GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Gender and Sex
‘Sex’
and ‘gender’ have very different meanings.
Sex is a biological concept. It refers to all the physiological characteristics that
distinguish women from men, on the basis of their reproductive functions. Sex is
determined prior to our birth. It is a biological reality to which we give so much
meaning that it becomes central to how we as humans organise our social and
cultural lives. We get sex chromosomes as part of our genetic heritage from our
parents (XY-male and XX for females) It is also related to our gonads. The gonads,
the primary reproductive organs- are the testes in the male and the ovaries in the
female. These organs are responsible for producing the sperm and ova, but they
also secrete hormones and are considered to be endocrine glands. Male refers to
penis or testicles sex and female refers to the vulva sex.
Gender is a social construct. It refers to these socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and
attributes that are considered appropriate for women and men. In other words gender is something is
shaped and defined by society. It thus denotes the relationship between males and females that is
socially constructed, culturally determined and psychologically patterned. The two sexes occupy
different positions in society. Their chances in life, and the way in which they are destined to participate
in the different spheres of society, are determined to a large extent by their gender identity.
Femininity and Masculinity
The word femininity refers to the set of characteristics that we associate with females while masculinity
refers to those set of characteristics that we associate with males. Male refers penis/testicle sex and
female refers to vulva sex
Gender identity refers to the set of roles, characteristics and behaviour that is prescribed for a
particular sex by each society and that is learned through a socialisation process, both within the family
and in the wider society. “Essentially, the distinction between sex and gender is made to emphasise
that everything women and men do, and everything expected of them, with the exception of their
sexually distinct functions (child-bearing and breast feeding; impregnation) can change, and does
change over time and according to changing and varied social and cultural factors.” (Williams, Seed and
Mwau, 1994) For example, girls and women may be expected to be caring, gentle, passive, respectful and
obedient, be responsible for domestic chores and childcare, speak and dress moderately, please and
obey men , control their sexuality, behave responsibly and hide their sexual feelings.
Conversely, boys and men may be expected to: make important family decisions – for example, about
household expenditure or how many children to have, marry and provide for their family, be strong and
not show their emotions, take the lead in relationships and sex (Commonwealth Secretariat, September 2001)
Gender identity, based on the sex into which someone is born, therefore shapes and determines the
roles and activities that society regards as appropriate, determines the level of access each person will
have to services and resources (and therefore determines the extent to which each person is excluded
from such services and resources) and shapes the relations between men and women, as well as their
relative power in social and political relations. In essence, the different roles of women and men
depend on a particular socio-economic, political and cultural context, and are affected by other factors
such as age, race, class and ethnicity.
Debate on gender identity
Gender is a word used to refer to the social and cultural (sociocultural) expectation that human groups
associate with each sex. Gender incorporates a whole range of sociocultural factors including idea
sociocultural traits, assumption about skills and talents, definitions of what work people should do and
so on.
One of the big debates in the social science – and in society as a whole is where gender comes from. The
question is, why differences exist between the two sexes. We will consider the different positions in
these debates in three broad categories or perspectives.
1. Social constructionist view or perspective which posits that gender is largely or entirely a creation of
sociocultural processes and practices. This perspective is also referred to as cultural transmission theory
which is founded on gender socialization (The processes by which men and women learn the
behaviour and attitudes regarded as appropriate for their sex. There was a great deal of work
done on this in the 1960s and 1970s, for example, investigating the way that girls may be
gently coerced into becoming feminine by the ways they were treated and what they were
expected to do).
2. Psychodynamic perspective or theory – the idea that gender develops as part of processes of
development of the psyche and personality. It argues that gender is not in-born but instead, it is formed
through experience. The perspective sees gender as shaped by the individual’s experience or sexed
bodies. For instance, Freudian theorist believe that children are born without any significant sex
differences but both boys and girls are born with a number of drives including libido which is a general
sex drive. Children seeks o gratify these drive by acting in ways that makes them feel good rather than
feeling bad e.g. something to suck. Freud argued that girls and boys develop in much the same ways
through the first three or four years of life. In these first years, both sexes learned that they are separate
from their mothers that they can control their own bodies through toilet training, that they came give
and receive pleasure through contact with other people. In pursuing these pleasures, they associate
with the opposite sex which is frowned upon by society which compel the child to redirect his/her
energy towards the same sex and learns the ways and behaviors of the same sex parent thereby
developing gender identity.
3. Biological determinism – this perspective argues that sex differences are in-born and cannot be
changed. Sociobiology and evolutionary psychology fall within this general category. According to
biological determinist, biological factors support these arguments that hormones have effect on fetal
development and throughout life. Therefore, sex differences in behaviour results from hundreds of
thousands of years of evolution in which the two sexes develop biologically based traits that suits their
roles in the world.
Gender Misconceptions in Africa
Misconception is a term that is used when someone understands/interprets an issue wrongly.
There are some roles that have been assigned to males or females because of their sex.
Some of these gender misconceptions are:
i. Males are heads and bread winners of families. Provision of money for the up-keep of the
family is thought as the sole role of the father.
ii. Another one is that, males need to be educated and not females. Society holds the thought
that, since a female will be married in the future and taken care of by the husband, then there is
no need for her to be educated.
iii. Females are seen as not having any economic responsibility.
iv. Females do not need higher formal education.
v. Females are seen to be feeble and too emotional
vi. Females are not to be part of making key decisions for the family or community.
vii. Females are the ones who should perform household chores such as cooking, washing and
sweeping.
Gender equality
Gender equality means women and men have equal rights and should have the same
entitlements and opportunities. Equality is rights-based and it is part of fundamental
human right and therefore inalienable.
There is evidence of widespread prejudice against women and girls from
decades of psychological research. For instance, an experiment was conducted
in which participants watched an entrepreneurial pitch video of images
relating to a new venture, narrated by the voice of the entrepreneur.
Participants were randomly assigned to a group in which either a male or
female voice narrated the pitch, which was otherwise identical. When a male
voice pitched the venture, 68% of participants thought it was worthy of
funding, compared to only 32% when pitched by a female voice. Such effects
occur even when gender is presented only on paper. In an experiment in which
participants were asked to rate an applicant for a laboratory manager position,
an identical application was provided in two separate conditions. However, in
each condition, the application was randomly assigned as belonging to either
“John” or “Jennifer”. Participants who were led to believe the applicant was
male rated them as more competent and hireable, as well as offering them a
higher starting salary and more career mentoring.
Even children show this gender bias. One study asked children to guess
whether a “really, really smart” protagonist in a story was a man or a woman.
By the age of six, girls were less likely to guess that the protagonist was a
woman than boys were to guess that the protagonist was a man.
This scientific evidence demonstrates that people do in fact discriminate based
on gender, despite denials that gender inequality persists in modern societies.
This research demonstrates that even when all else is equal, women are at a
disadvantage to men in many domains. This might be because men are
perceived as being more capable in general, even in the absence of evidence to
suggest superior skills.
What gender equality does not mean
One might object that there are meaningful differences between males and
.females, and these in turn are the source of gender inequality. Some believe
that equality is a wrong word to use, because males and females can’t be equal
aspects of life.
But when gender activists refer to gender equality, they are not arguing that
males and females are identical or indistinguishable on all behaviour,
preferences and abilities. Nor does it mean all gender differences must be
eliminated, or that we must have equal gender representation in every field.
For instance, there are many more male firefighters than female firefighters.
Part of this is likely due to gender differences in work preferences. But it is
also partly due to the physical strength tests used in recruiting firefighters.
These include being able to lift a 72kg mannequin and drag it for 45 metres.
Many fit men can achieve this feat, but substantially fewer fit women can.
Even in the absence of gender discrimination, we might always have fewer
female firefighters simply because of such physical requirements. But as long
as these requirements are reasonable for the job and no woman is
excluded because she is a woman, then gender discrimination is not a
problem. Gender equality doesn’t mean we must have a 50:50 balance of men
and women in every profession purely for the sake of equal representation.
Gender equality also does not mean that males and females must always be
treated the same. Given the existence of biological sex differences, it is
reasonable for males and females to have different legal rights in some
instances. For example, only females can ever require maternity leave
specifically for pregnancy and birth. In cases such as these, what is required is
not equal treatment, but equitable treatment.
Gender equity means justice so that resources are fairly distributed, taking
into account different needs. Gender equality and gender equity are not the
same thing, though the terms are often used interchangeably. Equity means
recognising that differences in ability mean that fairness often requires
treating people differently so that they can achieve the same outcome. At times
equity is necessary to achieve gender equality, but there are many instances
where this is not the case.
Most of the time, women and girls are at no inherent disadvantage due to a
lack of ability that warrants differential treatment. The problem, as
highlighted by the evidence reviewed above, is the irrational gender bias that
women and girls are routinely subjected to.
The purpose of affirmative action policies to increase female representation is
to counteract systemic discrimination against women. Affirmative action
creates gender equity by overcoming the barriers women face simply because
of their gender. If we can eliminate this gender-based discrimination, no such
action will be necessary.
Achieving gender equality
So if gender equality does not mean that males and females must be identical
or always require the same treatment in order to achieve fairness, what does it
mean?
Gender equality can often be achieved just by holding everyone to the same
standard. Gender equality is seeing males and females as being of equal status
and value. It is judging a person based on their merit, and not viewing them as
inferior or superior purely based on their gender.
Unfortunately, the evidence reviewed above suggests this prejudice is still
widespread, and we often aren’t aware of our own biases. We cannot say that
we have gender equality until this prejudice is overcome and we have
eliminated the irrational bias that people have against somebody just because
they are female. Equal rights are not enough. Inequality exists in our minds, in
our biases and prejudices, and that remains to be fixed.
Steps To Achieve Gender Equality In Africa and Ghana in particular
Talk to women and girls about their rights or conscientise them,
A fundamental reason we have not yet achieved gender equality in
every realm is that women and girls’ voices are too often excluded
from global and national decision-making.
2. Gender mainstreaming
An interventionist strategy whose aim is to achieve gender equality goals in an organisation
or country through integrating gender analysis into everything the organisation does. To
achieve such change, interventionists must understand exactly how the organisation works
and what is needed to affect its rules and structures.
3. Stop child marriage and sexual harassment


If we want girls to be able to complete education we have to end
child marriage. We also have to seriously address sexual
harassment of girls in African. The state must implement the
provisions in the Children’s (Amendment) Act, 2016 (Act 937).
4. Make education gender responsive
There has been much progress in increasing access to education,
but progress has been slow in improving the gender
responsiveness of the education system, including ensuring
gender responsive pedagogies and textbooks promote positive
stereotypes.
5. Raise aspirations of girls and their parents
We need to give girls images and role models that expand their
dreams. For instance encouraging girls to emulate the steps of women
such as Prof. Naana Jane Opoku Agyemang, Prof. Rita Akosua Dickson,
Yaa Asantewaa, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf etc.
6. Empower mothers
When mothers are educated and empowered to make choices in their
lives, they enable their daughters to go to school.
7. Give proper value to ‘women’s work’
The unpaid work women and girls do provide the foundation for the
global economy. This fact needs to be highlighted more in the media,
with the private sector, and in communities.
8. Get women into power or active political participation
A proven way to overcome many systemic barriers to women’s success
has been increased participation by women in local, regional and
national governance as empowered change agents.
9. Encourage women into non-traditional vocations
Supporting women in non-traditional jobs is crucial in not only making
long-lasting change in their lives but also help break social taboos and
some misconceptions.
10. Work together
Between 1999 and 2010, the ratio of girls in secondary school fell from
83 to 82 girls for every 100 boys at the secondary level and from 67 to
63 girls for every 100 boys at the tertiary level. This is stalled progress
and a reversion to the deep gender equalities that characterised
previous eras. To address this gap, our efforts cannot be done in silos,
but must involve the people (girls in this case).
11. Stop the violence
The UN has found that globally, one in three women will experience
violence in her lifetime, with most violence against women perpetrated
by a current or former intimate partner.
12. Beware the backlash
One of the realities that we need to remember and address is that,
when women “trespass” in spaces that were previously completely
male-dominated there is often a penalty. In education and in the
workplace that backlash often takes the form of sexual harassment,
humiliation, violence.
13. Promoting Gender Equity
Both sexes should not be discriminated against. They should be given the equal
opportunities and resources they need to achieve their goals in life. Gender equity
can be promoted through:
i. Educating the public through Parent and Teachers Associations (P.T.As), social
clubs, religious platforms and pressure groups.
ii. Making and enforcing laws.
iii. Respect for the rights of all persons including women and girls.
iv. Actively involving and including women and girls in decision making.
V. Granting some special privilege and concessions to women and girls in the area of education, politics
and agriculture
Challenges of gender equality in Africa
Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but a necessary foundation for a
peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world.
There has been progress over the last decades: More girls are going to school, fewer
girls are forced into early marriage, more women are serving in parliament and positions
of leadership, and laws are being reformed to advance gender equality.
Despite these gains, many challenges remain:
1. Discriminatory laws and social norms remain pervasive, women continue to be
underrepresented at all levels of political leadership, and 1 in 5 women and girls
between the ages of 15 and 49 report experiencing physical or sexual violence by an
intimate partner within a 12-month period.
2.The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic could reverse the limited progress that has
been made on gender equality and women’s rights. The coronavirus
outbreak exacerbates existing inequalities for women and girls across every sphere –
from health and the economy, to security and social protection.
Women play a disproportionate role in responding to the virus, including being frontline
healthcare workers and carers at home. Women’s unpaid care work has increased
significantly as a result of school closures and the increased needs of older people.
Women are also harder hit by the economic impacts of COVID-19, as they
disproportionately work in insecure labour markets. Nearly 60 per cent of women work
in the informal economy, which puts them at greater risk of falling into poverty.
The pandemic has also led to a steep increase in violence against women and
girls. With lockdown measures in place, many women are trapped at home with their
abusers, struggling to access services that are suffering from cuts and restrictions.
Emerging data shows that, since the outbreak of the pandemic, violence against women
and girls – and particularly domestic violence – has intensified.
3. Customs that Discriminate against Females in Ghana.
In most ethnic groups in Ghana, there are traditions that abuse female rights.
Examples of such customs are below:
i. Widowhood rites: It is a custom a widow is made to do when her husband dies. She
is made to stay with her dead husband in a locked room for some days. Sometimes
she is made to shave her hair completely.
ii. Female Genital Mutilation (F.G.M): This is also one custom that is practiced among
certain ethnic groups which tend to abuse the rights of females. It involves the cutting
of the clitoris of the female genital organ using broken bottles, unsafe blades and
knives as a way of circumcising them.
iii. Trokosi system: In this custom, young girls are forcefully arrested and held in the
trokosi shrines to serve as atonement for crimes committed by relatives. They suffer
for crimes they did not commit.
iv. Forced or early marriages: Females are forced into marriages which they do not
agree to.
UNIT TWO
THEORIES OF FEMINISM
Feminism, which began as a political ideological movement in affluent countries, is a social
theoretical perspective as well. The political movement seeks to attain equal rights for women with
men – politically, economically and socially. The theoretical perspective seeks to change our
traditional definitions of what women’s roles should be and how women should be defined.
Feminism has its roots in the reform movements of the 19th century when people increasingly
perceived that women were oppressed in an unjust, patriarchal society. The organized feminist
movement dates from the First Women’s Right’s Convention at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848.
This is known as the first wave of feminism, and was concerned particularly with suffrage – getting
women the right to vote. The second wave (1960s to 1980s) was concerned particularly with
inequality. The third wave (1990s onwards) is concerned with tackling the perceived failures of
the second wave and the backlash against its initiatives. Issues of class, race and sexuality are
central to the third wave. As an ideology, feminism stands not only for gender equality but for the
transformation of all social relations of power that oppress, exploit or marginalise any set of people
on the basis of their gender, age, sexual orientation, ability, race, religion, nationality, location,
ability, class, caste or ethnicity. It also recognises the intersecting nature of people’s identities and
social locations and the fact that we can experience discrimination, exclusion or oppression
simultaneously in intersecting ways. As an analytical framework, feminism has refined and
deepened the concepts of patriarchy and gender; feminists have created a range of analytical tools
and methods for unpacking the power imbalances between men and women in various social
institutions and structures (e.g. gendered division of labour in the household and economic
activities, control of women’s sexuality and reproductive life, etc.). Feminist scholars have also
developed new frameworks to analyse the way in which multiple forms of discrimination and
exclusion operate together, rather than incrementally, in people’s lives. Feminism embraces new
notions of gender and gender identities that go beyond the social construction of just two genders.
As a social change strategy, feminism prioritises the empowerment of women and other
marginalised genders, the transformation of gender power relations and the advancement of gender
equality within all change interventions.
Feminist theories have been developed to understand and explain the nature of women’s low status
in society. They focus on gender politics, power relations and sexuality. Several different feminist
theories have developed that attempt to explain women’s subordination, and they have been
grouped here under the following three broad approaches:
Marxist feminist thought
During the 1960s and 1970s, the major debates in feminism were based around Marxism. The root
cause of women’s subordination, according to Marxist feminism, is capitalism and the way
capitalist systems work: namely through the accumulation and concentration of private property
in the hands of a small class that controls the means of production, and a market system for the
majority to sell their labour to the minority for wages. This relates to structural conflict theory.
This system is contradictory because it is powerful at producing wealth from which most people
benefit to some extent, but it is characterised by oppressive class relations between those who own
the means of production and those who sell their labour. Thus, when the system runs into its
frequent difficulties, workers’ security and well-being may have to be sacrificed to keep the system
running. This is obvious to people in developing countries, which were persuaded to borrow huge
amounts of cheap money from the boom in oil prices during the 1970s and then forced to repay it
at high levels of interest when money became short again and the price of borrowing rose. It was
not the rich leaders of poor societies that suffered from the ensuing structural adjustment, but the
poor, particularly wage labourers and poor peasant farmers – and particularly poor women.
For Marxists, the social basis of capitalism is this class relationship between the bourgeois class
that owns the wealth and the rest. But there are intermediate layers, each of which is structurally
better or worse placed than others to benefit from this structure. Marxists call the basic mass of
wage labourers the proletariat, and the layers in between, they call the petit-bourgeois middle
classes. Each of the layers, from the bourgeois down, benefits from exploiting the labour of the
one beneath it.
Marxist feminists identified women as being structurally inferior to men at each level of the class
system. As the weakest group in this system, lower class women suffer most because they tend to
be the lowest paid workers they get squeezed worst in a time of crisis, losing their jobs or working
at part-time rates. If they are at home bringing up children, their husband’s wages get cut in order
to keep the system going, and they are hit badly by that. Capitalism requires this system of
exploitation of labour for it to work. It’s a successful system, but if we want a classless, nonexploitative society, in which there is no point in exploiting women, then according to Marxist
feminists we need a social revolution and the replacement of capitalism by socialism.
Radical feminist theories
Many radical feminists disagree with the Marxist concept that economic class is the major social
divide in capitalist society or that capitalism is the only source of inequality and exploitation.
They see patriarchy or the dominance of the male sex class as the major contributing factor to
women’s subordination. Many feminist theories, therefore, concentrate on the key analytical
concept of patriarchy – the system of male domination.
Firestone’s theory
One of the earliest radical feminist analyses of patriarchy was that of Shulamith Firestone in The
Dialectic of Sex (1970). She argued that sex class rather than economic class is the most basic
social division, and that women’s reproductive capacities have always made them vulnerable to
male control. As a result, they have been subordinated throughout history in all social structures.
She also argued that the imbalance in the division of power between women and men is
biologically determined – implying that gender inequality is natural.
She suggested several measures that could contribute towards eliminating inequality between the
sexes. In order to end the unfair division of labour between women and men, Firestone suggested
a much more general use of cybernetics, in which women’s particular gifts would be equal to
men’s. (Cybernetics is the science of communication and control, especially as applied to human
and animal brains compared with machines and electronic devices.) This idea is interesting in
light of the fact that the new jobs that have emerged in the post-modern era in metropolitan
countries are these sorts of jobs, in communications, information technology and computerdominated service industries. And where this has happened, it has been paralleled by increasing
equality for women in many areas. She also suggested measures such as artificial reproduction to
enable both sexes to produce children. These measures, she argued, would eliminate male
privilege and end the sex class.
Radical feminists like Heidi Hartmann (1979) have debated the role of capitalism in women’s
oppression. Hartmann refutes the Marxist concept that capitalism, class and private property
were responsible for women’s subordination, though it may use that subordination for its own
ends. She also disputes the Marxist idea that women’s subordination would disappear when
capitalism and its related ‘evils’ disappear under socialism. Instead, Hartmann has argued that
patriarchy is responsible for the subordination of women in society. Patriarchy, according to her,
pervades all social systems, including socialism. Women will only be liberated when patriarchy
disappears from society.
Christine Delphy (1984), like Firestone, also argues for the elimination of sex class. Unlike
Firestone, however, she regards sex class as the consequence but not the cause of patriarchal
domination. Like Hartmann, Delphy challenges Marxist feminist work that looks at the ways in
which women’s oppression results from class inequality under capitalism. She describes, instead,
a model of patriarchy that is independent of capitalism and even works within socialist societies.
Her analysis, however, retains the materialism of the Marxist perspective because of her
emphasis on the control of women’s labour by men and on the ways in which work is organised
(the mode of production) as the defining causes of female subordination.
According to Delphy, there are two main modes of production:
1. The industrial mode of production
2. The family mode of production in which women’s labour is exploited by men.
She argues that the main form of women’s oppression lies in men’s exploitation of women’s
reproductive and productive activities in the household. Men benefit from women’s provision of
domestic services and unpaid child rearing within the family, as well as women’s production of
certain goods for use and exchange. Patriarchal exploitation is therefore seen as the common and
main cause of the oppression of women.
A third use of the term patriarchy has been found in psychoanalysis. Juliet Mitchell (1974) has
argued that psychoanalysis can help explain the deep-rootedness of patriarchy. Rather than
seeing patriarchy solely as a set of social structures or institutions that oppress women,
psychoanalytic theory analyses the way patriarchy works on a psychological as well as a social
level. Mitchell traces the origins of female subordination by using psychoanalysis. In her work,
Psychoanalysis and Feminism, she argues that the valuing of male over female activities is
something we internalise from an early age through unconscious as well as conscious processes.
You can see this in the different ways women are expected to behave in different societies. For
example, in many African communities, a woman should curtsy when greeting a man or kneel
when serving him food, so that her head is lowered.
Liberal feminism
Liberal feminism, also called mainstream feminism, "reformist feminism", "egalitarian feminism",
or historically "bourgeois feminism", among other names, is a main branch of feminism defined
by its focus on achieving gender equality through political and legal reforms within the framework
of liberal democracy. As the oldest of the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought, liberal
feminism has its roots in 19th century first-wave feminism that focused particularly on women's
suffrage and access
to
education,
and
that
was
associated
with
19th
century liberalism and progressivism. Traditional liberal feminism has a strong focus on political
and legal reforms aiming to give women equal rights and opportunities. Liberal feminists argue
that society holds the false belief that women are, by nature, less intellectually and physically
capable than men; thus it tends to discriminate against women in the academy, the forum, and the
marketplace. Liberal feminists believe that "female subordination is rooted in a set of customary
and legal constraints that blocks women's entrance to and success in the so-called public world",
and strive for sexual equality via political and legal reform. Liberal feminism "works within the
structure of mainstream society to integrate women into that structure." Liberal feminism is
inclusive and both women and men have always been active participants in the movement;
progressive men particularly played an important role alongside women in the struggle for equal
political rights in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
As one of the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought, liberal feminism is often contrasted
with socialist/Marxist feminism and with radical feminism. Liberal feminism and mainstream
feminism are very broad terms, frequently taken to encompass all feminism that is not radical or
revolutionary socialist/Marxist, and that instead pursues equality through political, legal and social
reform within a liberal democratic framework; as such liberal feminists may subscribe to a range
of different feminist beliefs and political ideologies within the democratic spectrum from
the centre-left to the centre-right. The broader liberal feminist tradition includes numerous, newer
and often diverging sub fields such as equality feminism, social feminism, equity feminism,
and difference feminism, but liberal feminism also remains a tradition of its own; Nordic state
feminism belongs to the liberal tradition.
Mainstream liberal feminism places great emphasis on the public world and typically supports
laws and regulations that promote gender equality and ban practices that are discriminatory
towards women; mainstream liberal feminists may also support social measures to reduce material
inequality within a liberal democratic framework. Inherently pragmatic in orientation, liberal
feminists have emphasized building far-reaching support for feminist causes among both women
and men, and among the political centre, the government and legislatures. While rooted in firstwave feminism and traditionally focused on political and legal reform, the broader liberal feminist
tradition may include parts of subsequent waves of feminism, especially third-wave
feminism and fourth-wave feminism. The sunflower and the color gold became widely used
symbols of liberal feminism and especially women's suffrage from the 1860s.
Transformative Feminist theory.
Gerda Lerner has been referred to as the mother of women’s history; she, however, calls her
endeavor “transformational feminism,” by which she means the power of feminism to address the
systemic ills of both capitalism and patriarchy, for the betterment of both men and women. Lerner
says, she approached these problems organizationally, calling together “the Coordinating
Committee on Women in the Historical Profession (CCWHP) at the 1969 convention of the
American Historical Association.” She says, “Understood by then that women’s actions in their
own right and women’s work in association with other women change the discourse and the course
of history in ways not well-understood previously.” CCWHP encouraged the development of
women’s history courses and women’s studies programs around the United States and Lerner, with
the help of a substantial grant from the Rockefeller Foundation, founded the MA Program in
Women’s History at Sarah Lawrence College, “the first graduate program of its kind in the United
States”—possibly the world.
“Women with a feminist perspective and vision of social justice, individually and collectively
transform themselves to use their power, resources and skills in non-oppressive, inclusive
structures and processes to mobilise others – esp other women – around a shared agenda of social,
cultural, economic and political transformation for equality and the realisation of human rights for
all.
A leadership process is transformative when it is feminist (all of the above) plus:  It works to
promote change at four levels: personal consciousness, access to resources, exclusionary cultural
practices, and formal laws and policies  It is built on incremental strategies for structural change
 It is aware of deep (usually invisible) power structures within own organization and has the will
to change them  It facilitates processes to challenge patriarchal practice/thinking in ourselves, our
organizations, and our movements, creating cultural shifts.
As daily practice, feminist practice is concerned with and pays attention to how we use our power
and how we respond to other people’s use of their power in everyday life, in our personal and
professional relationships and interactions. This is true in our own personal relationships and in
the organisation and movement cultures we are part of creating. Power is the ‘fulcrum’ of
transformative feminist leadership. An analysis of individual and structural power, and the ways
in which power is used – by others as well as ourselves – is the foundation of feminist activism
and leadership.
UNIT THREE
FORMATION OF SOCIAL AND PEER GROUPS
GROUP DEFINED
Schaefer defines a group as any number of people with similar norms, values and expectations,
who interact with one another on regular basis. Aronson and others (2007) define a group as two
or more people who interact and are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause
them to influence each other.
Baron, Byrne and Branscombe 2006 define groups as a collection of people who are perceived to
be bounded together in a coherent unit to some extent.
Social psychologists refer to this property or bounded together or coherence –as- trait of group as
entiativity. Therefore, entiativity is the extent to which a group is perceived as being a coherent
entity .Entiativity has a wide range, from mere collections of people to collections of highly
intimate relationships as a family or between lovers. If entiativity is high/strong, then we say we
have a true group. According to Lickel and others, 2000, group high in entiativity show the
following characteristics:
1 The group is important to its member.
2 Members share common goals and outcomes.
3 They are similar to each other in many important ways; religion, values/ norms, attitudes etc.
4 It is when groups have these characteristics that they are considered as real groups.
For a collection of people to be considered a group, the following conditions must be present;
1 That there must be interaction either directly or indirectly.
2 There must be interdependence in some regard in that what affects one must affect the others to
some extent.
3 The relationship must be relatively stable therefore it must persist over some period of time
hours, days, weeks, years etc.
4 The individuals involved must share some common norms and goals which they hope to achieve
within a certain time frame.
5 Their interactions must be structured in some manner so that each time the group meet, each
member preforms the same or similar functions. For example leaders/followers.
6 The member must perceive themselves as belonging to or as part of the group. In other words
they must recognize the existence or a connectedness and a relationship with others.
It is in this regard that Baron and Byrne 1991 conclude that, only when individuals have the
opportunity to interact with others, perceive that their fates are somehow interdependent, share
common goals and coordinate their actions to reach these, do they conclude that they belong to a
functioning group .And only then is their behavior influenced by such membership so that they act
differently than they would if operating as unrelated individual.
STEVEN PENROD has made the case that ‘groupness’ can be considered as a matter of degree at
different levels. In this regard, he identified three distinguishable levels of groups. Namely;
AGGREGATE GROUPS – A collection of individuals with no social connection whatsoever.
Examples, MINIMAL GROUPS. – a collection of individual that have at least some social connection
although it may be weak – e. g audience at a concert, stadium , co-actors.
IDENTITY GROUPS. – the strongest form of group , important for the since of identity of those
who belong to it. e.g. family , work groups religious associations.
Besides these specific definitions, several schools of thought exist on what constitute a group. One
such school of thought explains the concept of group in relation to the length of time a group exists.
The distinction looks at;
ADHOC GROUP(S)-these are temporary, created to meet a particular need are disbanded when
the needs are met. Thus single occasion group which are disbanded after a purpose is achieve – e.
g .student project work group (often the present of loafing)
IMPROMPTU GROUP (S)-these are created on the spur of the moment or just when the need
arises (e. g rescue teams).
ON-GOING GROUP(S). These interact repeatedly over a period of time e. g. A board of trustee.
Groups can also be differentiated by their purpose. Example of these include:
TASK GROUP – They function to get a particular job done and all their activities are geared
towards this end /outcome (committees).
SOCIAL GROUPS - These exist for the social interaction and enjoyment of their members.
Despite these classifications of task groups generally perform both (tasks/social) functions.
Pursuing one at the expense of the other will not augur well for the group.
Some variables/principles/factors that promote group formation
PHISYCAL PROXIMITY: This makes the formation of a group more likely. Proximity is a
powerful determinant of attraction .Thus, the closer an individual is, the easier it makes for
attraction. If people who are geographically close share a common goal then they are likely to form
a group.
SIMILARITY: Similarity has been found to influence group formation. It is a significant
determinant of interpersonal attraction. Most groups have members who are alike in age, sex
beliefs and opinions. That is group homogeneity. Two reasons account for group homogeneity: 1.
Groups tend to attract people who are already similar before they join the group. 2. Groups tend to
operate in ways which encourage similarity in members.
ANXIETY/STRESS. Individuals are also more likely to form groups in a more stressful situation.
For example disaster victims working together as a group.
Peer group
A group of people who share certain social characteristics, such as age, class, occupation, or
education, and interact on a level of equality. An individual may be a member of several peer
groups, including friends, schoolmates, and coworkers. Peer groups are important in socialization,
as individuals attempt to conform to the expectations of their peer groups. ( conformity and peer
pressure.)
Importance of belonging to a Peer group
Serve as a source of information, knowledge and skills:
Peer groups provide perspective outside of the individual's viewpoints. Members inside peer
groups also learn to develop relationships with others in the social system. Peers, particularly group
members, become important social referents for teaching other members customs, social norms,
and different ideologies.
Teach gender roles:
Peer groups can also serve as a venue for teaching members gender roles. Through genderrole socialization, group members learn about sex differences, and social and cultural
expectations. While boys and girls differ greatly, there is not a one-to-one link between sex and
gender roles with males always being masculine and females always being feminine. Both genders
can contain different levels of masculinity and femininity. Peer groups can consist of all males, all
females, or both males and females. Studies show that the majority of peer groups are unisex.
Serve as a practicing venue to adulthood
Adolescent peer groups provide support as teens assimilate into adulthood. Major changes include:
decreasing dependence on parents, increasing feelings of self-sufficiency, and connecting with a
much larger social network. Adolescents are expanding their perspective beyond the family and
learning how to negotiate relationships with others in different parts of the social system. Peers,
particularly group members, become important social referents. Peer groups also influence
individual members' attitudes and behaviours on many cultural and social issues, such as: drug
use, violence, and academic achievement and even the development and expression of prejudice.
Teach unity and collective behaviour in life.
Peer groups provide an influential social setting in which group norms are developed and enforced
through socialization processes that promote in-group similarity. Peer groups' cohesion is
determined and maintained by such factors as group communication, group consensus, and
group conformity concerning attitude and behavior. As members of peer groups interconnect and
agree on what defines them as a group, a normative code arises. This normative code can become
very rigid, such as when deciding on group behavior and clothing attire.[21] Member deviation from
the strict normative code can lead to rejection from the group.
Identity formation and self-esteem.
Peer groups (friends group) can help individuals form their own identity. Identity formation is a
developmental process where a person acquires a sense of self. One of the major factors that
influence the formation of a person's identity is his or her peers. Studies have shown that peers
provide normative regulation, and that they provide a staging ground for the practice of social
behaviors. This allows individuals to experiment with roles and discover their identities.[38] The
identity formation process is an important role in an individual's development. Erik
Erikson emphasized the importance of identity formation, and he illustrated the steps one takes in
developing his or her sense of self. He believed this process occurs throughout one's entire life.[39]
Negative attributes or disadvantages
Peer pressure
The term peer pressure is often used to describe instances where an individual feels indirectly
pressured into changing their behavior to match that of their peers. Taking
up smoking and underage drinking are two of the best known examples. In spite of the often
negative connotations of the term, peer pressure can be used positively, for example, to encourage
other peers to study, or not to engage in activities such as the ones discussed above. Although peer
pressure is not isolated to one age group, it is usually most common during the adolescent
stage. Adolescence is a period characterized by experimentation, and adolescents typically spend
a lot of time with their peers in social contexts. Teenagers compel each other to go along with
certain beliefs or behaviors, and studies have shown that boys are more likely to give in to it than
girls. There has been much research done to gain a better understanding about the effects of peer
pressure, and this research will allow parents to handle and understand their children's behaviors
and obstacles they will face due to their peer groups. Learning how peer pressure impacts
individuals is a step to minimizing the negative effects it leads to.
Future problems
Success of peer relationships is linked to later psychological development and to academic
achievement. Therefore, if one does not have successful peer relationships it may lead to
developmental delays and poor academic achievement—perhaps even in-completion of a high
school degree. Children with poor peer relationships may also experience job related and marital
problems later in life.[5]
Risk behaviors
Several studies have shown that peer groups are powerful agents of risk behaviors in adolescence.
Adolescents typically replace family with peers regarding social and leisure activities, and many
problematic behaviors occur in the context of these groups. A study done in 2012 focused on
adolescents' engagement in risk behaviors. Participants completed a self-report measure
of identity commitment, which explores values, beliefs, and aspirations, as well as a self-report
that measures perceived peer group pressure and control. Both peer group pressure and control
were positively related to risky behaviors. However, adolescents who were more committed to a
personal identity had lower rates of risk behaviors. Overall, this study shows us that adolescent
identity development may help prevent negative effects of peer pressure in high-risk adolescents.
Aggression and prosocial behavior
Social behaviors can be promoted or discouraged by social groups, and several studies have shown
that aggression and prosociality are susceptible to peer influence. A longitudinal study done in
2011 focused on these two behaviors. A sample of adolescents was followed over a one-year
period, and results showed that adolescents who joined an aggressive group were more likely to
increase their aggression levels. Also, adolescents were likely to display prosocial behaviors that
were similar to the consistent behaviors of the group they were in. An adolescent's peer group
plays a role in shaping him or her into an adult, and the lack of positive behavior can lead to
consequences in the future.
Sexual promiscuity
Adolescence is also characterized by physical changes, new emotions, and sexual urges, and
teenagers are likely to participate in sexual activity. A longitudinal study done in 2012 followed a
group of adolescents for thirteen years. Self-reports, peer nominations, teacher ratings, counselor
ratings, and parent reports were collected, and results showed a strong correlation between deviant
peer groups and sexual promiscuity. Many teens claimed that the reasons for having sex at a young
age include peer pressure or pressure from their partner. The effects of sexual activity at a young
age are of great concern. Pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases are only a few of the
consequences that can occur.
UNIT FOUR
GENDER AND POVERTY
The feminization of poverty
Poverty: A state of being insufficient in productive resources and income to ensure sustainable livelihood,
access to and control over basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter and social services like education,
health care, water and sanitation.
According to the United Nations, the majority of the 1.5 billion people living on one dollar a day or less
are women. The gap between women and men caught in the cycle of poverty has also continued to widen.
In other words, not only are more women poorer than before, but also women are very often poorer than
their male counterparts. This phenomenon is commonly referred to as ‘the feminization of poverty’.
Feminisation of Poverty. Concept used to describe the state of poverty affecting mainly women because
of their poor access to productive resources.
In both developed and developing countries, there has been an increase in the number of femaleheaded households. Those that do not have access to remittances from male earners are generally
assumed to be poorer than male-headed households. Female-headed households are also more
vulnerable to increased unemployment and reductions in social and welfare spending. Female workers
in the informal sector are poorer than male workers. Worldwide, women earn on average slightly more
than 50 per cent of what men earn. There is currently a great deal of analysis and discussion about both
the concept of the feminization of poverty and its implications for policy. Much material is available on
the internet, including a detailed critique by Sylvia Chant (2003).
It’s important to remember, before we concentrate on women in development, that in some situations
international economics can have a more negative impact on men. . In fact, most societies seem to
exhibit a common pattern of relative female subordination, coupled with the feminization of poverty.
These two things alone make gender differences an important development issue.
Here is a quotation from Her Majesty Queen Rania Al-Abdullah of Jordan:
“Gender inequality has a negative impact not only on women but also on society as a whole. It restricts
the ability of a country to efficiently allocate and use its most valuable resource – its human capital.
Restricting the participation of women in public and economic life limits economic development and
national potential. Empowering women and providing opportunities for their full integration into all
aspects of society is not just an issue of justice for women – it is a vital factor in creating a climate
favourable to achieving sustainable progress and development.... Empowerment of women... means
stronger families and a richer sense of national community and pride.... Encouraging and empowering
women to take their place as an integral part of regional growth and progress is the wisest and most
effective means of closing the development gap.”
This quotation underlines the need to take gender into account in the development process. The World
Bank notes that many gender inequities are the result of economic policies and sector strategies that fail
to recognise gender differences in resources, roles and constraints; legal systems that limit women’s
access to land and other forms of property; and political systems that limit women’s participation at the
national, local and community levels.
The first and overarching Millennium Development Goal (MDG) is to eradicate poverty. One of the most
basic aims of any development effort should be to eradicate mass poverty and, where it cannot be
eradicated, to alleviate the effects it has on people’s everyday lives. In the light of what has been said so
far in this unit, gender must be given a primary focus in this development process. As the Human
Development Report 2003 has stressed:
“gender equality is at the core of whether the Goals will be achieved – from improving health and
fighting disease, to reducing poverty and mitigating hunger, to expanding education and lowering child
mortality, to increasing access to safe water, to ensuring environmental sustainability.” (UNDP, 2003)
This National Gender Policy is aimed at ensuring the attainment of gender equality in the
development process by redressing the existing gender imbalances. ... Government will ensure
that gender mainstreaming takes root across all sectors as a means to achieving equitable and
sustainable socio-economic development. The Gender Policy Framework advances the “basic
needs” approach to women's empowerment and gender equality to ensure that government
approaches these challenges in an integrated manner and avoids piecemeal impact.
CEDAW
A much more comprehensive undertaking regarding gender equality is the United Nations Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), which was adopted by the
General Assembly on 18 December 1979. In this section we will look at how CEDAW is designed to
promote and protect the rights of the world’s women. We provide the text of CEDAW as a reading and
will ask you to study it carefully, to consider how it is most relevant to your country, to identify your
obligations as a youth development worker and finally to evaluate your organisation’s policies and
programmes in relation to CEDAW.
CEDAW is a human rights instrument designed to promote and protect the rights of the world’s women.
By November 2006, most member countries of the UN were parties to (i.e. were legally bound by) this
Convention. Exceptions are Brunei Darussalam, Iran, Qatar, Sudan, Swaziland and the United States of
America (which has signed, but not yet ratified the Convention).
Commenting on the implementation of the Convention, the Commonwealth Secretariat (1996, p 2) says:
“The Convention essentially constitutes the international bill of rights for women. Its preamble recalls
that the elimination of discrimination against women and the promotion of equality between men and
women are central principles of the United Nations and constitute binding obligations under the
Charter of the United Nations and other instruments.”
“However, by pointing out that extensive discrimination against women continues to exist, it indicates
that the existing human rights machinery has been insufficient to guarantee the protection of women’s
rights. It goes on to state that discrimination against women violates the principles of equality of rights
and respect for human dignity, and amounts to an obstacle to women’s participation, on equal terms
with men, in the political, social, economic and cultural life of their countries and hampers the growth of
prosperity of society and the family.”
“The preamble states that the full and complete development of a country, the welfare of the world and
the cause of peace require the maximum participation of women on equal terms with men in all fields.”
In other words, by supporting equity and equality for women, we are safeguarding ourselves. Any State
that has ratified this Convention is bound by its terms. As gender students, you should study CEDAW and
adhere to it
CEDAW as a guide to action
CEDAW is more than a statement of principles or goals – it can be used as a guide to action for youth
development workers. With this aim, the Commonwealth Secretariat developed a manual to help
people evaluate how far the Convention has been implemented in their societies: Assessing the Status
of Women – A Guide to Reporting Under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women.
The manual states that its main purpose:
“…is to assist individuals’ and women’s human rights and other groups, and non-governmental
organisations (NGOs), to assess the status of women and to determine the extent of Convention
implementation in the countries that have ratified or acceded to the Convention... The manual is
grounded in the premise that independent groups and organisations have a crucial role in monitoring
implementation of the Convention.”
(Commonwealth Secretariat, 1996)
Article 1 of the Convention concerns the definition of discrimination. The manual makes the following
comment:
“The Convention defines discriminatory practices to include any differentiation, whether by way of
distinction, exclusion or restriction, on the basis of sex, which aims or has the effect of preventing or
hampering the enjoyment by women, whether married or unmarried, of their human rights to the same
extent as men. It includes intentional and unintentional discrimination and encompasses differential
treatment, as well as treatment which impacts differentially and disadvantageously on women when
compared to men. Article 1 makes clear that the Convention aims to eliminate discrimination in all
public spheres, which include the political, economic, social and civil fields. In light of the fact that
discrimination against women is perhaps most entrenched in the private sphere, it also includes
discrimination in ‘any other field’ within its reach, thereby encompassing private or domestic
differentiation.”
The manual takes the crucial first sixteen articles of the Convention and sets out a series of questions for
monitoring groups to ask about the situations in their countries.
AU GENDER POLICY
The Africa Union Heads of State have been in the forefront in championing gender equality
following the transformation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) to African Union (AU).
This is clearly demonstrated by their adoption of Gender equality among other principles guiding
the transformed Union. Article 4 (l) of the Constitutive Act of the African Union enshrined the
Parity Principle when they adopted the Constitutive Act at the Heads of States and Government
Summit held in July 2002 in Durban, South Africa. At the 2nd ordinary session of the Assembly of
Heads of States in Maputo, the implementation of Article 4(L) commenced with the election of
an equal number of female and male Commissioners. To further promote the commitment on
gender equality, the Maputo Summit also adopted the Protocol to the African Charter on Human
and People’s Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa in July 2003. Exactly one year later, the
Heads of States adopted the Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa and also adopted
the he Maputo Plan of Action which prioritises African women’s health, affirming their continued
continental leadership in gender equality not only at the AU Assembly, AU organs and member
states level but also providing a global example to other continents in the implementation of
existing gender related commitments, principles, goals and actions set out in regional,
continental and international instruments on gender equality, women’s rights and women’s
health. The AU member states continue to implement global commitments on gender equality
and women’s empowerment in accordance with agreements in the Dakar and Beijing Platforms
of Action, the International Conference on Population and Development and the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), among others. Indeed, equal participation of women and men is a
condition precedent to achieving sustainable development. The remarkable contribution of
grassroots African women (and men) through for example, their liberation and social movements
in different countries and regions of Africa has radically informed UN pan-African and national
governance transformations and positive actions around women’s status, development and
gender equality on the continent for decades. The rich history of struggle for women’s rights and
gender equity on the continent has enriched global policies and processes around gender and
helped to contextualise the global efforts towards gender equality within frameworks most
suitable for women in developing countries. This has contributed to making gender equality a bottomup process on the continent, infused with its own African identity and values and investing the global
movement towards gender equity with the concerns of the majority of women who live in the developing
world. The Africa Region is fully committed to social economic development which takes into account the
diversity in social, cultural, and traditional setting and is making effort to address cultures and practices
which militate against enjoyment of freedom and rights by women and girls. The AU Gender Policy
Commitments will be used to provide the basis and to eliminate barriers to gender equality in the
continent. It will also guide gender equality actions for the continent in implementing other global
commitments on gender including all MDG targets with a priority on goals set out in MDG3.
Rationale
The AU Gender Policy will be used to accelerate the execution of gender perspectives of mandates of AU
Organs to promote the social, economic, political and cultural development of the African Continent
cooperation and integration and ensure that women issues are included equally, It will take forward the
2004 Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa by African Heads of State and Government which
articulates the African gender issues. It offers a framework for the enhancement of gender equality stated
in the policy commitments and principles for the AU Organs, RECs and Member States.
Therefore they must benefit equally and entitled to development processes, hence the quest for gender
equality and women’s empowerment and hence the institutional arrangement for all AU organs, RECs and
Member States to address the key issues of 1. Equal economic independence 2. Equal participation and
access to globalisation opportunities 3. Equal participation in peace and security matters 4. Equal
representation in decision making and good governance and politics 5. Equal education, livelihood and
decent work opportunities 6. Equal access to prevention, care, home based support and treatment of
HIV/AIDS 7. Equal access to ICT infrastructure and Applications, global alliance for IT development and
building a sustainable efuture 8. Eradication of all forms of gender based violence 9. Elimination of high
maternal mortality 10. Elimination of stereotypes and sexism 11. Promotion of gender issues in policies,
programmes, budgets and accountability frameworks are underpinning’s for AU Organs, RECs and
Member states Women’s empowerment and gender equality should form the basis of Gender
Mainstreaming in the AU, AU organs and Member States, while men and women should be the socioeconomic-political glue for the integration of the African continent.
AU Governing Principles and Values
The African Charter on Human and People’s Rights (ACHPR adopted in 1981 OAU Assembly of Heads of
States and Commitment) has in it the principles and values stated in articles 2, 3,5,18 stated as rights for
individual freedom, equal before the law, entitlement for protection of the law, entitlement to respect
for life and integrity of persons, and prohibition of slavery, torture, cruel inhuman and degrading
punishment. Article 18 (3) states: The State will ensure the elimination of all forms of discrimination
against women and also ensure the protection of the rights of the women and the child as stipulated in
the international declarations and conventions
Commitment 1:
The AU Parity Principle represents the most advanced global commitment to equal representation
between men and women in decision making. Adopted at the Inaugural Summit of Heads of States and
Governments of the African Union held in Durban, South Africa in 2002, its adoption demonstrated the
commitment of the newly transformed African Union to address persistent gender inequalities in the
continent. Cultivating political will is , therefore, necessary for sustaining an environment that enables the
enforcement of the AU 50/50 Gender Parity Principle and the achievement of gender equality in Africa A
commitment that reaffirmed political will and enabling environment exists for AU Organs, RECs and
Member States to achieve MDG Goal 3 Gender Equality by 2015 AU Organs, RECs and Member States will
(where applicable) • Ensure that all political declarations and decisions are geared towards the elimination
of persisting barriers that militate against gender equality and women’s’ empowerment. • Understand
implications of non-compliance in monetary and programmatic terms to gender mainstreaming policies
and programmes as evidenced in international/UN socio economic indicators, standards and targets and
make declarations to correct the situation • Enforce AU 50/50 Gender Parity and representation in all
structures, operational policies and practices and ensure gender parity targets are met and gender
perspectives incorporated within strategic thinking- vision and mission of the AU • Ensure that all develop
and enforce explicit gender policies (aligned to the UN and AU Gender Policies) emphasising gender
justice, gender accountability and transparency principles reforms emphasising elimination of all forms of
discrimination and violence against women, gender mainstreaming, and recognise differences in
responsibilities between men and women at all levels by 2011 • Ensure that all AU Assembly Decisions to
the SDGEA Implementation are enforced for by AU Organs RECs and Members States including the
establishment, operationalisation and sustainability of a Trust Fund for African Women as a flagship
response to economic empowerment for African women within PRSP Framework. By 2011 • Ensure that
competent, gender experts are available and utilised. Develop policies that support gender mainstreaming
and support capacity building in gender mainstreaming 2015 • Provide political leadership and support
for the launching of the African Women’s Decade (2010-2020) and hosting of the Decade’s Secretariate
to guide the implement Decade activities outlined in the Road map and mobilize resources for the
advancement of Gender equality.
Create regular High Level Policy Dialogues, consultations, think tank reviews and technical reviews on
aspects of gender equality, gender justice and upliftment for African women; encourage and support
annual or bi-annual African Women/Men Support Conferences on thematic issues for the next 3 years
Commitment 2:
Legislation and Legal Framework is key in implementing protocols and instruments adopted by the AU to
protect women’s rights. Whilst significant progress has been made in strengthening women’s legal and
human rights at continental, regional and national levels, a lot still needs to done. Dual legal systems
create contradictions on the rights of women by according women some rights through general law and
withholding others on the basis of traditional, customary and religious beliefs and practices, denying
women their fundamental rights. Weak Legal frameworks, institutional infrastructure and noncompliance to adopt rights-based legislation continue to encumber progress, and empowerment of
women in some countries in the continent resulting in failure to attain required gender justice and human
development targets Legal education and knowledge, affirmative action laws for gender equality are
necessary to deal with discrimination and marginalisation of women. These laws when enforced will
protect women and men regardless of class, disability or sexual orientation. SDGEA Women’s Rights laws
reiterate the need to accelerate awareness of legislation and in-depth legal education, passing,
popularizing and enforcing legislation for ensuring the elimination of all forms of gender-based
discrimination, abuse and harmful practices; A commitment that the AU Commission, other AU Organs,
RECs and Member States will uphold the rule of law and comply with their Treaty obligations to ensure
elimination of gender inequalities, gender discrimination and abuse at all levels. The legal bases include:
matters of equal treatment of women and men in AU legal instruments, institutional practices, and at the
workplace. AU Organs, RECs and Member States will (where applicable): Ensure that Legal
Counsel/Departments work very closely with the African Court on Human and Peoples Rights and the Pan
African Parliament to review, amend and update current treaties, declarations, protocols and decisions,
to ensure they are gender responsive. Draft instruments that are gender sensitive and recommend
sanctions for noncompliance by 2011. Ensure that once a human rights treaty has been approved, signed
and adopted, all AU organs, RECs and Member States will ratify the treaty without reservations by 2015.
Ensure Member States implement the Treaties, conventions and decisions immediately after ratification.
Promote early domestication of AU human rights instruments into national legislation once they are
ratified by 2011.
Commitment 3:
The implementation of the AU Gender Policy and ten year Action Plan will require a broad spectrum of
actors, partners and advocates. Facilitating strategic partnerships among different stakeholders
promoting gender equality in Africa including governments civil society, women organizations,
development partners , international organizations, other interest groups, the informal sector, the private
sector, faith-based groups, etc.to foster dialogue and joint action; A commitment that AU organs, RECs
and Member States create policy environments that enable civil society organisations, women
organisations and interest groupings dialogue and build bridges for addressing gender equality
perspectives AU Organs, RECs and Member States will (where applicable)
1. Implement Advocacy and Awareness campaigns and foster engagement and dialogue on gender
equality and women’s empowerment among Africa’s societies and citizens. 2. Strengthen the inputs of
civil society in the drafting of instruments proposed for adoption 3. Establish all inclusive, High Level
Gender Advisory Group of qualified experienced gender experts from AU Organs, RECs, member states
and Diaspora as a Steering Committee or Think Tank / Council of Female Elders (to serve as a Quick
Response Group on Gender and African Women Empowerment Matters) on the continental gender policy,
programmes, donor financing and partnership for gender equality and women empowerment in Africa.
The committee will be given a mandate and voice to speak authoritatively on African Women Issues. (This
is not a political group) by 2010 4. Revitalise, by 2015, the African Women’s Movement, building on
existing experience to deal with old, new and emerging gender issues on the continent. 5. Create regular
platforms for civil society engagement, especially among women organisations, for dialogue,
consultations and harnessing women’s indigenous knowledge to achieve sustainable gender equality. 6.
Develop a communication and popularisation strategy to disseminate information on international and
AU human rights instruments Commitment 4: The grand debate on the Union government calls for serious
investment into the notion of Regional integration. The Constitutive Act of the African Union recognizes
Regional Economic Communities as building blocs of the African Union. Withough integration, scarce
resource will continue to be wasted through dublication of efforts, resources and interventions.
Promoting best practice on the continent by facilitating the alignment, harmonisation, and effective
implementation of RECs and Member States’ gender policies; A commitment that AU Organs, RECs and
Member states will work more closely together politically, programmatically and share financial and
technical expertise. They will forge partnerships for enforcing gender mainstreaming in policies and
programmes. AU Organs, RECs and Member States will (where applicable) 1. Harmonise and align sub
regional and member states gender policies to the AU Gender Policy by 2010, where appropriate. 2.
Develop capacity (using, among others, expertise from the Commonwealth Secretariat) to establish
effective Gender Management Systems (GMS) by 2020 3. Build requisite capacity in member states, civil
society and other interest groups for gender mainstreaming and women empowerment. 4. Collaborate
with civil society to create forums on gender related thematic issues in the regions.
Commitment 5:
Mobilising and allocating financial and non-financial resources to implement this policy and the ten year
Action Plan is critical and will among others include the establishment of the African Women Trust Fund
as one mechansm to ensure the policy implementation as well as the effective mainstreaming of gender
in policies, institutions and programmes at regional, national and local levels. A commitment to direct
organisational resources towards the gender policy and project actions that reduce gender inequality and
increase equal participation of men and women AU Organs, RECs and Member States will (where
applicable) 1. Include gender budgeting principles in annual budgetary processes for effective
implementation of the gender policy by 2015. 2. Accelerate the implementation of commitments to
gender equality and women’s empowerment through increased resource allocation by 2015 3. Increase
financial allocation for capacity development in gender mainstreaming, policies, strategies and action
plans. 4. Develop an inter agency mechanism for ensuring accountability in the use of funds earmarked
for promoting gender equality by 2010 5. Strengthen partnerships with international financial
agencies/institutions to increase technical expertise and financial support for the implementation of the
gender policy . 6. Establish, operationalise and resource the African Women Trust Fund Commitment 6:
Gender Mainstreaming is a technical process. It requires indepth analysis, development of gender
mainstreaming tools, capacity development of the technical teams, sensitisation, training and awareness
creation of benefiting organs, institutions and sectors and skills for monitoring and evaluation as well as
reporting. Building capacity for effective gender mainstreaming, through the development of practical
tools and training programmes targeting all institutional and strategic stakeholders is crucial A
commitment that AU, Organs, RECs and Members States will institutionalise a PanAfrican approach to
gender equality and mainstreaming AU Organs, RECs and Member States will (where applicable) 1.
Engender Organisational Structures by 2009 • Review organisational structures to determine their
suitability for implementing gender perspective of programs and/or projects and re-design appropriately
• Introduce an affirmative action/ quota system in staff recruitment and promotion at key decision making
levels if required as an option to bring in qualified women on board • Ensure clear staff job descriptions
with gender responsive considerations • Ensure that staff performance appraisal incorporates gender
specific responsibilities by 2010 2. Engender Systems and Procedures by 2010 • Ensure that all
administrative systems and procedures will be reviewed to ensure they are gender sensitive, • Ensure
equal opportunities and non-discrimination on the basis of sex, HIV and AIDS status ethnicity, nationality
or religion in employment and career progression at the AU, RECs and Member States. • Promote the
implementation of resolution 1325 on zero tolerance to sexual and gender based in the work place
including prior recruitment • Ensure equal treatment of men and women in accessing goods and services
and rights including information, personal development opportunities, health and HIV and AIDS services
–private, organisational health insurance; including paternity and maternity rights reproductive health
and others • Ensure equal treatment of men and women in delivering goods and services and rights
including information, professional and technical skills. Ensure that organisational and operational
systems are sensitive to biological differences and gender roles between women and men in relation to
basic/special and strategic needs. Ensure that staff induction on the organisation’s values and culture will
be responsive to gender differences
• Ensure that staff performance appraisal for increments and/or promotions are fair, objective. • Enforce
gender responsive grievance procedures, in particular that sexual harassment and abuse will be
conducted without discrimination, intimidation stereotyped language or bias. • Ensure that young
professional mothers enjoy their rights (such as the provision of child and baby care/ nursery facilities at
the work place, Time off to take child for immunisation, breastfeeding breaks etc)
Commitment 6.
Engender Staff Development by 2010 • Make gender training central feature of staff development
program, moving beyond awareness to incorporate gender analysis, gender budgeting, gender audit and
gender planning skills. • Allocate time for regular reflection and learning on gender issues arising in the
organisation’s structures, procedures and program activities during organisational planning time.
Knowledge development and transfer of skills will be enforced through staff development plans. • Share
resources –expertise, financial, infrastructure and material to achieve gender mainstreaming in Africa
through Memorandum of Understanding and Technical Assistance plans. 3. Engender Monitoring,
Evaluation and Reporting by 2010 • Establish M&E framework and indicators that yield sex disaggregated
data, to facilitate analysis of program / project impacts on women and men. • Develop a framework and
build capacity to include, participatory M&E methodologies • Develop quantitative and qualitative
indicators, to enrich impact analysis in Africa • Jointly conduct data collection to include women and men’s
voices and indigenous knowledge on issues (including experiences from indigenous women and men on
livelihood issues) 4. Engender Gender Mainstreaming in Program Areas by 2010 Strategic Planning, M&E,
and Resource Mobilisation • Ensure that gender equality and women’s empowerment goals are
mainstreamed in departmental policies, strategic plans, programs, projects and annual work plans and all
work processes. Each department will develop results-based management frames that reflect the
outcomes / impacts of gender mainstreaming and women’s empowerment in their reporting frameworks
• Plan and implement training sessions for Heads of Divisions, Gender Focal Points and the divisions’ focal
points on Results Based Management, Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Responsive Planning and
Budgeting • Ensure that each department develops and uses Mechanisms for Gender Analysis and
Women’s Empowerment in their plans, programming and budgeting. • Develop and use gender budgeting
guidelines and ensure its institutionalisation at all levels of AU and its organs; • Institutionalise regular
gender capacity building make it a central feature of human resource development strategy. Ensure
Gender Focal points track compliance to gender mainstreaming targets and ensure that reporting
mechanisms reflect these targets
Commitment 7:
In order to achieve gender equality and women;’s empowerment in all AU Organs, recS and member
states require the implementation of a well planned gender mainstreaming strategy. The implemetation
of this gender policy builds and its ten year Action Plan builds on the findings of the AU Gender Audit and
the 5 year Strategic Plan as well as Horizon 2004- 2007. In order to implement one of the key preliquisites
of gender mainstreaming, a muiltsectoral approach is necessary. Promoting a multi-sectoral approach to
gender mainstreaming that cuts across AU Organs, RECs and Member States as well as all AU sectors
including agriculture, peace and security, education, health, trade and industry, the environment and
Infrastructure ICT and Energy is a requirement; A commitment That AU organs, RECs and Member States
will strengthen their gender policies and include gender perspectives in core development issues/sectors
and adopt regional approaches for sustainable solutions 1. Peace and Security: There is a growing
awareness of the critical role of women in conflict, post conflict and peace building, reconstruction and
reconciliation. There is also consensus on tackling the gender issues in the male – dominated peace
keeping arena, with gender mainstreaming in peace keeping gaining attention globally at the UN and at
the Africa Continent level. Given the major role of Africa is playing in peace keeping and particularly the
African Union through the Peace and Security Council, Panel of Wise and the Assembly, some progress
has been made since the adoption of the landmark UN Security Council Resolution 1325 0f October 2000
0n Women, Peace and Security. African Governments, the international community and civil society
including women organisations are the driving force for women’s voices on policy issues. The 2007 Paris
Principles recognise the situations of armed conflict and humanitarian needs based on the UN child rights
principles. Specific situation for girls as armed soldiers and refugees is well articulated in the principles for
action. Quick action is required to make gender equality permeate every aspect of peace, security as the
continent tries to achieve the MDG targets among other key commitments. AU Organs, RECs and Member
States will • Mainstreaming gender in conflict, peace policies, programs and activities using the UN
Resolution 1325 and 1820 frameworks. • Create consultative regional peace platforms for exchange of
knowledge and information and harmonisation of strategies for results. • Use the Paris Principles and
guidelines associated with armed forces or armed groups for programmatic interventions in Africa. •
Mobilise and include women leaders in peace mediation and think tank processes, as well as post conflict
actions by working with effective networks on the continent • Work jointly with relevant UN bodies and
other AU organs to establish and manage Truth and Reconciliation Structures to highlight violations
against women and girls in time of conflict and fast-track admission of human rights violations and find
lasting solutions including provision of psychosocial support. • Ensure that Country Assessment and
Briefing Notes on conflict situations to ambassadors highlight issues affecting women and children, and
that they are mainstreamed in the mandates of humanitarian and peace-keeping missions and
interventions • HARDP will facilitate gender sensitisation and training of peace-keeping troops and civilian
humanitarian workers, paying full regard to issues of sexual violence and abuse of women and children 2.
Political Participation and decision making Over half of the African population (52%) are women who are
still under represented in recorded history, decision making forums including public and private sector
top management, the academia, African Union Gender Policy – (Rev. 18-Sept-08) 2008 AU Gender Policy.
2008 Page 9 research, Science and technology, trade negations, and in many of the Global, Regional and
National that determine the fate of the continent. African women still do not have easy access to political
power, social-cultural avenues to decision making processes and are almost outside the formal economy.
Even though Beijing Declaration paragraph 1, UN 1996 states emphatically that ...”women’s
empowerment and their full participation on the basis of equality in all spheres of society including
participation in the decision making process to power are fundamental for the achievement of equality,
development and peace, African women continue to be under-represented in decision-making and
political positions. While most governments have signed, ratified and submit regular reports on the
implementation of the AU SDGEA and other international commitments including CEDAW which reflect
an increasing number of women in the political space and a few in the top Executive, relatively low female
representation is still evidenced in Cabinet positions, with exemption of Rwanda (47%) and Cape Verde
(60%)**. Data indicate that at the political level, Africa countries have not yet met the target, of at least
30 per cent female representation at decision-making levels, set by the United Nations. However the AU
has achieved gender parity targets at the Commission level and in one of its organ (ECOSSOC) has not only
achieved parity but has ser-passed the parity target by 10% with 60% women in the decision making level.
The under-representation of women constitutes underutilisation of human resources, in addition to being
a rights-based issue. AU Organs, RECs and Member States will • Ensure that all good governance processes
including electoral systems ,current and future political dispensation instruments adequately and other
political structures address gender equality and equity issues. • The Pan African Parliamentarians Institute
will lead debates dialogues and create consultative platforms for accelerating and pushing the parity
principle. • Work with established task forces, to popularise Articles 3(j) and 4(l) of the Constitutive Act
establishing the AU, and Article 9 of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on
the Rights of Women in Africa, in order to entrench the rights of women in politics, governance and
electoral processes. • Work in close consultation with all the strategic partners to develop and
disseminate guidelines on the implementation of, and reporting on, the Protocol to the African Charter
on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, and the Solemn Declaration on Gender
Equality in Africa, in order to facilitate speedy access by women in Africa to gender equality and to their
human and women’s rights • 3. Social Affairs (Social, cultural and human development) Gender disparities
anchored on negative socio-cultural, religious, political, legal and economic values, frameworks and
practices continue to permeate all aspects of human interaction in Africa in favour of men. Socio cultural
beliefs, norms and practices within patriarchal systems also relegate African women to a low status in
society, manifested in the exclusion of women in decision-making positions, and their marginalisation in
access to, resources. The prevailing patriarchal system and conditions affect gender relations reflected in
socio-cultural dictates some of which are detrimental and conducive to reproductive health especially
spread of HIV. The Africa region is faced with huge problems surrounding cultural practices of widow
inheritance, Female genital mutilation and child marriages continue to pose a threat and
disempowerment to women in the continent and must be more seriously addressed politically and legally.
All these issues need to be seriously acknowledged as concerns and obstacles to achieving gender
equality. They need to be re-positioned on the development agenda at continental levels for solutions..
The main challenges here include Reproductive and Sexual Health as articulated in the ICPD (1994)
Conference and the AU Maputo plan of Action, High maternal mortality rates, reaching 1 in 12 in most
African countries, consequence of deficient healthcare delivery systems., HIV/AIDS, Malaria and TB which
according to latest statistics published by UNAIDS/WHO Africa accounted for 74.2% of all AIDS deaths in
the world with women accounted for 57% in Africa, Malaria which a leading cause of morbidity and
mortality in tropical Africa, Tuberculosis whose linkage with HIV is resurging and becoming a major public
health concern in countries previously liberated from the disease, Employment which according to ILO
reports reflect an increasing number of working women at , 1.2 billion women globally which is falls short
of the growth of unemployed women over the same period, and Labour Migration including international
migration, human and drug trafficking which is both a benefit as well as a challenge requiring urgent,
collective, and continental response, Gender based violence and sexual violence including rape against
women and children in Africa which is on the increase . AU Organs, RECs and Member States will •
Promote the implementation of the Maputo Decision (2003) which presents gender mainstreaming as a
core function of the AU Department of Social Affairs (DSA), together with relevant international
instruments. • Promote health rights from a gender perspective, moving from primary care to address the
socioeconomic determinants such as nutrition, poverty etc • Ensure universal access to comprehensive
and gender responsive sexual and reproductive health services and policies on sexual and reproductive
health and women’s total health in Africa. • Promote sexual rights including women’s ability to make
informed choices • Promote a gender responsive rights based approach to HIV and AIDS response • Ensure
gender responsive universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, care and support on the continent •
Develop and implement gender responsive policies and programmes in recognition of care work, including
allocation of resources and psychological support particularly to women and orphaned children of both
gender • Promote a culture of emergency preparedness and response; • Promote increased allocation of
resources and research on the gender dimensions of non-communicable diseases such as breast and
cervical cancers, prostrate cancer, diabetes, and stress related conditions. • Continue promotion of girl
child education, address child labour and adolescent health. • Set up convenient structures with adequate
programmes in order to address issues such as genital mutilation or child miscarriage, promote safe
motherhood practices and access to comprehensive care including prevention of parent to child
transmission of HIV, total health for women, control of Malaria and TB, occupational health and health of
mother and child especially in conflict and emergency situations. • DSA and WGDD will work with AU
organs, RECS and Member States and relevant partners to review all AU strategies, decisions and
programs around non communicable and communicable concerns ,to ensure that the gender dimensions
of HIV and AIDS and malaria are adequately addressed. • Use the African Regional Strategy (ARNS) 20052015 as a model and support Member States to develop and implement comprehensive and effective
National Nutrition Plans of Action (NNPA) for addressing the special nutritional needs of women and
children and ensure women’s involvement in food security policies, programmes and food utilisation
decisions • Promote and support the development of culture as a vehicle to empower women’s equal
access to and decision-making on national heritage resources and other cultural industries. • Promote
cultural development and identity and institutionalise best practices that strengthen women’s dignity and
their human rights in all spheres of life in compliance with national educational policies and the
Convention on the Rights of the Child, the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child and other
United Nations actions. • Promote gender responsive dialogue among the AU, RECs ,Member states, CSOs
and other strategic partners to develop roadmaps on migration , human and drug trafficking. • Establish
and use an expert group to work on gender perspectives of migration as a baseline document for advocacy
• Mobilise resources for technical cooperation and capacity building, to improve and upgrade livelihood
skills for vulnerable migrants and facilitate their access to legal services and economic opportunities by
2015 • Develop a continental methodology and tracking tool for the prevention and eradication of
violence against women and girls, with view to promoting an integrated approach to combat this scourge.
• Domesticate internationally recognised instrument and sanctions for combating political, domestic and
sexual violence through legislation, community based actions and capture voices of women and men on
stopping 4. Human Resources, Science and Technology Gender issues should be part of a package for the
development of Human Resources and education and training agenda of the AU. The gender education
gap at secondary school level and in tertiary and higher education continues to be a major concern, while
parity at primary school level has almost been achieved, the challenge of school drop out by mostly girls
is yet to be resolved. The AU MDG’s report shows that significant gender gaps exist in access to education
at primary and secondary levels, evidenced in enrolment and literacy rates in African countries.
Discrimination in girl’s access to education still persists in many African countries owing to socio cultural
and customary attitudes (early marriage, unwanted pregnancies, harassment, lack of schools, physically
handicapped, and poverty/low house hold incomes etc). Girls’ in-decent work as domestic/household
workers or in the informal labour earning small income poses serious gender disparities. Many girls still
drop out of school. While some gaps have narrowed in most countries, significant disparities remain.
There is evidence that many countries are taking steps to redress the gap but more effort is required to
scale-up progress at the continental level in order to the bridge the education gap by 2015. Furthermore,
High illiteracy rates among women, resulting from cultural practices and gender insensitive education
systems limit women’s opportunities to education thus exacerbating their economic vulnerability. Literacy
of women is a key to improvement of health, nutrition, and educational upliftment of the family,
communities and nations. Investing in girls and women’s literacy is the right thing to do for social and high
economic returns. Paradoxically illiteracy rates among women and men in Africa have widened on the
continent in favour of men. A number of socio economic factors have contributed to both illiteracy and
gender gap in education. The factors needing attention are economic hardships, paid and unpaid child
labour, distance from school, access to transportation and other key socio cultural practices especially
child marriage, and patriarchal /son preference attitudes. AU Organs, RECs and Member States will •
Publicise the AU Plan of Action for the Second Decade of Education for Africa highlighting that gender and
culture is one of the seven areas of focus • Create consultative platforms within the AUC and other organs
of the AU for exchange of information and harmonisation of strategies • WGDD will collaborate with other
departments and relevant AU bodies on the validation of indicators pertaining to gender issues prior to
the setting up of the Educational Management Systems (EMIS) • Ensure that gender parity is taken into
account at all levels of the education system . • Mainstream gender issues in educational policies, plans
and curricula 5. Economic Empowerment of Women The feminisation of poverty especially among poor
rural women is a key factor constraining the attainment of gender equality and women’s empowerment.
African women work hard but do not earn income because they are illiterate and unskilful. Yet education
and meaningful participation in economic activities have been highlighted as some of the key elements
necessary for poverty reduction. Unequal rights between women and men with respect to property rights
reflected in women’s limited ownership, control, access and exploitation of material resources and
psychosocial benefits continue to disempowered women. Feminised poverty emanating from policies and
programs have marginalised women’s human rights especially those in conflict situations. Since 1990s,
poverty reduction in Africa generally has been hindered mainly by weak economic performance, political
turmoil and civil strive, environmental and climatic changes, highly sewed income distribution causing
inhibited economic growth and distress for people especially women because economies are gender
structured and yet women’s total work is not acknowledged in economic data. Economic empowerment
of women is the poorest sector for national development programmes. The challenge for most nations in
Africa is how to put value on women’s work which is located in the informal sector and link it to macro
economics data, Women have to be included in Investment Opportunities, get access to Global Markets
to compete with their products for income.(UNCTAD, April 2008 Accra Declaration). There is a gender
concern. AU Organs, RECs and Member States will • Publicise the AU Plan of Action on Employment and
Poverty Alleviation in Africa, and similar future instruments. • Promote a gender sensitive enabling
economic environment including economic policies that ensure equitable access to income, resources and
social services particularly targeting poor women. • Develop and use appropriate tools for gender analysis
in economic policies and emphasise inclusion of women’s unpaid work in national and regional budgets
and accounts • Forge sustainable partnership with the private sector, financial institutions and other good
practice model • Strengthen and operationalise the Africa Women Trust Fund as a mechanism for the
economic empowerment of women. • Work on socio economic growth initiatives for women enterprises
and establish learning centres for entrepreneurship skill development including the use of Internet
services. • Develop national capacity in collecting and analysing gender disaggregated data in all economic
spheres. 6. Trade and Industry The environment under which global trade is taking place posses major
gender challenges. Trade and Industry is a key engine to development and while the continent trade and
industrialization agenda is still suffering from economic shocks introduced by globalization and
liberazation policies, current trade negotiations may further marginalize the ability of the continent to
chart a path to sustainable
AU Organs, RECs and Member States will • Build on commitments of governments and address
gender issues regional and international trade policy agendas, increased international trade as a
result of liberalisation and globalisation can deliver economic and social improvements but the
benefits are not distributed equally among the citizens/women and men of countries and the
continent • Take forward the gender perspectives of the African Market for Primary Commodities
aimed at restructuring and re-organising the fragmented and land-locked African markets to
promote regional and continent-wide production and marketing linkages. Contributions by
women and men should be equally visible • Urge the DTI to create a platform and form a
continent-wide movement of women producers and traders, into a constituency/network for
women producers/traders’ enterprises to facilitate regional and continental production and
marketing linkages for both traditional and emerging trade markets • Engage African Women in
dialogue in order to find solutions for improved cross boarder trade procedures and practices—
the legal frame, security and protection • Ensure that gender equality and women empowerment
issues cover areas of actions on the continent including: fair Trade for African Commodities;
protection of African Consumers; getting into Standardisation bodies in upgrading quality,
management, certification accreditation and well developed investment codes for women
entrepreneurs at continental level and organisation of African Commodities Producers and policy
briefs • African Women Entrepreneurs to be involved in the processes and consensus building
forum for exporters of products in globally negotiated agreements with a shared effort to boost
African economic growth and development through these women will build bridges across
boarders for investment of their products locally and internationally. • Implementing the gender
component of the UNCTAD Accra Declaration 2008 • Build on existing African Indigenous
Knowledge Systems (IKS) to propel the continents industrialization agenda through implementing
recommendations from research findings on the potential of IKSs and exploiting indigenous
knowledge for the continent African Union Gender Pol
• Invest in bottom up research and development approaches using emerging technologies
including ICT. • The setting up scientific incubators at community level and encourage rural men,
women and youth participation and inspire creativity and breeding ground for new innovations.
• Advocate for the adoption of new labour intensive technologies, which create jobs and produce
goods, which can compete effectively at the domestic level with similar imported goods.
CHAPTER SIX
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT ISSUES
In the first section of this unit, we explore further the reasons why gender should be a primary focus of
the development process.
The word ‘development’ entails the notion of progress in all spheres of society – economic, political,
social and cultural. Development of a local community, such as the one in which you live, cannot take
place in isolation. It is always influenced by political and economic decisions taken at higher levels,
whether regional, national or international. In tackling women’s and men’s exploitation as a
development issue, we are dealing with it in a context of globalisation and economic liberalisation,
where multi-national companies and international bond markets have enormous indirect control over
the economic and social decision-making of governments. Therefore, when we work for gender and
development, we must take into account the impact that international economic decisions have on
women’s and men’s lives.
In fact, most societies seem to exhibit a common pattern of relative female subordination, coupled with
the feminisation of poverty. These two things alone make gender differences an important development
issue. Here is a quotation from Her Majesty Queen Rania Al-Abdullah of Jordan:
“Gender inequality has a negative impact not only on women but also on society as a whole. It restricts
the ability of a country to efficiently allocate and use its most valuable resource – its human capital.
Restricting the participation of women in public and economic life limits economic development and
national potential. Empowering women and providing opportunities for their full integration into all
aspects of society is not just an issue of justice for women – it is a vital factor in creating a climate
favourable to achieving sustainable progress and development.... Empowerment of women... means
stronger families and a richer sense of national community and pride.... Encouraging and empowering
women to take their place as an integral part of regional growth and progress is the wisest and most
effective means of closing the development gap.”
This quotation underlines the need to take gender into account in the development process. The World
Bank notes that many gender inequities are the result of economic policies and sector strategies that fail
to recognise gender differences in resources, roles and constraints; legal systems that limit women’s
access to land and other forms of property; and political systems that limit women’s participation at the
national, local and community levels.
The first and overarching Millennium Development Goal (MDG) is to eradicate poverty. One of the most
basic aims of any development effort should be to eradicate mass poverty and, where it cannot be
eradicated, to alleviate the effects it has on people’s everyday lives. In the light of what has been said so
far in this unit, gender must be given a primary focus in this development process. As the Human
Development Report 2003 has stressed:
“gender equality is at the core of whether the Goals will be achieved – from improving health and
fighting disease, to reducing poverty and mitigating hunger, to expanding education and lowering child
mortality, to increasing access to safe water, to ensuring environmental sustainability.”
CEDAW should also be used as “a lens through which the gender equality dimensions of the MDGs are
understood and addressed”
Women’s role in development: three theories/Approaches
Research has found that the development process affects women and men differently, and it is generally
agreed that women have not benefited sufficiently from development. This has led theorists to try to
establish ways in which the disadvantaged position of women can be improved.
Since 1970, a number of strategies and approaches have been devised to address this problem of
women’s disadvantage. We will examine three of them here: women in development (WID), women and
development (WAD) gender and development (GAD).
Women in development (WID)
The post second world war engagement of rich countries with development problems in poor countries
revealed little awareness of the special roles of women. A major change in approach, and the
emergence of the women in development (WID) school of thought, can be traced back to 1970 when
Esther Boserup published Woman’s Role In Economic Development.
Boserup analysed the division of labour in agrarian societies. She demonstrated that women and men
were differently placed structurally in agricultural work and played different roles. She also pointed out
that development policies did not target women’s work as separate from men’s, presumably because
these differences were not particularly visible.
A lot of WID research focusing on the roles of women was generated by the publication of Boserup’s
book. The movement was welfare oriented and the research identified other problems, such as
women’s disadvantaged position in education, health and employment. WID writers concluded that
women were being sidelined in the development process. In particular they sought practical methods to
improve women’s material conditions. Female academic pressure groups brought this research to the
attention of policy makers and onto the agenda of bilateral US aid, so that WID theory soon became a
descriptor for any policy that insisted on bringing women into the development process. The pressure
resulting from this, and from the First UN Conference on Women in Mexico City in 1975, led to the
declaration of the 1976-1985 period as the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development
and Peace. Those who support the WID point of view suggest that the integration of women into
development would be enough to put an end to the identified problems women faced in the
development process. This can be done by designing and implementing income generating projects for
women. Women can also be integrated into the development process through legal and other reforms.
Moser (1993) identified five general policy orientations among development agencies that characterise
WID: welfare, equity, poverty alleviation, efficiency and empowerment. The approach is essentially
functionalist, the assumption being that the reforms themselves will bring the situation into an
equitable balance between men and women. The economic influence is modernisation theory or stages
of growth theory.
WID had an important influence on the way governments viewed the situation of women and led to the
establishment in many countries of national women’s machineries, usually consisting of under-funded
women’s desks or bureaus.
Critique
The WID approach has been criticised for several reasons. One of its basic flaws derives from its roots in
functionalism, where not enough attention is paid to the subtleties of cultural and social interaction
between men and women in the production and distribution processes. The resulting simplistic view is
that women simply need to be integrated into development efforts, for reasons of equity or justice or to
maximise the value of the programmes.
But women have always been part of development – think back to Unit 2 where we mentioned the
important role African women play in agriculture and the marketing of agricultural products. New
development projects, such as the mechanisation of agriculture, failed to recognise women’s
contribution and the interplay between the different roles of women and men in traditional production
and distribution. Given the influence of the new ideology, women became widely incorporated into the
new model but in a manner that disadvantaged them: in the development projects of the 1970s and
1980s they often became worse off in terms of their status in society and their decision-making power.
As stated above, Moser (1993) identified five general policy orientations among development agencies
that characterise WID: welfare, equity, poverty alleviation, efficiency and empowerment. All of these, of
course, have had a place in subsequent models, but have not been so individually dominant as
development themes. Excellent as they are in principle, in a dominant role they may disrupt a finely
adjusted social formation, and need careful embedding in the situations to which they are applied.
Women and development (WAD)
Background
The women and development (WAD) theory was initiated by Marxist feminists in the second half of the
1970s and established by the 1990s. Like analysts of all kinds, they understood that developing countries
were dominated by rich countries. As Marxists their main concern was with unequal and unfair
international economic structures, because of “the historical evolution of a highly unequal international
capitalist system of rich country–poor country relationships… which renders attempts by poor nations to
be self-reliant and independent difficult and sometimes even impossible” (Todaro, 1997).
Approach
The theoretical base for the WAD theory was the neo-colonial dependence model. Its proponents
argued that developing countries are modern versions of colonies because they are economically
dependent on their rich-country trading partners. So they are forced by this system, intentionally or
unintentionally, to experience unequal and exploitative relationships with the developed capitalist
countries. In this situation, men and women alike are in disadvantaged positions because they are all
victims of international economic and financial structures that cause unequal distribution of wealth.
What is more, as Todaro says:
“certain groups in the developing countries (including landlords, entrepreneurs, military rulers,
merchants, salaried public officials and trade union leaders) who enjoy high incomes, social status and
political power, constitute a small elite ruling class whose principal interest, knowingly or not, is in the
perpetuation of the international capitalist system of inequality and conformity by which they are
rewarded.”
The WAD approach argues that women are deeply integrated in these structures, and no amount of
superficial manipulation will solve their problems. What is required for women to advance is the
removal of the inequitable structures and relationships. The needed reforms are both international and
domestic, and must be at the political and institutional level as well as the economic. They will include
the state expropriating many privately owned assets. Once these assets are socialised and a measure of
national and international equity is achieved, the emancipation of women is much more likely to be
achieved.
A further WAD argument is that since men have failed to achieve these equitable relationships (which
are the basis for the emancipation of all people), women would do better than men – if given the
chance. Women could achieve the desired equitable development, acting on their own. Hence the name
of the theory.
Critique
The Marxist feminist model is good political economic analysis but does not explain clearly how you can
in practice overcome the dependence of less developed economies on rich ones in the world capitalist
system. Moreover, countries like Tanzania that have tried to run a socialised economy have found it very
difficult to achieve significant development either economically or in terms of gender balance.
A weakness in the WAD approach is that it does not do enough to address the different experiences of
women and men. It does not look at the way women are oppressed and subordinated in male/ female
relationships. It tends to lump men’s and women’s problems together and fails to tease out the
subtleties of the problems and to address women’s added disadvantage. Moreover, the global reach of
the theory over-emphasises the elimination of inequitable international structures. It could be argued
that this is idealistic and not relevant to the goal of dynamic local change.
Like WID, WAD has received a lot of criticism from other scholars.
FEMNET (1994) criticizes WAD in the following terms:
1. It does not address the internal class differences deriving from culture and non-capitalist forms of
ownership. These exist as social contradictions among women themselves.
2. As in the WID approach, women tend to be grouped together as a homogeneous category, which
leads to further marginalization.
3. No methodological distinction is made between the problems unique to women and the problems
they have in common with men.
4. It does not address the question of patriarchy as the greatest source of gender inequality, nor does it
look at issues of female subordination and related oppressions.
5. Its assumption of women automatically becoming emancipated following the socialisation of society’s
wealth is as unlikely as the discredited trickle-down effect of modernist capitalist theory (the belief that
large-scale economic development will eventually benefit the poorest). It is functionalist rather than
radical.
6. As in Soviet society it preoccupies itself with the relationships of production, in the form of incomegenerating activities, not paying enough attention to the relationships of distribution and other forms of
injustice.
6. It underplays the relative powerlessness of local groupings in relation to the influence of the
international economic order.
Gender and development (GAD)
Background
The realisation that both WID and WAD approaches promoted separate development for women and
led to their further marginalisation gave rise to the theory of gender and development (GAD). GAD’s
focus is on remedying the strategic interests of women, altering the balance of power to help them.
Unlike WID and WAD, the GAD approach does not see women as a separate group of social agents.
Pragmatically, it views women and men as closely interrelated in specific contexts throughout the social
classes. It emphasises the need to analyse the detailed roles and responsibilities of both women and
men and their gendered relationships in any given economic and social environment.
The development of GAD took place parallel to a general intellectual rejection of both functionalist
social and neoclassical economic prescriptions for developing countries, and also with the failure of
Marxist and conflict models to generate economic growth and gender equity in a world dominated by
giant capitalist transnational corporations.
In economics, Todaro’s view (1997, p 94) is that:
“successful development requires a skilful and judicious balancing of market pricing and promotion
where markets can indeed exist and operate efficiently, along with intelligent and equity-oriented
government intervention in areas where unfettered market forces would lead to undesirable economic
and social outcomes.”
This is a strong plea for economic pragmatism paralleled by GAD’s plea for social pragmatism. The
concept of GAD looks at:
The gender division of labour – for both productive and reproductive work
Access to and control of resources and benefits
The specific social, economic and environmental factors that influence the division of labour and
access to resources.
GAD tries to analyse the roles and contribution of all members of a community – not just women – to
the development process, and focuses on differences and disparities in their conditions. The GAD
approach to development policy “examines the socially constructed basis of differences between men
and women and re-emphasises the need to challenge existing gender roles and relations” where these
are inequitable and where they impede the process of development. The main ethical argument is that
women are not mere reproducers and passive recipients of basic needs and resources, but should be
seen as having inalienable rights and also as being key agents of development (Reeves and Baden, 2000,
p. 33).
There is now a considerable amount of support material for ‘gendering’ projects and programmes. The
greatest value of this has been the uncovering, through case studies and comparative studies, of the
detailed impact of political and social change and development on the lives of women. There has also
been a shift in statistical methods for evaluating development programmes, by including proper
accounting of women’s true contribution in the subsistence as well as the domestic spheres. Gender
specialists and gender units have been established in governments, replacing the old ‘women’s desks’,
as well as in universities, NGOs and aid programmes. A number of countries have even established
ministries of gender.
Comparing WID, WAD and GAD
GAD theory is very critical of the WID approach. According to GAD, the WID theory failed to identify the
key structural problems that affect women in society. GAD argues that the key problem for most women
is that they are in a continuing position of social disadvantage to men through particular forms of social
and cultural subordination. This is what underpins their inability to participate in and benefit from the
processes of development. It is part of a continuum of unequal relations of power that exist between
the poor and rich and that prevent equitable development and women’s full participation in social
development. In this respect, GAD differs from WID but also from WAD.
To sum up these different views:
WID sees the exclusion of women from the development process as the problem, and the solution as
finding means to include them.
WAD sees inequitable capitalist structures and relationships as the problem, and the solution as
changing these basic relationships through changing the structures.
GAD sees unequal power relations as the problem, and the solution as challenging the social and
cultural sources of these relations.
How GAD works
In order to achieve equitable development, GAD proposes the transformation of unequal class and
gender relations by empowering disadvantaged people, which includes enormous numbers of women
and girls but also many men and boys.
Using the concept of the social construction of gender (as explained in Unit 1) as a basis, GAD believes
that relationships between women and men can be changed by altering the public descriptions of the
roles of women. GAD argues that development can no longer be based on just the visible public sector,
which is mainly dominated by men. It states that this public sector can only function because it is
supported by the invisible domestic sector in which women dominate. So programmes of development
must be based on the analysis of the mutual contributions of both sectors and must publicly
acknowledge the need to have the full commitment of all the parties. In sum, the GAD approach
involves affirming men and women as equal partners in the development process.
Pragmatically, the GAD concept of empowerment emphasises the importance of female participation
with men in a collective struggle for development even if this means conceding that men and women
have different perceived interests and different degrees of power in the process. GAD advocates this as
an acceptable compromise providing there is also genuinely equal dialogue and discussion and mutual
reflection on practice, so that some progress towards equity can be achieved because it can be seen to
be mutually beneficial and practically possible. This process needs to demonstrate to the participants
the value of cooperatively drawing on the full range of each other’s divergent skills to improve their
community’s living conditions and to raise questions about the inequitable relations that control these
living conditions. This copes with the practical everyday interests of particular groups but has the
potential to develop into a strategic vision that poses questions about the prevailing male and female
divisions of labour and power within a social formation. (Note: For many aspects of the argument in this
unit we are indebted to Carolyn Baylies’ e-paper – Feminist Scholarship in Development Studies (2002)).
This process is rooted in social practice and therefore more likely to have staying power than ‘gender
aware planning’, which can become little more than slogans set out in development manuals to tell
workers what to do to enable bureaucrats to tick the appropriate ‘gender boxes’ in their evaluation
documents.
According to FEMNET, the GAD approach has the following features:
It recognises that gender roles are socially constructed and can therefore be reconstructed.
It highlights reproductive roles alongside productive roles and says that they must both be recognised as
making an equal contribution.
It supports setting up systems that reduce women’s workload and release them from domestic shackles.
For example, if the government or community supplies key domestic services performed by women
(such as supplying water), women could save time and participate better in more productive work. The
same would happen if attitudes were changed to get males to share more in domestic work.
The GAD theory explores a number of concepts or analytical tools that can guide the design of
development work. These include:
The sex/ gender division of labour
Access to and control of resources
The condition and position of women and men in society
Practical needs and strategic interests of women 5 levels of participation.
Gender Equality & Development
Aspiration 6 of Agenda 2063 calls for “An Africa, whose development is people-driven, relying on the potential
of African people, especially its women and youth, and caring for children.” Agenda 2063 therefore requires
that we live in a more inclusive society where all the citizens are actively involved in decision making in all
aspects and where no child, woman or man is left behind or excluded, on the basis of gender, political affiliation,
religion, ethnic affiliation, locality, age or other factors. Article 3 of the Protocol on Amendments of
the Constitutive Act of the African Union recognises the critical role of women in promoting inclusive
development and calls for the AU “to ensure the effective participation of women in decision-making,
particularly in the political, economic and socio-cultural areas.”
The AU recognises that that gender equality is a fundamental human right and an integral part of regional
integration, economic growth and social development and has developed the AU’s strategy for Gender Equality
and Women’s Empowerment (GEWE) to ensure the inclusion of women in Africa’s development agenda.
The GEWE strategy focuses on 6 key pillars namely:
1. Women’s Economic Empowerment and Sustainable Development - Women’s empowerment is key to growth,
prosperity and sustainability
2. Social justice, protection &Women’s Rights - woman’s rights are human rights; they span all spheres- social,
political, legal and economic.
3. Leadership & Governance - good governance demands equal and effective participation by women.
4. Gender Management Systems – providing access and investing resources (financial and other technical
resources) to support women
5. Women, Peace and Security – Ensuring women’s perspectives are included on issues of Peace - Prevention,
Protection, Promotion Programmes
6. Media & ICTs – Given women a voice in African media and access to technology for knowledge
The AU’s African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa requires State
Parties to combat all forms of discrimination against women through appropriate legislative measures.
The Women, Gender and Development Directorate (WGDD) is the responsible for leading, guiding, advocating
for and coordinating the AU’s efforts to achieve gender equality and promote women’s empowerment and
ensuring African countries live up to the AU’s Solemn Declaration on Gender Equality in Africa (SDGEA).
AU Strategy for Gender Equality and Women’s
Empowerment

The strategy has four pillars and each pillar outlines outcomes and proposed activities that should
be implemented in furtherance of that specific pillar.
Pillar 1 focuses on maximising opportunities, outcomes and e-tech dividends. It recognises,
amongst others, that for women to be economically empowered, and to be able to effectively
contribute to sustainable development, they must have access to quality education and control over
productive resources. The GEWE strategy proposes to mount a continental campaign to declare
“illiteracy a harmful traditional practice and make “out of school” a punishable offence; and to
advocate for and lobby e-Tech firms and financial institutions to fund start-ups and innovation



hubs which promote gendered solutions and increase women and girls’ equal and effective
participation in the technology space.
Pillar 2 focuses on dignity, security, and resilience and recognises that the rights of women and
girls to dignity, security and bodily and psychological integrity are often compromised when
women are subjected to violence and violations, which often times happen in the context of
violence against women and harmful traditional practices such as early-child marriage and female
genital mutilation. The GEWE Strategy proposes to implement AU guidelines on Ending Violence
against Women and Girls (VAWG) and fund national projects to penalise VAWG.
Pillar 3 highlights the need for effective laws, policies and institutions. Whereas Africa has made
progress in progressive laws and policies and institutions to promote and protect women’s rights,
there is still a huge deficit when it comes to effective implementation and gender machineries
remain among the weakest public institutions at a time when they are needed the most to push the
gender agenda forward. The GEWE Strategy proposes to design and implement a new initiative
called “All for Maputo Protocol Programme”, which will support the full and universal ratification,
domestication and implementation of the Maputo Protocol.
Pillar 4 focuses on leadership, voice and visibility. This pillar recognises that for women to have
a voice, they need to be equally represented in all areas of decision-making and be able to
participate with impact, through the removal of all forms of barriers. The strategy proposes to
integrate gender in the rewriting of the African narrative. The former AUC Chairperson, H.E Dr.
Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, once said, “If we don’t put women in history books, they get edited
out of history”. WGDD has also prioritised knowledge development and management and will be
publishing a number of products: among others, A State of Women’s Rights report in Africa, A
Historic African women’s booklet documenting the stories of the African women who gallantly
fought in African liberation struggles.
To bring this strategy to life, WGDD initiated the development of three key documents: i.e. the
Operational Plan, the Results Framework and the Harmonization Matrix. These documents aim at
consolidating and capitalizing the orientation of the GEWE strategy, strengthening its
operationalisation and implementation modalities, while taking into account the specific contexts
and priorities of Member States and Regional Economic Communities (RECs). The documents
were validated at a workshop held in June and will be presented at the upcoming Specialized
Technical Committee on Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in October, where African
Union Ministers in charge of gender and women’s Affairs will consider and adopt the documents.
For More Information
Gender Equality Gender equality denotes women having the same opportunities in life as men, including
the ability to participate in the public sphere. Gender Equity Gender equity is the equivalence in life
outcomes for women and men, recognising their different needs and interests, and requiring a
redistribution of power and resources.
SOME TERMINOLOGIES AND THEIR MEANINGS
Access
Having an opportunity to use a resource (material, financial and human).
Affirmative Action
Special measures aimed at creating state of equality between females and males through
implementation of deliberate strategies aimed at elevating the status of the disadvantaged.
Benefits
Economic, social, political and psychological retributions derived from the utilisation of resources,
including the satisfaction of both practical needs (food, housing) and strategic needs (education
and training, political power).
Child Labour
Child labour is when children are engaged in work (paid and unpaid) which deprives them of
their rights of development, protection, survival and protection.
Control
The power to make decisions regarding the use of a resource such as land.
Culture
The distinctive patterns of ideas, beliefs, and norms which characterise the way of life and relations
of a society or group within a society.
Cultural Practices
Functional roles and rituals which are culturally determined and may be assigned to the sexes.
Customary Laws
Laws based on tradition and may be influenced by public opinion in a particular society about
standards governing behaviour or what society considers as a norm.
Empowerment
The process of gaining access to resources and developing one’s capabilities with a view to
participating actively in shaping one’s own life and that of one’s community in economic,
sociocultural, political and religious terms.
Gender
Gender refers to the attributes and opportunities associated with being male and female, and
the socio-cultural relationships between women and men, and girls and boys, as well as the
relations between different groups of women and different groups of men. These attributes,
opportunities and relationships are socially constructed and learned through socialization
processes.
Gender Analysis
Gender analysis is a systematic gathering and examination of information on gender differences
and social relations in order to identify, understand and redress inequities based on gender.
Gender Awareness
Gender Awareness is being conscious of the fact that men, women, boys and girls have different
roles, responsibilities and needs.
Gender Based Violence
Gender-based violence means any physical, mental, emotional, social or economic abuse against
a person because of that person’s gender and includes sexual or psychological harm or suffering
to the person, threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring
in public or private life.
Gender Biased
Gender biased is when socio-cultural beliefs favour specifically men, women, boys and girls only.
Gender Blindness
Gender Blindness is inability to perceive that there are different gender roles, need, responsibilities
of men, women, boys and girls, and as a result failure to realise that policies, programmes and
projects can have different impact on women, men, girls and boys.
Gender Division of Labour
Gender Division of Labour is an overall societal pattern where women are allotted one set of
gender roles and men are allotted another set. An unequal gender division of labour refers to
situations in which there is an unequal division of the rewards of labour by sex, i.e., discrimination.
The most obvious pattern in the gender division of labour is that women are mostly confined
to unpaid domestic work and unpaid food production, whereas men dominate in cash crop
production and wage employment.
Gender Equality
Gender equality denotes women having the same opportunities in life as men, including the
ability to participate in the public sphere.
Gender Equity
Gender equity is the equivalence in life outcomes for women and men, recognising their different
needs and interests, and requiring a redistribution of power and resources.
Gender Gap
Gender gap refers to disparities between men and women in terms of their levels of participation,
access to resources, rights, remunerations, benefits etc.
Gender Inequality
Gender inequality is the disparity between individuals due to gender.
Gender Inequality Index
Gender inequality index reflects gender inequality along three dimensions – reproductive health,
parliamentary representation and educational attainment for empowerment, and labour force
participation for the labour market.
Gender Imbalances
Gender imbalances are inequalities which exist between females and males and are not related
to sex roles.
Gender Mainstreaming
Gender mainstreaming ensures women, men, girls and boys benefit equally from the development
process by highlighting the impacts of policies, programmes and laws on the real situation of
women, men, girls and boys.
Gender Parity Index
Gender parity index is a measure that assesses and compares the level of participation of women
and men in particular development undertaking.
Gender Planning and Budgeting
Gender planning and budgeting acknowledges the gender patterns in society and develops
policies/programs and allocates money that will change these patterns in a way that moves
towards a more gender equal society. It includes taking into consideration sex and gender
perspectives.
• Sex Perspective needs the government to ensure that policies and programs are available
and adequately financed to address the different biological needs of women and men (e.g.
Gender Roles
Functional responsibilities which are assigned by society and are influenced by cultural, political,
religious or economic situation vary from region to region, within cultures and change over time.
Gender Roles Stereotyping
Portrayal of socially assigned gender roles which are viewed as "normal" and "natural."
Gender Sensitive
Gender Sensitive is taking into account the impact of policies, projects and programmes on men,
women, boys and girls and trying to mitigate the negative consequences thereof.
Practical and Strategic Needs
Practical needs are ones that, if met, help women in current activities. Strategic needs are needs
that, if met, transform the balance of power between men and women.
Reproductive Health:
A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity in all matters relating to the reproductive system, its functions and processes.
Resources
Resources are means and goods, including those that are economic which include land, equipment,
tools and finances.
Sex
Sex refers to the biological or physiological characteristics which define humans as female or
male based on their reproductive make-up.
Sex disaggregated data/statistics
Collection and separation of statistical information by sex to enable comparative analysis.
Sex Roles
Roles which females and males perform on the basis of their physiological or biological makeup.
Sex Role Stereotypes
Rigidly held and over generalised beliefs that males and females by virtue of their sex possess
distinct traits and characteristics.
Socialisation
A process through which a person learns all things that she or he needs to know to function as
a member of a specific society.
Traditional Practices
Acts that are performed by people over and over again and which become part and parcel of
one’s day to day life and are actually subsets of the mainstream society.
Transformational Education
Transformative education involves 4 stages of learning and reflecting – elaborating existing
frames of reference, learning new frames of reference, transforming habits of mind and
transforming points of view.
Triple Roles
Describes three categories of work that both women and men do to maintain households and
communities.
• Productive work involves the production of goods and services for consumption and trade
(farming, fishing, employment and self-employment).
• Reproductive work involves the care and maintenance of the household and its members
including bearing and caring for children, food preparation, water and fuel collection,
shopping, housekeeping and family health care.