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Language Handbook
1. The Parts of
Speech
Language Handbook
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 1–14
1. The Parts of Speech
Tips for Spelling
Explain to students that the parts
of a compound noun may be
written as one word, as separate
words, or as a hyphenated word.
To be sure a compound word is
spelled correctly, always use a
current dictionary.
Part of Speech
Definition
Examples
NOUN
1a. A noun is a word used to name a
person, a place, a thing, or an idea.
common noun
a general name for a person, place,
thing, or idea
sister [person], apartment [place],
pineapple [thing], hope [idea]
proper noun
names a particular person, place,
thing, or idea, and always begins
with a capital letter
Ms. Baxter, Gulf of Mexico, Friday
collective noun
names a group
family, herd; jury
compound noun
two or more words combined and
used together as a single noun
butterfly (butter + fly) [one word]
compact disc [separate words]
self-control [hyphenated word]
PRONOUN
1b. A pronoun is a word used
Emily Dickinson took few trips; she
spent most of her time at Amherst.
in place of one or more nouns
or pronouns.
personal
pronoun
• refers to the one speaking (first
person), the one spoken to (second
person), or the one spoken about
(third person)
• either singular (one) or plural (more
than one)
first person:
reflexive
pronoun
• refers to the subject and directs
the action of the verb back to
the subject
• either singular or plural
first person: myself, ourselves
second person: yourself, yourselves
third person: himself, herself,
itself, themselves
Emily Dickinson wrote herself notes
on the backs of recipes.
intensive
pronoun
• emphasizes a noun or another
pronoun
• either singular or plural
• has the same form as a reflexive
pronoun
first person: myself, ourselves
second person: yourself, yourselves
third person: himself, herself, itself,
themselves
The chef did the baking himself.
[emphasizes that he alone did it]
singular: I, me, my
plural: we, us, our
second person:
singular: you, your
plural: you, your
third person:
singular: he, she, it, him, her, its
plural: they, them, their, theirs
Quick Checks
1054 Resource Center
1 Nouns Have students classify each noun as
common or proper and label any compound nouns.
1. Rikki-tikki-tavi is the brave pet of a family in India.
Answers: Rikki-tikki-tavi—compound, proper;
pet—common; family—collective, common;
India—proper;
2. A fierce little mongoose, Rikki-tikki-tavi knows no
fear. Answers: mongoose—common; Rikki-tikkitavi—compound, proper; fear—common
3. His teeth are sharp, but he never bites a person.
Answers: teeth—common; person—common
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2 Pronouns Have students identify each of the
pronouns as personal, reflexive, intensive, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, or indefinite.
1. Emily Dickinson herself declared that she wasn’t.
Answers: herself—intensive; that—relative;
she—personal
2. You can decide for yourself if someone important
wrote them. Answers: You—personal; yourself—
reflexive; someone—indefinite; them—personal
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All, any, both, each, either, everything,
few, many, none, no one, nobody, one,
several, some, somebody
relative pronoun
introduces a subordinate clause: that,
what, which, who, whom, whose
Dickinson wrote of thoughts and feelings that she had.
He is the swimmer who won the race.
demonstrative
pronoun
points out a person, a place, a thing,
or an idea: this, that, these, those
This is a collection of her poems.
interrogative
pronoun
introduces a question: what, which,
who, whom, whose
What were Dickinson’s household
duties?
ADJECTIVE
1c. An adjective is a word used to
what kind: noisy sound, Thai food
which one: another skirt, next day
how many or how much: one CD,
many years, more guests
modify a noun or a pronoun. An
adjective tells what kind, which one,
how many, or how much.
definite article
refers to someone or something in
particular: the
the yellow dress; the girl
indefinite article
• refers to someone or something in
general: a, an
• a before words that begin with
consonants; an before words that
begin with vowels (a, e, i, o, u)
a teacher; an apple; an early gift
proper adjective
• formed from a proper noun
• begins with a capital letter
Chinese customs [from the proper
noun China]
American flag [from the proper
noun America]
demonstrative
adjective
• modifies a noun or pronoun: this,
that, these, those
Is this story more interesting than
that story?
nouns used as
adjectives
• called a demonstrative pronoun
when used alone [see pronouns]
• refers to a noun that modifies
another noun
That is the way to hold chopsticks.
These are common foods in India.
fish scales; holiday menu; bicycle tire
1c. Note Tell students that when
proper nouns become proper
adjectives, their spellings may
or may not change. If the spelling changes, it does not follow
any regular pattern. Tell students
to check a dictionary if they are
unsure.
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refers to a person, a place, or a thing
that is not specifically named
Language Handbook
indefinite
pronoun
Language Handbook
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1c. Note Tell students that this,
that, these, and those are often
used as adjectives.
That word is a colloquialism.
This soup is too salty.
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3 Adjectives Have students identify each adjective
and
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to include the articles a, an, and the.
1. Having an unusual name can be a problem for
anyone. Answer: unusual—name
2. That problem plagued Julia Alvarez all through
school. Answer: That—problem
3. Those neighbors with a New York City accent said
“Joo-lee-ah.” Answers: Those—neighbors; New
York City–accent
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1f. Note Explain to students that
some words may be either action
verbs or linking verbs, depending on how they are used.
Linking: The dog looked hungry.
Action: The dog looked for
another orange peel.
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1e. Note Explain to students
that a verb may be transitive in
one sentence and intransitive in
another.
Transitive: He smelled his grandfather’s aftershave.
Intransitive: Grandfather smelled
good.
VERB
1d. A verb is a word used to express
action or state of being.
action verb
1e. An action verb expresses
physical or mental action. There are
two types of action verbs: transitive
and intransitive
physical action: hop, rest, observe
mental action: want, hope, forget
transitive verb
• expresses an action toward a person
or thing
• The action passes from the doer (the
subject) to the receiver of the action.
Words that receive the action are
called objects.
He played the guitar. [The action of
played is directed toward guitar.]
He played the guitar. [Guitar is the
object of the verb played.]
intransitive verb
expresses action (or tells something
about the subject) without passing
the action to a receiver
Fausto walked slowly across the street.
[The action of walked has no object;
slowly across the street tells how and
where he walked.]
linking verb
1f. A linking verb links, or connects,
The caller was Roger. [The linking verb
was links caller and Roger.]
Roger seemed angry. [The linking verb
seemed links Roger and angry.]
Her mother is Sheila. [mother = Sheila]
Demarcus should have been early.
[Demarcus = early]
The writer was she. [writer = she]
The doctor looks tired. [doctor = tired]
The dog smells dirty. [dog = dirty]
the subject with a noun, a pronoun,
or an adjective in the predicate.
• common linking verbs formed
from the verb be: am, are, being, is,
was, been, may be, would be, should
have been, will have been, has been,
will be, was being, can be, must be
• other linking verbs: appear, grow,
seem, stay, become, look, smell, taste,
feel, remain, sound, turn
1g. Note Explain to students
that sometimes the verb phrase
is interrupted by other words.
Will you please explain the theme
of this story?
Fausto did not [or didn’t] tell the
dog’s owners the truth.
helping verb
1g. A helping verb (auxiliary verb)
helps the main verb to express an
action or a state of being. A helping
verb joins with a main verb to form a
verb phrase.
• forms of be: am, is, being, was, are,
been, is, were
• forms of do: do, does, did
• forms of have: have, has, had
• other helping verbs: can, may,
must, should, would, could, might,
shall, will
She is going. [is = helping verb; going
= main verb; is going = verb phrase.]
He did play the guitar. [did = helping
verb; play = main verb; did play = verb
phrase]
She has gone to school. [has = helping verb; gone = main verb; has gone =
verb phrase]
He might play the guitar at school.
[might = helping verb; play = main
verb; might play = verb phrase]
Quick Checks
1056 Resource Center
4 Verbs Have students identify the italicized verb
as an action verb, a linking verb, or a helping verb. For
each action verb, have them tell whether the verb is
transitive or intransitive.
1. Sarah Cynthia Sylvia Stout would not take the
trash out. Answers: action verb, transitive
2. It smelled bad. Answer: linking verb
3. She didn’t care about that or about her family or
friends. Answer: helping verb
4. That huge pile of garbage reached to another state.
Answers: action verb, intransitive
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5 Adverbs Have students identify the adverb or
adverbs in each of the following sentences. Then, have
them tell the word or phrase each adverb modifies.
1. Too soon, a cargo vessel sailed into the distance.
Answers: Too—soon; soon—sailed
2. Dougal Robertson would not yield to his most
desperate fears. Answers: not––would yield;
most––desperate
3. He steeled himself and tried harder. Answer:
harder—tried
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1i. A preposition is a word used to
show the relationship of a noun
or pronoun to another word in
the sentence.
• commonly used prepositions:
about, above, across, against,
around, before, below, beside,
between, from, in, in front of, in spite
of, into, out of, over, past, since, with
• A prepositional phrase begins
with a preposition and ends with a
noun or pronoun, called the object
of the preposition. A preposition
may have more than one object.
The prepositional phrase includes
any modifiers of the object of
the preposition.
CONJUNCTION
Marisa swam against the current.
Jamal stood beside the tree.
Andreas is from Greece.
The bicycle was in front of the tent.
The creek flowed over the cliff.
The family went to the park and
beautiful Carmel Beach. [to the park
and beautiful Carmel Beach is the
prepositional phrase. The word to is a
preposition that begins the prepositional phrase. The phrase includes
the word beautiful, which modifies
Carmel Beach.]
Using Descriptive Adverbs
Explain to students that the
adverb very is overused. Suggest
that in their writing they try to
replace very with more descriptive adverbs or revise the sentence so that other words carry
more of the description.
Their ordeal at sea lasted a very
long time.
REVISED: Their ordeal at sea
lasted an extremely long time.
Or: Their ordeal at sea lasted
thirty-eight days.
1i. Note Explain to students that
when for is used as a conjunction, it connects groups of words
that are sentences, and a comma
precedes it. On all other occasions, for is used as a preposition.
Conjunction: The team forfeited
the game, for they refused to play.
Preposition: Outraged, people
shouted for fair play.
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PREPOSITION
Tips for Writers
Language Handbook
modify a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.
• Adverbs tell where, when, how,
or to what extent (how much or
how long).
• Adverbs may come before, after, or
between the words they modify.
• The word not is an adverb. When
not is part of a contraction like
hadn’t, the –n’t is an adverb.
Where? Whales are common here.
[here modifies the adjective common]
When? Then the campers hiked.
[then modifies the verb hiked]
How? The storm arose suddenly.
[suddenly modifies the verb arose]
To what extent? They were very careful with their supplies. [very modifies
the adjective careful]
Before: Slowly, the shark was circling.
After: The shark was circling slowly.
Between: The shark was slowly
circling.
not: The shark had not eaten.
-n’t: The shark hadn’t eaten.
Language Handbook
1h. An adverb is a word used to
RESOURCE CENTER
ADVERB
1j. A conjunction is a word used to
join words or groups of words.
coordinating
conjunction
connects words or groups of words
used in the same way: and, but, or,
nor, for, so, yet
Echo or Narcissus [two proper nouns
joined by or]
We cooked and cleaned. [two verbs
joined by and]
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6 Prepositions Have students identify the
preposition
or prepositions in each of the following
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sentences. Then, have them give the object of each
preposition.
1. Elizabeth told a sad story about her youth. Answer:
about—youth
2. She had loved a man of the sea. Answer: of—sea
3. She never said the words to him. Answer: to—him
4. One day, he didn’t return from a fishing trip.
Answer: from—trip
7 Parts of Speech Have students identify the part
of speech of the italicized word in each sentence.
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1. Any of the boys might have objected, but no one
did. Answer: Any—pronoun
2. They all would back him. Answer: back—verb
3. And they never looked back. Answer: back—adverb
4. Support like that can make a man proud. Answer:
Support—noun
5. I wish everyone would support each other as those
boys did! Answer: support—verb
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Possible Answers:
1. As Cindy wept by a weeping willow, a fairy suddenly
appeared.
2. She waved a magic scepter.
3. A pumpkin turned into a
carriage.
4. With another wave of the
fairy’s scepter, Cindy’s torn
skirt and blouse turned into a
gown.
5. Overjoyed, Cindy thanked the
fairy and rode to the ball at
the palace.
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Language Handbook
Your Turn
correlative
conjunction
pairs of conjunctions that connect
words or groups of words used in
the same way: both . . . and, either . . .
or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but also,
whether . . . or
Both Lisa and Samuel play piano.
[both . . .and join two proper nouns]
Lisa both plays the piano and writes
music. [both . . . and join two verbs,
plays and writes]
Either Lisa would play the piano, or
she would be unhappy. [either . . . or
join two complete ideas]
Neither the girl nor the boy sings.
[neither . . . nor join two nouns]
INTERJECTION
1k. An interjection is a word used to
Oh! You surprised me.
Wow! What a story that was.
Well, Rachel certainly is smart.
express emotion.
• An interjection is usually followed by
an exclamation point or set off by
a comma.
• Common interjections: aw, hooray,
oh, oops, ouch, well, whew, wow,
yippee
Your Turn
Using Specific Nouns
Using specific nouns makes writing more accurate and more interesting.
NONSPECIFIC
SPECIFIC
Animals drank from the water.
Horses, cattle, and burros drank from the water.
In the following paragraph, replace the nonspecific nouns with specific nouns.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
As a girl wept by a tree, a woman suddenly appeared.
She waved a magic stick.
A vegetable turned into a vehicle.
With another movement of the woman’s stick, the girl’s torn clothing turned into a dress.
Overjoyed, the girl thanked the woman and rode to the party at the building
Quick Checks
1058 Resource Center
1 Singular and Plural Verbs For each of the
following sentences, have students choose the correct
form of the verb in parentheses.
1. A tree spirit (take, takes) the shape of the absent
husband. Answer: takes
2. Many days (pass, passes). Answer: pass
3. Then the husband (return, returns). Answer:
returns
4. Dogs (bark, barks) at him. Answer: bark
5. The judge (has, have) suggested a solution.
Answer: has
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2 Subject-Verb Agreement For the following
sentences, have students correct each error in
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agreement.
1. A flock of monstrous birds hover over the Stymphalian lake. Answer: hovers
2. Doesn’t the arrows of Hercules strike each bird in
turn? Answer: Don’t
3. Neither Nereus nor his daughters foils Hercules.
Answer: foil
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Number is the form of a word that indicates
whether the word is singular or plural.
thing, or idea, the word is singular in number.
When a word refers to more than one, it is plural in
number.
SINGULAR
PLURAL
house, drum, I, he, each
houses, drums, we, they, all
2b. A subject and verb agree when they have the
same number.
(1) Singular subjects take singular verbs.
A messenger gives the king’s orders.
(2) Plural subjects take plural verbs.
Many students study music.
(3) The first helping, or auxiliary, verb in a verb
phrase must agree with its subject.
He is playing the tuba.
They are playing the instruments.
(4) Generally, nouns ending in s are plural (candles,
ideas, horses), and verbs ending in s are singular. However, verbs used with the singular pronouns I and you generally do not end in s.
PROBLEMS IN AGREEMENT
Prepositional Phrases Between Subjects
and Verbs
2c. The number of a subject is not changed by a
prepositional phrase following the subject.
INCORRECT
CORRECT
One of the strongest heroes
are Hercules.
One of the strongest heroes
is Hercules.
Some pronouns do not refer to a definite
person, place, thing, or idea and are called
indefinite pronouns.
Tips for Spelling
Explain to students that, in general, nouns ending in s are plural
(candles, ideas, neighbors, horses),
and verbs ending in s are singular (sees, writes, speaks, carries).
However, verbs used with the
singular pronouns you and I generally do not end in s.
2d. The following indefinite pronouns are
singular: anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody,
everyone, neither, nobody, no one, one, somebody,
someone.
Neither of these plans relieves him of his task.
2e. The following indefinite pronouns are plural:
both, few, many, several.
Both of the tusks frighten Eurystheus.
2d. Computer Note Have students summarize the information
in rules 2d–2f and 2p–2r and
then choose several examples
to illustrate the rules. Using a
computer, have students create
a “Help” file in which to store
this information. Suggest that
they call up their “Help” file
whenever they run into difficulty
with indefinite pronouns in their
writing. Students who don’t use
a computer can keep a “Help”
notebook.
2f. The following indefinite pronouns may be
either singular or plural: all, any, most, none, some.
The number of these pronouns is often determined
by the object in a prepositional phrase that follows
the pronoun. If the pronoun refers to a singular
object, the subject is singular. If the pronoun refers
to a plural object, the subject is plural.
All of the stable needs cleaning.
[All refers to singular stable.]
All of the stables need cleaning.
[All refers to plural stables.]
Compound Subjects
2g. Subjects joined by and usually take a
plural verb.
Augeas and Eurytheus rule kingdoms.
Resource Center
Agreement of Subject
and Verb
Indefinite Pronouns
Language Handbook
2a. When a word refers to one person, place,
RESOURCE CENTER
Number
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 15–26
Language Handbook
2 Agreement
2. Agreement
2h. Note Explain to students
that a compound subject that
names only one person or thing
takes a singular verb.
The friend and teacher of
Hercules is Chiron.
Law and order suffers when
monsters roam the land.
However, a compound subject that names only one
person or thing takes a singular verb.
Law and order suffers when monsters roam the
land. [Law and order is a compound subject.]
2h. When subjects are joined by or or nor, the
verb agrees with the subject nearer the verb.
Neither the Hydra nor Juno’s huge snakes defeat
Hercules.
Neither Juno’s huge snakes nor the Hydra
defeats Hercules.
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4. The god of the oceans don’t escape Hercules.
Answer: doesn’t
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5. Some of the ancient myths seeks to explain actual
geological or botanical facts. Answer: seek
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Language Handbook
2j. Note Explain to students that
when the subject of a sentence
follows the verb, the word order
is said to be inverted. To find
the subject of a sentence with
inverted order, restate the sentence in normal word order.
Inverted: There goes Hercules.
Normal: Hercules goes there.
Inverted: Into the clearing
stepped the mighty Hercules.
Normal: The mighty Hercules
stepped into the clearing.
Other Problems in Agreement
2n. A few nouns, though plural in form, are
2i. Collective nouns may be either singular
singular and take singular verbs: news, measles,
mathematics, civics, mumps, physics.
or plural.
A collective noun takes a singular verb when the
noun refers to the group as a unit. A collective noun
takes a plural verb when the noun refers to the individual parts or members of the group.
An oxen herd goes with Hercules. [The herd as a
unit goes.]
The herd call to the stolen cattle. [The members
of the head individually call.]
2j. When the subject follows the verb, restate
the sentence in normal word order. Then find the
subject and make sure the verb agrees with it.
The subject usually follows the verb in sentences
beginning with here or there and in questions.
There is Centaurus, and there are its stars.
Does the fox really want the grapes?
The contractions here’s, there’s, and where’s contain
the verb is and should be used only with singular
subjects.
INCORRECT There’s the constellations Hydra
and Leo.
CORRECT
There are the constellations
Hydra and Leo.
CORRECT
There’s the constellation Hydra.
2k. Use don’t with plural subjects and with
the pronouns I and you. Use doesn’t with other
singular subjects.
They don’t like movies about Hercules, and I
don’t either.
This film doesn’t seem realistic; but that doesn’t
matter to me.
2l. A word or phrase stating a weight, a
measurement, or an amount of money or time
is usually considered a single item that takes a
singular verb.
Ten dollars is too much for a ticket.
2m. The title of a book or the name of an
organization or country, even when plural in form,
usually takes a singular verb.
Aesop’s Fables is on the reading list.
Has the United States signed the treaty?
Agreement of Pronoun
and Antecedent
2o. A pronoun agrees in number and gender
with its antecedent, the word to which the
pronoun refers.
Some singular personal pronouns indicate gender: masculine for males and feminine for females.
Neuter pronouns refer to things (neither male nor
female) and usually to animals.
she her hers
he him his
NEUTER
it
its
The speaker in “Annabel Lee” lost his bride.
Annabel Lee had given her heart to him.
Heaven sent its angels for Annabel Lee.
When an antecedent may be either masculine or
feminine, use both the masculine and feminine
forms.
No one ever gave his or her approval of
Poe’s criticisms.
Everybody wanted his or her writing in
Poe’s magazine.
The antecedent of a personal pronoun can be another kind of pronoun, such as each, neither, or one.
To determine the gender of a personal pronoun that
refers to one of these other pronouns, look at the
words that follow the antecedent.
Each of these men left his mark on the fence.
Neither of the women got what she wanted.
FEMININE
MASCULINE
PROBLEMS IN AGREEMENT OF
PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT
Indefinite Pronouns
2p. A singular pronoun is used to refer to
anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everyone,
neither, nobody, no one, one, someone, and
somebody.
Each of these countries has its own Cinderella
story.
Quick Check
1060 Resource Center
3 Pronounds and Antecedents Have students
use a pronoun to complete the meaning of each
sentence. Then, have them identify the antecedent or
antecedents of that pronoun.
1. Aschenputtel and Cinderella got names
from ashes. Answer: their—Aschenputtel and
Cinderella
2. One of the stories features pigeons in ending. Answer: its—One
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3. Many of the stories reward heroes, but
some don’t. Answer: their—Many
4. The court cheered the prince and her and gave
a grand wedding. Answer: them—prince
and her
5. Neither the prince nor the Pharaoh married
the young woman expected. Answer:
he—prince nor Pharaoh
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Both of these stories take their characters
from legend.
Many of these versions are similar, but they
all differ.
2r. Either a singular or plural pronoun may be
Compound Subjects
2s. A plural pronoun is used to refer to two or
Sentences with singular antecedents joined by or
or nor can sound awkward if the antecedents are
of different genders.
AWKWARD
REVISED
Ana or Ed will read her or his version
of Cinderella.
Ana will read her version of Cinderella,
or Ed will read his.
Similarly, a singular and a plural antecedent
joined by or or nor can create an awkward or a
confusing sentence.
AWKWARD
REVISED
Either my cousins or Mary will bring
their video of Cinderella.
Either my cousins will bring their
video of Cinderella, or Mary will
bring hers.
Revise each of the following sentences to
eliminate awkward pronoun usage.
Possible Answers:
1. The mother and the sisters did
not recognize that the girl was
their own Aschenputtel.
2. Either birds help the heroine
in their own way, or a fish
does in its own way.
3. Did a fish or a falcon help
Yeh-Shen?
4. Yeh-Shen and the king could
not have guessed their fate.
5. Either Joey will read his report
on “Sealkin, Soulskin,” or Linda
will read hers.
more antecedents joined by and.
The sister and their mother never share their
fine clothing.
2t. A singular pronoun is used to refer to two or
more singular antecedents joined by or or nor.
Neither the mother nor the sister shared
her clothes.
Other Problems in Pronoun-Antecedent
Agreement
2u. Either a singular or a plural pronoun may be
1. Neither her mother nor her sisters
2.
3.
4.
5.
recognized that the girl was their
own Aschenputtel.
Either birds or a fish help the heroine in
their own way.
Did a fish or a falcon lend their help
to Yeh-Shen?
Neither Yeh-Shen nor the king could
have guessed her or his fate.
Joey or Linda will read his or her report
on “Sealkin, Soulskin.”
Resource Center
The number of the pronouns all, any, most, none,
and some is determined by the object in the prepositional phrase that follows the pronoun.
Some of the story comes from its culture. [Some
refers to the singular noun story.]
Some of the sisters pay for their cruelty. [Some
refers to the plural noun sisters.]
Your Turn
Using Antecedents Correctly
Language Handbook
used to refer to all, any, most, none, and some.
Your Turn
Language Handbook
many, and several.
RESOURCE CENTER
2q. A plural pronoun is used to refer to both, few,
used with a collective noun.
The royal family was preparing its feast.
The royal family are greeting their guests.
2v. Words stating amounts usually take singular
pronouns.
Admission costs ten dollars. I can earn it.
2w. A few nouns, though plural in form, are
singular and take singular pronouns.
Physics is important, and it is also required.
Language Handbook 1061
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Language Handbook
1061
RESOURCE CENTER
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 27–38
3a. Note Explain to students
that the present participle and
the past participle require helping verbs (forms of be and have).
Tips for Spelling
Language Handbook
Resource Center
Language Handbook
3. Using Verbs
Advise students to look in a dictionary when they are not sure
how to spell the principal parts
of an irregular verb.
3. Using Verbs
The Principal Parts of a Verb
IRREGULAR VERBS
The four basic forms of a verb are called the
principal parts of the verb.
3c. An irregular verb forms its present and past
3a. The principal parts of a verb are the base
form, the present participle, the past, and the
past participle.
work
PRESENT PARTICIPLE (is) working
PAST
worked
PAST PARTICIPLE
(have) worked
The principal parts of a verb are used to express the
time that an action occurs.
PRESENT TIME
I sing rhythm and blues now.
BASE FORM
PAST TIME
FUTURE TIME
We are singing along with
the frog.
The frog sang at the concert.
We have sung there before.
The audience will sing with
the frog.
By closing, we will have sung
ten songs.
REGULAR VERBS
3b. A regular verb forms its past and past
participle by adding -d or -ed to the base form.
BASE FORM
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
use
(is) using
used
(have) used
participle in some other way than by adding -d or
-ed to the base form:
(1) by changing vowels or consonants
ring
rang
PAST PARTICIPLE (have) rung
(2) by changing vowels and consonants
BASE FORM
go
PAST
went
PAST PARTICIPLE (have) gone
(3) by making no changes
BASE FORM
spread
PAST
spread
PAST PARTICIPLE (have) spread
BASE FORM
PAST
Avoid these errors when forming the past or past
participle of irregular verbs:
(1) using the past form with a helping verb
Frog has went to the concert.
Frog went to the concert.
Frog has gone to the concert.
(2) using the past participle form without a
helping verb
NONSTANDARD
I seen all of his shows.
STANDARD
I have seen all of his shows.
(3) adding -d or -ed to the base form
NONSTANDARD
The elephant throwed a pineapple
at the frog.
STANDARD
The elephant threw a pineapple at
the frog.
NONSTANDARD
STANDARD
Avoid these errors when forming the past or past
participle of regular verbs:
(1) leaving off the -d or -ed ending
The frog use to sing.
The frog used to sing.
(2) adding unnecessary letters
NONSTANDARD
The group of animals lefts.
STANDARD
The group of animals left.
NONSTANDARD
STANDARD
Quick Checks
1062 Resource Center
1 Agreement For each of the following sen-
tences, have students supply the correct past or past
participle form of the verb given in parentheses.
1. He (cross) over to the other side of the pond.
Answer: crossed
2. He has (visit) his friends to tell them of his wish to
sing. Answer: visited
3. The birds already have (join) together to form a
group. Answer: joined
4. Fox let Frog sing but also (use) a trick to fool Frog.
Answer: used
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Resource Center
2 Past and Past Participle For each of the following sentences, have students give the correct past
or past participle form of the verb in parentheses.
1. Frog has (bring) rhythm and blues to the world.
Answer: brought
2. Since then, many a guitarist has (lay) down a blues
riff. Answer: laid
3. Many blues singers (lead) listeners to recall sad
times. Answer: led
4. Some musicians have (build) that sound using only
a harmonica. Answer: built
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build
catch
hold
lay
lead
say
send
built
caught
held
laid
led
said
sent
(is) building
(is) catching
(is) holding
(is) laying
(is) leading
(is) saying
(is) sending
PAST
PARTICIPLE
(have)
brought
(have) built
(have) caught
(have) held
(have) laid
(have) led
(have) said
(have) sent
GROUP II: Each of these irregular verbs has a
different form for its past and past participle.
BASE PRESENT
FORM PARTICIPLE
begin (is)
beginning
choose (is) choosing
do
(is) doing
go
(is) going
know (is) knowing
run
(is) running
sing
(is) singing
swim (is) swimming
PAST
began
chose
did
went
knew
ran
sang
swam
PAST
PARTICIPLE
(have)
begun
(have) chosen
(have) done
(have) gone
(have) known
(have) run
(have) sung
(have) swum
Every verb has six tenses: present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. This
time line, from past to future, shows how the six
tenses are related to one another.
• Past Perfect—existing or happening before a
specific time in the past
• Past—existing or happening in the past
• Present Perfect—existing or happening
before now or starting in the past and
continuing now
• Present—existing or happening now
• Future Perfect—existing or happening before a
specific time in the future
• Future—existing or happening in the future
Listing all forms of a verb in the six tenses is called
conjugating a verb.
Resource Center
PAST
brought
the action or state of being that is expressed by
the verb.
Language Handbook
BASE PRESENT
FORM PARTICIPLE
bring (is) bringing
3d. The tense of a verb indicates the time of
3d. Note Explain to students
that in the future tense and in
the future perfect tense, the
helping verb shall is sometimes
used in place of will.
Language Handbook
GROUP I: Each of these irregular verbs has the
same form for its past and past participle
Verb Tense
RESOURCE CENTER
COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS
GROUP III: Each of these irregular verbs has
the same form for its base form, past, and
past participle.
BASE PRESENT
FORM PARTICIPLE
burst (is) bursting
PAST
burst
PAST
PARTICIPLE
(have) burst
cost
cut
hit
let
put
read
set
cost
cut
hit
let
put
read
set
(have) cost
(have) cut
(have) hit
(have) let
(have) put
(have) read
(have) set
(is) costing
(is) cutting
(is) hitting
(is) letting
(is) putting
(is) reading
(is) setting
Language Handbook 1063
3 Verb Tenses Read the following paragraph to
students, and have them decide whether it should
be rewritten in the present or past tense. Then, have
them change the verb forms to make the verb tense
consistent.
[1] No one tells them not to, so they started work. [2] It
is hard, too; over and over, they carried dozens of sacks
of dirt up the stairs. [3] None of the neighbors noticed
them, or maybe they don’t mind. [4] At last, almost
before they know it, the rooftop is ready. [5] The rich
black earth waits for seeds.
e9nas7_bkm_03a.indd 1063
Possible Answers: [1] No one told them not to, so they
started work. [2] It was hard, too; over and over, they
10/22/07
carried dozens of sacks of dirt up the stairs. [3] None of
the neighbors noticed them, or maybe they didn’t mind.
[4] At last, almost before they knew it, the rooftop was
ready. [5] The rich, black earth waited for seeds.
7:25:36 AM
Language Handbook
1063
RESOURCE CENTER
Conjugation Of The Verb Write
SINGULAR
PLURAL
PRESENT TENSE
I write
we write
you write
you write
he, she, or it writes
they write
Language Handbook
PAST TENSE
Language Handbook
Resource Center
3e. Computer Note Point out
that most word processors have
useful mechanisms for checking
spelling, subject-verb agreement,
and style.
I wrote
we wrote
you wrote
you wrote
he, she, or it wrote
CONSISTENCY OF TENSE
3e. Do not change needlessly from one tense
to another.
When writing about events in the present, use verbs
in the present tense. When writing about events in
the past, use verbs in the past tense.
INCONSISTENT
CONSISTENT
they wrote
FUTURE TENSE
I will write
we will write
you will write
you will write
he, she, or it will write
they will write
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
I have written
we have written
you have written
you have written
he, she, or it has written they have written
PAST PERFECT TENSE
I had written
we had written
you had written
you had written
he, she, or it had
written
they had written
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
I will have written
we will have written
you will have written
you will have written
he, she, or it will have
written
they will have written
When they were satisfied, they
begin planting.
When they are satisfied, they
begin planting.
When they were satisfied, they
began planting.
Special Problems with Verbs
Sit and Set
(1) The verb sit means “rest in a seated position.”
Sit seldom takes an object.
Let’s sit in the shade. [no object]
(2) The verb set means “put (something) in a place.”
Set usually takes an object.
Let’s set the buckets here. [Let’s set
what? Buckets is the object.]
BASE FORM
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
PAST
PAST PARTICIPLE
sit (rest)
(is) sitting
sat
(have) sat
set (put)
(is) setting
set
(have) set
Lie and Lay
(1) The verb lie means “recline” or “be in a place.”
Lie never takes an object.
In the photograph, juicy, red
watermelons lay on rich earth.
[no object]
(2) The verb lay means “put (something) in a place.”
Lay usually takes an object.
They laid dirt on the roof. [They laid
what? Dirt is the object.]
BASE FORM
lie (rest)
lay (put)
PRESENT PARTICIPLE (is) lying
(is) laying
PAST
lay
laid
PAST PARTICIPLE
(have) lain (have) laid
Quick Check
1064 Resource Center
4 Verb Forms For each of the following sentences,
have students choose the correct verb form in parentheses.
1. Juan Guerrero (raises, rises) the bag containing the
tomatillos he has grown. Answer: raises
2. Like Juan, other people also (sat, set) out their own
plants each spring. Answer: set
3. He will not just (sit, set) and remain idle.
Answer: sit
4. Avoiding the midday heat, Mr. Garcia also (raises,
rises) early to tend his plot. Answer: rises
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Resource Center
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Using standard verb forms is expected in most of
the writing done for school.
Readers expect standard usage in essays and
reports. On the other hand, readers expect dialogue in plays and short stories to sound natural
and to reflect the speech patterns of real people.
Here is an example of dialogue from the short
story “Bargain.”
“I think he hate me,” Mr. Bauner went on.
“This is the thing. He hate me for coming not
from this country. I come here, sixteen years
old, and learn to read and write, and I make a
business, and so I think he hate me.”
1. Butch replied, “I must say, old friend, that
I cannot quite believe you.”
2. “Gracious, what a marvelous party that
was!” beamed Tanya when the group met
Monday morning at school.
3. “Please accept our congratulations for a
job well done,” cried Jim’s teammates.
4. “I beg your pardon, but you are sitting in
my seat,” said the sergeant to the recruit.
5. “What an unfaithful friend you are to
have spoken against me behind my back,”
exclaimed Angela to her classmate.
Resource Center
Revise each of the following sentences to sound
natural in a dialogue.
Answers:
1. Butch retorted, “You lie!”
2. “Wow! That party was great!”
beamed Tanya when the
group met Monday morning
at school.
3. “Way to go!” cried Jim’s teammates, slapping him on the
back after the game.
4. “Move it!” shouted the sergeant to the recruit.
5. “I can’t believe you stabbed
me in the back like that!”
exclaimed Angela to her
classmate.
Language Handbook
Your Turn
Using Natural Dialogue
Language Handbook
My neighbors rise very early.
[no object]
(2) The verb raise means ‘lift up” or “cause” (something) to rise.” Raise usually takes an object.
They raise the blinds at dawn. [They
raise what? Blinds is the object.]
BASE FORM
rise (go up) raise (lift up)
PRESENT PARTICIPLE (is) rising
(is) raising
PAST
rose
raised
PAST PARTICIPLE
(have) risen (have) raised
Your Turn
RESOURCE CENTER
Rise and Raise
(1) The verb rise means “go up” or “get up.” Rise
never takes an object.
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Language Handbook
1065
RESOURCE CENTER
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 39–46
4a. Note Advise students that to
choose the correct pronoun in a
compound subject they should
try each form of the pronoun
separately.
Berteli and (he, him) quarreled. [He
quarreled. Him quarreled.]
Answer: Berteli and he quarreled.
Language Handbook
Resource Center
Language Handbook
4 Using Pronouns
4. Using Pronouns
Case
4b. A predicate nominative is in the
Case is the form of a noun or a pronoun that shows
how it is used in a sentence. There are three cases:
nominative, objective, and possessive.
The form of a noun is the same for both the
nominative and objective cases. A noun changes its
form for the possessive case, usually by the addition
of an apostrophe and an s.
Most personal pronouns have different forms
for all three cases. Possessive pronouns (such as
my, your, and our) are also sometimes called
possessive adjectives.
Personal Pronouns
NOMINATIVE CASE
SINGULAR
PLURAL
I
we
you
you
he, she, it
they
OBJECTIVE CASE
SINGULAR
PLURAL
me
us
you
you
him, her, it
them
POSSESSIVE CASE
SINGULAR
PLURAL
my, mine
our, ours
your, yours
your, yours
his, her, hers, its
their, theirs
THE NOMINATIVE CASE
Pronouns used as subjects or predicate nominatives
are in the nominative case.
4a. A subject of a verb is in the nominative case.
nominative case.
A predicate nominative follows a linking verb and
explains or identifies the subject of the verb. A
personal pronoun used as a predicate nominative
follows a form of the verb be (am, is, are, was, were,
be, or been).
The last one to arrive there was he. [He identifies
the subject one.]
THE OBJECTIVE CASE
Pronouns used as objects are in the objective case.
4c. A direct object is in the objective case.
A direct object follows an action verb and tells who
or what receives the action.
The bronze dragon’s choice amazed us.
[Us tells who was amazed.]
Heth moved his wings and dried them.
[Them tells what Heth dried.]
4d. An indirect object is in the objective case.
An indirect object comes between an action verb
and a direct object and tells whom or to what or for
whom or for what.
Heth asked him a question. [Him tells to whom
Heth asked a question.]
4e. An object of a preposition is in the
objective case.
A prepositional phrase contains a preposition,
a noun or pronoun called the object of the
preposition, and any modifiers of that object.
like a hero
next to Dr. Chang
A pronoun used as the object of a preposition
should always be in the objective case.
We went with her to the mall.
I enjoy Anne McCaffrey’s writing style.
[I is the subject of enjoy.]
Quick Checks
1066 Resource Center
1 Personal Pronouns For each of the following
sentences, have students identify the correct personal
pronoun in parentheses.
­1. Rikki had almost drowned, but an English boy
named Teddy rescued (he, him). Answer: him
2. Could a mongoose live with (they, them) happily?
Answer: them
3. Teddy’s mother wasn’t sure whether a mongoose
would make a good pet, but Rikki gave (she, her) a
surprise. Answer: her
4. Didn’t (he, him) save their lives? Answer: he
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Resource Center
2 Pronouns For each of the following sentences,
have students choose the correct pronoun in parentheses.
1. For (who, whom) did he work? Answer: whom
2. Jerry did not often play with (we, us) in the neighborhood. Answer: us
3. (Who, Whom) wrote The Yearling? Answer: Who
4. He promised (hisself, himself) that he would do a
good job. Answer: himself
5. They seemed pleased with (theirselves, themselves). Answer: themselves
10/22/07 7:26:04 AM
WHO AND WHOM
Reflexive pronouns (such as myself, himself, and
yourselves) can be used as objects. Do not use the
nonstandard forms hisself and theirself or theirselves
in place of himself and themselves.
STEP 1:
STEP 2:
STEP 3:
STEP 4:
ANSWER
(Who, Whom) did Jerry see?
The statement is Jerry did see
(who, whom).
The subject of the verb is Jerry, the
verb is did see, and the pronoun is the
direct object.
A pronoun used as a direct object
should be in the objective case.
The objective form is whom.
Whom did Jerry see?
In spoken English, the use of whom is becoming less
common. In fact, when you are speaking, you may
correctly begin any question with who regardless
of the grammar of the sentence. In written English,
however, distinguish between who and whom.
PRONOUNS WITH APPOSITIVES
STANDARD
Your Turn
Joe made dinner hisself.
Joe made dinner himself.
Using Standard Expressions
Expressions such as It’s me, That’s her, and It was
them are accepted in everyday speaking. In
writing, however, such expressions are generally
considered nonstandard and should be avoided.
STANDARD
It is I. That is she. It was they.
Your Turn
Answers:
1. The other candidates and we
dashed to the Impression.
2. “Save a good place for my
friends and me,” someone
called.
Additionally, it is considered polite to put firstperson pronouns (I, me, mine, we, us, ours) last in
compound constructions.
The dragonriders and we arrived at the
Hatching Ground.
Revise each of the following sentences to show
standard and polite usage of pronouns.
1. We and the other candidates dashed to
the auditorium.
2. “Save a good place for me and my
friends,” someone called.
3. “It was me who took the last cookie!”
4. When K’last asked me who Keevan was, I
answered, “That’s him.”
5. Keevan was the smallest, yet it was him
who impressed the bronze dragon.
3. I wondered who would be
first and thought, “Maybe it’ll
be I!”
4. When K’last asked me who
Keevan was, I answered,
“That’s he.”
5. Keevan was the smallest, yet
it was he who impressed the
bronze dragon.
Resource Center
QUESTION
NONSTANDARD
Language Handbook
The pronoun who has different forms in the nominative and objective cases. Who is the nominative
form; whom is the objective form. When deciding
whether to use who or whom in a question, follow
these steps:
(1) Rephrase the question as a statement;
(2) Decide how the pronoun is used in the statement—as subject, predicate nominative,
object of the verb, or object of a preposition;
(3) Determine the case of the pronoun according
to the rules of standard English.
(4) Select the correct form of the pronoun.
4e. Note Tell students that the
use of whom is not very common
in casual conversation. Students
need not feel concerned about
making errors in the usage of
who and whom in everyday
casual situations. However,
emphasize that in business, academic, official, and formal situations, correct usage is expected
in speech and in writing.
Language Handbook
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
RESOURCE CENTER
Special Pronoun Problems
Sometimes a pronoun is followed directly by a noun
that identifies the pronoun. Such a noun is called an
appositive. To choose which pronoun to use before
an appositive, omit the appositive, and try each
form of the pronoun separately.
QUESTION
ANSWER
(We, Us) boys live in the Carolinas.
[Boys is the appositive.]
We live in the Carolinas. Us live in
the Carolinas.
We boys live in the Carolinas.
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1067
Tips for Spelling
RESOURCE CENTER
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 47–56
Advise students to drop the final
silent e before a suffix beginning
with a vowel.
safe + er = safer
ripe + est = ripest
gentle + er = gentler
Language Handbook
Resource Center
Language Handbook
5. Using Modifiers
5b. Computer Note Explain
to students that a computer
can help them find and correct
nonstandard forms of modifiers
such as baddest, expensiver, and
mostest. However, the computer
cannot help them make sure that
a modifier is not misplaced or
dangling.
5. Using Modifiers
Comparison of Modifiers
IRREGULAR COMPARISON
A modifier is a word, a phrase, or a clause that
describes or limits the meaning of another word.
Two kinds of modifiers—adjectives and adverbs—
may be used to compare things.
Some modifiers do not form degrees by using the
regular methods.
5a. The three degrees of comparison of modifiers
are positive, comparative, and superlative.
POSITIVE
COMPARATIVE
cold
politely
colder
more politely
POSITIVE
COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
calm
rapidly
less calm
less rapidly
least calm
least rapidly
REGULAR COMPARISON
(1) Most one-syllable modifiers form their comparative and superlative degrees by adding
-er and -est.
COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
sharp
sharper
sharpest
calm
calmer
calmest
(2) Some two-syllable modifiers form their
comparative and superlative degrees by
adding -er and -est. Others use more
and most.
POSITIVE
COMPARATIVE
COMPARATIVE
bad
far
good
many
worse
farther
better
more
SUPERLATIVE
worst
farthest
best
most
SUPERLATIVE
coldest
most politely
To show decreasing comparisons, modifiers form
their degrees with less and least.
POSITIVE
POSITIVE
SUPERLATIVE
simple
simpler
simplest
sudden
more sudden most sudden
(3) Modifiers with three or more syllables use
more and most to form their degrees.
POSITIVE
COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
fiery
quietly
more fiery
more quietly
most fiery
most quietly
USES OF COMPARATIVE AND
SUPERLATIVE FORMS
5b. Use the comparative degree when comparing
two things. Use the superlative degree when
comparing more than two.
COMPARATIVE
SUPERLATIVE
This place is safer than that one.
This place is the safest of all.
5c. Use good to modify a noun or a pronoun. Use
well to modify a verb.
The Town Mouse enjoyed good food. She ate well.
5d. Use adjectives, not adverbs, after
linking verbs.
The Town Mouse’s life seemed wonderful. [not
wonderfully]
5e. Avoid using double comparisons.
A double comparison is the use of both -er and
more (less) or both -est and most (least) to form a
comparison.
The Country Mouse’s place is safer [not more
safer] than the Town Mouse’s.
5f. A double negative is the use of two negative
words to express one negative idea.
Common Negative Words
barely
never
nobody
nothing
NONSTANDARD
STANDARD
hardly
no
none
nowhere
neither
no one
not (-n’t)
scarcely
She hasn’t never liked cats.
She hasn’t ever [or has never]
liked cats.
Quick Checks
1068 Resource Center
1 Comparative and Superlative Modifiers
Have students give the forms for the comparative and
superlative degrees of the following modifiers.
1. fine Answer: finer (less fine), finest (least fine)
2. cautiously Answer: more (less) cautiously, most
(least) cautiously
3. gladly Answer: more (less) gladly, most (least) gladly
4. thankful Answer: more (less) thankful, most
(least) thankful
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Resource Center
5. daring Answer: more (less) daring, most (least) daring
6. comfortable Answer: more (less) comfortable,
most (least) comfortable
7. much Answer: more (less), most (least)
8. cozy Answer: cozier (less cozy), coziest (least cozy)
9. well Answer: better (less well), best (least well)
10. dainty Answer: daintier (less dainty), daintiest
(least dainty)
10/22/07 7:26:21 AM
as close as possible to the words they modify.
The mouse from the country saw a cat.
[The phrase modifies mouse.]
The mouse saw a cat from the country.
[The phrase modifies cat.]
CLEAR
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
A cat would not be dangerous to the
mice with a bell.
CLEAR
A cat with a bell would not be dangerous to the mice.
A prepositional phrase used as an adverb should be
placed near the word it modifies.
MISPLACED
The mice had a meeting about the cat
in fear.
CLEAR
In fear, the mice had a meeting
about the cat.
Avoid placing a prepositional phrase in a position
where it can modify either of two words.
MISPLACED
The mouse said in the morning she
would go. [Does the phrase modify
said or would go?]
CLEAR
The mouse said she would go in the
morning.
In the morning, the mouse said she
would go.
MISPLACED
PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
A participial phrase consists of a verb form—either
a present participle or a past participle—and its
related words. A participial phrase modifies a noun
or a pronoun. A participial phrase should be placed
close to the word it modifies.
MISPLACED
CLEAR
The mice hid from the cat scurrying
fearfully.
Scurrying fearfully, the mice hid
from the cat.
CLAUSES
A clause is a group of words that contains a verb
and its subject and that is used as a part of a sentence. An adjective clause modifies a noun or a pronoun. Most begin with a relative pronoun, such as
that, which, who, whom, or whose. An adverb clause
modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Most begin with a subordinating conjunction, such
as although, while, if, or because.
Like phrases, clauses should be placed as close as
possible to the words they modify.
MISPLACED
CLEAR
The fable was written by Aesop that
we read today.
The fable that we read today was
written by Aesop.
Your Turn
Resource Center
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, a
noun or a pronoun called the object of the preposition, and any modifiers of that object. Place a prepositional phrase used as an adjective directly after the
word it modifies.
Answers:
1. With each step forward, the
cats crouched lower.
2. The yellow cat was the larger
of the two and the more
frightening.
3. The calico cat, however, was
the best hunter in the neighborhood.
4. The tiny mouse searched for a
less obvious hiding place.
5. The mouse hardly made a
sound at all. (The mouse
made no sound at all.)
Language Handbook
Worried constantly, a plan
was needed.
Worried constantly, the mice needed
a plan.
The mice needed a plan because
they worried constantly.
DANGLING
Your Turn
Language Handbook
5g. Place modifying words, phrases, and clauses
A participial phrase that does not clearly and sensibly modify any word in the sentence is a dangling
participial phrase. To correct a dangling phrase,
supply a word that the phrase can modify, or add a
subject, a verb, or both to the dangling modifier.
RESOURCE CENTER
Placement of Modifiers
Using Modifiers Correctly
Using modifers correctly is essential to good
writing. Correct the use of modifiers in the
following sentences.
1. With each step forward, the cats
crouched more lower.
2. The yellow cat was the largest of the two
and the most frightening.
3. The calico cat, however, was the better
hunter in the neighborhood.
4. The tiny mouse searched for a least obvi-
ous hiding place.
5. The mouse hardly made no sound at all.
Language Handbook 1069
2 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers Each
of
the following sentences contains a misplaced or
e9nas7_bkm_03a.indd 1069
dangling modifier. Have students revise each sentence
so that it is clear and correct.
1. The mice complained about the cat at the meeting.
Answer: At the meeting, the mice complained about
the cat.
2. A bell could protect the mice on the cat. Answer: A
bell on the cat could protect the mice.
3. Ringing loudly with each step, the mice could run
away. Answer: Ringing loudly with each step, the 10/22/07
cat’s bell would warn the mice to run away.
4. The plan had a flaw that he was suggesting.
Answer: The plan that he was suggesting had a flaw.
5. An old mouse questioned the young mouse shaking
his head sadly. Answer: Shaking his head sadly, an
old mouse questioned the young mouse.
12:20:02 PM
Language Handbook
1069
RESOURCE CENTER
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 57–69
6. Phrases
6a. A phrase is a group of related words that
THE ADVERB PHRASE
is used as a single part of speech and does not
contain a verb and its subject.
6d. An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase
Language Handbook
VERB PHRASE
Language Handbook
Resource Center
6. Phrases
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
was not stapled
with a shudder
The Prepositional Phrase
6b. A prepositional phrase includes a preposition,
a noun or pronoun called the object of the
preposition, and any modifiers of that object.
The runaway was filled with fear.
The colt in front climbed up the wall.
THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE
6c. An adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase
that modifies a noun or a pronoun.
An adjective phrase tells what kind or which one.
Robert Frost was a poet of nature. [What kind?]
“The Runaway” is the one about a colt.
[Which one?]
More than one adjective phrase may modify the
same word.
A pasture of snow on a mountain upsets him.
[The phrases of snow and on a mountain
modify pasture.]
An adjective phrase always follows the word it
modifies. That word may be the object of another
prepositional phrase.
“The Runaway” is a poem about a colt in the
snow. [The phrase about a colt modifies the
predicate nominative poem. The phrase in the
snow modifies the object colt.]
that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
An adverb phrase tells how, when, where, why, or to
what extent (that is, how long, how many, or how far).
The colt bolted with a snort. [How?]
The colt seemed uneasy because of the snow.
[Why?]
The poem takes place late in the day. [When?]
Frost wrote poetry for years. [How long?]
More than one adverb phrase may modify the same
word or words.
At the Kennedy Inauguration, Frost read to the
American people.
An adverb phrase may be modified by an adjective phrase.
In his poem about the runaway, Frost uses
several verbals. [The adverb phrase modifies
the verb uses. The adjective phrase
modifies poem.]
An adverb phrase may come either before or after
the word it modifies.
Before that time, Frost had published little.
Frost had published little before that time.
Verbals and Verbal Phrases
A verbal is a form of a verb that is used as a noun,
an adjective, or an adverb. There are three kinds of
verbals: the participle, the gerund, and the infinitive.
PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIAL
PHRASES
6e. A participle is a verb form that can be used as
an adjective.
There are two kinds of participles— present participles and past participles.
(1) Present participles end in -ing
The rats swimming ashore alarmed them.
[Swimming, a form of the verb swim, modifies rats.]
Quick Checks
1070 Resource Center
1 Prepositional Phrases Have students identify
the prepositional phrase or phrases in each numbered
sentence in the following paragraph. Then, have them
label each phrase as an adjective phrase or an adverb
phrase and give the word the phrase modifies.
[1] Many of Robert Frost’s poems contain imagery
from nature. [2] These images say much about people
and human nature. [3] “The Runaway” focuses on
a colt’s experiences during its first winter. [4] In the
poem, Frost shows observers’ reactions to the colt.
[5] The colt, the subject of conversation between the
e9nas7_bkm_03a.indd 1070
1070
Resource Center
observers, is important to them.
Answers: [1] of Robert Frost’s poems—adjective
phrase, many; from nature—adjective phrase,
imagery; [2] about people and human nature—adjective phrase, much; [3] on a colt’s experiences—adverb
phrase, focuses; during its first winter—adjective
phrase, experiences; [4] In the poem—adverb phrase,
shows; to the colt—adjective phrase, reactions; [5]
of conversation—adjective phrase, subject; between
the observers—adjective phrase, conversation; to
them—adverb phrase, important
10/22/07 7:26:37 AM
all the words related to the participle. The entire
phrase is used as an adjective.
GERUNDS AND GERUND
PHRASES
6g. A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing that is
used as a noun.
Singing can be fun. [subject]
My favorite pastime is singing. [predicate
nominative]
I warm up before singing. [object of the
preposition]
Do you enjoy singing? [direct object]
6h. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund and all
the words related to the gerund.
Counting the many rats outside the lighthouse
calmed the men. [The gerund phrase is the
subject of the sentence. The noun rats is the
direct object of the gerund counting.]
INFINITIVES AND INFINITIVE
PHRASES
6i. An infinitive is a verb form that can be used as a
Lighthouses are one way to warn ships away
from rocks. [adjective]
The men were grateful to see the ship. [adverb]
To be rescued was their only hope. [noun]
Appositives and Appositive
Phrases
6k. An appositive is a noun or a pronoun placed
Resource Center
Seeing a ship nearby, scores of rats dove into the
sea. [The participial phrase modifies the noun
scores. The noun ship is the direct object of the
present participle seeing.]
We saw the sharks feasting hungrily on the rats.
[The participial phrase modifies the noun
sharks. The adverb hungrily and the adverb
phrase on the rats modify the present
participle feasting.]
and its modifiers and complements. The entire
infinitive phrase may act as an adjective, an
adverb, or a noun.
Language Handbook
6f. A participial phrase consists of a participle and
6j. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive
6j. Note Tell students that the
word to plus a noun or a pronoun (to class, to them, to the
dance) is a prepositional phrase,
not an infinitive. Advise them to
be careful not to confuse infinitives with prepositional phrases
beginning with to.
Infinitive: I want to go.
Prepositional Phrase: I want to
go to sea.
Language Handbook
No one was on the abandoned ship.
[Abandoned, a form of the verb abandon,
modifies ship.]
The rats, known for their ferocity, swam
toward the sailors. [Known, a form of the
verb know, modifies rats.]
To escape was their sole desire. [noun]
The time to signal was now.
[adjective—to signal modifies time.]
Rescuers were quick to answer.
[adverb—to answer modifies quick.]
RESOURCE CENTER
(2) Most present participles end in -d or -ed.
Others are irregularly formed.
beside another noun or pronoun to identify or
explain it.
Appositives are often set off from the rest of the
sentence by commas or dashes. However, when
an appositive is necessary to the meaning of the
sentence or when it is closely related to the word it
refers to, no commas are necessary.
The author George G. Toudouze wrote the story
“Three Skeleton Key.” [The noun George G.
Toudouze identifies the noun author.]
The men saw a strange ship, one with Dutch lines
and three masts. [The pronoun one refers to
the noun ship.]
Their victims—the captain and crew—had vanished. [The nouns captain and crew explain
who were the victims.]
6l. An appositive phrase consists of an appositive
and its modifiers.
Le Gleo, one of the lighthouse keepers, had horrible nightmares. [The adjective phrase of the
lighthouse keepers modifies the appositive one.]
Rats, the foul scourge of sailing ships, pressed
for entrance. [The article the, the adjective foul,
and the adjective phrase of sailing ships modify
the appositive scourge.]
noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Infinitives usually
begin with to.
Language Handbook 1071
2 Participial Phrases, Gerunds, and Infini-
tives Have students identify each italicized phrase
in the following sentences as participial, gerund, or
infinitive.
1. The rats, lured by the scent, approached the lighthouse. Answer: participial
2. Seeing the laughing men enraged the frenzied rats.
Answer: gerund
3. They tried to get in through the windows and door.
Answer: infinitive
e9nas7_bkm_03a.indd 1071
3 Appositives and Appositive Phrases Have
students identify the appositives or appositive phrases10/22/07
in the following sentences. Then, have them give the
word or words each appositive or appositive phrase
identifies or explains.
1. Three men—the narrator, Le Gleo, and Itchoua—
stared in horror at the rats. Answer: the narrator,
Le Gleo, and Itchoua—men
2. The entire crew would likely have perished but
for the engineer, a brave man. Answer: a brave
man—engineer
7:26:46 AM
Language Handbook
1071
1. Three Skeleton Key was a small rock
about twenty miles offshore.
2. Three convicts, in hiding after escaping
from prison, had died there.
3. People said that the dead men’s skeletons danced at night.
4. To save money, he volunteered for the
lighthouse job.
7. Clauses
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 70–77
RESOURCE CENTER
Answers:
Language Handbook
Resource Center
Language Handbook
Your Turn
Your Turn
Combining Sentences
Using different kinds of phrases can improve your writing. For example, to revise a series of choppy sentences, combine them by turning at least one sentence into a phrase.
choppy A beautiful ship approached. The ship was a Dutch three-master.
appositive phrase A beautiful ship, a Dutch three-master, approached.
participial phrase A beautiful Dutch ship having three masts approached.
infinitive phrase A beautiful Dutch three-master continued to approach us.
Combine the following sentences.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Three Skeleton Key was a small rock. It was about twenty miles offshore.
Three convicts had died there. They were in hiding after escaping from prison.
People said that the dead men’s skeletons danced. They danced at night.
He wanted to save money. He volunteered for the lighthouse job.
7. Clauses
7a. A clause is a group of words that contains a
verb and its subject and that is used as a part of
a sentence.
The Subordinate Clause
7c. A subordinate (or dependent) clause does not
Every clause has a subject and a verb. However, not
every clause expresses a complete thought.
express a complete thought and cannot stand
alone as a sentence.
Wagons delivered milk daily.
before cars were invented
The two kinds of clauses are the independent clause
and the subordinate clause.
The meaning of a subordinate clause is
complete only when the clause is attached to an
independent clause.
COMPLETE THOUGHT
INCOMPLETE THOUGHT
that Pierre drove
Joseph pulled the wagon that Pierre drove.
The Independent Clause
7b. An independent (or main) clause expresses
a complete thought and can stand by itself as a
sentence.
Joseph pulled the wagon.
Quick Checks
1072 Resource Center
1 Independent and Subordinate Claus-
es Have students identify each of the following
groups of words as an independent clause or a
subordinate clause.
1. although Pierre did not read or write Answer:
subordinate clause
2. everyone liked him Answer: independent clause
3. although he arrived early each day to get his
wagon Answer: subordinate clause
4. when he spoke to his horse Answer: subordinate
clause
e9nas7_bkm_03a.indd 1072
1072
Resource Center
2 Noun Clauses Have students identify the
noun clause in each of the following sentences. Then,
have them tell whether the noun clause is a subject,
a predicate nominative, a direct object, an indirect
object, or an object of a preposition.
1. What Evelyn Tooley Hunt is talking about is a
mother’s effect on her family. Answer: What Evelyn
Tooley Hunt is talking about—subject
2. This mother gives whoever is near warmth and
brightness. Answer: whoever is near—indirect
object
10/24/07 6:12:46 AM
modifies a noun or a pronoun.
An adjective clause usually follows the word it modifies and tells which one or what kind.
The relative pronouns who and whom are used to refer to people only. The relative pronoun that is used
to refer both to people and to things. The relative
pronoun which is used to refer to things only.
After work, Pierre, who had seemed fit, limped
slowly. [The relative pronoun who relates the
clause to the noun Pierre.]
St. Joseph, whose name the horse bore, was also
kind and faithful. [The relative pronoun whose
relates the clause to the noun St. Joseph.]
The character to whom I am referring is Jacques.
[The relative pronoun whom relates the clause
to the noun Jacques.]
THE ADVERB CLAUSE
7e. An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that
modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
An adverb clause tells where, when, how, why, to
what extent, or under what condition.
They live where it never gets cold. [Where?]
When he left, I cried. [When?]
Grover’s room seems as if it will never be the
same. [How?]
Because the weather was hot, the cool water felt
good. [Why?]
My parents still miss him as much as I do.
[To what extent?]
If I keep tickling him, he won’t fall asleep.
[Under what condition?]
since when
so that
than
though
as if
where
until
An adverb clause does not always follow the word it
modifies. When an adverb clause begins a sentence,
the clause is followed by a comma.
Whenever King Midas touched something, it
turned to gold.
THE NOUN CLAUSE
7e. Note Explain to students
that some subordinating conjunctions, such as after, as, before,
since, and until, are also used as
prepositions.
7f. A noun clause is a subordinate clause used as
a noun.
A noun clause may be used as a subject, a complement (predicate nominative, indirect object, or
direct object), or an object of a preposition.
What Mama says is right. [subject]
Resource Center
An adjective clause is usually introduced by a relative pronoun (that, which, who, whom, whose). A
relative pronoun relates an adjective clause to the
word that the clause modifies. Sometimes a relative
pronoun is preceded by a preposition that is part of
the adjective clause.
as though
because
before
how
as long
whether
in order that
Language Handbook
Joseph knew every house that they served.
[Which house?]
Pierre was a man who loved work.
[What kind of man?]
after
although
whenever as
as if
wherever
unless
as soon as
while
7e. Computer Note Suggest
that students use a computer to
help them proofread their writing. They can use the computer’s
“Search” function to locate any
use of the words after, as, before,
since, and until. Have students
examine the use of such words
at the beginnings of sentences
and determine whether the word
begins a prepositional phrase
or a subordinate clause. Explain
that in most cases, an introductory prepositional phrase is not
set off by a comma. An introductory adverb clause, however,
should be followed by a comma.
Language Handbook
7d. An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that
An adverb clause is introduced by a subordinating
conjunction—a word that shows the relationship
between the adverb clause and the word or words
that the clause modifies.
Common Subordinating Conjunctions
RESOURCE CENTER
THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
She is the person who makes us happy.
[predicate nominative]
She bids whoever is sleeping good morning.
[indirect object]
Choose whichever you need most. [direct object]
A poem can be about whatever you think is
important. [object of a preposition]
Common Introductory Words for Noun Clauses
how
when
whichever
who
whomever
that
where
whatever
whoever
whom
what
which
Language Handbook 1073
3. Similarly, she puts love into whatever she is cooking. Answer: whatever she is cooking—object of the
e9nas7_bkm_03a.indd 1073
preposition
4. Notice that Hunt compares her warmth to grits and
gravy. Answer: that Hunt compares her warmth to
grits and gravy—direct object
5. A bright future is what her constant love promises.
Answer: what her constant love promises—predicate nominative
10/24/07 6:13:58 AM
Language Handbook
1073
RESOURCE CENTER
Answers:
1. When I was in school, “The
Highwayman” was an inevitable reading assignment.
2. Although I laughed at it then,
I now enjoy the poem.
3. I did not relate to it, because it
was remote in time and place.
4. no change
5. However, when I read it carefully, I discovered that this
poem is filled with lively
images!
8. Sentences
Language Handbook
Resource Center
Language Handbook
Your Turn
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 78–87
Your Turn
Placing Adverb Clauses
In most cases, the decision of where to place an adverb clause is a matter of style, not correctness.
Both of the following sentences are correct.
Although she was almost unknown during her lifetime, Emily Dickinson is now considered a major
American poet.
Emily Dickinson is now considered a major American poet although she was almost unknown
during her lifetime.
Examine the following sentences and decide whether each adverb clause is placed correctly. If the clause
could be better placed, revise the sentence.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
“The Highwayman” was an inevitable reading assignment when I was in school.
I now enjoy the poem although I laughed at it then.
Because it was remote in time and place, I did not relate to it.
The vocabulary and content seemed false because they were unfamiliar.
However, I discovered that this poem is filled with lively images when I read it carefully!
8. Sentences
8a. Computer Note Explain to
students that some style-checking computer programs can
identify and highlight sentence
fragments. Such programs are
useful, but they aren’t perfect.
The best way to eliminate fragments from your writing is to
check each sentence yourself.
Each sentence should express
a complete thought and have a
subject and a verb.
8b. Note Explain to students
that the subject of a sentence
is never part of a prepositional
phrase.
Many of the women in the
league attended the reunion.
[Who attended? Many attended,
not women. Women is part of
the prepositional phrase of the
women.]
8a. A sentence is a group of words that has a
subject and a verb and expresses a complete
thought.
A sentence begins with a capital letter and
ends with a period, a question mark, or an
exclamation point.
Sandra Cisneros wrote “Four Skinny Trees.”
Have you read any of her work?
What surprising rhythms she uses!
Sentence or Sentence
Fragment?
A sentence fragment is a group of words that either
does not have a subject and verb or does not express a complete thought.
SENTENCE FRAGMENT
SENTENCE
SENTENCE FRAGMENT
SENTENCE
The rhythms in this story.
The rhythms in this story are
based on repetition.
After reading her story.
After reading her story, I
looked at trees differently.
8b. A subject tells whom or what the sentence
is about. The predicate tells something about
the subject.
SUBJECT
Helen Callaghan
PREDICATE
played baseball.
FINDING THE SUBJECT
Usually, the subject comes before the predicate.
Sometimes, however, the subject may appear
elsewhere in the sentence. To find the subject of a
sentence, ask Who? or What? before the predicate. In
sentences that begin with here, there, or where, ask
Here (or There or Where) before the predicate.
Quick Checks
tell whether each group of words is a sentence or a
sentence fragment. If the word group is a sentence,
have students correct it by adding a capital letter and
end punctuation. If the word group is a sentence fragment, have them correct it by adding words to make a
complete sentence and also capitalize and punctuate
it correctly.
1. let me recommend this story Answer: sentence—
Let me recommend this story.
e9nas7_bkm_03a.indd 1074
Resource Center
A sentence consists of two parts: a subject and a
predicate.
1074 Resource Center
1 Sentences and Fragments Have students
1074
The Subject and The
Predicate
2. in front of her house grow four skinny trees
Answer: sentence—In front of her house grow four
skinny trees.
3. growing in the midst of concrete Answer: sentence
fragment—They are growing in the midst of
concrete.
4. where they don’t belong Answer: sentence fragment—They survive where they don’t belong.
10/24/07 6:14:55 AM
words in the complete subject.
THE SIMPLE PREDICATE, OR VERB
8d. A simple predicate, or verb, is the main word or
group of words in the complete predicate.
A complete predicate consists of a verb and all
the words that describe the verb and complete its
meaning. Usually, the complete predicate follows
the subject in a sentence. Sometimes, however, the
complete predicate appears at the beginning of a
sentence. Other times, part of the predicate may
appear on one side of the subject and the rest on
the other side.
In the darkness of a doorway stood a stranger.
On this night, he had a meeting with an
old friend.
Would his friend appear?
A simple predicate may be a one-word verb, or it
may be a verb phrase. A verb phrase consists of a
main verb and its helping verbs.
O. Henry’s stories often end with a twist.
His story “After Twenty Years” does not have a
happy ending.
Neither Daedalus nor Icarus escaped the
king’s anger.
Among Daedalus’s gifts were creativity,
ingenuity, and skill.
8d. Note Explain to students
that in this book, the term verb
refers to the simple verb unless
otherwise indicated.
THE COMPOUND VERB
8f. A compound verb consists of two or more verbs
that have the same subject.
A connecting word—usually and, or, or but—is
used between the verbs.
He flew upward, turned, and called to his son.
Both the subject and the verb of a sentence may be
compound.
S
S V
Icarus and his father put on the wings and
V
took off.
Your Turn
Using Compound Subjects
Your Turn
Answers:
1. Daedalus angered King Minos
and was imprisoned by him.
2. Clouds and birds sailed
through the skies.
3. Daedalus melted wax and
shaped a skeleton of a wing.
4. Daedalus and his son, Icarus,
flew close to each other.
5. Delos and Samos rushed by
beneath them.
Resource Center
Her mother still had that old fire. [The simple
subject is mother. The complete subject
is her mother.]
“The No-Guitar Blues” by Gary Soto is on the
test. [The simple subject is “The No-Guitar
Blues.” The complete subject is “The No-Guitar
Blues” by Gary Soto.]
connected subjects that have the same verb. The
usual connecting word is and or or.
Language Handbook
8c. A simple subject is the main word or group of
8e. A compound subject consists of two or more
Language Handbook
THE SIMPLE SUBJECT
8c. Note Explain to students
that in this book, the term subject refers to the simple subject
unless otherwise indicated.
THE COMPOUND SUBJECT
RESOURCE CENTER
In the old photograph was a woman at bat.
[Who was? A woman was]
By the way, her son plays for the Astros.
[Who plays? Her son does.]
Do you play baseball?
[Who does play? You do play.]
Where is my notebook?
[Where is what? Where is my notebook.]
and Verbs
By using compound subjects and verbs,
you can combine ideas and reduce wordiness
in your writing.
WORDY
REVISED
With his wings, Daedalus escaped.
Icarus escaped also.
With their wings, Daedalus and Icarus
escaped.
Using compound subjects and verbs, combine
the following pairs of sentences.
1. Daedalus angered King Minos. Daedalus
was imprisoned by King Minos.
2. Clouds sailed through the skies. Birds
sailed through the skies.
3. Daedalus melted wax. Daedalus shaped a
skeleton of a wing.
4. Daedalus flew close to his son, Icarus.
Icarus flew close to his father.
5. Delos rushed by beneath them. Samos
rushed by beneath them.
Language Handbook 1075
2 Subjects and Verbs Have students identify the
subjects
and the verbs in the following sentences.
e9nas7_bkm_03a.indd 1075
1. The myth of Icarus tells about creativity and warns
of its dangers. Answers: myth— subject; tells,
warns—verbs
2. In this story, Daedalus and his son suffer a tragic
fate. Answers: Daedalus, son—subjects; suffer—
verb
3. Yet, did they not also create wings and fly?
Answers: they—subject; did create, fly—verbs
10/24/07 6:35:01 AM
Language Handbook
1075
9a. Note Tell students that an
adverb is never a complement.
Use this example:
He writes humorously.
[Humorously describes how he
writes.]
His writing is humorous. [The
adjective humorous describes the
subject writing.]
RESOURCE CENTER
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 88–94
Language Handbook
Resource Center
Language Handbook
9. Complements
9c. Note Tell students that if a
sentence has an indirect object,
it always has a direct object also.
9. Complements
9a. A complement is a word or a group of words
that completes the meaning of a verb.
Every sentence has a subject and a verb. Often a
verb also needs a complement to complete the
meaning of the verb. A complement may be a noun,
a pronoun, or an adjective. Each of the following
subjects and verbs needs a complement to make a
complete sentence.
INCOMPLETE
S
V
James Weldon Johnson became [what?]
COMPLETE
S
V
C
James Weldon Johnson became a poet.
INCOMPLETE
S V
Johnson’s poetry is [what?]
Direct Objects
9b. A direct object is a noun or a pronoun that
receives the action of the verb or that shows the
result of the action. A direct object tells what or
whom after a transitive verb.
In this poem, God creates light, animals, and
all things. [The nouns light, animals, and things
receive the action of the transitive verb creates
and tells what.]
A direct object never follows a linking verb because
a linking verb does not express action.
LINKING VERB
People became living souls. [The
verb became does not express
action; therefore, it does not have
a direct object.]
A direct object is never part of a prepositional
phrase.
OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION
COMPLETE
S V
C
Johnson’s poetry is wonderful.
INCOMPLETE
S
V
Tamisha showed [what? to whom?]
COMPLETE
S
V
C
C
Tamisha showed me her poem.
An adverb is never a complement.
ADVERB
COMPLEMENT
He writes powerfully. [Powerfully
tells how he writes.]
His writing is powerful. [The
adjective powerful modifies the
subject writing.]
A prepositional phrase is never a complement.
OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION
COMPLEMENT
The whole world was
in darkness.
The whole world was
darkness. [The noun
darkness modifies the
subject world.]
Humans gazed at the
moon. [Moon is not the
direct object of the verb
gazed; moon is the object
of the preposition at.]
Indirect Objects
Like a direct object, an indirect object helps to
complete the meaning of a transitive verb. If a
sentence has an indirect object, it always has a
direct object as well.
9c. An indirect object is a noun or a pronoun that
comes between the verb and the direct object and
tells to what or to whom or for what or for whom
the action of the verb is done.
In the last stanza, God gives man life. [The noun
man tells to whom God has given life.]
Linking verbs do not have indirect objects. Also,
an indirect object, like a direct object, is never in a
prepositional phrase.
LINKING VERB
The cypress is a type of evergreen
tree. [The linking verb is does not
express action, so it cannot have an
indirect object.]
Quick Checks
1076 Resource Center
1 Subjects, Verbs, and Complements Have
students identify the subjects, verbs, and complements in the sentences in the following paragraph.
[Reminder: A complement is never a prepositional
phrase.]
[1] With his deep voice, James Earl Jones is a marvelous speaker. [2] Only his rich voice can do justice to
a poem like “The Creation.” [3] With lingering pauses
and startling changes of volume, Jones’s performance
is awe-inspiring. [4] Can you find us a recording of his
recitation? [5] No one will speak or move a muscle
e9nas7_bkm_03b.indd 1076
1076
Resource Center
during the whole performance.
Answers: [1] James Earl Jones—subject; is—verb;
speaker—complement; [2] voice—subject; can
do—verb; justice—complement; [3] performance—
subject; is—verb; awe-inspiring—complement;
[4] you—subject; Can find—verb; us, recording—complements; [5] No one—subject; will speak,
move—verbs; muscle—complement
10/22/07 7:28:12 AM
Cypresses give swamps and creeks deep shade.
9e. A predicate adjective is an adjective that
follows a linking verb and describes the subject.
Sky Woman was young and beautiful. [the words
young and beautiful are predicate adjectives
that describe the subject Sky Woman.]
Some verbs, such as look and feel, may be used as
either linking verbs or action verbs.
LINKING VERB
Subject Complements
A subject complement completes the meaning of a
linking verb and identifies or describes the subject.
This unfortunate person became Sky Woman.
[Sky Woman identifies the subject person.]
The story of Sky Woman is sad. [Sad describes
the subject story.]
There are two kinds of subject complements—the
predicate nominative and the predicate adjective.
PREDICATE NOMINATIVES
9d. A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun
that follows a linking verb and identifies the
subject or refers to it.
Sky Woman became the Great Earth Mother.
[The compound noun Great Earth Mother is a
predicate nominative that identifies the subject
Sky Woman.]
Predicate nominatives never appear in prepositional
phrases.
The world was only a few bits of earth on a turtle.
[The word bits is a predicate nominative that
identifies the subject world. Earth is the object
of the preposition of, and turtle is the object of
the preposition on.]
Your Turn
Using Action Verbs
Overusing the linking verb be can make your
writing dull. Whenever possible, replace a dull be
verb with a verb that expresses action.
BE VERB
ACTION VERB
“Sky Woman” is a traditional
Seneca story.
Traditionally, the Seneca people tell
the story of Sky Woman.
Revise each of the following sentences by
substituting an interesting action verb for the
dull be verb.
1. The Chief of Heaven was angry with
2.
3.
4.
5.
Sky Woman.
Paradise was the home of the chief
of Heaven, Sky Woman, and many
animals and plants.
Animals of all kinds were her friends.
The shell of that turtle is now the earth.
Many things from the sky are now
on earth.
A predicate nominative may be compound.
Her helpers were birds, a muskrat, a toad,
and a turtle.
9e. Computer Note Explain
to students that the overuse
of be verbs is a problem that a
computer can help you eliminate. Suggest that they use the
computer’s “Search” function to
locate and highlight each occurrence of am, are, is, was, were, be,
been, and being. In each case,
determine whether the be verb
is necessary or whether it could
be replaced with an action verb
for greater impact.
Resource Center
Common Linking Verbs
appear
feel
remain sound
be
grow
seem
stay
become
look
smell
taste
ACTION VERB
The Chief of Heaven looked angry.
[Looked is a linking verb because it
links the adjective angry to the subject Chief of Heaven.]
Sky Woman looked through the
hole in the floor of Heaven. [Looked
is an action verb because it expresses
Sky Woman’s action.]
9d. Note Expressions such as
“It is I” and “That was he” sound
awkward even though they are
correct. In conversation, you
would likely say “It’s me” and
“That was him.” Such nonstandard expressions may one day
become acceptable in writing
as well as in speech. For now,
however, it is best to follow the
rules of standard English in your
writing.
Language Handbook
An indirect object may be compound.
PREDICATE ADJECTIVES
Language Handbook
OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION
Cypress trees give swamps
deep shade. [The noun
swamps shows to what
cypress trees give shade.]
They give deep shade to
the swamps. [The noun
swamps is the object of the
preposition to.]
RESOURCE CENTER
INDIRECT OBJECT
Your Turn
Answers:
1. The Chief of Heaven burned
with anger at Sky Woman.
2. The Chief of Heaven, Sky
Woman, and many animals
and plants lived in paradise.
3. Animals of all kinds
befriended her.
4. The shell of that turtle
changed into the earth.
5. Many things from the sky now
flourish on Earth.
Language Handbook 1077
2 Subject Complements Have students identify
the
e9nas7_bkm_03b.indd 1077subject complement in each of the following
sentences. Then, have them label each as a predicate
nominative or a predicate adjective.
1. These stories may seem simple but may be quite
complex. Answer: simple, complex—predicate
adjectives
2. After all, their theme is the whole world. Answer:
world—predicate nominative
3. Sky Woman’s misfortune was our good fortune.
Answer: fortune—predicate nominative
10/22/07
4. With her fall, the world became possible. Answer:
possible—predicate adjective
5. Is anything, even luck, permanent? Answer: permanent—predicate adjective
12:21:07 PM
Language Handbook
1077
RESOURCE CENTER
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 95–102
10d. Computer Note Explain
to students that a computer can
help in analyzing writing for
sentence length and structure.
Programs are available that will
tell the average number of words
in the sentences and the number
of each kind of sentence used.
In this way, students can easily
see which sentence structures
they’ve mastered and which
ones they’ll need to work on.
Language Handbook
Resource Center
Language Handbook
10. Kinds of
Sentences
10. Kinds of Sentences
Sentences Classified
By Structure
One way that sentences are classified is by
structure—the kinds of clauses and the number
of clauses the sentences contain.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
10a. A simple sentence has one independent
clause and no subordinate clauses.
A simple sentence may have a compound subject, a
compound verb, or both.
S
S
V
Jean Fritz and her parents discussed her
V
problem and found a clever solution to it.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
10c. A complex sentence has one independent
clause and at least one subordinate clause.
When I read one of Anne McCaffrey’s stories,
I want to ride a dragon.
S V
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE I want to ride a dragon.
S V
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE When I read one of Anne
McCaffrey’s stories
Sentences Classified
By Purpose
A sentence is also classified according to its purpose.
The four kinds of sentences are declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
10d. A declarative sentence makes a statement. It
10b. A compound sentence has two or more
is followed by a period.
independent clauses but no subordinate clauses.
The independent clauses are usually joined by a
coordinating conjunction: and, but, for, nor, or, so, or
yet. The independent clauses in a compound sentence may also be joined by a semicolon.
S V
S
Jared read Old Yeller, and then he saw the movie.
S
V
Anne McCaffrey has written many stories
S
V
about dragons; in fact, she has contributed to
their popularity.
I can guess what that is.
10e. An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is
followed by a question mark.
What is the matter with Ted’s bike?
10f. An imperative sentence gives a command
or makes a request. It is followed by a period. A
strong command is followed by an exclamation
point.
Please open the door, Theo.
Look out!
If an imperative sentence does not have a subject,
the “understood” subject is always you.
(You) Do it now!
10g. An exclamatory sentence shows excitement
or expresses strong feeling. An exclamatory
sentence is followed by an exclamation point.
What a bargain this is!
We won regionals!
Quick Check
1078 Resource Center
1 Types of Sentences Have students classify
each of the following sentences according to its
purpose—declarative, interrogative, imperative, or
exclamatory.
1. Have you ever lived in a foreign country? Answer:
interrogative
2. As a child, Jean Fritz attended a British school in
China. Answer: declarative
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Resource Center
3. How wonderful the Yangtze River was! Answer:
exclamatory
4. Please take me there. Answer: imperative
5. Read Homesick, and see for yourself. Answer:
imperative
10/22/07 7:28:29 AM
Varying Sentence Structure
Language Handbook
Improve each item by combining the sentence pairs into one compound or complex sentence.
1. Commas seemed complicated. Andrea Hull knew how to use them.
2. Andrea Hull knew more than young Jean. Andrea taught her many things.
3. Embroidery is beautiful. It can be tedious.
4. She stretched the cloth. She marked her pattern. She began stitching.
5. A design is finished. Everyone can enjoy it.
11. Writing Effective Sentences
11. Writing Effective
Sentences
COMBINING SENTENCES
REVISING RUNON SENTENCES
11a. Improve short, choppy sentences by
11b. Avoid using run-on sentences.
combining them into longer, smoother sentences.
If you run together two complete sentences as if
they were one sentence, you get a run-on sentence.
There are many ways to combine sentences.
(1) Insert words and phrases.
The pan was hot. The pan was made
of iron.
COMBINED
The iron pan was hot.
(2) Use coordinating conjunctions.
CHOPPY
Father likes steak. Mother does, too.
COMBINED
Father and Mother like steak.
CHOPPY
The play was excellent. The movie
was not.
COMBINED
The play was excellent, but the
movie was not.
(3) Use subordinate clauses.
CHOPPY
I sliced the meat. It was already
cooked.
COMBINED
I sliced the meat that was already
cooked.
CHOPPY
This poet values individuality, he also
respects tradition.
A comma splice is a kind of run-on sentence in
which a comma is used without a coordinating
conjunction to join independent clauses. The run-on
sentence above is a comma splice. Here are two of
the ways you can revise run-on sentences.
RUN-ON
(1) You can make two sentences.
This poet values individuality. He also
respects tradition.
(2) You can use a comma and the coordinating
conjunction and, but, or or.
REVISED
This poet values individuality, but he
also respects tradition.
REVISED
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 103–118
11b. Note Have students try
reading their work aloud. If they
run out of breath before they
get to a punctuation mark, they
have probably found a run-on
sentence. Remind students that
punctuation marks are there
to indicate natural stops and
pauses according to the sense
of the words and ideas being
expressed.
Resource Center
Answers:
1. Though commas seemed
complicated, Andrea Hull
knew how to use them.
2. Andrea Hull, who knew more
than young Jean, taught Jean
many things.
3. Embroidery is beautiful, but it
can be tedious.
4. After she stretched the cloth,
she marked her pattern and
began stitching.
5. After a design is finished,
everyone can enjoy it.
Variety can make your writing more interesting. You can improve your writing by varying the length and
structure of your sentences.
Use simple sentences to expresses single ideas.
To describe more complicated ideas and
to show relationships between them, use compound and complex sentences.
Language Handbook
Your Turn
RESOURCE CENTER
Your Turn
Language Handbook 1079
e9nas7_bkm_03b.indd 1079
10/22/07 12:21:14 PM
Language Handbook
1079
RESOURCE CENTER
Answers:
1. Many legends, myths, and
fairy tales have survived
for centuries because they
address something important
in people.
2. Their impossibility continually
surprise and delight readers.
3. People have long told stories
that explain human behavior
and natural forces.
4. Children and their parents
read these stories or view
them on film.
5. The needs of a culture and the
details and ending of a story
may change, but the readers
remain.
Language Handbook
Resource Center
Language Handbook
Your Turn
REVISING STRINGY SENTENCES
AND WORDY SENTENCES
11c. Improve stringy and wordy sentences by
making them shorter and more precise.
STRINGY
The Hummingbird King was betrayed,
and an enemy betrayed him, and
Kukul turned into a hummingbird,
for the hummingbird symbolizes
freedom for the Maya, and even today
he watches all.
To fix a stringy sentence, you can break the sentence
into two or more sentences. You can also turn some
of the independent clauses into phrases or subordinate clauses.
REVISED
When the Hummingbird King was
betrayed by an enemy, Kukul turned
into a hummingbird, the symbol of
freedom for the Maya. Even today, he
watches all.
You can revise wordy sentences in three
different ways.
(1) Replace a group of words with one word.
With great sorrow, they mourned
their king.
REVISED Sorrowfully, they mourned their king.
(2) Replace a clause with a phrase.
WORDY When Kukul’s life ended, he turned
into a hummingbird.
REVISED After his death, Kukul turned into a
hummingbird.
(3) Take out a whole group of unnecessary
words.
WORDY What I mean to say is that Kukul is
known as the quetzal.
REVISED Kukul is known as the quetzal.
WORDY
Your Turn
Eliminating Wordiness
Extra words and phrases tend to make writing
sound awkward and unnatural. When revising
your writing, read your sentences aloud to check
for wordiness or a stringy style.
Revise each of the following sentences to eliminate wordiness and stringy style.
1. The reason that many legends, myths,
2.
3.
4.
5.
and fairy tales have survived for
centuries is that they address something
important in people.
They continually surprise and
delight readers due to the fact of their
impossibility.
People have long told stories that explain
human behavior and ones that explain
natural forces in the world.
Children read these stories or view them
on film, and so do their parents.
The needs of a culture change, and details
of the story change, and the ending may
change, but the readers remain.
Quick Check
1080 Resource Center
1 Revising Sentences Have students use the
methods they’ve learned in this section to improve
the following choppy, run-on, stringy, and wordy
sentences.
1. The poem is based on a legend about a boy who
becomes an animal. It was written by our own
poet laureate. Answer: Written by our own poet
laureate, the poem is based on a legend about a boy
who becomes an animal.
e9nas7_bkm_03b.indd 1080
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Resource Center
2. The legend describes an extraordinary moment.
This extraordinary moment is filled with complex 10/22/07
meaning. The meaning includes self-assertion and
self-acceptance. Answer: The poet describes an
extraordinary moment filled with complex meaning,
which includes self-assertion and self-acceptance.
3. Many people all over the world have legends;
these legends tell of people being turned into
animals. Answer: The world over, many legends tell
of people being turned into animals.
12:21:27 PM
Who gets a place in the choir?
12b. Capitalize the pronoun I.
I enjoyed the book, but I didn’t like the film.
12c. Capitalize the interjection O.
The interjection O is most often used on solemn or
formal occasions.
Protect us in the battle, O great Athena!
The interjection oh requires a capital letter only at
the beginning of a sentence.
Oh, look at the sunset!
We felt tired but, oh, so victorious.
12d. Capitalize proper nouns.
While a common noun is capitalized only when it
begins a sentence or is part of a title, a proper noun
is always capitalized. Some proper nouns consist of
more than one word. In these names, short prepositions (those of fewer than five letters) and articles (a,
an, the) are not capitalized.
statue, man
Statue of Liberty, Moses
(1) Capitalize the names of persons
and animals.
Alice Walker, Lassie
COMMON NOUNS
12d. Computer Note Advise
students to use their computer
spellchecker to help capitalize
names correctly. Suggest that
they make a list of the names
they write most often and then
add this list to their computer’s
dictionary or spellchecker.
Resource Center
Bacon states, “Knowledge is power.”
Traditionally, the first word in a line of poetry is
capitalized.
It was many and many a year ago,
In a kingdom by the sea,
That a maiden there lived whom you may know
By the name of Annabel Lee;
And this maiden she lived with no other thought
Than to love and be loved by me.
—Edgar Allen Poe, “Annabel Lee”
Language Handbook
The first word of a sentence that is a direct quotation
is capitalized even if the quotation begins within
a sentence.
Towns, Cities
San Diego, Jamestown
Islands
Isle of Wight, Wake Island
Counties, States
Cook County, New Hampshire
Countries
New Zealand, Germany
Bodies of Water
Gulf of Mexico, Indian Ocean
Forests, Parks
Sherwood Forest, Central Park
Streets, Highways
Route 44, West Fourth Street
Mountains
Mount Shasta, Big Horn Mountain
Continents
South America, Asia
Regions
the West Coast, the Great Plains
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 119–124
12a. Note Explain to students
that some modern poets and
writers do not follow the rule of
capitalizing each line of a poem.
Advise students to follow the
capitalization used in the source
of the quotation when quoting
a poem.
Language Handbook
12a. Capitalize the first word in each sentence.
(2) Capitalize geographical names.
RESOURCE CENTER
12. Capital Letters
12. Capital Letters
Words such as north, east, and southwest are not
capitalized when they indicate direction, but they
are capitalized when they are part of a proper name.
go south for the winter, East End Cafe
In a hyphenated street number, the second part of
the number is not capitalized.
Seventy-eighth Street
(3) Capitalize the names of planets, stars, and
other heavenly bodies.
Jupiter, Sirius, Milky Way, Big Dipper
The word earth is not capitalized unless it is used
along with the names of other heavenly bodies
that are capitalized. The words sun and moon are
not capitalized.
PROPER NOUNS
Quick Checks
1 Capitalization Most of the following sentences
contain errors in capitalization. If a sentence is correct,
have students leave it as is. If there are errors in the use
of capitals, have students correct the word or words that
should be changed.
1. If i need a ride, i will give you a call. Answer: I, I
2. Loretta is in Maine, but Oh, how she would like to
visit Paris. Answer: oh
3. oh no, I left my backpack on the bus! Answer: Oh
e9nas7_bkm_03b.indd 1081
Language Handbook 1081
2 Capitalization Have students correct each of the
following expressions, using capital letters as needed. 10/22/07
1. decisions of the united states supreme court Answer: decisions of the United States Supreme Court
2. three skeleton key, an island off guiana Answer:
Three Skeleton Key, an island off Guiana
3. pictures of saturn sent by voyager 2 Answer:
pictures of Saturn sent by Voyager 2
4. the apaches of the southwest Answer: the Apaches
of the Southwest
7:28:55 AM
Language Handbook
1081
RESOURCE CENTER
Language Handbook
Resource Center
Language Handbook
12g. Note Explain to students
that the article the before a title
is not capitalized unless it is the
first word of the title.
Is that the late edition of the
Chicago Sun-Times?
I read an interesting story in The
New Yorker.
If students are not sure whether
the is part of a magazine’s title,
advise them to look for the official title in the magazine’s masthead or on the table-of-contents
page. For a newspaper, look on
the editorial page. For a book,
look on the title page.
(4) Capitalize the names of teams, organizations, government bodies, businesses,
and institutions.
(8) Capitalize the names of buildings
and other structures.
Teams
Detroit Pistons, Seattle Seahawks
Organizations
Girl Scouts, African Studies Association
Government Bodies
Coast Guard, Department of Agriculture
Businesses
Tom’s Ski World, Seaside Cycle Shop
Institutions
Cary Hospital, Hilltop High School
(5) Capitalize the names of historical
events and periods, special events,
and calendar items.
Historical Events
Battle of Yorktown, Yalta Conference
Historical Periods
Great Depression, Middle Ages
Special Events
Iowa State Fair, Cannes Film Festival
Calendar Items
Friday, Fourth of July
(9) Capitalize the names of monuments
and awards.
The name of a season is not capitalized unless it is
part of a proper name.
the last day of summer
the Oak Ridge Winter Carnival
(6) Capitalize the names of nationalities, races,
and peoples.
Greek, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic, Shawnee
(7 Capitalize the names of religions and their
followers, holy days, sacred writings, and
specific deities.
Religions and Followers
Zen Buddhism, Christianity, Muslim
Holy Days
Passover, Lent, Ramadan
Sacred Writings
Tao Te Ching, Bible, Talmud, Koran
Specific Deities
Holy Spirit, Brahma, Allah, Jehovah
The word god is not capitalized when it refers to a
mythological god. The names of specific gods, however, are capitalized.
Ritz Theater, Golden Gate Bridge
Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Purple Heart
(10) Capitalize the names of trains, ships,
aircraft, and spacecraft.
Trains
Silver Rocket, Orient Express
Ships
Nina, Santa Maria
Aircraft
Spirit of St. Louis, Air Force One
Spacecraft
Apollo II, Columbia
(11) Capitalize the brand names of business
products.
Nike shoes, Buick sedan, Wrangler jeans
12e. Capitalize proper adjectives.
A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun
and is usually capitalized.
PROPER NOUN
PROPER ADJECTIVE
Rome
Roman army
12f. Do not capitalize the names of school
subjects, except language classes and course
names followed by a number.
I have tests in English, math, and Art II.
12g. Capitalize titles.
(1) Capitalize the title of a person when it
comes before a name.
Does Ms. Tam know Governor Halsey?
(2) Capitalize a title used alone or following
a person’s name only when you want to
emphasize the person’s high position.
We grew quiet as the Rabbi rose to speak.
Is he the rabbi at the new synagogue?
A title used alone in direct address is often
capitalized.
Is the patient resting comfortably, Nurse?
The king of Greek gods was Zeus.
Quick Check
1082 Resource Center
3 Capitalization Have students use capital or
lowercase letters to correct each error in capitalization
in the following sentences.
1. When my aunt Rose and I went to Mexico, she
introduced me to grandmother Villa. Answers:
Aunt Rose, Grandmother Villa
2. Try looking up that word in the american heritage
dictionary. Answer: The American Heritage
Dictionary
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Resource Center
3. Did you hear commissioner of education boylan’s
speech? Answer: Commissioner of Education
Boylan’s speech
4. Did the treasurer review the club’s budget, senator? Answer: Senator
5. When I get older, I hope I will be like the father in
“My Father Is A Simple Man.” Answer: “My Father
is a Simple Man.”
10/22/07 7:29:08 AM
Do not capitalize a word showing a family relationship when a possessive comes before the word.
Your Turn
Correcting Errors in
Capitalization
Good editing is essential for good writing. Revise
the following sentences by correcting the errors
in capitalization.
the ryan family takes a trip West.
2. This Year they traveled to california in
their new buick.
13. Punctuation
in hollywood.
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 125–134
3. On Day one they visited a Movie Studio
4. On one of the Sets they saw lassie.
5. Later they went to the rose bowl to hear
Resource Center
1. Each Summer around the fourth of july,
Language Handbook
Angela’s mother and my grandmother Daphne
coach the softball team.
(4) Capitalize the first, last, and all important
words in titles.
Unimportant words in titles include: prepositions of
fewer than five letters (such as at, of, for, from, with);
coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so,
yet); articles (a, an, the).
Books
The Old Man and the Sea, Jane Eyre
Magazines
Sports Illustrated, Woman’s Day
Newspapers
Los Angeles Times, The Miami Herald
Poems
“Annabel Lee,” “Mending Wall”
Short Stories
“The Bear,” “A Day’s Wait”
Historical Documents
Bill of Rights, Emancipation Proclamation
Answers:
1. Each summer around the
Fourth of July, the Ryan family
takes a trip west.
2. This year they traveled to
California in their new Buick.
3. On day one they visited a
movie studio in Hollywood.
4. On one of the sets they saw
Lassie.
5. Later they went to the Rose
Bowl to hear the new symphony play Rossini’s William
Tell Overture.
Language Handbook
Hey, Mom, I received a letter from Aunt
Christina and Uncle Garth.
Your Turn
Movies
Stand and Deliver, Jurassic Park
Television Programs
Law & Order, A Different World
Works of Art
Birth of Venus, The Old Guitarist
Musical Compositions
The Marriage of Figaro, “In the Pines”
RESOURCE CENTER
(3) Capitalize a word showing a family relationship when the word is used before or in
place of a person’s name.
13. Punctuation
End Marks
An end mark is a mark of punctuation placed at
the end of a sentence. The three kinds of end
marks are the period, the question mark, and the
exclamation point.
13a. Use a period at the end of a statement.
Kristi Yamaguchi is a champion skater.
13c. Use an exclamation point at the end of
an exclamation.
Wow! What a view!
13d. Use a period or an exclamation point at the
end of a request or a command.
Please give me the scissors. [a request]
Give me the scissors! [a command]
13b. Use a question mark at the end of a question.
Did Gordon Parks write The Learning Tree?
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Language Handbook
13e. Notes Explain to students
that a two-letter state abbreviation without periods is used
only when it is followed by a ZIP
Code.
Austin, TX 78741
Some widely used abbreviations
are written without periods.
UN, FBI, PTA, NAACP, PBS, CNN,
YMCA, VHF
Abbreviations for most units of
measure are written without
periods.
cm, kg, ml, ft, lb, mi, oz, qt
However, the abbreviation for
inch (in.) is written with a period
to prevent confusion with the
word in. If students are not sure
whether to use periods with
abbreviations, they should look
in a dictionary.
13i. Note Explain to students
that an essential (or restrictive)
phrase or clause is not set off.
It cannot be omitted without
changing the meaning of the
sentence.
Essential Phrase: All the spirits
toiling in Hades stopped and
listened.
Essential Clause: The song that
Orpheus sang charmed the king
of Hades.
13e. Use a period after most abbreviations.
COMPOUND SENTENCES
Personal Names
Pearl S. Buck, W.E.B. Du Bois
Titles Used with Names
Mr., Ms., Jr., Sr., Dr.
States
Ky., Fla., Tenn., Calif.
Addresses
St., Blvd., P.O. Box
Organizations and Companies
Co., Inc., Corp., Assn.
Times
A.M., P.M., B.C., A.D.
Place A.D. before the number and B.C. after the
number. For centuries expressed in words,
place both A.D. and B.C. after the century.
A.D. 540, 31 B.C.
sixth century B.C., third century A.D.
When an abbreviation with a period ends a sentence, another period is not needed. However, a
question mark or an exclamation point is used as
needed.
This is my friend J. R.
Have you met Nguyen, J. R.?
13h. Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, so,
Commas
ITEMS IN A SERIES
13f. Use commas to separate items in a series.
Words, phrases, and clauses in a series are separated
by commas to show the reader where one item in
the series ends and the next item begins.
Hammock, canoe, and moccasin
are Native American words.
PHRASES IN A SERIES
Seaweed was in the water, on
the beach, and in our shoes.
CLAUSES IN A SERIES
Tell us who was there,
what happened, and why
it happened.
If all items in a series are joined by and or or,
commas are not needed.
I voted for Corey and Mona and Ethan.
WORDS IN A SERIES
13g. Use a comma to separate two or more
adjectives that come before a noun.
or yet when it joins independent clauses.
I enjoyed The King and I, but Oklahoma! is still
my favorite musical.
You may omit the comma before and, but, or, or nor
if the clauses are very short and there is no chance
of misunderstanding.
INTERRUPTERS
13i. Use commas to set off an expression that
interrupts a sentence.
Yes, my favorite gospel singers, BeBe and CeCe
Winans, were on TV, Ed.
(1) Use commas to set off a nonessential
participial phrase or a nonessential subordinate clause.
NONESSENTIAL PHRASE Orpheus, mourning his
bride, entered Hades.
NONESSENTIAL CLAUSE Orpheus, who was a
musician, met a cruel fate.
(2) Use commas to set off an appositive or an
appositive phrase that is nonessential.
APPOSITIVE
The gray ferryman,
Charon, did not charge
any fare.
APPOSITIVE PHRASE
Even Cerberus, the dog at
the gate, listened.
(3) Use commas to set off words used in
direct address.
Do you know, Elena, when the bus is due?
(4) Use commas to set off a parenthetical
expression.
A parenthetical expression is a side remark that either adds information or relates ideas in a sentence.
What, in your opinion, is the best solution to
this problem? [parenthetical]
I have faith in your opinion. [not parenthetical]
INTRODUCTORY WORDS,
PHRASES, AND CLAUSES
13j. Use a comma after certain introductory
elements.
An Arabian horse is a fast, beautiful animal.
Quick Checks
1084 Resource Center
1 End Marks Have students add end marks where
they are needed in the following sentences.
1. Have you ever heard of Little Tokyo Answer: Have
you ever heard of Little Tokyo?
2. It’s a Japanese neighborhood in Los Angeles, Calif,
bordered by First St, Third St, Alameda St, and Los
Angeles St Answer: It’s a Japanese neighborhood
in Los Angeles, Calif., bordered by First St., Third St.,
Alameda St., and Los Angeles St.
3. Some friends of ours who live in Los Angeles, Mr
and Mrs Cook, Sr, and their son, Al, Jr, introduced
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us to the area Answer: Some friends of ours who
live in Los Angeles, Mr. and Mrs. Cook, Sr., and their
son, Al, Jr., introduced us to the area.
2 Commas Have students insert commas where
they are needed in the following sentences.
1. Horrified by the sight of his daughter Midas wept.
Answer: Horrified by the sight of his daughter,
Midas wept.
2. Well Midas left the palace went to Dionysus and
begged for relief. Answer: Well, Midas left the
palace, went to Dionysus, and begged for relief.
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situations.
(1) Use commas to separate items in dates
and addresses.
They met on June 17, 1965, in Miami.
My address is 10 Cocoa Lane, Orlando, FL
32804.
(2) Use a comma after the salutation of a
friendly letter and after the closing of
any letter.
Dear Aunt Margaret,
Sincerely yours,
Semicolons
13l. Use a semicolon instead of a comma between
independent clauses when they are not joined by
and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet.
Our parents settled our dispute; they gave us
each half.
Use a semicolon rather than a period between
independent clauses only when the ideas in the
clauses are closely related.
For camping you need the following: bedroll,
utensils for eating, warm clothing, and rope.
13n. Use a colon in certain conventional
situations.
(1) Use a colon between the hour and
the minute.
11:30 p.m., 4:08 a.m.
(2) Use a colon after the salutation of
business letter.
Your Turn
Dear Ms. Gonzalez:
(3) Use a colon between chapter and verse in
referring to passages from the Bible.
John 3:16, Matthew 6:9–13
Your Turn
Using Semicolons Effectively
Sometimes, rather than using a semicolon, it is
more effective to separate a compound sentence or a heavily punctuated sentence into two
sentences.
ACCEPTABLE
BETTER
In South American jungles, it rains
every day, sometimes all day; the vegetation there, some of which is found
nowhere else in the world, is lush,
dense, and fast-growing.
In South American jungles, it rains
every day, sometimes all day. The vegetation there, some of which is found
nowhere else in the world, is lush,
dense, and fast-growing.
Possible Answers:
1. The frogs wanted a king who
could amuse them with royal
customs. A strong ruler would
be exciting, they thought.
2. Jupiter heard their request,
and though he granted it, he
felt they were foolish.
3. Jupiter threw down a large
log, and it landed next to the
frogs.
Resource Center
13k. Use commas in certain conventional
after expressions like as follows or the following.
Language Handbook
CONVENTIONAL SITUATIONS
13m. Use a colon before a list of items, especially
Language Handbook
Yes, King Midas had been foolish.
(2) Use a comma after an introductory prepositional phrase if the phrase is long or if two
or more phrases appear together.
Long ago in a land called Lydia, King Midas
lived.
In the garden of his palace, he met Silenus.
(3) Use a comma after a participial phrase or an
infinitive phrase that introduces a sentence.
PARTICIPIAL PHRASE Threatened by Midas, the
satyr struck a bargain.
INFINITIVE PHRASE
To reward Midas, Dionysus
offered a gift.
(4) Use a comma after an introductory
adverb clause.
When his daughter arrived, he warned her to
leave quickly.
13n. Note Explain to students
that a colon is not used directly
after a verb or a preposition.
Omit the colon, or reword the
sentence.
Incorrect: My stepsister’s favorite sports are: basketball, tennis,
swimming, and bowling.
Correct: My stepsister’s favorite
sports are basketball, tennis, swimming, and bowling.
COLONS
RESOURCE CENTER
(1) Use a comma after yes, no, or any mild exclamation such as well or why at the beginning
of a sentence.
Decide whether the following ideas is better
expressed as a single sentence or as two or more
sentences. Revise sentences for style and clarity.
1. The frogs wanted a king, one who could
amuse them with royal customs; they
thought a strong ruler would be exciting.
2. Jupiter heard their request; he granted it;
he felt they were foolish.
3. Jupiter threw down a large log; the log
landed next to the frogs.
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3. Dionysus sometimes a merciful god told him to go
to Pactolus. Answer: Dionysus, sometimes a merciful
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god, told him to go to Pactolus.
4. In the deep strong waters of the river Midas washed
himself. Answer: In the deep, strong waters of the
river, Midas washed himself.
5. My friend do not make Midas’s error or you may not
find mercy. Answer: My friend, do not make Midas’s
error, or you may not find mercy.
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Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 135–139
14a. Computer Note Explain to
students that they may be able
to set words in italics themselves
with a computer. Most wordprocessing software and many
printers are capable of producing
italic type.
Language Handbook
Resource Center
Language Handbook
14. Punctuation
14a. Note Explain to students
that the article the before the
title of a magazine or a newspaper is usually neither italicized
nor capitalized when it is written
with a sentence. Some periodicals do include the in their titles.
My parents subscribe to the
San Francisco Chronicle.
On Sundays, we all share
The New York Times.
14. Punctuation
Underlining (Italics)
QUOTATION MARKS
Italics are printed letters that lean to the right, such
as the letters in these words. In handwritten work,
indicate italics by underlining.
14c. Use quotation marks to enclose a direct
TYPED
PUBLISHED
Born Free is the story of a lion.
Born Free is the story of a lion.
14a. Use underlining (italics) for titles of books,
plays, periodicals, works of art, films, television
programs, recordings, long musical compositions,
trains, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft.
Books
Barrio Boy, House Made of Dawn
Plays
Macbeth, Visit to a Small Planet
Periodicals
Hispanic, The New York Times
Works of Art
The Thinker, American Gothic
Films
Stand and Deliver, JurassicPark
Television Programs
Home Improvement, Wall Street Week
Recordings
Unforgettable, Man of Steel
Long Musical Compositions
Don Giovanni, The Four Seasons
Ships and Trains
USS Nimitz, Orient Express
Aircraft and Spacecraft
Enola Gay, Apollo 12
14b. Use underlining (italics) for words, letters,
and figures referred to as such.
Don’t forget to drop the final e before you
add -ing to the word dine.
Is the last number a 5 or an 8?
quotation—a person’s exact words.
“Here is Eric’s drawing,” said Ms. Rios.
Quotation marks are not used for an indirect quotation, which is a rewording of a direct quotation.
DIRECT QUOTATION
INDIRECT QUOTATION
Kaya asked, “What is your
interpretation of the poem?”
Kaya asked what my interpretation of the poem was.
14d. A direct quotation begins with a
capital letter.
Brandon shouted, “Let’s get busy!”
14e. When the expression identifying the speaker
interrupts a quoted sentence, the second part of
the quotation begins with a lowercase letter.
“Gee,” Milo added, “that book is funny.”
When the second part of a divided quotation is a
separate sentence, it begins with a capital letter.
“Travel is exciting,” said Mrs. Ash. “Space travel is
no exception.”
14f. A direct quotation is set off from the rest of
the sentence by a comma, a question mark, or an
exclamation point, but not by a period.
Set off means “separated.” If a quotation appears at
the beginning of a sentence, place a comma after it.
If a quotation falls at the end of a sentence, place a
comma before it. If a quoted sentence is interrupted,
place a comma after the first part and before the
second part.
“I just read her story,” Aly said.
Mark said, “I’ve read her stories, too.”
“Aly,” asked Janet, “what did you read?”
When a quotation ends with a question mark or
an exclamation point, no comma is needed.
“Have you seen my brother?” Alicia asked.
Quick Check
1086 Resource Center
1 Using Italics Have students identify the words
that should be italicized in each of the following
sentences.
1. Sometimes I forget the r in the word friend and
write fiend. Answers: r, friend, fiend
2. Pablo Picasso’s famous painting Guernica is named
for a Spanish town that was bombed during the
Spanish Civil War. Answer: Guernica
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3. My father reads the Washington Post because he
likes Carl Rowan’s column. Answer: Washington
Post
4. The movie My Left Foot celebrates the accomplishments of a writer and artist who has serious
disabilities. Answer: My Left Foot
5. Janice finally found her mistake; she had written
the 4 in the wrong column. Answer: 4
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short works.
Ramón said, “My brother loves poetry.”
“My sister does too,” Paula responded.
14h. A question mark or an exclamation point is
When both the sentence and the quotation at the
end of the sentence are questions (or exclamations),
only one end mark is used. It is placed inside the
closing quotation marks.
Whose poem begins “How do I love thee?”
14i. When you write dialogue (conversation),
begin a new paragraph each time you change
speakers.
“Frog, how may we help you?”
“Uh, well, uh, you see,” says Frog, “I would like
to become a part of your group.”
“That’s wonderful,” says the head bird.
“Yes, wonderful,” echo the other birds.
—Linda Goss, “The Frog Who Wanted to
Be a Singer”
Your Turn
Correcting Punctuation
Correct the punctuation in the following
sentences by adding underlining and quotation
marks as needed.
1. Which Beatles song do you like best?
Ramon asked his grandmother.
2. Well, she said, my favorite is probably
Resource Center
“Is the time difference between Los Angeles and
Chicago two hours?” asked Ken. [The quotation is a question.]
Linda exclaimed, “I thought everyone knew that!”
[The quotation is an exclamation.]
What did Sandra Cisneros mean when she
wrote “Keep, keep, keep, trees say when I
sleep”? [The sentence, not the quotation, is a
question.]
I can’t believe that Mom said, “I’m not raising
your allowance”! [The sentence, not the quotation, is an exclamation.]
Answers:
1. “Which Beatles song do you
like best?” Ramon asked his
grandmother.
2. “Well,” she said, “my favorite is
probably ‘Yesterday.’”
3. “Too much!” replied Ramon.
“That’s Granddad’s favorite
too.”
4. Jimmy added, “My mom
knows all the words.”
5. “Do you know what they
meant by the line ‘Love is
such an easy game to play’?”
Ramon asked.
Short Stories
“Papa’s Parrot,” “Amigo Brothers”
Poems
“Early Song,” “The Runaway”
Articles
“Free Speech and Free Air”
Songs
“La Bamba,” “Amazing Grace”
Television Program Episodes
“The Trouble with Tribbles”
Chapters and Other Book Parts
“Learning About Reptiles”
Language Handbook
placed inside the closing quotation marks when
the quotation itself is a question or exclamation.
Otherwise, it is placed outside.
Your Turn
Language Handbook
14l. Use quotation marks to enclose titles of
closing quotation marks.
RESOURCE CENTER
14g. A period or a comma is placed inside the
Yesterday.
3. Too much! replied Ramon. That’s
Grandad’s favorite, too.
4. Jimmy added, He knows all the words.
5. Do you know what they meant by the
line Love is such an easy game to play?
Ramon asked.
14j. When a quotation consists of several
sentences, place quotation marks at the beginning
and at the end of the whole quotation.
“Take the garbage out. Clean your room. Have
fun!” said Dad.
14k. Use single quotation marks to enclose a
quotation within a quotation.
“I said, ‘The quiz will be this Friday,’ “repeated
Mr. Allyn.
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15a. Note Explain to students
that a proper name ending in s
may take only an apostrophe to
form the possessive case if the
addition of ‘s would make the
name awkward to pronounce.
Ms. Masters’ class, Hercules’ feats
15b. Note Explain to students
that an apostrophe is not used
with possessive personal pronouns.
His pantomime was good, but
hers was better.
RESOURCE CENTER
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 140–146
Language Handbook
Resource Center
Language Handbook
15. Punctuation
Tips for Spelling
Explain to students that hyphens
are used in some compound
names. In such cases, the hyphen
is part of the name’s spelling.
Advise students to consult a reference source if unsure whether
a name is hyphenated.
People: Daniel Day-Lewis
Places: Wilkes-Barre [city]
15. Punctuation
Apostrophes
15a. The possessive case of a noun or a pronoun
shows ownership or relationship.
(1) To form the possessive case of a singular
noun, add an apostrophe and an s.
a dog’s collar, Cinderella’s slipper
(2) To form the possessive case of a plural noun
ending in s, add only the apostrophe.
doctors’ opinions, hosts’
invitations
(3) To form the possessive case of a plural noun
that does not end in s, add an apostrophe
and an s.
women’s suits, geese’s noise
(4) To form the possessive case of some indefinite pronouns, add an apostrophe and an s.
someone’s opinion, no one’s fault
15b. To form a contraction, use an apostrophe to
show where letters have been left out.
A contraction is a shortened form of a word, figure,
or group of words.
I am, I’m; where is, where’s;
1996, ‘96; of the clock, o’clock
The word not can be shortened to -n’t and added
to a verb, usually without changing the spelling of
the verb.
is not, isn’t
had not, hadn’t
do not, don’t
should not, shouldn’t
EXCEPTIONS
will not, won’t
cannot, can’t
Do not confuse contractions with possessive
pronouns.
Contractions
It’s snowing. [It is]
Who’s Clifton Davis? [Who is]
There’s only one answer. [There is]
They’re not here. [They are]
Possessive Pronouns
Its front tire is flat.
Whose idea was it?
This trophy is theirs.
Their dog is barking.
15c. Use an apostrophe and an s to form the plurals of letters, numerals, signs, and words
referred to as words.
Your 2’s look like 5’s.
Don’t use &’s in place of and’s.
Hyphens
15d. Use a hyphen to divide a word at the end of
a line.
(1) Divide a word only between syllables.
Didn’t Carrie write her report on the tyrannosaurs, the
largest meat-eating dinosaurs?
CORRECT
Didn’t Carrie write her report on the tyrannosaurs, the
largest meat-eating dinosaurs?
(2) Divide a hyphenated word at a hyphen.
INCORRECT
I went to the Iowa State Fair with
my sisters and my brother-in-l
aw.
CORRECT
I went to the Iowa State Fair with
my sisters and my brother-inlaw.
(3) Do not divide a word so that one letter
stands alone.
INCORRECT
On our last class trip, all of us stayed overnight in a hotel.
CORRECT
On our last class trip, all of
us stayed overnight in a hotel.
INCORRECT
15e. Use a hyphen with compound numbers from
twenty-one to ninety-nine and with fractions used
as adjectives.
thirty-five, one-half, forty-eighth
Quick Check
1088 Resource Center
1 Apostrophes, Hyphens, Parentheses, and
Dashes For each of the following sentences, have
students insert apostrophes, hyphens, parentheses, or
dashes where they are needed.
1. My cousin Dorothy, everybodys favorite, usually
gets all As. Answers: everybody’s; A’s.
2. It isn’t correct to use &s in your compositions.
Answer: &’s
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3. I painted its one hundred thirty one chairs a
tedious job, to say the least. Answer: I painted its
one-hundred-thirty-one chairs—a tedious job, to
say the least.
4. Last night, the restaurant was oh, hi, Ed about one
quarter full. Answer: Last night, the restaurant
was—oh, hi, Ed—about one-quarter full.
5. It’s decorated like an inn my restaurant won’t be.
Answer: It’s decorated like an inn (my restaurant
won’t be).
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is added to a sentence but is not considered of
major importance.
Ms. Matsuo served us the sushi (sü’ shē) chef.
My great-uncle Chester (he’s Grandma’s brother)
will stay with us.
Parenthetical Expressions
Using too many parenthetical expressions in your
writing can distract readers from the main idea.
Revise the following sentences to eliminate the
parentheses. If a sentence is best written with
parentheses, leave it as is.
1. Survive the Savage Sea (true stories are
15g. Use a dash to indicate an abrupt break in
thought or speech.
Ms. Alonzo—who just left—is one of the judges.
my favorites) is about people on a raft.
2. Yellowstone National Park (established
16. Spelling
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 147–153
Resource Center
in 1872) covers territory in Wyoming,
Idaho, and Montana.
3. The writer Langston Hughes (1902–1967)
is best known for his poetry.
4. Alligators use their feet and tails to dig
holes (called “gator holes”) in marshy
fields.
5. On the Sabbath we eat braided bread
called challah (pronounced KHä’la).
Answers:
1. Survive the Savage Sea is about
people on a raft. True stories
are my favorites.
2. Established in 1872,
Yellowstone National Park
covers territory in Wyoming,
Idaho, and Montana.
3. as is
4. Alligators use their feet and
tails to dig holes, called “gator
holes,” in marshy fields.
5. as is
Language Handbook
Dashes
Your Turn
Eliminating Unnecessary
Language Handbook
15f. Use parentheses to enclose material that
Your Turn
RESOURCE CENTER
Parentheses
16. Spelling
Using Word Parts
16b. A prefix is one or more letters or syllables
Many English words are made up of various word
parts—roots, prefixes, or suffixes. Learning to spell
the most frequently used parts can help you spell
many words correctly.
16a. The root of a word is the part that carries the
word’s core meaning.
Root
Meaning
Examples
-dict-
speak
-duc-duct-ject-ped-vid-, -vis-
lead
throw
foot
see
dictation,
dictionary
educate
conductor
eject, reject
pedal, biped
video, invisible
added to the beginning of a word or a word part
to create a new word.
Prefix
Meaning
Examples
anticoinretrans-
against
with
not
back, again
across
antiwar
coexist
inaccurate
reclaim, rebuild
transport
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Language Handbook
16d. Note Tell students this
time-tested verse to help them
remember the ie rule.
I before e
Except after c
Or when sounded like a,
As in neighbor and weigh.
The rhyme above and rules 16d
and 16e apply only when the e
and i are in the same syllable.
16k. Note Explain to students
that when adding -ing to words
that end in ie, the e is dropped
and the i changes to y.
lie + ing = lying
die + ing = dying
16m. NOTE Explain to students
that in some cases, the final consonant either may or may not be
doubled.
cancel + ed = canceled or
cancelled
16c. A suffix is one or more letters or syllables
16h. When adding the suffix -ly or -ness to a word,
added to the end of a word or a word part to
create a new word.
do not change the spelling of the word itself.
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
-able
-ance, -ancy
able, likely
act, quality
-ate
-ize
-ness
become
cause to be
quality
readable
admittance,
constancy
captivate
socialize
peacefulness
Spelling Rules
IE AND EI
16d. Except after c, write ie when the sound is
long e.
achieve, believe, ceiling, receive
EXCEPTIONS
either, protein, neither, seize
16e. Write ei when the sound is not long e,
especially when the sound is long a.
foreign, neighbor, reign, their
EXCEPTIONS
ancient, conscience, efficient, friend
CEDE, CEED, AND SEDE
16f. The only English word ending in -sede is
supersede. The only words ending in -ceed are
exceed, proceed, and succeed. Other words with
this sound end in -cede.
concede, intercede, precede, recede
ADDING PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES
16g. When adding a prefix to a word, do not
change the spelling of the word itself.
mis + spell = misspell
slow + ly = slowly
EXCEPTIONS
For words that end in y and have
more than one syllable, change the y
to i before adding -ly or -ness.
happy + ly = happily
16i. Drop the final silent e before a suffix
beginning with a vowel.
line + ing = lining
EXCEPTIONS
Keep the final silent e in a word ending in ce or ge before a suffix beginning with a or o.
notice + able = noticeable,
courage + ous = courageous
16j. Keep the final silent e before a suffix
beginning with a consonant.
hope + less = hopeless
EXCEPTIONS
nine + th = ninth,
argue + ment =argument
16k. For words ending in y preceded by a
consonant, change the y to i before any suffix that
does not begin with i.
try + ed = tried, duty + ful = dutiful
16l. For words ending in y preceded by a vowel,
keep the y when adding a suffix.
pray + ing = praying
EXCEPTIONS
day—daily, lay—laid, pay—paid
16m. Double the final consonant before a suffix
beginning with a vowel if the word (1) has only
one syllable or the accent on the last syllable,
and (2) ends in a single consonant preceded by
a single vowel. Otherwise, the final consonant is
usually not doubled before a suffix beginning with
a vowel.
sit + ing = sitting, sing + er = singer
EXCEPTIONS
Do not double the final consonant
before a suffix beginning with a
vowel in words ending in w or x.
mow + ing = mowing,
wax + ed = waxed
Quick Checks
1090 Resource Center
1 IE and EI Have students add the letters ie or ei
to spell each of the following words correctly.
1. gr ..f Answer: grief
2. v . . n Answer: vein
3. n . . ce Answer: niece
4. sh .. ld Answer: shield
5. perc .. ve Answer: perceive
6. pat .. nce Answer: patience
7. th .. f Answer: thief
8. p .. rce Answer: pierce
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Resource Center
2 Prefixes and Suffixes Have students add the
given prefix or suffix to each word listed below.
1. im + migrate Answer: immigrate
2. re + settle Answer: resettle
3. un + certain Answer: uncertain
4. lucky + ly Answer: luckily
5. semi + circle Answer: semicircle
6. trace + able Answer: traceable
7. advantage + ous Answer: advantageous
8. dry + ness Answer: dryness
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desks ideas shoes friends
16o. For most nouns ending in s, x, z, ch, or sh,
add -es.
16p. For nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel,
add -s.
decoys highways alleys Rileys
16q. For nouns ending in y preceded by a
armies cities ponies daisies
Just add -s to proper nouns ending in -y.
Brady—Bradys
16r. For some nouns ending in f or fe, add -s. For
others, change the f or fe to v and add -es.
beliefs, sheriffs
knives, leaves
16s. For nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel,
add -s.
igloos Matteos patios stereos
16t. For nouns ending in o preceded by a
consonant, add -es.
echoes heroes potatoes tomatoes
EXCEPTIONS
For musical terms and proper nouns,
add -s.
alto—altos Blanco—Blancos
mice
oxen
16v. For most compound nouns, form the plural
of the last word in the compound.
bookshelves push-ups sea gulls
16w. For compound nouns in which one of the
words is modified by the other word or words,
form the plural of the word modified.
brothers-in-law boy scouts
16x. For some nouns, the singular and the plural
forms are the same.
deer moose Sioux trout
16y. For numerals, letters, symbols, and words
used as words, add an apostrophe and -s.
4's
s's $'s and's
Your Turn
Advise students to follow these
guidelines when using numbers
in their writing:
• Spell out a number that begins
a sentence.
Fifty people received free tickets.
• Within a sentence, spell out
numbers that can be written in
one or two words.
In all, fifty-two people worked on
our play.
• If you use several numbers,
some short and some long,
write them all the same way.
Usually, it is better to write
them all as numerals.
We sold 86 tickets today and 121
yesterday.
• Spell out numbers that indicate
order.
Our team came in third [not 3rd]
in the track meet.
Correcting Spelling Errors
Poor spelling can ruin good writing. Correct the
spelling errors in each of the following sentences.
1. The Bradyes love baseball.
2. Joe’s two brother-in-laws took him to
the game last night and even payed for
his ticket.
3. The releif pitcher was awesome.
4. He pitched a flawless nineth inning.
5. At the end of the game Joe conseded that
his team was outplayed.
Resource Center
consonant, change the y to i and add -es.
geese feet
Language Handbook
gases foxes waltzes inches
irregular ways.
Language Handbook
16n. For most nouns, add -s.
Tips for Spelling
16u. The plural of a few nouns is formed in
RESOURCE CENTER
FORMING THE PLURALS
OF NOUNS
Your Turn
Answers:
1. Bradys
2. brothers-in-law; paid
3. relief
4. ninth
5. conceded
Language Handbook 1091
3 Pluralization Have students spell the plural form
of each of the following items. [Note: An item may have
more than one correct plural form. Give only one.]
1. cargo Answer: cargoes
2. diary Answer: diaries
3. Gómez Answer: Gómezes
4. sit-up Answer: sit-ups
5. child Answer: children
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1091
RESOURCE CENTER
Language Handbook
Worksheets, pp. 154–157
17. a lot Note Tell students
that many writers overuse a lot.
Whenever students run across
a lot as they revise their writing,
they should try to replace it with
a more exact word or phrase.
Not: The dinner guests ate a lot.
But: The dinner guests piled their
plates with food.
Language Handbook
Resource Center
Language Handbook
17. Glossary of
Usage
17. good, well Note Explain
that feel good and feel well mean
different things. Feel good means
“feel happy or pleased.” Feel well
means “feel healthy.”
She felt good [happy] about her
Ta-Na-E-Ka.
Roger didn’t feel well [healthy] at
all and had lost weight.
17. Glossary of Usage
This Glossary of Usage is an alphabetical list of
words and expressions that are commonly misused
in English. Throughout this section some examples
are labeled standard or nonstandard.
Standard English is the most widely accepted form
of English. It is used in formal situations, such as in
speeches and writing for school, and in informal situations, such as in conversation and everyday writing.
Nonstandard English is language that does not follow the rules and guidelines of standard English.
all ready, already All ready means “completely
prepared.” Already means “before a certain point
in time.”
Everyone was all ready for the show.
That bill has already been paid.
all right Used as an adjective, all right means “
unhurt” or “satisfactory.” Used as an adverb, it means
“well enough.” All right should always be written as
two words.
Linda fell, but she is all right. [adjective]
You did all right at the track meet. [adverb]
a lot A lot should always be written as two words.
She knows a lot about computer software.
Many writers overuse a lot. Whenever you run across
a lot as you revise your own writing, try to replace it
with a more exact word or phrase.
anywheres, everywheres, nowheres, somewheres Use these words without the final s.
I didn’t go anywhere [not anywheres].
at Do not use at after where.
Where is it? [not Where is it at?]
bad, badly Bad is an adjective. Badly is an adverb.
The raw celery did not taste bad. [Bad modifies
the noun celery.]
One little boy behaved badly. [Badly modifies the
verb behaved.]
between, among Use between when referring to
two things, even though they are part of a group
containing more than two.
In homeroom, Carlos sits between Bob and me.
Some players practice between innings.
Use among to refer to a group rather than separate individuals.
We saved ten dollars among the three of us.
[As a group, the three saved ten dollars.]
There was disagreement among the fans bout
the coach’s decision. [The fans are thought of
as a group.]
bust, busted Avoid using these words as verbs. Use
a form of either burst or break.
The door burst [not busted] open and rats
teemed in.
What would happen if the window broke
[not busted]?
choose, chose Choose is the present tense form of
the verb choose. It rhymes with whose and means
“select.” Chose is the past tense form of choose. It
rhymes with grows and means “selected.”
Did you choose “Fish Cheeks” for your report?
Sara chose “Miss Awful.”
could of Do not write of with the helping verb
could. Write could have. Also avoid had of, ought to of,
should of, would of, might of, and must of.
All of Emily Dickinson’s poems could have [not
could of] been lost.
fewer, less Fewer tells “how many” and is used with
plural words. Less tells “how much and is used with
singular words.
We sold fewer [not less] tickets than they did.
These plants require less water than those do.
good, well Good is always an adjective. Use well, not
good, as an adverb.
Nancy sang well [not good] at the audition.
Well may also be used as an adjective to
mean “healthy.”
He didn’t look well after eating the pizza.
had ought, hadn’t ought Had should not be used
with ought.
Eric ought [not had ought] to help us; he
oughtn’t [not hadn’t ought] to have missed
our meeting yesterday.
he, she, they Avoid using a pronoun with its antecedent as the subject of a verb. This error is called
the double subject.
NONSTANDARD
Linda Goss she is a writer.
STANDARD
Linda Goss is a writer.
Quick Checks
1092 Resource Center
1 Correct Usage Have students revise each of the
following sentences to correct any errors in usage.
1. Alot of stars and planets have names from mythology. Answer: A lot of stars and planets have names
from mythology.
2. Icarus had ought to have listened to his father.
Answer: Icarus ought to have listened to his father.
3. If he had listened, he could of survived. Answer: If
he had listened, he could have survived.
4. I wonder how come he didn’t listen. Answer: I
wonder why he didn’t listen.
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5. Surely, Daedalus’s heart was busted by the death
of his son. Answer: Surely, Daedalus’s heart was
broken by the death of his son.
2 Correct Usage Have students revise the following sentences to correct any errors in usage.
1. The reason they forfeited was because Dondré
couldn’t play there. Answer: They forfeited because
Dondré couldn’t play there.
2. What was going on inside of their heads? Answer:
What was going on inside their heads?
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Resource Center
Your Turn
Language Handbook
Furnishings in a space capsule must be
stationary.
I need a new box of stationery.
them Them should not be used as an adjective.
Use those.
The fox couldn’t get those [not them] grapes.
way, ways Use way, not ways, in referring to a
distance.
They still had a long way [not ways] to go.
when, where Do not use when or where incorrectly
in a definition.
NONSTANDARD In bowling, a “turkey” is when you
make three strikes in a row.
STANDARD
In bowling, a “turkey” is making
three strikes in a row.
where Do not use where for that.
I read that [not where] he won the match.
who, which, that The relative pronoun who refers to
people only; which refers to things only; that refers
to either people or things.
Kim is the one who got the answer. [person]
My bike, which has ten speeds, is for sale. [thing]
He is the one person that [person] can help you
find the ring that [thing] you want.
without, unless Do not use the preposition without
in place of the conjunction unless.
My mother said I can’t go unless [not without] I
finish my homework first.
Answers:
1. Hercules was extraordinarily
strong.
2. He accomplished many tasks
that were amazingly hard.
3. Stories of his labors are
extremely interesting.
4. They have endured an
exceptionally long time.
5. Even today, very young
children know his story from
television shows.
Language Handbook
how come In informal situations, how come is
often used instead of why. In formal situations,
why should always be used.
INFORMAL I don’t know how come she didn’t take
the garbage out.
FORMAL
I don’t know why she didn’t take the
garbage out.
kind of, sort of In informal situations, kind of and
sort of are often used to mean “somewhat” or “rather.” In formal English, somewhat or rather is preferred.
INFORMAL He seemed kind of embarrassed by our
applause.
FORMAL
He seemed somewhat embarrassed by
our applause.
learn, teach Learn means “gain knowledge.” Teach
means “instruct” or “show how.”
He is learning how to play the guitar.
His father is teaching him how to play.
like, as In informal situations, the preposition like is
often used instead of the conjunction as to introduce a clause. In formal situations, as is preferred.
Look in the dictionary, as [not like] the
teacher suggests.
like, as if, as though In informal situations, the
preposition like is often used for the compound
conjunctions as if or as though. In formal situations,
as if or as though is preferred.
They acted as if [not like] they hadn’t heard the
question. You looked as though [not like] you
knew the answer.
of Do not use of with other prepositions such as
inside, off, and outside.
Did anyone fall off [not of] the raft?
reason . . . because In informal situations, reason .
. . because is often used instead of reason . . . that. In
formal situations, use reason . . . that, or revise your
sentence.
INFORMAL
The reason I did well on the test was
because I had studied hard.
FORMAL
The reason I did well on the test was
that I had studied hard.
some, somewhat Do not use some for somewhat as
an adverb.
My writing improved somewhat [not some].
Your Turn
stationary, stationery The adjective stationary
means “in a fixed position.” The noun stationery
means “writing paper.”
RESOURCE CENTER
hisself Hisself is nonstandard English. Use himself.
Ira bought himself [not hisself] a tie.
Using Adverbs Appropriately
Informally, the adjective real is often used as an
adverb meaning “extremely.” In formal situations,
extremely or another adverb is preferred
INFORMAL
FORMAL
I’m expecting a real important
telephone call.
I’m expecting an extremely important
telephone call.
Revise the following sentences by substituting a
variety of adverbs for the word real.
1. Hercules was real strong.
2. He accomplished real hard tasks.
3. Stories of his labors are real interesting.
Language Handbook 1093
3. They would not play without their teammate could
play, too. Answer: They would not play unless their
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teammate could play, too.
4. That story learned me something about loyalty.
Answer: That story taught me something about
loyalty.
5. True friendship is where people value each other as
much as themselves. Answer: True friendship means
that people value each other as much as themselves.
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