. Paranasal sinuses are the cavities within bones of the skull. They contain air
unless the mucous membrane lining has produced mucus.
Ethnoid, sphenoid, maxillary, and frontal
13. No. It innervates only the muscles of mastication; you smile with muscles of
facial expression.
14. Difficulty chewing because the mandibular nerve is injured
15. Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone, vomer bone
16. Carotid canal; foramen lacerum
17. Mandible; temporomandibular joint
18. frontal lobe
temporal lobe
cerebellum
19. CN VII, facial n.
20. Elevation and depression, retraction and protraction of the hyoid bone
Talking and swallowing are made possible.
21. Trapezius and sternocleidomastoid
accessory CN XI
22. The carotid body detects oxygen content in blood.
Carotid sinus is sensitive to blood pressure.
They are both near the bifurcation of the common carotid a.
23. Maxillary a.
24. You will need to include the internal and external jugular veins to provide a
pathway from the internal and external head. See Figure 33–7.
25. See Figure 29–6.
vertebral arteries and internal carotid arteries
26. Functional areas of the brain were assigned numbers by a neurologist named
Brodmann. He assigned the number 4 to the primary motor cortex located on the
precentral gyrus and 3,1,2 to the primary sensory area on the postcentral gyrus.
27. A homunculus is a small complete body representation such as that drawn on
the precentral and postcentral gyri, to indicate body distribution of nerve cells.
28. Postcentral; middle cerebral artery
29. The right lower limb
30. Lateral corticospinal
31. Pain and temperature; left
32. Commissural; projection
33. The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body and the right side
of the brain controls the left side of the body.
34. In the cerebral cortex and in nuclei
In the central gray matter
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UNIT V
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35. At about the level of the first lumbar vertebra
Conus medullaris
The extension of the pia mater, innermost meningeal layer
36. The upper motor neuron cell body is in the brain; the lower motor neuron cell
body is located in the spinal cord.
37. The ciliary muscles are in the ciliary body surrounding the lens of the eye and
contract to change the shape of the lens for accommodation. The muscles of
the iris of the eye change the size of the pupil to admit differing amounts of
light.
38. See Figures 31–1 and 31–6.
VII. See Figure 31–4.
b. Superior rectus m.
VIII. a. Superior oblique m.
d. Inferior rectus m.
c. Lateral rectus m.
f. Anterior horn of gray matter
e. Inferior oblique m.
h. Dorsal column of white matter
g. Filaments of ventral root
j. Dorsal root ganglion
i. Filaments of dorsal root
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 283
1. Splanchnic
3. III, VII, and IX; X
4. 1. Sympathetic trunk
2. Rami communicantes
3. Sympathetic ganglion
4. Lateral horn (of gray matter)
EXERCISE 35
1. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
b,i
c,g,i
c,h
b,i
a
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
g
b,i
a
b,h
a,b,i
2. See Table 35–1.
3. a ganglion
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 290
6. a. T7–L2
b. Somatic
c. external abdominal oblique m., internal abdominal oblique m., and transverse
abdominus
d. Anterior rectus sheath, rectus abdominis m., and posterior rectus sheath
FIGURE 37–1
Liver (mostly)
Gall bladder
Hepatic flexure
Spleen
Splenic flexure
Stomach (mostly)
Pancreas (mostly)
y;
1. a.
b.
c.
2. a.
b.
c.
d.
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Appendix A
3. a. Cecum
b. Vermiform appendix
4. a. Sigmoid colon
FIGURE 37–12
2. Common bile duct
EXERCISE 37
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1. a. Liver
b. Gall bladder
c. Vermiform appendix
d. Esophagus
e. Stomach
f. Spleen
g. Pancreas
h. Small intestine
2. 1. g
2. i
3. c
4. e
5. a
6. j
7. b
8. d
9. h
10. f
3. a. Epiploic (omental) appendages
b. Haustra coli
c. Tenia coli
4. a. Mesentery proper
b. Visceral peritoneum
c. Greater omentum
d. Falciform ligament
e. Lesser omentum
f. Mesocolon
g. Parietal peritoneum
h. Coronary ligament
5. Ligamentum teres hepatis; obliterated umbilical v.
6. a. Mouth
b. Esophagus
c. Stomach
d. Small intestine
e. Large intestine
f. Mouth
g. Stomach
h. Mouth
i. Stomach
j. Small intestine
k. Small intestine
l. Anus
7. See pg. 287
8. See top pg. 288
9. pubis (anterior) coccyx (posterior)
10. Quadratus lumborum
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TABLE 38–1
TABLE 38–1. BLOOD SUPPLY AND INNERVATION OF THE ABDOMEN
Parietal supply
Vessels
Nerves
Visceral supply
Single midline trunks: celiac, superior
mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric a.
Bilateral arteries: renal, gonadal
Ventral rami T7–L2
Autonomics:
sympathetic splanchnics
parasympathetic–vagus and S2-4
RETURN to PORTAL vein and IVC
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Anterior–superior and inferior
epigastic arteries
Posterior–lumbar, inferior phrenic,
median sacral arteries
Return to IVC
FIGURE 38–5
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
subclavian v.
brachiocephalic v.
right gonadal v.
external iliac v.
femoral v.
internal jugular v.
external jugular v.
superior vena cava
internal iliac v.
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 312
5. Aorta
Superior mesenteric a.
Capillaries
Superior mesenteric v.
Portal v.
Capillaries
Hepatic v.
Inferior vena cava
Right atrium
EXERCISE 38
j
g
h
i
b
f
a
d
e
c
1. Splenic v.
2. Superior mesenteric v.
3. Inferior mesenteric v.
4. Left gastric v.
b. Products of digestion must be taken to the liver.
y;
1. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2. a.
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Appendix A
3. Sympathetic
a. Celiac ganglion
b. Superior mesenteric
c. Inferior mesenteric
d. Superior mesenteric
e. Celiac
f. Celiac
g. Inferior mesenteric
h. Superior and inferior mesenteric
Parasympathetic
Vagus
Vagus
S2–4
Vagus
Vagus
Vagus
S2–4
Vagus and S2–4
Fo
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 319
2. Renal pelvis/ureter
Renal vein
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EXERCISE 39
1. a.
b.
c.
2. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
3. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
4. a.
b.
Glomerulus
Bowman’s capsule
renal corpuscle
Urinary bladder
Ureter
Renal pyramid
Urethra
Nephron
Renal pelvis
Hilus
Kidney
Inferior vena cava
Urethra
Renal v.
Ureter
Urinary bladder
Minor calyx
Major calyx
Renal cortex
Renal pyramid
Renal pelvis
Ureter
Sinusoids
Glomerulus
FIGURE 40–5
3.
8.
9.
10.
Symphysis pubis
Epididymis
Testis
Seminal vesicle
2. a. Prostatic urethra
b. Membranous urethra
c. Penile urethra
y;
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 328
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EXERCISE 40
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1. a. Ductus deferens
b. Duct of seminal vesicle
2. Testis
3. a. Seminal vesicle
b. Prostate gland
c. Bulbourethral gland
4. a. Production of sperm
b. Production of testosterone
5. a. Seminiferous tubules
b. Efferent ductules
c. Epipidymus
d. Ductus deferens
e. Ejaculatory duct
f. Prostatic urethra
g. Membranous urethra
h. Penile urethra
6. 1. g
2. j
3. e
4. f
5. a
6. i
7. b
8. c
9. h
10. d
FIGURE 41–3
2. Ovary
3. Ovarian ligament
4. Broad ligament
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 336
1. Peritoneal Structures
a. Suspensory ligament of ovary
b. Broad ligament
2. a. Peritoneal sac
b. Infundibulum of uterine tube
c. Ampulla of the uterine tube
d. Isthmus of uterine tube
e. Uterus
f. Cervix
g. Vagina
1. 1.
2.
3.
4.
f
a
e
j
y;
EXERCISE 41
Solid Cords
a. Round ligament of uterus
b. Ovarian ligament
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5. c
6. d
7. i
8. b
9. g
10. h
2. Scrotum—Labia majora
Testis—Ovary
Penis—Clitoris
3. a. Perimetrium
b. Myometrium
c. Endometrium
4. a. Infundibulum
b. Fimbriae
c. Ampulla
d. Isthmus
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 341
1. Pancreas
2. a. Ovary
b. Testis
STUDENT ACTIVITIES, P 348
4.
5.
6.
7.
Trachea
Posterior
Heart
Inferior vena cava
FIGURE 44–4
1.
2.
3.
7.
8.
14.
Frontal sinus
Crista galli
Middle nasal concha
Genioglossus m.
Geniohyoid m.
Sphenoid sinus
FIGURE 44–6
1. Thyroid cartilage
2. Cricoid cartilage
EXERCISE 44
A
S
I
I
I
I
S
A or S
S
S
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
y;
1. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
u.
2. b.
c.
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e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
3. a.
g.
Larynx
Trachea
Primary bronchus
Secondary bronchus
Tertiary bronchus
Bronchiole
Respiratory bronchiole
inferior view of thoracic diaphragm
cannot be identified
Fo
EXERCISE 45
TEXT, P 308
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2. You should have an X in front of the following: a, b, d, e, g, h, i, and l.
3. a. Pericardium
b. Myocardium
c. Endocardium
4. a. Tricuspid
b. Bicuspid (mitral)
5. a. Aortic semilunar
b. Pulmonary semilunar
6. a. right atrium
b. right ventricle
c. pulmonary trunk
d. pulmonary arteries
e. pulmonary capillaries
f. pulmonary veins
g. left atrium
h. left ventricle
i. aorta
j. left coronary a.
k. anterior interventricular a. (LAD)
l. great cardiac v.
m.coronary sinus
n. right atrium
7. j, k, l, and m
8. a. 72
b. sinuatrial node
c. parasympathetic nerve, CN X
d. sympathetic nerves
The other system in which the arteries have high levels of carbon dioxide is the
pulmonary system.
STUDENT ACTIVITY, P 374
2. Lymph vessels
1. a. pituitary gland, endocrine
b. pineal gland, endocrine
c. thyroid gland, endocrine
d. parathyroid glands, endocrine
e. thymus, lymphatic
y;
EXERCISE 47
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Appendix A
2.
3.
4.
Fo
f. adrenal gland, endocrine
g. pancreas, endocrine and digestive
h. testis, endocrine and male reproductive
i. ovaries, endocrine and female reproductive
Endocrine are ductless; exocrine have ducts.
The fetus cannot breathe or eat, needs must be met by the mother’s blood.
1. e
2. d
3. a
4. b
5. b & c
a. return intercellular fluid to heart
b. help prevent and fight infection
a. thoracic duct
b. right lymphatic duct
c. tonsils
d. subclavian veins
e. spleen
popliteal fossa, inguinal region, neck, along the aorta, axillary region
5.
6.
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7.
EXERCISE 48
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
REVIEW OF UNIT V
CNs III, VII, IX, and X
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
See Table 35–1.
Hypothalamus and medulla oblongata
See Figures 37–2, 39–1, and 42–1.
Respiratory, digestive, cardiovascular, endocrine, urinary, female reproductive, male reproductive, lymphatic
VII. a. Inguinal ligament
b. Inferior epigastric a.
c. Quadratus lumborum
d. Esophagus
VIII. See Figures 13–1, 13–3, 38–2, and 38–5 to check your answers.
u. Inferior vena cava
v. portal vein
w. aorta
IX. Answers to questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
y;
Spermatic cord; round ligament of the uterus
Visceral peritoneum (not on esophagus), muscularis, submucosa, mucosa
Duodenum
Liver, gall bladder, pancreas
Minor calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, (bladder), urethra
Glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule
Stomach, gall bladder, urinary bladder
Coronary ligament
Falciform ligament
9. Pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, superior mesenteric vein, portal
vein, liver sinusoids (capillaries), hepatic vein, inferior vena cava, right atrium,
right ventricle, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary artery, pulmonary capillaries, pulmonary veins, left atrium, left ventricle, aorta, renal artery, interlobar a., arcuate
a., interlobular a., afferent arteriole, glomerulus, nephron, collecting duct, minor
calyx, major calyx, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder, urethra
Three body systems must be involved. They are: digestive, cardiovascular,
urinary
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10. Diaphragm; phrenic n.
11. Nephron; produces urine
12. P
C
C
P
P
C
P
C
13. Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anal canal
14. Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, primary bronchus, lung (secondary bronchus,
tertiary bronchus, bronchiole, respiratory bronchiole, alveoli)
15. Pleura—thorax; pericardium—thorax; peritoneum—abdomen
16. Left ventricle, aorta, superior mesenteric a., capillaries, superior mesenteric
vein, hepatic portal vein, liver sinusoids (capillaries), hepatic vein, inferior
vena cava, right atrium
17. Production of hormones and germ cells
18. kidney
testis
gall bladder
kidney
liver
heart
lung
spleen
ovary
intestines
19. Skin, fascia, external abdominal oblique muscle, internal abdominal oblique
muscle, transverse abdominis muscle, parietal peritoneum, visceral peritoneum, intestine
20. Yes. The sperm could enter the vaginal canal, the cervix, the uterine body, and
the uterine tube, then exit the infundibulum to enter the peritoneal sac and
then move to the region between the uterus and rectum.
21. See Exercise 40.
22. See Figure 38–6. Blood containing digested food products must be taken to the
liver to be metabolized, stored, and/or converted into usable products to be
taken to the body cells.
23. See answer to question 9, beginning with left ventricle.
24. Left ventricle, aorta, celiac trunk, splenic artery
25. Common iliac, lumbar, renal, hepatic, gonadal, inferior phrenic, and median
sacral veins
26. Ascending colon: sympathetic fibers, which synapsed in the superior mesenteric ganglia, and parasympathetic fibers from the vagus nerve
Descending colon: sympathetic fibers, which synapsed in the inferior mesenteric
ganglion, and parasympathetic fibers from the sacral level (S2-4) parasympathetics
27. Stimulates muscle contraction, for peristalsis, and elaboration of mucus by the
mucous membrane
28. Inhibition of the functions listed in answer 27, above
29. Bones: thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum
Muscles: external and internal intercostal muscles and diaphragm
30. Anterior source: anterior intercostal arteries from the internal thoracic a.
Posterior source: posterior intercostal arteries largely from the thoracic aorta.
Diaphragm: musculophrenic artery, superior and inferior phrenic arteries
Major venous structure: azygos vein
31. Intercostal nerves 1–11—or ventral rami T1-T11
32. Anterior—sternum; inferior—diaphragm; lateral—pleural sacs; posterior—
thoracic vertebrae; superior—root of neck
33. Lungs and pleura
34. A serous sac that covers the lungs
35. Esophagus, inferior vena cava, aorta
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36. Phrenic nerve; C3, 4, 5
37. See answer to 30, above.
38. Because they lie in the costal grooves and are between ribs
T12 is the subcostal nerve because there is no rib below T12
39. Exchange of waste gases (mainly carbon dioxide) for a fresh supply of oxygen
in the blood
40. The alveoli of the respiratory system are in contact with the capillaries of the
pulmonary arteries of the circulatory system.
41. Bronchial vessels supply the bronchial tree with oxygen and nutrients and
remove the waste products of metabolism within the cells of the lung;
pulmonary vessels are taking the systemic blood to the alveoli of the lungs for
a fresh supply of oxygen that will be taken directly to the heart
42. See the answer to question 14.
43. The pharynx is a posteriorly positioned fibromuscular tube that is used in
both respiration and digestion; it continues as the esophagus.
44. The larynx is a cartilaginous box located between the pharynx and the trachea.
Four main cartilages are: epiglottis, thyroid, cricoid, arytenoid.
45. The larynx is for passage of air and production of the voice.
46. Posterior to the trachea
47. Into the middle ear
48. Epiglottis
49. False folds are superior to the true folds.
50. It receives “used blood” and pumps it to the lungs.
51. Yes. In fetal circulation the lungs are not functional and there is no need for the
blood to be sent there. The foramen ovale is an opening in the interatrial septum that allows the blood going directly to the left side of the heart to be
pumped to the systems.
52. Coronary arteries; cardiac veins and coronary sinus
53. Transportation of nutrients and oxygen to all body cells
Removal of waste products from the cells
54. 1st heart sound: closing of the atrioventricular valves
2nd heart sound: closing of the semilunar valves
55. Pericardium; pleura
56. Pulmonary and fetal circulation
57. The fetal lungs and digestive systems are not functional.
58. Return of interstitial fluid to the cardiovascular system; helps the immune system
fight infections
59. Lymph nodes: along the path of lymph vessels—particularly in areas such as
popliteal fossa, inguinal region, along the anterior aorta, axilla, neck
Tonsils: found in the pharynx, at the base of the tongue
Thymus gland: found anterior to the trachea and behind the sternum
Spleen: in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen
60. Spleen
61. Parietal innervation is by way of regular somatic nerves
Visceral innervation is by way of autonomic nerves
X. See Figures 37–3 and 37–4.
XI. See Figure 42–1.
a. Descending aorta
b. Esophagus
c. Azygos vein
d. Thoracic duct
e. Thoracic vertebrae
f. Sympathetic trunk
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h
b
a
e
j
d
k
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XII. See Figure 45–3.
XIII. Use the appropriate letter to label each of the
listed structures.
a. ovary
b. uterus
c. urinary bladder
d. round ligament of the uterus
e. infundibulum of the uterine
tube
f. mons pubis
g. rectum
h. tenia coli
i. labium majus
j. deep inguinal ring
k. superficial inguinal ring
Courtesy of SPL/Science Source.
y;
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Appendix F
Worksheets
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Worksheet #1 – Anatomical Directions
and Body Planes
Name
_________________________________________________________
rc
Fo
Directions: Choose a directional term from the column on the right that BEST completes the statement regarding
humans on the left. (Remember, when describing the position of one body structure in relation to another, use the
anatomical position as the initial reference point.) Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
A. Anterior (Ventral)
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1. In the anatomical position, the gluteal region is found on the ____________ surface of the body.
2. In the anatomical position, the palms and face are on the ____________ surface of the body.
3. The ears are ____________ to the eyes.
4. The hips are ____________ to the shoulders.
5. The epidermis of the skin is ____________ to the dermis of the skin.
6. The heart is ____________ to the lungs.
7. The lungs are ____________ to the ribs.
8. The arm (brachium) is ____________ to the forearm (antebrachium).
9. The mouth is ____________ to the chin.
10. The right eye is ____________ to the left ear.
11. The leg is ____________ to the thigh.
B. Contralateral
C. Deep
D. Distal
E. Inferior
F. Ipsilateral
G. Lateral
H. Medial
I. Posterior (Dorsal)
J. Proximal
K. Superficial
L. Superior
Directions: Choose a body plane from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
____________ 1. Divides the human body or body part into equal right and left parts.
A. Frontal (Coronal)
____________ 2. Divides the human body or body part into anterior (ventral) and posterior
(dorsal) parts.
B. Midsagittal
____________ 3. Divides the human body or body part into unequal right and left parts.
C. Parasagittal
____________ 4. Divides the human body or body part into superior and inferior parts.
D. Transverse (Horizontal)
y;
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Worksheet #2 – Bones of the Pelvic
Girdle and Lower Limb
Name
_________________________________________________________
Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on
the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
Fo
A. Acetabulum
____________ 2. Lateral leg bone.
B. Calcaneus
____________ 3. Known as the “heel” bone.
C. Femur
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____________ 1. Bone formed from the fusion of five sacral vertebrae.
____________ 4. Articulates with the head of the femur to form the hip joint.
____________ 5. The bony process you sit on.
D. Fibula
E. Iliac crest
____________ 6. Its anterior border is commonly referred to as the “shin”.
____________ 7. The distal ends of these bones articulate with the proximal phalanges.
____________ 8. Joint between the appendicular and axial skeletons.
____________ 9. Anterior articulation between the hip bones.
F. Ilium
G. Ischial spine
H. Ischial tuberosity
____________ 10. Location where the patellar ligament attaches.
I. Ischium
____________ 11. Bones of your digits.
J. Metatarsals
____________ 12. The bones of the ankle region; include the calcaneus, navicular, and talus.
K. Patella
____________ 13. Forms the ankle joint with the tibia and fibula.
L. Phalanges
____________ 14. The lateral malleolus is found at its distal end.
____________ 15. Separates the greater sciatic notch from the lesser sciatic notch.
____________ 16. The weight-bearing bone of the leg.
M. Pubic symphysis
N. Pubis
O. Sacroiliac joint
____________ 17. Superior edge of hip bone.
____________ 18. Bone of the thigh.
____________ 19. A sesamoid bone.
P. Sacrum
Q. Talus
____________ 20. Bones found in the hallux.
R. Tarsals
____________ ____________ 21. Bones forming knee joint that allows for flexion and extension.
S. Tibia
____________ ____________ ____________ 22. Bones that fuse together to form the hip bone.
T. Tibial tuberosity
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Worksheet #3 – Muscles, Nerves,
and Blood Vessels of the Lower Limb
Name
_________________________________________________________
Directions: Choose the nerve from the column on the right that typically innervates the muscles in the column
on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
Fo
____________ 1. Anterior thigh/femoral muscles
B. Deep fibular/peroneal n.
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____________ 2. Superficial and deep posterior leg/crural muscles
A. Common fibular/peroneal n.
____________ 3. Short head of the biceps femoris m.
____________ 4. Abductor hallucis m. and flexor digitorum brevis m.
____________ 5. Lateral leg/crural muscles
C. Femoral n.
D. Inferior gluteal n.
____________ 6. Medial thigh/femoral muscles (except pectineus m.)
____________ 7. Iliacus m.
E. Lateral plantar n.
____________ 8. Gluteus maximus m.
F. Medial plantar n.
____________ 9. Anterior leg/crural muscles
____________ 10. Extensor digitorum brevis m.
____________ 11. Gluteus medius m., gluteus minimus m., and tensor fasciae latae m.
G. Obturator n.
H. Superficial fibular/peroneal n.
____________ 12. Posterior thigh/femoral muscles (except short head of the biceps femoris m.)
____________ 13. Pectineus m.
____________ 14. Abductor digiti minimi m.
I. Superior gluteal n.
J. Tibial n.
Directions: Choose the artery from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column
on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
____________ 1. Non-terminal branch of the femoral a. that supplies the posterior thigh/femoral
muscles.
A. Anterior tibial a.
____________ 2. The name of the external iliac a. once it passes deep to the inguinal ligament.
B. Deep femoral a.
____________ 3. This artery becomes the dorsalis pedis a. at the ankle.
____________ 4. The name of the femoral a. once it passes through the adductor hiatus.
____________ 6. Supplies the muscles of the anterior compartment of the leg.
____________ 7. Found in the adductor canal.
y;
____________ 5. Found just medial to the femoral nerve in the femoral triangle.
C. Femoral a.
D. Fibular/peroneal a.
E. Popliteal a.
____________ 8. A lateral non-terminal branch of the posterior tibial a.
____________ ____________ 9. Terminal branches of the popliteal a.
F. Posterior tibial a.
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Worksheet #4 – Vertebrae
and the Vertebral Column
Name
_________________________________________________________
Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on
the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
Fo
A. Cervical curvature
____________ 2. A posteriorly exaggerated thoracic curvature; abnormal.
B. Kyphosis
____________ ____________ 3. Convex posteriorly; primary curvatures.
C. Lordosis
____________ 4. Develops as the infant begins to holds head upright.
D. Lumbar curvature
____________ 5. An anteriorly exaggerated lumbar curvature; abnormal.
E. Sacral curvature
____________ 6. Develops as the infant begins to sit up, stand, and walk.
F. Scoliosis
____________ 7. A lateral curvature of the vertebral column; abnormal.
G. Thoracic curvature
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_______ ____________ 1. Convex anteriorly; secondary curvatures.
Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on
the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
____________ 1. Composed of five vertebrae fused together; articulates with hip bones.
A. Cervical vertebrae - typical
____________ 2. Vertebral column contains twelve of these.
____________ 3. Vertebrae of the neck.
B. Coccyx
____________ 3. Massive, kidney shaped bodies; weight-bearing.
____________ 4. Spinous processes are bifid.
____________ 5. Bear facets for articulation with ribs.
C. Lumbar vertebrae
____________ 6. Transverse processes contain transverse foramina.
____________ 7. Spinous processes are long and are directed inferiorly.
D. Sacrum
____________ 8. “Tailbone”; composed of four vertebrae fused together.
____________ 9. Spinous processes are short and blunt.
E. Thoracic vertebrae
Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on
the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
A. Altas
____________ 2. Articulates with the occipital condyles of the skull.
____________ 3. Also known as C2.
____________ 4. Features the dens or odontoid process.
____________ 5. Has no body and no spinous process.
B. Axis
y;
____________ 1. Also known as C1.
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Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column
on the left. Then, using the figure below of a superior view of a typical vertebra and the terms found in the
right column below, identify the structures indicated by the lines. Each answer may be used more than once or
not at all.
A. Articular process
____________ 2. Encloses the vertebral foramen laterally and posteriorly; composed of two
pedicles and two laminae.
B. Body
____________ 3. Projects laterally from the vertebral arch; attachment point for muscles and
ligaments.
C. Intervertebral foramen
____________ 4. Lateral openings between adjacent vertebrae; allow for the passage of
spinal nerves.
D. Spinous process
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____________ 1. Found anteriorly; weight-bearing region.
____________ 5. Project posteriorly from the vertebral arch; attachment point for muscles and
ligaments.
E. Transverse process
____________ 6. Opening enclosed by the body and vertebral arch; allows for passage of
spinal cord.
F. Vertebral arch
____________ 7. Project either superiorly or inferiorly; has a facet for articulation with another
vertebra.
G. Vertebral foramen
Anterior
Courtesy of woodoo007/123RF.
Posterior
y;
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Worksheet #5 – Bones of the Pectoral
Girdle and Upper Limb
Name
_________________________________________________________
Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on
the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
Fo
A. Capitulum
B. Carpals
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____________ 1. Its medial end articulates with the sternum, while its lateral end articulates
with the scapula.
____________ 2. Depression on the posterior surface of humeral shaft; marks path of radial
nerve and deep brachial artery.
C. Clavicle
____________ 3. Forms the point of the elbow.
____________ 4. Depression on the lateral side of ulna; where ulna articulates with
head of radius.
____________ 5. Attachment site for the short head of the biceps brachii, the coracobrachialis,
and the pectoralis minor muscles.
____________ 6. Articulate with carpals proximally and with phalanges distally.
D. Coracoid process
E. Coronoid fossa
F. Humerus
G. Metacarpals
____________ 7. Bone of the arm (brachium).
____________ 8. Receives the coronoid process of ulna when elbow is flexed.
____________ 9. Frequently broken; S-shaped bone; commonly known as the “collarbone”.
____________ 10. Receives head of radius when elbow is flexed.
H. Olecranon
I. Olecranon fossa
J. Phalanges
____________ 11. Bones of the wrist region.
____________ 12. Lies medial to the radius.
____________ 13. Heads of these bones are the “knuckles”.
____________ 14. Part of the humerus that articulates with head of radius.
K. Radius
L. Radial fossa
M. Radial notch
____________ 15. Its head articulates with the glenoid cavity.
____________ 16. Medial articular process on distal end of humerus; articulates with the ulna.
____________ 17. Receives the olecranon in elbow extension.
____________ 18. Attachment site for the biceps brachii muscle.
N. Radial tuberosity
O. Scapula
P. Spiral groove
____________ 19. Bones of the digits.
____________ ____________ 20. Bones of the forearm (antebrachium).
____________ ____________ 21. Bones of the pectoral girdle.
Q. Trochlea
R. Ulna
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Worksheet #6 – Muscles, Nerves,
and Blood Vessels of the Upper Limb
Name
_________________________________________________________
Directions: Choose the nerve from the column on the right that typically innervates the muscles in the column
on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
Fo
____________ 1. Latissimus dorsi m.
A. Accessory n. (CNXI)
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____________ 2. Anterior arm muscles
____________ 3. Superficial and deep posterior forearm muscles
B. Axillary n.
____________ 4. Deltoid m.
____________ 5. Lumbricals 1 and 2
C. Long thoracic n.
____________ 6. Serratus anterior m.
____________ 7. Flexor carpi ulnaris m. and medial half of flexor digitorum profundus m.
D. Median n.
____________ 8. Thenar eminence muscles
____________ 9. Teres minor m.
E. Musculocutaneous n.
____________ 10. Trapezius m.
____________ 11. Lumbricals 3 and 4
F. Radial n.
____________ 12. Posterior arm muscles
____________ 13. Superficial and deep anterior forearm muscles (except flexor carpi ulnaris m. and
medial half of flexor digitorum profundus m.)
G. Suprascapular n.
____________ 14. Hypothenar eminence muscles
____________ 15. Supraspinatus m.
H. Thoracodorsal n.
____________ 16. Palmar and dorsal interossei m.
I. Ulnar n.
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Directions: Choose the artery from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column
on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
____________ 1. Non-terminal branch of the brachial a. that travels with the radial n. in the
spiral groove.
____________ 2. Found deep to the brachioradialis m.; commonly used for taking pulse
rate at the wrist.
A. Axillary a.
B. Brachial a.
____________ 3. Has a number of non-terminal branches including the anterior and posterior
circumflex humeral a.
Fo
____________ 4. The direct continuation of the axillary artery into the arm.
C. Deep brachial a.
D. Radial a.
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____________ 5. On the right, it branches off the brachiocephalic trunk; on the left, it
branches off the arch of the aorta.
____________ 6. Begins at the lateral border of the first rib and ends at the inferior border
of the teres major muscle.
____________ 7. Travels through and supplies the medial aspect of the forearm.
____________ 8. Found in the cubital fossa just lateral to the median nerve.
E. Subclavian a.
____________ 9. Surrounded by the cords of the brachial plexus.
____________ ____________ 10. Terminal branches of the brachial a.
F. Ulnar a.
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Worksheet #7 – The Skull
Name
_________________________________________________________
Directions: Choose the bone(s) from the column on the right that BEST matches each description and/or structure in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
Fo
____________ 1. Mastoid process, styloid process, external acoustic meatus, and internal
acoustic meatus.
____________ 2. Its condyles articulate with C1 (atlas).
B. Frontal
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____________ 3. Infraorbital foramen.
A. Ethmoid
____________ 4. Form the anterior part of hard palate.
____________ 5. This bone articulates with the condylar (condyloid) process of mandible.
C. Lacrimals
____________ 6. Bone of the lower jaw.
____________ 7. Form the bridge of the nose.
D. Mandible
____________ 8. Cribriform plate and crista galli.
____________ 9. Superior orbital fissure, optic foramen, foramen rotundum, foramen ovale,
and foramen spinosum.
E. Maxillae
____________ 10. Contribute to the superior and lateral surfaces of the cranium.
____________ 11. Bone of the forehead; supraorbital foramen or notch.
F. Nasals
____________ 12. Its petrous part contains the middle ear and inner ear.
____________ 13. Hypophyseal fossa within the sella turcica.
G. Occipital
____________ 14. Mental foramen.
____________ 15. Middle and superior nasal conchae.
H. Palatines
____________ 16. Pterygoid process and its associated plates.
____________ 17. Very small; associated with entrance into nasolacrimal canal.
I. Parietals
____________ 18. Foramen magnum and hypoglossal canal.
____________ 19. Form the posterior part of hard palate.
J. Sphenoid
____________ 20. Bone of the upper jaw.
____________ 21. Bone composed of a horizontal body and two ascending rami.
_________ _________ 22. Two bones that help to form the nasal septum.
K. Temporals
_________ _________ 23. Two bones whose processes form the zygomatic arch.
_________ _________ _________ _________ 24. Four bones containing paranasal sinuses.
L. Vomer
_________ _________ _________ _________ 25. Seven bones that form the orbit.
M. Zygomatic
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_________ _________ _________
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Worksheet #8 – The Brain
Name
_________________________________________________________
Directions: Choose the structure from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
Fo
____________ 1. Develops from the mesencephalon.
A. Cerebrum
____________ 2. Contains the crossover point of the corticospinal tracts, called the
decussation of the pyramids.
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____________ 3. Provides error correcting feedback for movements, as well as precise
timing and patterns of muscle contraction for skilled movements.
____________ 4. Largest part of the brain in terms of mass.
B. Cerebellum
____________ 5. Cerebral peduncles found on its ventral surface.
____________ 6. Contains areas involved with sensory perception (i.e. sensory areas),
control of movement (i.e. motor areas), and more complex integrative
functions (i.e. association areas); allows for conscious thinking.
____________ 7. Surrounds the third ventricle.
C. Diencephalon
____________ 8. The cerebral aqueduct runs through this structure.
____________ 9. Contain the basal nuclei.
____________ 10. Important role in maintain homeostasis, as it is an autonomic reflex
center housing important visceral motor nuclei (ex. cardiovascular and
respiratory centers).
D. Midbrain
____________ 11. Consists primarily of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus.
____________ 12. Name means “bridge”; important for connecting different parts of the brain.
____________ 13. Develops from the myelencephalon.
____________ 14. The lateral ventricles are found deep within this structure.
____________ 15. Superior colliculi and inferior colliculi found on its dorsal surface.
E. Medulla oblongata
____________ 16. Develops from the telencephalon.
_________ _________ 17. Develops from the metencephalon.
_________ _________ 18. Composed of two hemispheres; cortex present.
_________ _________ _________ 19. The parts of the brainstem from superior to inferior.
F. Pons
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Directions: Using the following diagram of the lateral view of the human brain, match the structures indicated
on the diagram with the list of terms. Each letter may only be used once.
____________ 1. Central sulcus
____________ 8. Parietal lobe
____________ 2. Cerebellum
____________ 9. Pons
____________ 3. Foramen magnum
____________ 10. Postcentral gyrus
____________ 4. Frontal lobe
____________ 11. Precentral gyrus
____________ 5. Lateral fissure/sulcus
____________ 12. Spinal cord
Fo
____________ 6. Medulla oblongata
____________ 13. Temporal lobe
____________ 7. Occipital lobe
____________ 14. Transverse fissure
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Lateral View of the Human Brain
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Directions: Using the following diagram of a sagittal section of the human brain, match the structures indicated
on the diagram with the list of terms. Each letter may only be used once.
____________ 1. Central canal of the spinal cord
____________ 9. Midbrain
____________ 2. Cerebellum
____________ 10. Occipital lobe
____________ 3. Cerebral aqueduct
____________ 11. Parietal lobe
____________ 4. Corpus callosum
____________ 12. Pineal gland
____________ 5. Fourth ventricle
Fo
____________ 13. Pituitary gland
____________ 6. Frontal lobe
____________ 14. Pons
____________ 8. Medulla oblongata
____________ 15. Superior colliculus
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____________ 7. Inferior colliculus
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Sagittal Section of the Human Brain
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Worksheet #9 – The Spinal Cord
and Spinal Nerves
Name
_________________________________________________________
Directions: Place the meninges and associated spaces in order from most SUPERFICIAL to DEEPEST:
4. epidural space
2. pia mater
5. arachnoid mater
3. dura mater
6. subdural space
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1. subarachnoid space
_____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____
Directions: Choose the structure from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the
column on the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
____________ 1. Area of the spinal cord from which nerves to/from the upper limbs originate.
A. Cauda equina
____________ 2. Gray matter in the spinal cord that contains the cell bodies of motor neurons
responsible for innervating skeletal muscle.
B. Cervical enlargement
____________ 3. Anterior branch of a spinal nerve that can form intercostal nerves or
nerve plexuses.
C. Conus medullaris
____________ 4. An inferior extension of the pia mater that helps to anchor the spinal
cord to the coccyx.
D. Dorsal/posterior horn
____________ 5. Gray matter in the spinal cord that contains the cell bodies of multipolar
interneurons/association neurons. (Hint: Sensory axons synapse with these
interneurons/association neurons.)
E. Dorsal ramus
F. Dorsal root
____________ 6. Contains the cell bodies of unipolar sensory neurons.
____________ 7. Contains the axons of only motor neurons; considered ‘motor only’.
____________ 8. Posterior branch of a spinal nerve that contains sensory and motor fibers
responsible for the innervation of the skin and deep muscles of the back,
respectively.
G. Dorsal root ganglion
H. Filum terminale
I. Lumbar enlargement
____________ 9. Formed from the union of a dorsal root and ventral root.
____________ 10. Area of the spinal cord from which nerves to/from the lower limbs
originate.
____________ 11. The bundle of spinal nerve roots found in the vertebral canal inferior
to the L1/L2 level.
____________ 13. The tapering end of the spinal cord.
K. Ventral/anterior horn
L. Ventral ramus
y;
____________ 12. Contains the axons of only sensory neurons; considered ‘sensory’ only.
J. Spinal nerve
M. Ventral root
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Worksheet #10 – The Eye and The Ear
Name
_________________________________________________________
Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on
the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
Fo
____________ 1. Contains smooth muscle cells that control the shape of the lens.
A. Aqueous humor
____________ 2. Allows light to pass through the iris.
____________ 3. Opaque portion of the fibrous tunic; the “white of the eye”.
B. Choroid
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C. Ciliary body
____________ 5. Clear gel-like substance found in the posterior chamber; supports
the posterior surface of the lens.
D. Conjunctiva
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____________ 4. Inner layer of the eye; contains rods and cones (i.e. photoreceptor cells).
____________ 6. The colored part of the eye; most anterior portion of vascular tunic.
E. Cornea
____________ 7. Posterior portion of vascular tunic; contains lots of blood vessels;
also contains brown pigment that absorbs light preventing it
from scattering within the eye.
F. Iris
____________ 8. Attaches lens to the ciliary body.
G. Lens
____________ 9. Anterior part of fibrous tunic; allows light to enter eye.
____________ 10. Contains smooth muscle cells that control the diameter of the pupil.
____________ 11. Can change shape; transparent; focuses light onto retina.
H. Pupil
I. Retina
____________ 12. The extrinsic eye muscles attach here.
____________ 13. Fluid found in the anterior cavity; helps to nourish lens and cornea.
J. Sclera
____________ 14. Accessory structure of eye; transparent membrane that covers inner
surface of eyelids and anterior surface of eye.
K. Suspensory ligaments
____________ ____________ 15. Contain the intrinsic eye muscles.
L. Vitreous humor
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Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on
the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
____________ 1. Vibrates as sound waves hit it; vibrations transmitted to the ossicles.
A. Auricle or pinna
____________ 2. Allows pressure in the middle ear to be equalized with atmospheric pressure, which
permits the tympanic membrane to vibrate freely.
B. Cochlea
____________ 3. The stapes fits in here; allows for the transmission of vibrations from the stapes to
the fluid of the inner ear.
C. External auditory canal
D. Incus
E. Malleus
____________ 5. Contains modified sweat glands called ceruminous glands that produce and secrete
cerumen.
F. Oval window
____________ 6. Connects the middle ear with the nasopharynx.
G. Pharyngotympanic tube or
auditory tube
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____________ 4. Contains the spiral organ of Corti, the receptor organ for hearing.
____________ 7. Separates the outer ear from the middle ear.
_________ _________ 8. Contain the receptors for equilibrium.
H. Round window
I. Semicircular canals
_________ _________ 9. Parts of the outer ear.
_________ _________ _________ 10. Parts of the inner ear.
_________ _________ _________ 11. The auditory ossicles; transmit vibratory motion across the
middle ear.
J. Stapes
K. Tympanic membrane
L. Vestibule
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Worksheet #11 – The Heart
and The Respiratory System
Name
_________________________________________________________
Fo
Directions: List (in order) the structures that blood would pass through beginning with the superior vena cava
(or inferior vena cava or coronary sinus) and ending with the ascending aorta. Some information has been provided, but you must fill in the chambers and the valves. BE AS SPECIFIC AS POSSIBLE.
1. Superior vena cava or inferior vena cava or coronary sinus
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2. _______________________________________ (chamber)
3. _______________________________________ (valve)
4. _______________________________________ (chamber)
5. _______________________________________ (valve)
6. Pulmonary trunk
7. Pulmonary arteries
8. Lung
9. Pulmonary veins
10. _______________________________________ (chamber)
11. _______________________________________ (valve)
12. _______________________________________ (chamber)
13. _______________________________________ (valve)
14. Ascending aorta
Directions: Using arrows (red for oxygenated blood and blue for deoxygenated blood), indicate the direction of
blood flow through the heart.
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Courtesy of Blamb/Shutterstock.
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Directions: The items in the column on the left are parts of the intrinsic conduction system of the heart. Place the
items in the correct order an impulse would travel through the intrinsic conduction system of the heart.
A. Atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His)
B. Atrioventricular (AV) node
C. Left and right bundle branches
_____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____ ➞ _____
D. Purkinje fibers
E. Sinoatrial (SA) node
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Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on
the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
____________ 1. Air passageway commonly referred to as the “windpipe”; held open by C-shaped
pieces of hyaline cartilage.
____________ 2. First portion of respiratory division; first area that allows for gas exchange.
____________ 3. Air passageway that enters a bronchopulmonary segment of a lung.
____________ 4. Covers the surface of the lung.
A. Alveoli
B. Conchae
C. Choanae
D. Cricoid cartilage
____________ 5. Made of elastic cartilage; blocks food and liquids from entering the larynx.
____________ 6. Also known as the internal nares; passageway between the nasal cavity and the
nasopharynx.
E. Epiglottis
F. Parietal pleura
____________ 7. Largest laryngeal cartilage; its laryngeal prominence is commonly referred to as
the “Adam’s apple”.
G. Primary (main) bronchus
____________ 8. Scrolls of bone that project from the lateral walls of nasal cavities; causes
turbulence of inspired air allowing for warming and cleaning.
H. Respiratory bronchioles
____________ 9. Air passageway that enters a lobe of a lung.
I. Secondary (lobar) bronchus
____________ 10. Smallest bronchiole still part of conducting division.
J. Terminal bronchioles
____________ 11. Lines the wall of the pleural cavities.
____________ 12. Blind, thin-walled pockets that are the termination of the bronchial tree; permit
gas exchange.
____________ 13. Air passageway that enters a lung.
____________ 14. Ring of hyaline cartilage that is larger dorsally; its inferior margin marks the
border between the larynx and the trachea.
K. Tertiary (segmental) bronchus
L. Thyroid cartilage
M. Trachea
N. Visceral pleura
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Worksheet #12 – The Digestive System
Name
_________________________________________________________
Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on
the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
Fo
____________ 1. Attaches the small intestine to the posterior abdominal wall.
____________ 2. Segment of GI tract that receives bile and pancreatic juice.
A. Esophagus
B. Gallbladder
C. Greater omentum
____________ 4. Common passageway for liquids, food, and air.
D. Haustra
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____________ 3. The permanent transverse folds of the small intestine’s lining that increase the
surface area available for absorption.
____________ 5. Functions include water absorption and feces formation.
E. Ileocecal valve
____________ 6. Reflection of peritoneum that hangs from the greater curvature of the stomach.
____________ 7. Temporary folds of the stomach wall that flatten as the stomach fills.
F. Large intestine
____________ 8. Pouches of the large intestine wall.
G. Lesser omentum
____________ 9. Blind sac attached to the cecum.
H. Liver
____________ 10. Valve controlling movement of chyme from stomach into duodenum.
____________ 11. Produces bile.
____________ 12. Reflection of peritoneum found between the lesser curvature of the stomach
and the liver.
I. Mesentery proper
J. Oral cavity
K. Pancreas
____________ 13. Has four gross anatomical parts, namely the fundus, body, cardia, and pylorus.
____________ 14. Valve found between small intestine and large intestine.
L. Parietal peritoneum
____________ 15. Organ responsible for the majority (i.e. 90%) of GI tract absorption.
M. Pharynx
____________ 16. Stores and concentrates bile.
N. Plicae circulares
____________ 17. An endocrine and exocrine gland with a head, body, and tail.
____________ 18. Transports foods and liquids from pharynx to stomach; has no role in digestion
or absorption.
____________ 19. Serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity wall.
O. Pyloric Sphincter
P. Rugae
Q. Small intestine
____________ 20. Segment of GI tract that receives chyme from the stomach.
____________ 21. Serous membrane that is the outermost layer of the GI tract wall in most
(but not all) areas; also known as the “serosa”.
____________ ____________ 22. Two regions of the GI tract extensively involved in the physical
breakdown of food.
R. Stomach
S. Vermiform appendix
T. Visceral peritoneum
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Worksheet #13 – The Urinary
and Reproductive Systems
Name
_________________________________________________________
Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on
the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
Fo
____________ 1. Hollow muscular organ where urine is stored.
A. Kidneys
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____________ 2. Produces urine
____________ 3. Much shorter in females than in males.
B. Urethra
____________ 4. In males can be divided into prostatic, membranous, and spongy (penile) parts.
____________ 5. Muscular tube that propels urine towards the urinary bladder.
C. Ureter
____________ 6. Drains urine from urinary bladder to the body’s exterior.
____________ 7. Besides urine, also transports sperm in males.
D. Urinary bladder
Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on
the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
____________ 1. Small, rounded gland that surrounds the urethra just inferior to the urinary bladder;
produces and secretes a milky fluid.
A. Bulbourethral glands
____________ 2. The passageway that connects the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.
B. Ductus deferens or vas deferens
____________ 3. Tubular maturation and storage site for sperm; found along the posterolateral
aspect of the testes.
C. Epididymis
____________ 4. Leydig cells in this structure produce testosterone.
D. Penis
____________ 5. Produce approximately 60% of the seminal fluid; lie on the posterior wall of the
urinary bladder.
E. Prostate
____________ 6. Male copulatory organ; delivers semen to the female reproductive tract.
____________ 7. Pouch of skin where the testes are housed.
F. Seminal vesicles
____________ 8. Pea-sized, paired glands found on either side of the membranous urethra; produce
lubricating mucus that washes out any residual urine from the urethra.
G. Scrotum
____________ 9. Produce the male gamete (i.e. sperm).
H. Testes
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Directions: Choose the term from the column on the right that BEST matches each description in the column on
the left. Each answer may be used more than once or not at all.
____________ 1. Produce the female gamete (i.e. ovum or egg).
A. Fimbriae
____________ 2. Houses the developing fetus.
____________ 3. Site of estrogens and progesterone production.
B. Ovaries
____________ 4. Fingerlike extensions of uterine (fallopian) tube; motion help to draw ovum into
uterine (fallopian) tube.
C. Uterine tube or fallopian tube
Fo
____________ 5. Location where fertilization usually takes place.
____________ 6. Female copulatory organ; receives the penis during sexual intercourse.
D. Uterus
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____________ 7. Duct for the passage of the ovum from the peritoneal cavity to the uterus.
____________ 8. Passageway for the elimination of menstrual fluids and for childbirth.
E. Vaginal canal or vagina
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