ADVANCED CARDIOVASCULAR & RESISTANCE TRAINING MANUAL LEVEL 3 Impact Training Professionalising the Fitness Industry in the Middle East www.impactbts.com 00971 4 4520247 www.facebook.com/impact.bts CONTENTS Section 1 5 Introduction 5 Section 2 6 Collecting information and confirming goals Objectives Methods of collecting information Conducting a thorough screening process PAR – Q Health & Safety considerations for working outside Health & Safety considerations for working at the clients home Personal safety and professionalism Referral to a GP or other health practitioner Other information to be collected Barriers to exercise (perceived or actual) Stages of readiness to change Goal setting Legal and ethical responsibilities Communication skills and developing rapport Section 3 6 6 8 6 9 10 18 20 21 23 25 27 30 32 32 Designing a progressive cardiovascular programme 35 Objectives Basic principles of cardiovascular training The four training zones CV training for apparently healthy and sedentary (untrained) clients Preferred exertion CV training for apparently healthy and active (trained) clients Fat burning CV training for peak-­‐performing (well trained) clients CV training for clients with particular needs Section 4 35 35 38 40 43 44 47 50 54 57 Cardiovascular training systems Objectives Continuous training Fartlek (random) training Interval training 57 57 57 58 60 35 Section 5 63 Objectives Basic principles of resistance training Muscular strength and endurance continuum Establishing repetition maximums Using predictrio tables to estimate training load Training for power Other resistance training variables Variations of generic resistance training exercises Safety Specificity, functional compatibility and muscle fibre recruitment patterns Rotator cuff muscles and shoulder stability Exercise to improve rotator cuff function Selecting training equipment Selecting resistance training activities for different clients Section 6 63 65 67 69 69 71 73 78 79 80 80 81 82 85 Resistance training systems Objectives Circuit resistance training Basic sets Delorme and Watkins 10RM system Berger 6RM system Pyramid training Super-­‐setting Tri-­‐sets Giant sets Stripping method/descending sets Pre and post-­‐exhaust systems Forced repetitions Negative repetitions Cheating method Power Training Plyometrics Muscle strength and endurance exercises using the core stability ball or board & skipping Summary BOSU Section 7 89 89 90 92 93 93 95 96 99 99 100 101 102 102 102 102 111 111 113 114 Flexibility Objectives Static stretching Dynamic stretching Partner stretching 125 125 126 126 127 89 125 Section 8 128 Periodised programming Objectives Origins of periodisation Benefits of periodisation Basic principles of periodisation Periodisation and leath related fitness Periodised CV programme for a peak performing (well trained) client Periodised RT programme for a peak performing (well trained) client Section 9 128 128 128 128 130 132 133 133 Preparing, instructing, reviewing and modifying and exercise programme 135 Objectives Preparing for the planned sessions Instructing for the planned session Reviewing and modifying a programme Evaluating Methods of monitoring exercise intensity 135 135 136 138 139 139 135 SECTION 1 Introduction The purpose of this manual is to aid and support your learning during your Advanced Gym Instructor course. It should be used together with your Level 3 Exercise and Fitness Knowledge manual to give you a more complete understanding of both theory and practise of training in the gym. The level of information covered progresses on from the basic Gym Instructor course at level 2, and therefore makes the assumption that you already have some prior knowledge. With this in mind, it may be useful to revise your original manuals and course notes as a quick refresher, before embarking in your level 3 course. Throughout the manual we have used some terms that require a brief explanation. Apparently Healthy This term is used to describe a client who has no medical problems, no illness or injuries that would prevent them from exercising. They would respond with a 'no' to all the questions on a standard screening questionnaire (PAR-­‐Q). However, it does not imply anything about the client's physical fitness. Many people are 'apparently healthy' but extremely unfit. Sedentary (untrained) This term is used to describe a client who does no significant activity on a regular basis. They probably have an inactive desk job, spend their leisure time watching television or at the computer screen and they do not visit the health club, or participate in any form of sports. Currently active (trained) This term is used to describe a client who already participates in activity and exercise on a regular basis. They may have an active job they may visit a health club to train two or three times a week, or they may play sociable sports at the weekend, such as football, squash or tennis. Peak performer (well trained) This term is used to describe a client who already trains regularly at high intensity. They are usually well-­‐motivated, can tolerate significant discomfort in pursuit of their training goals, and possibly compete at a high level in their chosen sport. Writing programmes for individuals has become an important part of a gym instructor’s daily work. People expect programmes that are tailored to their individual needs, whether they are training for general health benefits or for a chosen sport. This manuals looks at the specifics of working at different intensities and how that will affect the results achieved. Where relevant, guidelines for cardiovascular training, resistance training and flexibility are taken from the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). SECTION 2 Collecting Information and Confirming Goals In this section we cover what to do when first meeting a client. We will look at how to collect relevant information that will help with setting an effective exercise programme, and how to agree with the client on their specific goals to be achieved. We will also cover certain legal aspects about collecting and storing personal information. Objectives By the end of this section you should be able to: 1. Identify methods of collecting information 2. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of different methods of data collection, including questionnaire, interview and observation. 3. Describe how to conduct a thorough screening process. 4. Identify those requiring referral to a GP or other health professional. 5. Identify risk factors for coronary heart disease. 6. Identify the type of information to be collected from a client, and how it will enable programme planning. 7. List barriers to exercise (perceived or actual) 8. Describe the transtheoretical model of change, and discuss the thinking and behavioural processes that occur during each of the stages. 9. Apply SMART principles to goal setting. 10. Set physical activity, lifestyle and adherence goals. 11. Divide a long-­‐term goal into medium-­‐term and short-­‐term goals. 12. Define the role of both the instructor and client in supporting and adhering to the exercise programme. 13. Record information in an effective manner. 14. State how to observe the legal and ethical responsibilities regarding client records and confidentiality. 15. Describe communication skills that are important for developing rapport. Methods of Collecting Information There are three main methods that are routinely used in accumulating data. 1. Interview 2. Observation and fitness tests/measurements 3. Questionnaires 6
Interview An interview is an ideal opportunity to build rapport with a client, and to gather information about their lifestyle, goals, likes and dislikes, etc. When interviewing a client, it is important to know the difference between a closed question and an open question. A closed question is one that can only be answered in a predetermined way (e.g. yes or no) and that ends the conversation until the next question is asked. For example: can you train three times a week? An open question requires the client to formulate their own longer, more general answer. Open questions usually start with what, why, when, where or how? For example: what types of exercise do you enjoy? An interview will often begin with an open question to encourage the client to talk. This is then followed up with clarifying or probing type questions to elicit more detailed information. Closed questions are sometimes useful for obtaining specific facts, or for gaining agreement about details of a training programme. Here are some example questions that explore the client's feelings, attitudes and past behaviour in relation to exercise. •
Have you ever undertaken an exercise programme in the past? •
What activities have you tried in the past? •
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What was the enjoyment level of each activity on a scale of 1-­‐10? What was the longest period of time you sustained that activity for? •
What were the factors that lead to you giving up? •
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Do those factors still apply now? What concerns you about committing to an exercise programme? What excites you about it? The setting that is chosen for the interview is also very important, as is the non-­‐verbal communication of the interviewer. The client should feel as at ease as possible. Observation and Fitness Tests/Measurements Various health and fitness tests can be carried out based on the wants and needs of the client. The most commonly used are: •
Resting blood pressure * •
Height and weight (to calculate body mass index) * •
Body fat percentage •
Waist and hip circumferences (to calculate waist/hip ratio)* •
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Sit and reach flexibility test CV test programme on a cycle or treadmill to give VO2max (* Refer to the section on risk factors for CHD) 7
The use of fitness testing as a motivational tool needs careful thought. Poor results can simply be discouraging to some clients. The nature of the feedback given to clients following testing is critical. Questionnaire In addition to a PAR-­‐Q screening form (covered later in this section), questionnaires can also be used to obtain more general lifestyle information from the client. A questionnaire is a quick and easy way to gather information compared to an interview, and the information can be stored easily. It also gives a standardised approach for every client, which can be useful in a large facility with several different instructors. However, one problem with data collection using a questionnaire is that it only asks the questions the fitness professional thinks are important, based on their own values and perceptions. Consequently, they may miss factors that really are important to the individual circumstances of the client. This is known as researcher bias. Questionnaires are also difficult to design so that the question can be answered in the way the client wants (e.g. the questionnaire may ask for a yes/no answer when the client wants to respond it depends'). Conducting a Thorough Screening Process Research clearly shows that appropriate exercise is beneficial throughout life. However, exercise always carries some risk, therefore it is important that instructors minimise those risks by conduting a thorough pre-­‐exercise screening. The purpose of screening is to evaluate an individual’s health status and to identify any existing medical conditions or risk factors that could be exacerbated by the proposed physical activity. It is advisable that all clients undergo some type of pre-­‐exercise screening. However, risk is particularly significant ofr participants who suffer with medical conditions and/or low fitness levels. The more information we have in our possession, the better equipped we will be to set an appropriate exercise programme, as well as to refer those clients who need to consult with their medical practitioner. The Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-­‐Q), developed by the Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, and recommended by the ACSM (ACSM, 2006), is a standard screening form that is suitable for clients between the ages of 15 – 69 (see following page). If the client answers ‘no’ to all seven questions, they can start becoming much more physically active, beginning slowly and gradually building up. They are also recommended to take part in a physical appraisal. If they answer ‘yes’ to any of the seven questions, the client should see their doctor prior to becoming more active. PAR-­‐Q forms must then be stored securely. They need to be updated regularly – usually every 12 months. If the client’s health or medical status changes so that they would answer a ‘yes’ to one of the questions, then it is their responsibility to tell their instructor. 8
Special population client groups, such as older adults, or those on an exercise referral scheme, would need a more thorough and detailed screening procedure. Remember that any questionnaire used constitutes a legal document, so it is worth using standard paperwork that has already been developed by authorities for each client group. If you wish to personalize your own screening paperwork, we recommend that you have the wording checked over by a legal professional. Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (revised 2002) PAR – Q AND YOU (A questionnaire for people aged 15 – 69) Regular physical activity is fun and healthy and increasingly more people are starting to become more active every day. Being more active is very safe for most people. However, some people should check with their doctors before they start becoming much more physically active. If you are planning to become much more physically active than you are now, start by answering the 7 questions in the box below. If you are between the ages of 15 – 69, the PAR-­‐Q will tell you if you should check with your doctor before you start. If you are over 69 years of age, and you are not used to being very active, check with your doctor. Common sense is your best guide when you answer these questions. Please read the questions carefully and answer each one honestly. Tick YES or NO. YES NO 1.
Has your doctor ever said that you have a heart condition and that you should only do physical activity recommended by a doctor? 2.
Do you feel pain in your chest when you do physical activity? 3.
In the past month, have you had chest pain when you were not doing physical activity? 4.
Do you lose your balance because of dizziness or do you ever lose consciousness? 5.
Do you have a bone or joint problem (for example, back ,knee or hip) that could be made worse by a change in your physical activity? 6.
Is your doctor currently prescribing drugs (for example, water pills) for your blood pressure or heart condition? 7.
Do you know of any other reason why you should not do physical activity? 9
If you answered YES to one of more of the questions: Talk to your doctors by phone or in person BEFORE you start becoming much more physically active or BEFORE you have a fitness appraisal. Tell your doctor about the PAR-­‐Q and which questions you answered YES. You may be able to do any activity you want – as long as you start slowly and build up gradually. Or, you may need to restrict your activities to those which are safe for you. Talk with your doctor about the types of activities you wish to participate in and follow his/her advice. Find out which community programmes are safe and helpful for you. If you answered NO to all questions: If you answered NO honestly to all PAR-­‐Q questions, you can be reasonably sure that you can: Start becoming much more physically active – begin slowly and build up gradually. This is the safest and easiest way to go. Take part in a physical appraisal – this is an excellent way to determine your basic fitness so that you can plan the best way for you to live actively. It is also highly recommended that you have your blood pressure evaluated. If your reading is over 144/94, talk with your doctor before you start becoming much more physically active. Delay becoming much more physically active: If you are not feeling well because of a temporary illness such as a cold or a fever – wait until you feel better; or If you are or may be pregnant – talk to your doctor before you start becoming more active. PLEASE NOTE: if your health changes so that you then answer YES to any of the above questions, tell your fitness or health professional. Ask whether you should change your physical activity plan. The Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, Health Canada, and their agents assume no liability for persons who undertake physical activity, and if in doubt after completing this questionnaire, consult your doctor prior to physical acitivty. “I have read, understood and completed this questionnaire. Any questions I had were answered to my full satisfaction” Name: __________________________________________ Signature: _______________________________________Date:___________________________ Signature of parent / guardian: ________________________________________________________ (for participants under the age of majority) Witness: ________________________________________ 10
Note: This physical activity clearance is valid for a maximum of 12 months from the date it is completed and becomes invalid if your condition changes so that you would answer YES to any of the seven questions. Health and Safety Consideration for Working Outside Environmental Considerations It is possible to walk virtually anywhere and anytime, providing the personal safety guidelines suggested later on in this section are adhered to. The ideal walking environment would be a stretch of flat ground, with the option of: • pathways and grass: to cater for personal preference and wet weather • large open spaces: to allow for numerous walking drills and group activities to be performed • a range of slopes and hills: for working with walkers once they have achieved a reasonable level of fitness and need the extra challenge • landmarks, such as trees, lamp-­‐posts, benches: which can be incorporated for setting targets, as well as making useful props that can be utilised during muscle conditioning work on the upper body Many of these same features can be found on pavement routes but you need to consider the safety aspects and specific group management skills associated with controlling walking groups in the streets. A shopping mall could be used as an indoor alternative (during the quiet times). However, it may be necessary to ask permission from the centre management team before setting up a walk in this type of environment. Changing Area and Showering Facilities If you are working with the client from their home they will have changing and showering facilities available. If you are working with the client from their place of work, it is wise to check whether they have access to showering and changing facilities, so that they can make necessary arrangements. If you are running a walking session from a local facility (GP surgery, health centre etc), you will need to find out if there are changing and showering facilities available and will need to provide this information to the client(s). Some people may not be coming straight from their home to your walking session, they may need changing facilities to shower and freshen up afterwards. The key is to make this information available to the client(s) in advance.
Meeting Points If working with a client or group of clients from a specific location away from their home, e.g., a GP surgery, it is essential to establish a meeting point. This should be clearly marked and signed for when clients arrive. The Personal Trainer should be at the meeting point to guide the client(s). Pre-­‐exercise screening, health status checks, information gathering and giving can be provided at this point.
Lockers It is essential that clients have a secure place to store valuables whilst out walking. If you are working from the client's home or office, this security issue is less important. If you are working from a GP surgery or health centre, you may need to identify a place for securing valuables before leaving the building. If lockers are not available then a room or car that can be locked is an alternative. It is wise to advise clients to limit the valuables they bring with them. Never take personal responsibility for looking after anyone's personal belongings -­‐ it is not worth the hassle! 11
Planning the Route Prior to starting out on a walk, it is important to familiarise yourself with the intended route. You need to be aware of the following: • Indoor areas and shelters • Terrain and gradients • Traffic • Situation of trim trail apparatus and benches for resting (if necessary) • Toilets • Emergency procedures Indoor Areas and Shelters When the weather is cold or raining, it is an advantage to have access to an indoor space where the individual client or group can warm up, perform muscle conditioning exercises and cool down. It is also useful to know where there are places of shelter if the weather worsens whilst out on a walk. Areas can include: a bus shelter, a coffee shop etc. When the weather is windy, make sure you know areas where you can be sheltered from the wind. Walking in an open field gives full exposure, whereas walking in an area surrounded by trees will give some protection from the wind. When the weather is hot and sunny, make sure you are aware of shaded areas to reduce exposure to the rays of the sun, Terrain and Gradients It is best to avoid climbing steep hills at the start or the end of the session, as this would dramatically increase the intensity of the warm up or cool down respectively. However, it is useful to know where gradients occur throughout the main workout as these can be utilized to maximize the effectiveness of the walking programme. If you walk in a park, wooded area or country lane, there may be areas that are very uneven or become boggy when the weather is wet which you might want to avoid. If you know the route will involve off-­‐road walking tracks you may want to encourage your walkers to bring a change of footwear and socks during wet conditions. Traffic When walking on the street, you need to consider the problems of traffic and ideally reduce the number of roads you have to cross. Turning to the left more than the right would help achieve this. But you will need to consider practicalities (distance and direction of walking this way) and also, the potential issue of muscle balance from walking constantly to the left. If there is no pathway, e.g., when walking in a country lane, then keep on the right hand side to face on-­‐coming traffic (unless going round a blind corner). The level of traffic may vary dramatically at different times of day, and what may be a quiet stretch of road at mid-­‐morning may well be a very busy area at early evening time. Be as familiar as possible, with each walking route you use. If you have to cross a road then ensure your client or client group collect together and cross as one when the road is safe. It is the Personal Trainer’s responsibility to arrange the safe crossing, so you should be extra careful and use pedestrian crossings whenever possible. Quite simply – don’t take risks. 12
Trim Trail and Benches It is essential to know where there are benches for resting if the client(s) get unexpectedly tired whilst out walking. It is also useful to know where there are benches or other trim trail apparatus as these can be utilized during the walk to provide muscle conditioning training and add variety and fun. Toilets It is guaranteed there will come an occasion where you are out walking when either you or your c1ient(s) will need the toilet. If you are walking in a park or close to a high street, it is useful to know where the closest toilet facilities are at different points in the walk. If you are walking in a country lane, then know where there are trees or bushes that can be crouched behind for privacy, preferably without stinging nettles! Ideally, visit the toilet before you leave to go for a walk, just be prepared for any eventuality. Emergency Planning and Procedures If working from a leisure centre, GP surgery or health centre, there should be a written emergency plan providing guidelines on how to respond in an emergency and how each individual should perform their duties to minimise the consequences of the incident. An outline of the full emergency plan must be displayed at a central staff location. If you are working in a freelance capacity then you will need to have prepared a personal plan of action to make the appropriate decisions and actions in any given emergency. The following areas should be addressed: • Procedures: Including contact numbers, telephone number of local emergency services or nearest doctor, how to contact, how to direct emergency services, how to manage the incident, emergency first aid procedures etc. • Supplies and equipment: Including access to first aid kit etc. • Qualifications: It is important that Personal Trainers hold a current certificate in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (this is essential particularly for free lance trainers who will be the first emergency support) and first aid. • Support Personnel: Whether other walkers or walk leaders have first aid skills and qualifications etc. Emergency Routes, Telephones and Emergency Contacts Make sure you are familiar with the local facilities in case of an emergency. It is useful to know of short cuts back to the starting point if a client starts to feel unwell or where there is a telephone and who to contact in the event of an emergency. If you are walking in a country lane where there may be no telephones, it is essential to take a mobile phone, but be aware that in some locations, mobile phones may not get a signal. First Aid Kit When working outside it is useful to carry a portable first aid kit. If working from a leisure centre or GP surgery there should be a well-­‐marked and easily accessible first aid kit on site, which must be transportable for use in medical incidents. All first aid kits must be checked monthly. 13
Recording Accidents Provision should be made for documenting all emergency situations to provide a basis for orderly evaluation of the situation after it occurs. Freelance Personal Trainers should have their own accident record book. Trainers working from a particular facility should use the recording documentation provided by that facility. Legal Requirements Insurance Whether working freelance or from another facility, it is essential that the Personal Trainer has professional indemnity and public liability insurance. Professional indemnity is a safeguard for instructors from lawsuits and claims made against them, and public liability safeguards against a member of the public injuring another person whilst exercising. Permission If you are working with large groups, it is sometimes essential to gain permission to walk in certain areas. If you are in any doubt it is wise to check with the local authority to find out further information about how to proceed. Personal Safety for Working Outside •
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We live in a world where we have to take responsibility for our personal safety and the personal safety of our clients. Statistically, these risks are comparatively small, but we can take precautions to minimise them further. Some guidelines are: Walk with a partner or Personal Trainer Let people know your route and estimated time of return Know your route and avoid potentially unsafe areas such as alleyways or secluded wasteland Try to avoid walking in the dark. If you have to then stick to well-­‐lit areas Use local information to try and avoid any trouble areas. This is particularly important if you travel away from home and want to walk yourself Never carry valuables or show-­‐off expensive jewellery when out walking Don’t wear a personal stereo -­‐ you need-­‐to be aware of your environment Be purposeful in your walk, look as if you know where you are going (which you should if you have planned!), and walk confidently Look for 'safe-­‐havens' such as shops and busy, well-­‐lit areas in case of emergency Be aware, stay alert and don't take risks (never assume it won't happen to me) Act on your instincts. If you feel uneasy for any reason then do something about it straight away Buddy System and Secondary Walk Leaders When walking with larger groups, you can reduce the pressures on yourself a little by having a second in command walk leader to follow at the rear of the group. In addition, a partner or buddy system can be used; by encouraging members to pair up with another member to check periodically that their partner is still with the group. These practices help keep the group together and can also build socialisation, where people can have a chat, which creates a friendly, relaxed atmosphere. 14
Clothing and Footwear for Working Outside It is essential to consider the clothing and footwear necessary for walking in a variety of weather conditions. This information will need to be provided to clients before they take part in a walk. It is useful if the Personal Trainer provides this information in the form of a handout or even on a poster that advertises their walking session. Cold Weather It is best to wear several layers that can be taken off as you warm up, rather than just one thick item. The clothing nearest the skin needs to allow moisture through, whilst trapping the air that you have warmed. A thermal t-­‐shlrt vest would be ideal, covered by long sleeve t-­‐shirt, a sweat shirt with sleeves that can be tied around the waist and a waterproof, wind proof jacket that can be either tied around the waist or folded up and placed in a belt bag. You can lose a lot of heat through your head, so during cold weather some form of hat will be a valuable addition. There are some great ski hats available. Gloves are another valuable extra to restrict heat loss through the hands and keep the chill away from vulnerable fingers. Windy Weather In strong winds, clothing that has a draw string to keep the wind from blowing through clothing is essential. Wet Weather An essential additional layer when exercising in wet weather is a waterproof, breathable outer garment (jacket and pants) that is non-­‐restrictive. This type of garment will also reduce the chill factor of the wind. Warm Weather We tend not to consider warm weather as much as a problem as cold weather, given the UK climate, but it is always useful to be prepared. It may also be that your clients are going abroad for a holiday and will be walking in hotter climates. In hotter climates, the key thing is to wear something loose to allow air to circulate freely. Shorts and a vest are great, but they may leave more vulnerable skin types unprotected and it is generally recommended that all skin types are kept covered at certain times of the day. Suntan lotion and sun block can be used to protect against the sun’s rays. In addition, a hat or cap may help protect the head and shade the eyes. Sunglasses may also help ease the strain on the eyes. It is inadvisable to partake in any form of strenuous exercise during the heat of the day due to problems of dehydration, sunstroke and heat
exhaustion. In these conditions, the best times to be active will be in the early hours of the morning or later in the evening. Fluid intake should be kept high all day and walkers should be encouraged to replace any loss as soon as possible, preferably during the walk itself. A water bottle carried in a small rucksack or on a waist belt is advisable. Walking in the Dark If you have to walk in the dark then some form of light, reflective clothing is essential. You can get body belts with lights like a bicycle lamp that will help motorists see you from some way off. Under Garments It is essential to wear supportive comfortable under garments with few seams underneath walking clothing. Seams and rough edges on any item of clothing may cause chaffing to the skin which can lead to much discomfort. 15
Socks It is essential to wear socks with trainers to prevent blisters and athletes foot. Socks should be well fitted and ideally made of a synthetic fibre that will dry quickly. Cotton or wool socks can get wet quickly which may cause blisters. Thicker socks may provide added protection for the foot, although some people can find these uncomfortable. Low cut ankle socks may cause rubbing against the Achilles tendon whilst walking, causing a blister. Shoes There are a range of specialist walking shoes available that caters for the enthusiastic casual walker, the sports walker, through to the hill walkers and ramblers. Basically, for general walking on even ground and easy off-­‐road routes you need a supportive, slightly cushioned and comfortable shoe. There is no need for a thick heel cushion typical of a running shoe as walking is a low impact activity compared to running. The shoe should be flexible to allow for the movement action and fit well. A general cross-­‐trainer is more than suitable for all but specialist walkers. It is also worth identifying whether your foot pronates (rolls inwards) or supinates (rolls outwards) as this may have an effect on foot strike and joint alignment whilst walking. It may also cause hard skin to develop on particular areas of the feet. Pronation is the most common. You can tell if you are a pronator by noticing the shape of your footprint when walking in sand, the footprint will be flat and the arch of the foot will be barely visible. Hard skin may develop on the inside of the big toe and the heels and shoes will wear most quickly on the inside edge. Pronators need shoes with additional support on the inside edge and heels. Supinators will have a sand footprint that shows the toes, ball of foot and heel. They will tend to develop hard skin on the outside of the foot and their shoes will wear on the outside edge first. Supinators need shoes with additional support under the heel and the ball of the foot. Orthotic Insoles These will correct foot position and improve walking action by providing support to the specific area. They are available on the high street or can be designed to individual requirements. Adapting the Walking Programme to Work Indoors It may sometimes be necessary to conduct a walking programme indoors in a health club or home/office gym environment. This may occur if the weather is bad or if this meets the client's needs. If a walking programme is to be conducted indoors on a treadmill, the usual safety considerations apply. The Personal Trainer is responsible for selecting activities that are appropriate for the client’s needs. They are also responsible for teaching the programme safely and effectively. They must also check that the exercise environment is made as safe as possible. The following guidelines apply: 16
The Gym Environment The working area should be kept clean and tidy at all times. Relevant signage and markers must be displayed for easy access to and from all areas of the facility. The room should be well ventilated, either naturally or with air conditioning and the temperature and humidity should be comfortable to work out in. If the walking session is to be performed on a treadmill, then there should be plenty of space around the treadmill for ease of access and to provide a clear area behind in case someone was to fall off. Equipment Any equipment used should be regularly maintained and documented according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Any defective or worn parts should be replaced as soon as possible and that piece of equipment should not be used until repaired. Before a client begins an activity, the instructor must provide them with instructions on how to use the equipment safely and effectively. Working in a Large Indoor Space An alternative way of conducting a walking programme is to use an indoor sports hall. The area should be clean, dry and any additional equipment that may be required for muscle conditioning work should be clearly laid out without causing obstruction. Risk Assessment Check for Working Outside What are the hazards? Who may be at risk? List all the potential Consider; hazards in the Yourself (the environment trainer) Client(s) Other members of the public How can the risk be managed? What further action is needed to manage the risk? What precautions have been taken? What can you do to manage the risk further? What information has been provided to the client(s) Can the risk be removed? Is there a lower risk alternative? Can you prevent exposure to the potential risk? Can you reduce exposure to the potential risk? Examples: Walking in the dark Self and client with client X Wear reflective clothing Walk in the day light Walking on country Self and client lane with client Y Face direction of Walk at less busy times of oncoming traffic except the day on blind bends Wear clothing that keeps you visible (not camouflage) etc. Choose a low traffic route etc. 17
Health and Safety Considerations for Working at the Clients Home Environmental Considerations Working in Limited Space When working with clients at their home or office, there is frequently limited space available to perform activities. The trainer must consider: •
How much free floor space is available for movement •
How much space is available to use equipment •
Obstructions/furniture •
Temperature and any temperature control •
Height of the ceiling and ceiling fittings that may cause obstruction floor surface The trainer will need to be both creative and flexible to work in small environments. There is a whole range of static body weight exercises that can be used for warming up, conditioning muscles and cooling down. There is also a range of exercises using small equipment that can be performed in a limited space, these are also described throughout this manual. Cardiovascular training is not quite so easy to perform in limited space for a number of reasons these include: Travelling Movements These will naturally vary the stress placed on the joints, but cannot be included if the space is limited. Too much repetition of the same joint and muscle action in a static position may cause repetitive strain to the body. Therefore, careful consideration must be given to planning to ensure a variety of movements are used to alter the stress on the body. High Impact Exercises Continuous or highly repetitive high impact exercises will place stress on the joints. This will be compounded if performed in one position and on an inappropriate floor surface. Floor Surface Concrete floors or carpeted floors over concrete are inappropriate for impact work. Some carpets may also cause some instability in foot placement, making it more likely for the ankle to roll over and cause a sprain of the joint. Equipment Steps and step training can be very effective for cardiovascular training in limited space. However, ceiling height and the height of the person must be considered. Additionally, the step will need to be placed on a secure floor surface so that it doesn't slide or move during the workout. Skipping rope work can be included, but again, consideration must be made for ceiling height, floor surface and client fitness, as skipping is a high impact activity. Temperature The temperature of the room must also be considered and the usual safety considerations regarding intensity and hydration should be made. A key consideration here, when working in a clients home or office, is that if the client gets very hot and sweaty, they may perspire onto the floor. This can make a wooden or tiled floor slippery and a carpeted floor very smelly! 18
This is why it is more effective to take clients outdoors and include walking and other outdoor activities as part of the programmes. The exception being if the client has a home gym area, with specific cardiovascular equipment, such as, treadmill, exercise bike etc. Having said this, it is possible to include some cardiovascular exercises in a limited space, but careful consideration of all the above points would need to occur in the planning phase to ensure client safety and workout effectiveness. Other safety precautions include: • Ensure the environment is as clear as possible and any obstructions are moved to one side of the room or removed from the room. Avoid stacking furniture, as this may potentially fall and add to the risk of working in the environment • Aim not to exercise close to any doors or tables, which may injure the client if they trip or fall • Ensure the client has enough room to stand and lie down with their arms and legs spread out to full extension and that there is sufficient space for the trainer to demonstrate, observe and correct from different angles Risk Assessment for Working Inside the Home or Office: What are the hazards? Who may be at risk? List all the potential Consider; hazards in the Yourself (the environment trainer) Client(s) Other members of the public How can the risk be managed? What further action is needed to manage the risk? What precautions have been taken? What can you do to manage the risk further? What information has been provided to the client(s) Can the risk be removed? Is there a lower risk alternative? Can you prevent exposure to the potential risk? Can you reduce exposure to the potential risk? Examples: Temperature of the Self and client room Floor surface client Turn off heating Open windows Wear clothing that allows the body to stay cooler Fans Use an exercise mat to prevent carpet burns and prevent sweat on carpet What exercises are safe to perform on this floor surface? Floorboards, check there are no nails or splintered wood 19
Drink water What type of exercises can be performed safely in this temperature? Furniture Client and self Push all furniture securely to one side of the room Ensure correct lifting technique is used to move furniture Children Child, client, self Advise the client to provide a carer for the child while the training session is conducted Find a way of including the child in the programme Telephones client Advise the client to turn Inform the client that mobile phones off or put answering the telephone the answer phone on may cause them to cool down, which may cause injury Place a ‘do not disturb’ sign if working from the client’s office Space Client, self How much space is available What exercises can safely be performed in this space Ceiling height Client, self Is there space for client to reach over head Position client away from ceiling fittings NB: The aim is to be forewarned and prepared for all eventualities Personal Safety and Professionalism Personal Safety A primary consideration for training clients at their home or place of work is personal safety for the trainer. Before visiting any new client the Personal Trainer should seek to find out how the person heard of their services. This need not be interrogative or suspicious. Moreover, it is useful information to gather for marketing purposes and can be spoken about informally, whilst gathering other information about the client regarding their wants and needs etc. It is always essential to trust your intuitive and gut instincts in this situation. If you feel potentially unsafe by speaking with a client, acknowledge this and make appropriate arrangements to take care of yourself before committing to work with them. Before going to work with any client the Personal Trainer should inform a close friend or relative of their whereabouts. It is also advisable to inform this person of the start and finish time of the session and provide a courtesy call to let them know all is well when the session has finished. This may all seem overly cautious, but it is better to be safe than sorry -­‐ personal safety is our personal responsibility. Professionalism It may well be that the client is equally cautious about their safety and may request further information on your skills and credibility. It is very appropriate to send them information regarding your professionalism, which lists your qualifications, experience and registration to appropriate organisations such as the register of exercise professionals (REPS). It may also be useful to design your marketing literature to include feedback and comments from other clients. 20
General Safety and Screening As with all exercise programmes, it is essential to pre-­‐screen the client before embarking on work with them and it is essential to ore-­‐check this information each week. Five minutes can be allowed at the start of each session to check the client's wellness -­‐ check how they feel, how they found the last session and if they have any specific requirements for working on this occasion. Further information on pre-­‐ screening requirements and confidentiality is provided at the beginning of this section. Clothing and Footwear As with all exercise programmes, appropriate clothing for exercising should be worn by both the Personal Trainer and the client. Guidelines include: • Clothing that allows the body alignment to be visible • Supportive exercise footwear that is appropriate for the activities to be performed and sports socks • Layers that can be removed during the workout (leggings or shorts, t-­‐shirt or fitted vest with track pants and sweat shirt over the top) • Supportive undergarments Personal Hygiene When working with clients from their home or place of work it is essential that the trainer also consider their own personal hygiene. They will need an opportunity to freshen up before going to work with the next client to provide a professional image. Body odour is a real no go! Clients who are working may also need to be informed that they will need a place to change and shower after the workout has finished
Referral to a GP or other Health Professional As an instructor it is important to recognise the limits of your own expertise and competence in prescribing exercise, or giving health advice. Therefore, you will have to liaise with other health professionals from time to time to collect specialist information, or for the purposes of referral. Other health professionals could include: •
•
General Practitioner (GP) and the local surgery Physiotherapist •
•
Neuromuscular therapist Consultant Adapting Communication Methods When communicating with other health professionals it is important to use a standard procedure. For example, when referring a client to their GP for medical clearance, the following points should be considered. 21
•
For medical referrals, written rather than verbal consent is needed •
GPs are busy and they do not want to spend a lot of time writing letters. You can do a lot of the paperwork for them. Have a standard referral letter that you can fill in with the client's details and their medical query. The client takes this along to their GP who can then simply add his/her recommendations, give or decline consent as appropriate, and sign and date it •
Be prepared for technical language regarding medical conditions and, in particular, medication •
Remember that all information is confidential, and cannot be passed on to a third party without the permission of the client Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) In addition to the PAR-­‐Q, there may be other medical data to consider. For example, you may also wish to gather information at this point that will enable you to identify risk factors for developing coronary heart disease. Risk factors for CHD include the following: •
Chronic (long-­‐term) stress •
Smoking •
•
Existing high blood pressure Diabetes •
Inactive lifestyle •
Waist-­‐to-­‐hip ratio higher than desirable •
High blood cholesterol -­‐ usually due to high saturated fat intake and otherwise poor dietary habits (e.g. low intake of fruit and vegetables) •
•
Age (male over 40 or post-­‐menopausal female) Genetics (close relatives who have died of heart problems, particularly before the age of 60) •
Genetics (close relatives who have had treatment or whom are currently receiving treatment for heart problems) •
Overweight (body mass index greater than 25) -­‐ low risk •
Obesity (body mass index greater than 30) -­‐ high risk Exact figures for high blood pressure (hypertension) vary from one authority to another. Instructors should consult their own gym or referral scheme for best advice. ACSM guidelines are given in the table below. BP Classification SBP (mmHg) DPB (mmHg) Normal <120 And <80 Prehpertension 120-­‐139 Or 80-­‐89 Stage 1 Hypertension 140-­‐159 Or 90-­‐99 Stage 2 Hypertension >160 Or >100 Classification of blood pressure for adults (ACSM, 2006) 22
Whilst predicting the risk of CHD is very difficult because of its multifunctional nature, the more of these risk factors an individual has, the higher their risk becomes. Even if they are present, it does not mean someone will get CHD. It just means that their chances of getting it are far higher than someone with a lower number of risk factors. It is therefore important to consider how you will feedback the results of any analysis to a client. Unfortunately, some risk factors like age, gender and genetics, are non-­‐modifiable. But, the good news is that many of the risk factors are modifiable – the client can take action to do something about it. Body Mass Index and Waist-­‐to-­‐Hip Ratio BMI = Body weight (kg) ______________ Height x height (m) Lesser than 20 = underweight 20 – 25 = normal 25 – 30 = overweight More than 30 = obese Waist to hip ratio = waist measurement (cm) ____________________ Hip measurement (cm) The pattern of fat distribution in an individual is a major predictor of risk of CHD. Many research studies have demonstrated that the storage of fat around the abdomen (classic apple-­‐shaped male pattern), carries greater risk than fat stored around the hips, bottom and thighs (classic pear-­‐shaped female pattern). For men Waist / Hip should equal less than 1.0 For women Waist / Hip should equal less than 0.8 Other Information to be Collected In addition to screening, it is important to collect more general information about the client that will be relevant to their exercise programme. 23
Lifestyle It is useful to know something about the client's lifestyle. This could include asking questions about: •
Working patterns. For example, if the client works long hours, it will be harder for them to spare time for visiting the gym. If they work night shifts, then scheduling workouts becomes more of a challenge. If a client travels regularly as part of their job, then this should be considered in their exercise programme •
Eating patterns. For example, if the client eats very little during the day and then visits the gym in the evening, they are likely to feel tired and have a poor training session. If the client is trying to lose weight, but simply eats too much, then this will be counter-­‐productive to all their effort in the gym. If they eat too large a meal before training, then the client will probably feel heavy and bloated and possibly sick. Knowing a client's eating patterns will allow the instructor to give the client sound general advice to help with their training programme. However, a qualified nutritionist should be consulted for more specific advice. Relevant personal circumstances. For example, the client may have to devote a large part of their time to child care, and can only visit the gym if creche facilities are available. Perhaps they have a disability that needs to be considered. •
Be prepared to adapt fitness guidelines around the needs of the client. It is pointless quoting the ACSM and recommending that they should train three times a week if they only have Saturday mornings free. Current and previous levels of activity/fitness It is always useful to know the client's current fitness level. This gives the instructor a benchmark or starting point on which to base the first training session. If possible, evaluate the components of fitness (muscular strength, muscular endurance, cardiovascular fitness, flexibility and motor skills) using appropriate fitness tests. If this is not feasible, general questioning can also give a clear indication of current fitness. Use FITT as a guide. Frequency (how often the client trains per week) Intensity (how hard they train) Time (the duration of each training session) Type (the type of training / activity that they perform) Physically active occupations and leisure time pursuits should also be considered, along with more formal exercise sessions. Even if a client is currently sedentary, they will probably be able to recall a time in the past when they were fit and active. This previous activity is still relevant, because it means the client has experience of exercise (even though it may be from several years ago), and it gives the instructor something to refer to when discussing exercise preferences and motivation. 24
Exercise preferences Find out what exercises the client prefers to do or would like to try. They are much more likely to adhere to their programme and progress if they enjoy training sessions. Avoid exercise that the client does not like (even if they happen to be your own favourites). If you feel that the client must do a particular type of training to achieve their goal, but they don’t want to, then some negotiation may be needed to match their ‘wants’ with their ‘needs’. But remember, if a client is made to feel awkward, uncomfortable or embarrassed, they will simply not come back. So if in doubt, then stick to what they will enjoy. Attitudes to Exercise and Expectations Client vary in their attitudes to exercise. For some people, exercise is an intrinsic part of theur lives; they enjoy and value their workout time, and they would feel unhealthy if they did not participate. Others exercise regularly but consider it to be a necessity – something of a chore. Many more people simply do not like exercise at all. It is perceived as hard work, it causes discomfort, and they feel very out-­‐of-­‐place in the gym (unfortunately, attitudes like this are frequently shaped by early experiences of organized exercise at school). A client’s attitude to exercise will influence their expectation. Those who believe in the benefits of exercise are more likely to expect (and achieve) POSITIVE RESULTS. If a client is unconvinced that their efforts will work, then they will probably not adhere to their programme. Clearly, your approach will vary depending on the client’s attitudes to exercise and their expectations. Some clients will require much more empathy and support than others. Barriers to Exercise (Perceived or Actual) Many studies have been carried out to try to identify what people perceive are the main barriers to them beginning an exercise programme. The Allied Dunbar National Fitness Survey (1992) reported the following (in order of most significant down to least significant factor): •
Not enough time •
I’m just not the sporty type •
Work pressure •
Need to rest in my spare time •
Lack of support •
I haven’t got the energy •
Injury or other disability •
I’d never keep it up 42% of all respondents listed not having enough time as their main barrier. 25
Current health education initiatives attempt to counteract this by encouraging people to view exercise or activity as something that can easily be incorporated into their everyday life rather than an extra addition that needs to have time allocated to it. Becoming more active in this way (e.g. by walking more briskly whenever you do need to walk anywhere, or by taking stairs instead of lifts and escalators) can help to increase self-­‐efficacy and move people on to the next stage of change. Interestingly, of the listed barriers, 'I'd never keep it up' was reported by only 15% of people. However, the statistics show that 50% of people drop out of exercise within six months of starting. So whilst adherence to a programme proves very difficult for many people, a smaller percentage actually identify that this is going to be a problem before they start. This may mean that they cannot, by themselves, develop effective counter-­‐ strategies. Making the decision to participate is only the beginning of establishing lifelong habits. People can be put off very easily in the early stages of participation by a variety of factors: •
Class format and intensity •
The personality of the instructor •
•
The instructional skills of the gym staff The convenience of use of facilities •
Family/personal/work c hanges -­‐ e ven p leasant c hanges c an d isrupt a dherence •
Sustaining an injury •
•
Having t o t ake a b reak b ecause o f i llness T h e w e a t h e r Motivation Exercise instructors can do many simple things to help motivate a client and promote adherence. This is especially important for a beginner who lacks confidence, who has a very low fitness level, and who is making a significant life change by starting exercise. Instructors should consider the following: •
Make t he c lient f eel w elcome. I ntroduce t hem t o o ther c lass o r g ym m embers •
•
Choose an environment that most suits the client (e.g. off peak times in the gym) Learn and remember the client's name •
•
Say h ello w hen y ou s ee t hem i n t he g ym o r s tudio Keep i n c ontact b y t elephone/text/e-­‐mail t o c heck o n t heir p rogress •
Regularly review and p rogress the client's exercise p rogramme It is important to define the roles of both the instructor and client in supporting and adhering to the exercise programme. Instructors can do their best to motivate everyone in their gym, but ultimately each participant must accept some personal responsibility for their own training and health. If a client finds it hard to motivate themselves, then they may benefit from the services of a personal trainer. 26
Stage of Readiness to Change The `transtheoretical model of change was developed by researches who studied large numbers of people undergoing the process of change (Prochaska and DiClemente, 1983). Originally developed to assist in smoking cessation programmes, it has been widely adopted to assist in changing behaviour towards alcohol, drug use and physical activity. As a consequence of their studies researchers began to see a general pattern suggesting that individuals' progress through definite stages of change when trying to alter a pattern of behaviour. Each stage fulfils a specific role that must be mastered before successful behaviour change can be accomplished. The stages of behaviour change include pre-­‐contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance and termination. Relapse was also identified within this model and will be discussed later in this section. Pre-­‐contemplation Contemplation Termination Preparation Maintenance Action Pre-­‐contemplation Individuals in this stage are not physically active and are not considering becoming active within the next six months. Contemplation Individuals are not currently physically active but are considering becoming active within the next six months. Preparation Individuals have started to take part in some physical activity but not regularly. They intend to become more physically active in the next month or so. Action Individuals are engaging in physical activity but have recently started within the last six months. Maintenance Individuals are engaging in physical activity on a regular basis and have been doing so for at least six months. 27
Termination This refers to the old behaviour now being terminated, and the new behaviour being an established habit. The process of change is now complete. As previously stated, this model has been extensively used in situations where the aim has been to remove or reduce a negative behaviour and substitute and/or control a positive behaviour. This has included smoking cessation, excessive drinking, illicit drug taking and binge-­‐eating. However, physical activity is not viewed in the same way as these behaviours. Engaging in physical activity is considered a process of 'taking it up' rather than 'giving it up' as in smoking or drinking. Therefore, when working with this model in the context of physical activity, the negative behaviour is often associated as physical inactivity and the new positive health behaviour as physical activity. Thus individuals are 'taking up' physical activity and 'giving up' physical inactivity. It may be appropriate to use this description when talking with clients. As individuals progress through the relevant stages, the opportunity for lapse and relapse is high. Lapse and relapse are considered normal processes when adapting a pattern of behaviour. Individuals will make several attempts at changing an old behaviour before being successful in the new behaviour. Each stage requires a different combination of cognitive and behavioural strategies to help individuals through the process of change. Research has identified that pre-­‐
contemplators have lower self-­‐efficacy scores than maintainers. The stages of change model and processes of change can provide a useful guide for physical activity interventions. It is important to note, however, that one type of approach or intervention will not work for everyone; therefore it is appropriate to use a range of approaches which can be adapted to suit different individuals and their circumstances (table 2.2). Stage of Behaviour Characteristics Pre-­‐contemplation Little awareness of inactivity and the consequences of inactivity Information about the problem; opportunities to personalize the situation National and local media’ leaflets, posters Contemplation Balance the potential benefits against the potential costs (time, money, effects on others) Opportunities for discussion; knowledge of the facilities and opportunities; cues to action Taster sessions; promotional events and campaigns; advice from GPs Preparation Prepares to take action and then increase physical activity; may be active on an irregular basis Opportunities for participation; feedback on progression Discussions with exercise or health professional; exercise consultation 28
Needs Appropriate Initiatives Action Recently become active on a regular basis Feedback on progress Provision of a variety of opportunities and events Maintenance Has been Support to Club support regularly maintain groups; co-­‐
physically active participants for at least six months Several behavioural processes may assist clients in moving through the stages of change. Self-­‐efficacy (self-­‐liberation) This is the belief that you can change, and a commitment to act on that belief. For example: • Telling y ourself t hat y ou c an b ecome a n e xerciser • Setting yourself a date when you are going to join the health club or start exercising • Telling your friends and family that you have decided to join a club Promoting self-­‐efficacy is most relevant in the contemplation and preparation stages. Decisional Balance This is the client's natural thought process of balancing the potential benefits against the potential costs of being active. Instructors can help in this process by emphasising the positives of exercise, whilst trying to overcome the negative aspects. Decisional balance is most relevant in the contemplation and preparation stages. Fitness Testing This can be helpful at the preparation stage to set a fitness benchmark, and further on in the action stage, to measure progress. However, as previously stated, fitness testing is not appropriate for all clients. Helping Relationships This means accepting the help and support of others to begin exercise. For example: • Taking up a friend's offer to go to an exercise class with them • Booking a consultation with a personal trainer Helping relationships are most useful in the action stage. Counter-­‐conditioning This means replacing a habitual negative behaviour (inactivity) with a more positive behaviour (activity). For example: • Doing a few hours gardening at the weekend • Taking t he d og f or a w alk e very e vening Counter-­‐conditioning is relevant in the action stage to prevent relapse. Reinforcement Management Positive reinforcement refers to the client receiving rewards for maintaining an exercise habit. For example: • Others telling them how good you they look • Buying new clothes in a smaller size Reinforcement management is most relevant in the action stage. 29
Stimulus control This means avoiding or countering situations that encourage inactivity. For example: •
Going to the gym o n the way home from work i nstead of going h ome first and relaxing •
Taping favourite TV programmes to watch after exercising, rather than instead of exercising Stimulus control is relevant in the action stage to prevent relapse. Relapse Prevention Research suggests that 50% of individuals will relapse from a supervised exercise programme within the first 6-­‐12 months. The concept of relapse prevention is to identify situations that may cause the participants to not attend sessions or revert to previous sedentary behaviours. Therefore clients need to identify possible circumstances in which they will need to decide between being physically active and an alternative behaviour. When these situations are not considered in advance, then a lapse can occur. Lapse often leads to the client believing that they have failed in their attempt to change. This increases the probability that additional lapses may occur, leading to a relapse to the sedentary behaviour. For this model to be fully utilised, resources must be developed to match each stage for progression onto the next stage to occur. This has been attempted in the United States, where materials have been produced to match each stage of change. Promoting Adherence Exercise instructors can do many simple things to help promote client adherence. This is especially important for a beginner who lacks confidence, who has a very low fitness level, and who is making a significant life change by starting exercise. Instructors should consider the following aforementioned methods: •
Make t he c lient f eel w elcome. I ntroduce t hem t o o ther c lass o r g ym m embers •
Choose an environment that most suits the client (e.g. off peak times in the gym) •
Learn and remember the client's name •
Say h ello w hen y ou s ee t hem i n t he g ym o r s tudio •
Keep i n c ontact b y t elephone/text/e-­‐mail t o c heck o n t heir p rogress •
Regularly review and p rogress the client's exercise p rogramme Goal Setting The first step in designing any programme is to establish a participant's training goal. The more specifically the goal can be stated the easier it is to write a suitable programme. Vague statements such as 'lose some weight' or 'feel fitter' are not really helpful, and can be achieved by almost any sensible training and lifestyle suggestions. 30
It takes time and effort to set an effective goal. Instructors should acquire the habit of asking key questions and eliciting quality information from the client. Firstly, it must be possible to quantify (measure) the goal otherwise it is not possible to tell when the goal has been achieved. Secondly, the goal must be specific. This usually involves stating numbers, such as a particular body weight to be reached, or an upper-­‐arm circumference to be achieved, etc. Thirdly, there must be a time frame within which the goal is to be achieved. This usually involves setting a date, such as a holiday, wedding, sporting event, and so on. The acronym SMART is useful in this respect. A goal should be: Specific Goals need to be as specific as possible and stated by the participant rather than the instructor (e.g. 'I want to increase the resistance I use in the chest press by 20 percent'). If the goal is too vague (e.g. 'I want to get a bit stronger'), it does not help the participant to focus their attention and work towards achieving their objective. Measurable All goals should be measurable, otherwise it will be difficult to assess progress. Increasing the chest press by 20% is certainly measurable. But how can intentions such as 'more energy' or 'increase definition' be reliably measured? Achievable Goals need to be achievable. It is also important that the participant and the instructor agree on the goals. Realistic Goals should be realistic. If the goal is too difficult, the participant will probably not achieve it. If the goal is too easy, it will not provide any challenge or motivation. The Instructor and participant should decide at the outset whether desired outcomes of long term, short term or individual training sessions are within the participant's capabilities. Time-­‐bound Goals should be time-­‐bound. The participant and Instructor should set the time needed to achieve the goals and dates they will be achieved by. We all put off things we know we should do. If dates for achievement are not set, there is the possibility that continual postponement will occur. Note: that the 'Achievable' and 'Realistic' components are often quite subjective, and influenced by factors such as client motivation, injury, and unforeseen circumstances. Instructors can, however, use their knowledge and experience to make reasonable estimates about what a client can achieve within a certain time frame. A typical example of a poorly stated goal, often seen on programme cards, is: 'would like to build up my chest and arm muscles'. If we analyse this statement it is clear that it is not specific (how much muscle does the client wish to build?), there is no thought as to how this extra muscle will be measured, and there is no time frame set (when will the larger chest and arms be achieved?). This goal could be made SMART by restating something like: 'I would like to add 2cm to chest circumference and 1cm to upper arm circumference in 3 months time'. The client may have just physical activity goals. However, they may also have lifestyle goals or exercise adherence goals as well. 31
Goals can be roughly divided into short, medium, and long-­‐term. For the purposes of exercise, the following time frames work well: Short-­‐term goals 4 – 12 weeks Medium-­‐term goals 8 – 24 weeks Long-­‐term goals 13 – 52 weeks Short, medium and long-­‐term goal setting is also an important aspect of periodisation (section 8): Record information in an effective manner Any information collected from the client should be recorded on a programme card, or digitally on computer. The format used should be simple and clear so that both the instructor and the client can understand it and access the information easily. Legal and Ethical Responsibilities After any consultation with a client, you will be in possession of some quite personal information about them. Therefore, it is essential that you remember your responsibilities regarding client confidentiality. Any information collected and stored is subject to the legal requirements of the data protection act (1998). The contents of any one-­‐to-­‐one discussion should remain confidential. Personal information should be stored safely in a locked cabinet, accessible only to staff who need to know that information to carry out their job. Any records stored electronically should be password protected as a minimum. Ideally, some form of data encryption should also be used. Client records must be retained for several years in case of any retrospective legal inquiries. It is illegal to sell or pass on personal information to a third party without the permission of the individual involved. If you do need to pass on information to a doctor for medical referral, then it is best to get written permission from your client before you do so. Communication Skills and Developing Rapport Whether a training programme will be successful in the long term depends on many factors. One of those factors is the quality of the relationship (or 'rapport') between the client and instructor. Instructors should be aware of how they are perceived by new clients, and the image they portray. Consider the following attributes or skills that may help to develop rapport with a client. Empathy Most instructors are quite fit themselves, they feel comfortable in classes and health clubs, and they naturally enjoy training. This is not necessarily the case with a client. In fact, they are much more likely to feel: uncomfortable, shy, overweight, unfit, out-­‐of-­‐place amongst 'all those fit people', afraid that they will fail again, etc. Therefore it is important for the instructor to have the quality of empathy. This means trying to see or feel the situation from the client's point of view. Take what steps you can to make a client feel comfortable and welcome, whilst at the same time not being patronising. The word 'patronising' means talking down to people). Warmth and Genuineness Show a sincere interest in the participant. People are good at sensing warmth and genuineness in other people, and they respond well to it. 32
Potential Barriers Be aware of their potential barriers to exercise and help to reduce or remove them whenever possible. Effective Questioning Techniques Using effective questioning techniques to elicit full and detailed information (refer to the section on interviewing). Non-­‐verbal Communication Research suggests that, in a face-­‐to-­‐face encounter, what we say accounts for only 7% of overall communication, whilst how we say something (voice tonality) constitutes 38% and our body language a massive 55%. These findings may come across as surprising, but the impact of what we don't say, or our non-­‐verbal communication, should not be underestimated. Some people are natural communicators, able to pick up on the slightest cues from the person they are talking too and responding effectively. If you are not naturally as adept as some, this is something you need to work on. Positioning Positioning involves being aware of the client's personal space. A 0.4m distance is regarded as 'intimate', a 0.4m-­‐1.2m distance is regarded as 'personal space', whilst a distance of 1 .2m-­‐3.6m is regarded as a 'social'. You need to be sensitive to your client's personal space and avoid overcrowding them and making them feel uncomfortable. Posture Actions speak louder than words, so body language and posture can be very important in the communication process. Simple methods such as matching the posture, gestures and breathing patterns of a client can develop a subconscious rapport. 33
Hand/arm Gestures Positioning of hands and arms can convey a non-­‐verbal message. For example, hands clasped behind the head often show a superior or arrogant attitude. Drumming fingers on the desk can signify impatience. Folding arms across the body can look defensive, or it could just be that the person feels cold. As with all body language, hand and arm gestures should be interpreted in context, and in combination with other signs. They should not be read literally in isolation. Pitch and Pace The sound of the voice communicates so much more than the words being spoken. Words can be sung, spoken loudly, whispered, pitched high or low, spoken rapidly or very slowly. Appropriate pitch and pace is vital to effective communication. Active Listening Skills Good active listening involves skills such as: •
Use of 'minimal encouragers': These are prompts that allow the client to continue talking, safe in the knowledge that you are still listening. Examples of minimal encouragers include; go on.., tell me more..., mmm..., uh huh...Nodding and smiling as the person talks to you are also types of minimal encourager. They effectively say: ”Carry on. I am listening to you and understand what you are saying' •
Sufficient eye contact: When listening attentively, we tend to hold the gaze of the speaker for longer than usual (but not a staring competition). It can be very distracting for the client if they think you are looking over their shoulder at something happening in the far corner of the room •
Asking clarifying questions: people are rarely totally clear when explaining something. Asking questions to clarify what a person has said is an effective way to show you are listening •
Summarising: At the end of a long reply to a question, it is useful to summarise what you have heard in simple terms, to verify that you have understood your client correctly 34
SECTION 3
Designing a Progressive Cardiovascular Programme In this section we will explore how to select cardiovascular (CV) activities appropriate to the client's goals. To do this, we will describe four distinct training zones, each giving specific adaptations and benefits. We will compare the differences between light, moderate and vigorous intensities, and the different training prescriptions for CV health and for CV fitness. Objectives By the end of this section you should be able to: 1.
Describe the basic principles of progressive overload, recovery time, adaptation, specificity, 2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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9.
10.
11.
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13.
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•
•
•
reversibility and individuality as they apply to CV training List t he l ong-­‐term a daptations t hat o ccur w ith r egular c ardiovascular t raining Name t he f our t raining z ones a nd i dentify t he h eart r ate r ange f or e ach Define 'light', 'moderate' and 'vigorous' intensities Describe t he h ealth b enefits r esulting f rom a dherence t o t he h ealth g uidelines Select a ctivities a ppropriate to a pparently h ealthy a nd s edentary (untrained) c lients Define t he c urrent F ITT g uidelines f or h ealth b enefits Define the concept of preferred exertion and discuss its applications for sedentary and active individuals Select activities appropriate to apparently healthy & active (trained) clients Describe the advantages and disadvantages of using vigorous intensity compared to moderate intensity Define the current FITT guidelines for improving fitness Describe the three stages of progression recommended by the ACSM Describe the terms, aerobic threshold, anaerobic threshold and onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) Discuss the practical applications of the 2mMol and 4mMol Blood lactate reference points for endurance performance Select activities appropriate to peak performing (well-­‐trained) clients Select activities appropriate to clients: With sports specific goals Who are recovering from injury with medical clearance Who are over-­‐trained Basic Principles of Cardiovascular Training Intensity Intensity refers to how hard the cardiovascular training session is. This can be measured in a variety of ways, including heart rate, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), visual signs and verbal signs (`talk test'). Methods of monitoring intensity are covered in Section 9. Sufficient intensity of training is required in order to achieve progressive overload, which will then lead to adaptation. 35
Duration of Session Duration refers to the total time the participant spends training at an effective intensity. Typically, a CV should be of at least 20-­‐30 minutes duration to be effective. More complete guidelines will be given further in this section. Short-­‐term Responses to Cardiovascular Exercise During a cardiovascular exercise session, various changes occur in the body, including: • Increased stroke volume • Increased heart rate • Increased cardiac output • Increased systolic blood pressure • Increased respiratory rate • Increased blood flow to the working muscles Progressive Overload The term 'progressive overload' can be roughly defined as 'asking the body to do a little bit more than it is comfortably used to'. An effective CV training session must encourage the participant to utilise their heart, lungs and circulation to a greater degree than usual. This can be done by means of intensity (working at a higher level than usual) or duration (working for a longer than usual), or possibly a combination of both. With progressive overload, the body will be forced to adapt and increase in fitness. Without progressive overload, the body will not need to make any adaptations, and fitness will not improve. Recovery Time After a CV training session, adequate recovery time is required for the body to make the necessary adaptations. Typically, a period of 24 hours after training gives sufficient recovery time. Adaptation Progressive overload causes the body to adapt and become fitter. The main adaptations resulting from CV training are summarised in table 3.1. Lungs • Increased capillarisation • Increased use of ‘dead space’ • Better O2 and CO2 exchange Heart • Increased stroke volume • Decreased heart rate at rest and for any given exercise intensity • Increased cardiac output • Better blood supply to cardiac muscle (via the coronary arteries) • Hypertrophy of cardiac muscle • Increased blood volume • Increased red blood cell count • Increased haemoglobin content • Increased ‘tone’ in the smooth muscle of artery walls • More efficient circulation Blood and Circulation 36
Muscles • Increased capillarisation • Increased size and number off mitochondria • Increased aerobic/anaerobic enzymes Table 3.1 Long-­‐term adaptations to regular cardiovascular training Specificity The term specificity refers to the principle that adaptations are specific to the demands placed upon the body. This is easily remembered as the SAID principle: • S p e c i f i c • Ad ap tati o n to • I m p o s e d • D e m a n d Thus a competitive runner must spend a majority of their training time running; a competitive swimmer must spend most of their time swimming; and so on. All types of training will give general health benefits to heart, lungs and circulation. However, to excel at a particular activity requires specific training. Reversibility Most of the adaptations to training are reversible. Gains in CV fitness will be lost if the heart, lungs and muscles are not stimulated to the same degree and this will result in the loss of functional capacity. Some decline in CV fitness occurs naturally as part of the ageing process, especially between the ages of 50 -­‐ 70 years. However, an active lifestyle can help to offset this decline. Individuality The term individuality simply reminds us that all clients are individuals. Although we have clear guidelines for effective CV training, they may not suit everyone. Instructors should always be prepared to be adaptable when writing programmes, and try to cater for individual needs and preferences. Cardiovascular Cross-­‐training Cardiovascular cross-­‐training refers to using several different types of exercise in one training session. For example, a 30 minute training session might consist of: • 10 minutes jogging • 10 minutes rowing • 10 minutes cycling This is in contrast to a training session where all the workout time is spent on just one exercise. The cross-­‐training approach gives the following potential benefits: • Variety ( for c lients w ho a re e asily b ored) • Different muscles are targeted on each exercise. This may give a more complete overall training effect • Joint stresses are different on each exercise. This may help to prevent over-­‐use injuries • Participants in the gym spend less time individual CV machines. This can be important during peak usage times 37
The Four Training Zones The ACSM recommends an overall training intensity somewhere between 55%-­‐90% of maximum heart rate. However this gives such a large range to choose from (55% is easy, and 90% is very hard for most people), that it is useful to divide it into four distinct zones). Note: that the heart rate percentages given are approximate, and will depend on the individual client's response to exercise. For example, many sedentary clients would reach OBLA between 70-­‐80% of their maximum heart rate. Moderate/Health Zone (55%-­‐70%) This zone represents an easy starting point for sedentary clients. Also, with sufficient frequency of training, this zone will result in significant health benefits. Fitness Zone (70%-­‐80%) This zone challenges the client with a 'vigorous' intensity, making it more effective at increasing fitness levels than the moderate zone, whilst also conferring greater health benefits. Anaerobic Threshold (OBLA) Zone (80%-­‐90%) The aerobic energy system will supply energy comfortably at low intensity, but not at high intensity. Somewhere between 80%-­‐90% most clients will pass through their anaerobic threshold and start to train using predominantly the lactic acid and creatine phosphate energy systems. The technical name for the anaerobic threshold is the 'onset of blood lactate accumulation', or OBLA. Training at this level causes a lot of discomfort because of the high levels of lactic acid in the blood. For this reason, it is best suited to well-­‐trained peak performers. Anaerobic Zone (90%-­‐100%) In this zone the client is working at their maximum intensity, and the body will use the lactic acid and creatine phosphate energy systems almost exclusively. The client will experience a lot of discomfort, and will only be able to maintain this level for a short duration before having to rest and recover. As with the previous zone, it is best suited to well-­‐trained peak performers. It is important to recognise these different levels of training because the specific adaptations that occur within the body will depend upon in which of the four zones the client uses. Table 3.3 gives an overview of some of these adaptations. 38
Zone 1. Anaerobic % MHR 90 -­‐100 Physiological Adaptations Increased type llb fibre recruitment Increased anaerobic enzymes within muscles Improved maximum oxygen transport 3. Anaerobic threshold 80 – 90 Improved type lla fibre recruitment O.B.L.A. Increased anaerobic threshold Improved tolerance and clearance of lactate Improved anaerobic glycolysis 2. Fitness 70 – 80 Improved type l fibre recruitment Increased aerobic glycolysis Increased aerobic enzymes within muscles Improved oxygen transport 1. Moderate / health 55 -­‐ 70 Increased fatty acid utilization Increased mitochondria/capillary density* Table 3.3 Physiological adaptations to different levels of training intensity *Capillary / mitochondria density will increase to some extent at all training intensities The four training zones can be useful when selecting an appropriate training intensity for different clients. Also useful are the categories of light, moderate and vigorous intensities (Allied Dunbar National Fitness Survey, 1992). These are defined as follows: Light Intensity This is defined as a physical activity that uses between 2-­‐5kcal/min, or 2-­‐3 METS. Examples include: •
Long walks at an average or slow pace •
•
Lighter DIY such as decorating Golf •
Table tennis •
Bowls •
•
Social dancing Some occupations not entirely sedentary From a training zone perspective, a light intensity would not be sufficient to raise the heart rate to 55%. Light activities are therefore too easy to give any effective long-­‐term cardiovascular benefits, unless the participant is extremely sedentary. 39
Moderate Intensity This is defined as a physical activity that uses between 4-­‐7 kcal/min or 3-­‐6 METS. Examples include: •
Long walks at a brisk or fast pace •
Football (if not out of breath or sweaty) •
Swimming (if not out of breath or sweaty) •
Tennis ( if n ot o ut o f b reath o r s weaty) •
Cycling (if not out of breath or sweaty) •
•
Heavy housework Heavy gardening •
Some occupations that were active but not vigorous From a training zone perspective, a moderate intensity clearly relates to the 'moderate/ health' zone between 55-­‐70%. This represents a level of exertion that will lead to long-­‐term cardiovascular benefits, and which most people can comfortably and confidently participate in for an extended period of time. Vigorous Intensity This is defined as a physical activity that uses greater than 7kcal/min or 6 METS. Examples include: •
Hill walking at a brisk pace •
S q u a s h •
R u n n i n g •
•
Football (if out of breath or sweaty) Swimming (if out of breath or sweaty) •
Tennis ( if o ut o f b reath o r s weaty) •
Cycling (if out of breath or sweaty) •
Some occupations that involved frequent climbing, lifting or carrying heavy loads From a training zone perspective, a vigorous intensity relates to the 'fitness' zone between 70-­‐
80%. This represents a level of exertion that is very effective for long-­‐term cardiovascular benefits. However, sedentary clients may find this level of training too demanding at a start of a programme. CV Training for Apparently Healthy and Sedentary (untrained) Clients For some time now it has been recognised that significant health benefits can be gained from doing relatively modest levels of cardiovascular activity as part of everyday life. This is contrary to the beliefs of many people that only traditional types of training such as running, aerobics, or playing sports will be of any benefit to them. The emphasis with most structured training and sports is on improving fitness through the use of vigorous intensity, rather than on improving health. 40
The potential health benefits of regular cardiovascular training include: •
Improvements in everyday function, such as walking, stair climbing, shopping and running from the bus •
Increased bone density in specific areas of the skeleton placed under load (particularly from high-­‐impact exercise modalities) •
•
Decreased risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) and other chronic degenerative conditions Modest reductions in high blood pressure •
Improved blood cholesterol profile •
Reduction in body fat/maintenance of body fat levels within a healthy range Most sedentary people would benefit greatly from doing some cardiovascular activity, but have many barriers to participation. For this reason, researchers now recommend distinct training guidelines for improving health as opposed to improving fitness. The guidelines emphasise frequency and duration of activity more than intensity. They also promote the idea of being active in every day life, rather than having to set aside time to visit the health club and train formally. Moderate Intensity Research (Blair et al., 1989) has clearly shown that moderate intensity activity is sufficient to give significant health benefits. In Blair's study, risk of death from cardiovascular disease, cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), were all greatly reduced with just modest amounts of activity. Whilst it is true that vigorous training gave individuals even greater health benefits, there is generally poor long-­‐term adherence to hard training programmes. Also, sedentary people are simply not fit enough to participate. Hence, health guidelines advocate moderate intensity training. Be Active Most Days of the Week Further research from the 'Harvard alumni study' (Paffenbarger et aI.,1986) showed that the total energy expended on activity each week was closely related to health benefits (figure 3.4), The greatest decrease in risk, that is the most benefit for the energy expended, occurs when the sedentary become just a little more active. Those who expended just 1000 kcal a week had a 29% reduction in risk compared with the very sedentary. It is hard work to burn 1000 kcal in single day; however, over a one week period the energy can be burned easily by accumulating 150-­‐200kcal per day. Hence the health guidelines advocate training most days of the week. 41
1000
t
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Figure 3.4 Death rates for male Harvard Alumni for the years 1962 to 1978 for various levels of physical activity expenditure (Paffenbarger et al., 1986) It should also be noted that whilst the fitness benefits continue to accrue with higher expenditures the health benefits begin to level off at about 2,000 to 2,500 kilocalories Very high levels of activity may actually have a harmful effect on health, possibly due to some effect of over-­‐stressing the body. Intermittent Activity Traditional fitness guidelines recommend a continuous training session of at least 20 minutes. Perhaps the most original component of the health recommendations is the concept that health benefits may be gained from multiple daily sessions of physical activity. Thus, 2 X 15 minutes per day or 3 X 10 minutes per day are as effective as one continuous session for improving health and controlling body weight, DeBusk et al., (1990) Jakicic et al. (1995) Jacobsen, et al., (1998)). The concept of intermittent exercise gives people much more choice about how they achieve their target level of activity, without having to set aside specific time to train. For example, a 15 minute brisk walk to the station in the morning, and a 15 minute home again in the evening would be sufficient activity for one day. Active Daily Living (ADL) The final important component of the health guidelines is that sufficient activity may be achieved through a variety of normal everyday tasks, rather than through formal organised exercise or sport. The following examples provide a range of physical activity options that might be offered to the worker, parent or individual with very little time to exercise. An active lifestyle approach for a worker might include: •
Walking, cycling, jogging, roller-­‐skating to and from work, or during the lunch hour •
Stair climbing during the lunch hour or walking up and down the stairs at every possible opportunity •
Park the car a distance away from work and walk •
When going to lunch try and find a restaurant within walking distance •
Instead of drinking coffee during your break, take a break outside and go for a stroll 42
•
•
•
An active lifestyle approach for an individual or parents with children might include: Taking the children to a park, using the playground equipment as an obstacle course Walking or cycling your children to school •
Taking the children for short bike rides around the neighbourhood Start a weekly active ritual with the family or friends, such as riding to the local cafe or cinema •
•
Go f or a w eekend w alk t o t he c ountryside, s easide o r h istoric s ites Start up an active family hobby such as hill walking or orienteering •
•
An active lifestyle approach for the person without much time might include: •
Walk or ride your bike when doing errands such as mailing letters or going to the shops for items that need to be replenished frequently •
Do all the housework in one go •
Use an exercise DVD •
Table 3.5 summarises the guidelines for maintaining cardiovascular health (ACSM, 2006) Frequency 5 – 7 times per week Intensity ‘Moderate’ (55 – 70% MHR) 3 – 6 METS Time 30 minutes. This can be cumulative, e.g. 2 sessions of 15 minutes, or 3 sessions of 10 minutes Type Any activity of a similar intensity to brisk walking Table 3.5 AGSM minimum guidelines for maintaining cardiovascular health Preferred Exertion Recently there has been a move away from the use of rigid formulae based upon the percentage of an individual's maximum heart rate as a means of prescribing an exercise-­‐intensity for apparently health, sedentary individuals. Research conducted by Dishman et al., (1994a) suggests that sedentary and active people prefer to exercise at an intensity approximating 60-­‐65% of their V02 max regardless of their activity history. In this study, 11 highly active and 12 not-­‐very active males (aged 18-­‐31 years) participated in two exercise sessions on an electronically braked bike. The first session was a continuous incremental maximal test to assess RPE and various metabolic measures while cycling. During the second session, subjects cycled continuously for 20 minutes at their preferred exercise intensities. 43
The not-­‐very active male subjects maintained a near constant power output throughout the exercise session, while the highly active subjects employed a warm-­‐up strategy. The significant point in this study was that both groups preferred power outputs that were in the 11 to 14 RPE ranges, which represents 50 to 60 % of V02 max. The clear message to emerge from this study is that preferred exertion can be just as effective as RPE and may be a more effective method to enhance fitness in sedentary populations. Dishman (1994), in a study that reviewed exercise prescription procedures for healthy adults concluded that a preferred intensity of exercise may better promote adherence than a strict prescription based on more precise physiological criteria if those criteria conflict with a person's intensity preference'. This view is further enhanced by an observation made during a one year randomised to clinical community exercise trial (King, Haskell, Taylor, Kraemer and Debusk 1991). In this study 357 middle-­‐aged sedentary adults were assigned to either a low (63-­‐73% peak heart rate) or high (73-­‐88% peak heart rate) intensity group. Over the year similar adherence was observed for both groups, however, it was noted by the researchers during the year that each group selected intensities that regressed toward a common intensity level of RPE 11,7 to 13.1. RPE (6 -­‐ 20 scale) 11 12 13 14 15 Preferred exertion Figure 3.6 Preferred exertion training zone The preferred-­‐exertion training zone would seem to correspond to an RPE of 12-­‐14, and represents a pace that is acceptable, and which will improve cardiovascular fitness in apparently healthy, sedentary people. CV Training for Apparently Healthy and Active (trained) Clients Clients who are already active are able to tolerate more intense training. The aerobic fitness-­‐
training zone (70-­‐80% MHR) represents a step up from 'moderate' to a 'vigorous' level of intensity. Exercising at this level has been shown to stimulate a cardiovascular training response in apparently healthy and active clients. The magnitude of training effect that can be achieved is clearly indicated in a study conducted by Duncan et al. (1991) who compared the physiological effects of strolling at 4.8 kph, brisk walking at 6.4 kph, and aerobic walking at 8 kph. The subjects were women aged 20 to 40 years, who were asked to walk 4.8 km a day, five days a week for 24 weeks. Gains of aerobic fitness increased in a dose-­‐response manner with walking speed (figure 3.7). 44
Figure 3.7 Changes in aerobic fitness in response to three different walking speeds compared with controls over a 24 week period (Duncan, et al, 1991). This, and similar studies clearly indicate that training at a higher intensity yields greater gains in fitness. However, instructors should be aware of both the advantages and disadvantages of training clients at higher intensity (table 3.8). Vigorous Intensity Advantages Disadvantages •
Greater health benefits • Greater discomfort due to higher levels of lactic acid •
Greater fitness benefits •
Time-­‐efficient (e.g. more calories used in a shorter period of time) •
Greater sense of achievement • Poor adherence to the programme (50% drop out rate within 3-­‐6 months) • Increased risk of injury to joints and muscles Table 3.8 Comparison of vigorous intensity to moderate intensity The AGSM guidelines for improving and maintaining cardiovascular fitness are summarised in table 3.9. Frequency 3 -­‐ 5 times per week Intensity 55 – 90% MHR Time 20 – 60 minutes. Type Any activity that is rhythmical, continuous and utilises large muscle groups Table 3.9 ACSM minimum guidelines for maintaining cardiovascular fitness 45
For the beginner to exercise, training three to five times a week is frequently perceived to be intimidating, and requiring too much effort. The initial focus should be on building realistic and successful exercise experiences for the client, before progressing on to more effective training frequency and duration. Pushing the client to do too much too soon simply leads to them lapsing and not returning to the gym. Progression guidelines The 50% dropout rate from vigorous exercise programmes within 3-­‐6 months represents a major challenge for Instructors. The first 6 to 12 weeks should aim to shape and maintain the exercise habit, rather than setting the standard towards optimal fitness guidelines. The goal is simply getting the individual to turn up on a regular basis. The AGSM (2006) outline three stages of progression for improving aerobic fitness: initial, improvement and maintenance (table 3.10). Example of Progression of FIT for a Healthy Adult Participant Programme Phase Week Initial Stage 1 Improvement Stage Maintenance Stage Frequency (Sessions/wk) Intensity (% MHR) Duration (Minutes) 2 50-­‐60 12 2 2 50-­‐60 14 3 3 50-­‐60 16 4 3 60-­‐65 18 5-­‐6 3 60-­‐65 20 7-­‐10 3 65-­‐70 20 11-­‐13 3-­‐4 65-­‐70 24 14-­‐17 3-­‐4 65-­‐70 27 18-­‐20 3-­‐4 70-­‐75 30 21-­‐24 3-­‐5 70-­‐75 30 25-­‐27 3-­‐5 75-­‐80 30 3 75-­‐80 30 28+ Table 3.10 guidelines for progression of FIT for a previously sedentary individual (AGSM, 2006) The Initial Conditioning Stage The initial conditioning stage usually lasts 4 to 6 weeks. However, the length will be dependent on the adaptation of the individual to the exercise programme. For instance, older adults will generally take longer to adapt to exercise training and consequently require a longer initial stage. The AGSM suggest that the duration of the exercise session during the initial stage should start with 12-­‐15 minutes and progress to 20 minutes. The recommended frequency should be three times per week on non-­‐consecutive days. 46
The Improvement Stage This stage usually lasts 4 to 5 months, during which the intensity is progressively increased and duration is increased every 2 to 3 weeks until the individual is able to exercise for 20 to 30 minutes. The frequency and magnitude of increments is dependent on the rate at which the individual adapts to the programme. The Maintenance Stage This stage usually begins after the first six months of training. During this stage the individual may no longer be interested in further improving their fitness and be content to maintain their fitness levels. At this stage it is important to consider reviewing the individuals exercise goals and explore ways of maintaining exercise programme enjoyment. For instance, cardiovascular cross-­‐training might be introduced into the programme. Fat Burning One of the most frequently asked questions in the gym or exercise classes is: what is the best way to burn fat? The following section is intended to help you, as the instructor, to answer the question of fat burning in a more informed way. Firstly, the question, what is the best way to burn fat? Makes the assumptions that: •
•
There is a best way to burn fat This method works for all individuals all of the time This is unlikely to be the case. There are several pieces of information that need to be gathered, and several variables that need to consider before advising the client. Exercise Intensity This is a subject of long-­‐standing controversy. Many clients are told that the best way to burn fat is to exercise at a low intensity and for a long duration. Also, cardiovascular machine manufacturers often recommend a so-­‐called fat burning zone of low intensity (usually around 60-­‐70% MHR) representing a brisk walk for most people. This approach is based on the fact that, at this intensity, the majority of calories burnt will be supplied by fat rather than glycogen (stored carbohydrate),If the intensity is taken higher (e.g. a run) then more of the calories will come from glycogen and therefore it is no longer 'fat burning'. (See Figure 3.11). This argument holds, so far as it goes. However, it fails to take into account the total energy expended. Fat is our largest store of energy. It is a fuel tank distributed throughout the body, As such, it is being used all the time as the energy source for normal metabolic functions such as breathing, digesting food and keeping warm. So in this respect, anything could be termed 'fat burning'. Sleeping or sitting watching the television are both fat burning, and in fact, both would burn a very high proportion of fat compared to glycogen! 47
So if sleeping, or watching the television both burn fat, why are so many people overweight? Again, the total energy expended must be considered. Figure 3.11 shows how energy expenditure and fat utilisation vary with exercise intensity. 350 300 Glycogen
250 Fat
200 150 100 50 0 No activity eg Seated Light activity eg. Housework Moderate activity eg Brisk walk Vigorous activity eg Hard run Figure 3.11 Energy expenditure and fat utilisation with increasing intensity (Adapted from Romjin, Coyle and Sidossis, 1993) Figure 3.11 indicates that, when inactive (seated), the total energy expenditure is so low that it is ineffective for fat loss, regardless of the fact that most of this energy comes from fat. It also shows that, for the same duration of exercise increased intensity massively increases the total energy expended and that the proportion of glycogen to fat increases as the intensity increases. However, the actual amount of fat utilised doesn't vary very much. So exercise at high intensity can achieve fat loss just as well as exercise at low intensity. But then why should a client bother to work at the higher intensity if it burns about the same amount of fat? How can the Instructor 'sell' the idea to the reluctant client? There are several reasons: • The calories supplied by glycogen in high intensity exercise still matter to fat burning. Those calories have to be replaced from somewhere. This will either be from the carbohydrate in the next meal (so the client can eat more carbohydrate without it being stored as more fat), or from gluconeogenesis (manufacture of carbohydrate in the liver). Gluconeogenesis is an energy consuming, and therefore fat burning process 48
Increased fitness Increased cardio-­‐protective benefits Less time taken to burn the same energy The only reasons to advocate low intensity for fat burning are low fitness level of the client and to encourage better adherence to the programme. The research findings given earlier in the section suggest that many adults fall into this category. Hence, for many, low intensity is the only choice available to start with. But there is no reason why they cannot gradually progress in intensity, following the AGSM guidelines, and so gain all the extra benefits from doing so. The fear that they will no longer be efficiently burning fat is unfounded. •
•
•
Exercise Duration Another commonly held belief in the fitness industry is that you only start to burn fat after 20-­‐30 minutes of continuous exercise. At the start of a training session it is true that there is a high contribution of total energy from carbohydrate (stored glycogen and glucose in the blood). This seems to be because fat mobilisation, transport and utilisation in the muscles all take time to get going properly. Then, as exercise progresses, there is a gradual shift in contribution from carbohydrate to fat, (figure 3.12). Figure 3.12 The relative contribution of fat and carbohydrate to long-­‐duration exercise. (Note: if the intensity is higher, such as a run, the proportions of fat to carbohydrate will change, but the principle still remains the same). It is clear that fat burning does not start at 20 -­‐30 minutes. This is simply where the crossover point is and where you start to burn more than 50% Fat. It is interesting to note that, for a trained endurance athlete, the crossover point will happen sooner. In other words, they will derive more energy from fat, and sooner, than the untrained 49
client for the same training session. Indeed, the high fitness person may burn a higher proportion of fat at rest compared to the less fit because of the long term adaptations that have taken place, such as: more mitochondria, better fat transportation in the blood, more fat mobilising enzymes in adipose tissue, and more fat utilising enzymes in the muscles. This is another example of how the fitness level of the client makes a difference to successful fat loss. Duration of exercise is certainly important for fat loss, but mainly because it affects the total energy expended, and not because of the proportion of fat used. The Combination of Exercise Duration and Exercise Frequency Frequency of exercise along with exercise duration, are the two most important factors for fat loss. The aim is to expend as much energy as possible, and this can be achieved if you exercise more frequently and for a longer duration. It is simply a matter of mathematics, e.g. • 3 times a week x 30mins brisk walk = 600 kcal • 5 times a week x 45mins brisk walk = 1500 kcal (Figures are average. They will vary according to body weight and stride efficiency etc.) The first approach would take about 13 weeks to burn off 1kg of body fat (7700 kcal). The second approach would take closer to 5 weeks. CV T raining f or P eak-­‐performing ( well-­‐trained) C lients In the previous sections we have emphasised health and general fitness as the primary goals of cardiovascular training, and how significant improvements can be made with only modest time and effort. Now we will discuss the training needs of the more competitive individual. This is likely to be someone who is already fit in the general sense, and includes exercise as a regular part of their life. They probably train for a particular sport or event, such as marathon running, triathlon, football, squash, etc. They enjoy the challenge of hard training, and accept the discomfort and higher risk of over-­‐use injuries that intense exercise naturally entails. When tailoring a programming for a peak performing client, it is useful to establish their aerobic threshold and their anaerobic threshold (also known as 'onset of blood lactate accumulation'). Aerobic Threshold In the previous section we discussed the concept that, as intensity increases, aerobic energy production is gradually supplemented more and more by anaerobic metabolism, and this means that lactic acid is produced in the muscles and must be dispersed in the blood. The aerobic threshold occurs when blood lactate reaches approximately 2mmo1/1, and the exerciser begins to feel more discomfort. This happens at approximately 70% of MHR (figure 3.13), although it may well occur at a lower level for sedentary individuals. Using the 6-­‐20 scale, the aerobic threshold is felt as an RPE of about 14 {'somewhat hard'-­‐'hard'). The aerobic threshold represents a realistic intensity/pace that can be sustained in long-­‐
distance races such as a marathon or triathlon. The majority of energy is derived from aerobic metabolism, and fat is used as the major fuel, thus sparing glycogen stores so that they can last for the full duration of the event. 50
For shorter duration events such as a 5k or 10k run, then a faster pace can be maintained, closer to the anaerobic threshold. 51
Anaerobic Threshold/Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation (OBLA) If the individual continues to increase intensity level, they will eventually reach a point where the amount of lactate produced exceeds the body’s ability to disperse or buffer it, so the acid accumulates in their blood ultimately causing so much discomfort that they have to either slow down or stop. The point at which lactate exceeds removal and bloo9d lactate begins to accumulate is referred to as Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation (OBLA), more commonly known as ‘anaerabic threshold’. This point represents the upper limit of aerobic performance; it is an individual’s maximum sustainable pace without suffering the performance slowing effects of acidosis. OBLA is widely identified by exercise physiologists as the work-­‐rate (watts, running speed, or % VO2 max) at which blood lactate reaches a reference point of 4 mmol/l (figure 3.13) OBLA typically occurs somewhere between 80-­‐90% MaxHR for an intermediate or highly fit individual, For a less fit individual OBLA may occur as low as 70% MaxHR. 10 9 8 7 6 5 Anaerobic Threshold (OBLA) 4 3 Aerobic Threshold 2 1 0 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Exercise Intensity (%MHR) Practical uses of OBLA
There are four main reasons why it is useful to know OBLA: 1. On the basis of a large volume of research (for a complete summary, see Weltman, 1995) training at or slightly above OBLA is the most effective way to develop aerobic fitness. 2. OBLA is found to increase rather more rapidly than VO2 max, and go on increasing as intensive aerobic training progresses. In this respect it is a more useful indicator of performance than VO2 max. 3. Tactically the use of these blood lactate reference points has arisen because of observations that optimal times in events of 5 -­‐ 10 km require running speeds close to OBLA. 4. Specific adaptations to the cardiovascular system are initiated at this level: increased tolerance to lactic acid, improved ability both to oxidise and buffer lactate, and increased oxidative capacity of the fast oxidative glycolytic muscle fibres. 52
It should be noted that there is considerable disagreement about the 4mmol value. For example, Stegman and colleagues (1981) found that the threshold at which blood lactate begins to rise had considerable individual variation, from around 2 mmol to 7 mmol. The obvious implication here is that many elite athletes will have been assigned training paces based upon a 4 mmol work intensity and some will have over-­‐trained, some will have overloaded appropriately, and some will have under-­‐trained. Whilst there is considerable variation amongst individuals, OBLA values are generally accepted as good predictors of endurance performance and represent useful benchmarks for evaluating training progress. The only truly accurate way of measuring blood lactate levels and establishing OBLA is via continuous blood sampling. However, this is not a practical or pleasant method for an individual in the gym. However, a reasonable estimate of OBLA can be made by a simple graduated exercise test. OBLA Test Choose a CV machine that the client is comfortable with. They also need to wear a heart rate monitor. Have a 6-­‐20 RPE scale to hand, and a pen and paper to record information during the test. After a suitable warm up, exercise intensity is increased gradually at two minute intervals. Monitor heart rate, breathing rate and RPE in the last few seconds of each two minute stage. OBLA is indicated by an RPE of 16 to 17, and by the onset of breathlessness. Record the exercise level and heart rate at which this happens. This corresponds closely to a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol (Weltman, 1995). Follow this with a cooldown sufficient to bring the heart rate down to below 100bpm. Alternatively, Stegman and Kindermann (1982) proposed a concept termed ‘individual anaerobic threshold’ or ‘maimal steady state’. This refers to the highest power output that can just be maintained for 15 – 20 minutes without a continual increase in blood lactate accumulation. A monitor is used to record heart rate over the duration of the test. The average heart rate then gives a reasonable indication of OBLA. OBLA Training Zone This generally refers to the 80-­‐90% MHR Zone, although as we have discussed, it may need to be adapted to the individual. There are two main types of OBLA or ‘threshold training’. • Tempo Training • Cruise Intervals These are described more fully in Section 4 on cardiovascular training sytesm. Anerobic Training Zone This general refers to the 90-­‐100% MHR Zone. Working at this level of intensity stimulates fast twitch muscle fibres and improves the anaerobic energy systems. The nervous system also becomes accustomed to faster muscle contraction rates. The main benefits of training in this zone are increased tolerance to large amounts o lactic acid, and improved sprinting ability. 53
This level of training is typified by high intensity intervals: repeated all-­‐out sprints, with recovery periods that are two to three times the duration of the work period. See section 4 for more detailed information on a cardiovascular training systems. Other types of workout utilized are plyometrics (activities such as jumping, hopping and bounding movements), sport loading (activities where the athlete wears a weighted vest, uses a harness or parachute, sprints uphill, or runs in sand), and over-­‐speed training, which involves a mix of downhill sprinting, high speed treadmill and cycle training, or towing with surgical tubing. CV Training for Clients with Particular Needs Sports specific When training a client to be fit for a sport, the principle of specificity should be applied. For example: Recovering from injury with medical clearance Any client who has a serious injury or illness should be advised not to train, and be referred to the General Practitioner (GP) for treatment. However, clients recovering from injury, and who already have medical clearance from their GP, may still be able to train, provided that you take certain precautions when advising them: •
Work within your level of qualifications and experience. Even if a client has medical clearance, they may still be regarded as a ‘specialist population’ requiring you to have a specific training and certification to advise them. •
Refer to another instructor who is qualified in exercise referral/older adult etc. if necessary •
Follow any written advice from doctor or physiotherapist. If you are unsure of any technical terms used, then clarify with them before proceeding. •
Avoid use of specific areas affected. For example, a client with an upper body injury may still be able to perform stationary cycling. For a client with a lower body injury, they may still be able to use an arm ergometer •
Intensity of training will be lower than usual, until recovery from the injury is complete •
For clients recovering from injuries to the ankle, knee, hip and lower back, use of exercises where the body weight is supported (e.g. swimming or aqua classes) may be beneficial. If weight-­‐bearing activities are used, then low-­‐impact modalities such as cycling, rowing or walking are recommended •
Some joints/muscles that are recovering from injury may respond to low-­‐intensity training. If so, then use just the pain-­‐free range of movement (ROM) Over-­‐trained High intensity training is necessary for the development of peak cardiovascular fitness. However, too much training can actually impair recovery and the result can be reduced fitness. The client may then be in an over-­‐trained state, and continuing with their existing heavy training schedule will only make things worse. 54
The boundary between hard training and over-­‐training is far from clear. Lehman et al. (1998) in a review of physiological responses to over-­‐training in endurance athletes found that the maximum sustainable duration in endurance sports could be assumed to be about three weeks of intensified or prolonged endurance training of more than three hours per day. The researchers state that the risk of over-­‐training is increased by: •
Inadequate r ecovery b etween t raining s essions •
One-­‐sided, m onotonous t raining w ithout a ltering h ard a nd e asy d ays •
A lack of one complete rest day per week •
Excessive a mounts o f h igh i ntensity t raining •
•
Too many competitions Significant other non-­‐training stresses, e.g. occupation, lifestyle, family commitments, studying and so on The symptoms of over-­‐training are numerous and they may change in nature according to the length of time the athlete has been in that state. Initially, the nervous system may go into a sort of 'overdrive' trying to cope with intolerable demands. Symptoms may include: •
F a t i g u e •
Higher t han e xpected h eart r ate, b oth a t r est a nd d uring e xercise •
Sleep p roblems ( nightmares, w aking o ften d uring n ight) •
Elevated blood pressure •
Emotional instability •
Poor concentration and inability to relax •
Reduced training performance •
Delayed recovery after training •
Increased number of injuries Recovery from this initial over-­‐trained state can be fairly quick (measured in days/weeks). However, if the athlete takes not notice of how his/her body is reacting, and continues to train excessively, then the nervous system reaches a ‘depletion’ stage, and symptoms may change to include: •
Chronic fatigue unrelieved by bed rest •
Lower than expected heart rate, both at rest and during exercise •
Excessive sleeping •
Depressed feeling •
Low blood pressure •
Severely reduced training performance •
Loss of competitive drive 55
•
Lowered immunity (the over-­‐trained individual becomes vulnerable to bacterial and viral infections and the healing of any training injuries will be significantly affected) This is much more serious condition and may take many weeks or even months to fully recover. The ACSM recommend the following measures to reduce the risk of over-­‐training: •
One or more recovery days should be added to each training week •
Use periodised training programs to provide the necessary training variety to avoid over-­‐training •
Avoid monotonous training •
Avoid too great a relative intensity (percent 1RM) for extended periods •
Avoid too great a training volume (number of sessions, exercises, sets and reps) for extended periods •
Check that training volume and training intensity are inversely related •
Avoid performing every set of every exercise of every session to absolute failure, with no variation •
Avoid incorrect exercise selection (overuse of certain muscles or joints) •
Avoid excessive use of eccentric muscle actions •
Take into account the cumulative training stresses from other forms of exercise (i.e., cardiovascular training, sport-­‐specific training, etc.) If a participant thinks that they are already suffering from the effects of over-­‐
training, then the cure is simple: rest. Take as long as required (sometimes several weeks) to restore the mind and body fully. 56
SECTION 4 Cardiovascular Training Systems In this section we explore different systems of cardiovascular training, the advantages and disadvantages of each one, and how to use each system to meet the goals of different clients. Objectives By the end of this section you should be able to: 1.
Describe the following systems of training: •
C o n t i n u o u s •
Fartlek (also called 'random') •
Interval 2.
List t he a dvantages a nd d isadvantages o f e ach t raining s ystem 3.
Discuss appropriate work/rest ratios and intensities to target different energy systems and muscle fibre types. 4.
Discuss the suitability of each training system for the client, when fitness level and goals are considered. Continuous Training Continuous training requires the client to maintain the same intensity for the duration of the workout. This system can be applied to any level of fitness, depending upon the intensity and duration chosen. For example, a preferred exertion training session performed for approximately 20 minutes duration (figure 4.1), would suit a sedentary client. A client who is currently active might perform a similar duration training session, but choose a higher intensity of 70-­‐80% MHR. Whilst continuous training offers a simple, easy-­‐to-­‐understand workout for clients, it does have a major disadvantage of being boring, and can present a challenge to the instructor to make the session interesting. Watching the television screens in the gym, or listening to music on headphones can help many people to enjoy the experience and complete their training. A well-­‐trained client who is interested in developing peak performance for their sport could choose a 'tempo' workout, attempting to maintain their maximum pace close to their OBLA for 20-­‐40 minutes. This type of training would be ideal for competitive clients training for a 5k or 10k race, or for a triathlon. However, the high concentrations of lactic acid maintained for the duration of the workout make this intensity of training too uncomfortable for most clients. 57
A well-­‐trained client who is interested in developing peak performance for their sport could choose a ‘tempo’ workout, attempting to maintain their maximum pace close to their OBLA for 20-­‐40 minutes. This type of training would be ideal for competitive clients training for a 5k or 10k race, or for a triathlon. However, the high concentrations of lactic acid maintained for the duration of the workout make this intensity of training too uncomfortable for most clients. Fartlek (‘Random’) Training The word ‘Fartlek’ is from Swedish and means ‘speed play’. This style of training originated from outdoor running where athletes would naturally vary their pace according to the terrain and how they felt. Many styles of Farklek exist, and it has been applied to CV modalities other than running, but the essence of the training remains the same; a constantly varying pace. On CV machines the ‘random’ programme is normally selected to simulate Fartlek, and a workout is set from the many thousands of different random courses in the console’s memory. Alternatively, Fartlek can easily be simulated using the ‘manual’ option and then changing pace/levels when desired by using the console buttons. Fartlek training adds variety to a workout, and trains the different energy system and muscle fibre types. Also, training ‘how they feel’ will give some clients a sense of control, and enhance their enjoyment of the session. Advantages and disadvantages of fartlek training are summarized in table 4.6. The planning process for a Fartlek workout is less structured than for other training systems because so much depends on on-­‐going client feedback during the session. However, certain parameters can be roughly decided by the instructor in advance: •
The total duration of the session •
How hard the overall workout will be, and which energy system(s) will be prioritized. For example, will it be entirely aerobic, or will there be some time spent above OBLA? •
The minimum and maximum intensities that the client will use. For example, will peaking sprints be included to target the creatine phosphate energy system, or will this be too demanding for the client? •
Which factors can be manipulated in order to vary the stimulus on the body? For example, on a treadmill, both speed and incline should be varied. On a cycle, pedal speed, resistance level, and cycling position (seated or standing for a hill climb) should all be used. •
Fartlek training sessions for an untrained sedentary client and for an experienced client are shown in figures 4.4 and 4.5 respectively. 58
Fartlek Training (Sedentary Client) MHR 90% 55% Table 4.4 Fartlek training for an untrained sedentary client MHR 90% Fartlek Training (Experienced Client) 55% Table 4.5 Fartlek training for an experienced client 59
Interval Training Interval training methods are popular because they use repeated bouts of high-­‐intensity training, with rest periods to allow for recovery and removal of lactic acid, so that the discomfort always remains manageable. Psychologically, intervals provide short-­‐term goals within the overall training session: clients are often prepared to train at higher work intensity than usual because they know that a recovery period is coming up soon. Also, from a planning and progression perspective, intensities and work to rest ratios can be applied systematically to target the desired energy systems and muscle fibre types. Table 4.11 shows work/rest/intensity guidelines. Aerobic intervals are an ideal way to progress intensity of training into the 'fitness zone' for a moderately fit client. A training session might consist of one minute work intervals at 80% of MaxHR, and one minute rest intervals at 70%. The work interval challenges the client, but remains within the capacity of their aerobic energy system (figure 4.7). Progression is then achieved by gradually increasing the duration of the work intervals over a number of weeks, until eventually a continuous training intensity of about 80%MaxHR can be sustained. Aerobic intervals are also useful for clients interested in controlling body weight. Aerobic Intervals 80%
MHR 70%
Figure 4.7 Aerobic intervals for a currently active, experienced client 60
Anaerobic 'cruise' intervals (figure 4.8) consist of performing repeated intervals slightly above OBLA for 1 to 4 minutes each, broken up by recovery periods of a similar or slightly shorter duration (i.e. a work/recovery ratio of 1 to 1 or less). Anaerobic intervals are an excellent way to raise OBLA. The work periods force the participant to tolerate higher levels of blood lactic acid than they would normally experience at constant pace, but only for a few minutes. This provides the overload necessary to stimulate adaptations in the body. The rest periods then allow some of that lactic acid to disperse, and for the participant to recover somewhat, before the next work periods begins. Anaerobic 'expletive' intervals are characterised by short, very high intensity work intervals, followed by relatively long recovery periods (figure 4.9). Work intervals are typically ten to sixty seconds long, with a work/relief ratio of about one to three. Working at this level of intensity stimulates the fast twitch muscle fibres and improves the anaerobic energy systems. Expletive intervals will increase the muscle's utilisation of the creatine phosphate energy system, and tolerance to large amounts of lactic acid. The nervous system becomes more efficient at stimulating faster muscular contraction rates. Advantages and disadvantages of interval training are summarised in table 4.10. Anaerobic ‘Expletive’ Intervals OBLA Figure 4.9 Anaerobic ‘Expletive’ Intervals for a well-­‐trained peak performer 61
Interval Training Advantages • Adds variety to the workout •
•
•
•
•
•
Disadvantages • Often too challenging for untrained sedentary clients Can be more challenging for both trained and • Too fixed and regimented for some clients untrained clients Helps to avoid a fitness plateau – every workout is different Trains the different energy systems Trains the different muscle fibre types Trains the client’s ability to change pace and recover quickly Mimics the changes in pace encountered in some sports, e.g. boxing Table 4.10 Advantages and disadvantages of interval training Table 4.9 can be used as a guide when setting intervals for well-­‐trained peak performers or sports-­‐
specific training. Once the client’s goals have been established, then the instructor can decide when energy system(s) should be trained. Table 4.11 will then suggest the correct intensity, work/rest ratio, and number of intervals to be effective. General guidelines for interval training Major Energy Exercise % Intensity Work/Rest Ratio Number of System Duration intervals ATP-­‐PC 0.10 100% 1:3 20 – 30 0.20 100% 1:3 10 – 20 0.30 100% 1:3 8 -­‐ 18 ATP-­‐PC-­‐LA 0.40-­‐0.50 100% 1:3 8 – 16 1.00 95 – 100% 1:2 5 -­‐ 15 LA 1.10 – 1.30 95 – 100% 1:2 5 – 12 1.30 – 3.00 90 – 100% 1:1 4 – 10 LA-­‐Aerobic 3.00 – 4.00 80 – 90% 1:1 3 – 8 Aerobic 4.00 – 5.00 70 – 90% 1:0.5 3 – 8 Table 4.11 Guidelines for interval training 62
SECTION 5 Designing a Progressive Resistance Training Programme In this section we will explore how to select resistance training (RI) activities appropriate to the client's goals. To do this, we will review the specific benefits gained by training with different resistances and repetitions. We will explore the variables such as the type of equipment employed, exercise choice, exercise sequence, recovery time, and use of split routines. Lastly, we will propose training guidelines for a range of clients, depending upon their fitness level and what they would like to achieve. Objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to: 1. Describe the basic principles of resistance training to include: •
Progressive overload •
Recovery time •
Adaptation •
Specificity •
Reversibility •
Individuality 2. Explain the muscular strength/endurance continuum 3. State the optimum resistance and repetition ranges to develop strength, hypertrophy and endurance. 4. Use prediction tables to estimate repetition maximums between 1-­‐10RM 5.
Define muscular power, and describe basic power training principles 6.
Consider other resistance training variables, to include: •
Number of sets •
Exercise choice (compound/isolation) •
•
Exercise sequence Split routines •
•
Type of muscular contraction used (concentric/eccentric/isometric) Workout duration •
Recovery time between sets •
Speed 63
•
Range of movement 7. List variations of generic resistance training exercises, and analyse them in terms of: •
Safety •
Stability •
Leverage •
•
Alignment Momentum •
Muscle fibre recruitment patterns •
Specificity •
Functional compatibility 8. Discuss the role of the rotator cuff muscles in improving shoulder stability, and propose a range of internal/external rotation exercises to isolate and improve their function. 9. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of different types of resistance training equipment, to include: •
•
Fixed axis machines Variable axis machines •
•
Pulley systems Free weights •
Exercise bands/tubing •
Body weight 10. Select activities appropriate to: •
Apparently healthy and sedentary (untrained) clients (ACSM guidelines) •
Apparently healthy and active (trained) clients •
Peak performing (well-­‐trained) clients 11. Select activities appropriate to clients: •
With sports specific goals •
•
Who are recovering from injury with medical clearance Who are over-­‐trained 12. Identify the potential risk of bone micro-­‐trauma from excessive strength training in teen years. 64
Basic Principles of Resistance Training Progressive Overload The term 'progressive overload' can be roughly defined as 'asking the body to do a little bit more than it is comfortably used to'. An effective RT session must encourage the participant to utilise their muscles to a greater degree than usual. This can be done by means of intensity (working with a heavier resistance than usual) or duration (completing more repetitions than usual), or possibly a combination of both. Some gains can be made with relatively small levels of fatigue in the muscles. This would be appropriate for sedentary (inactive) individuals. Highly motivated, well-­‐trained participants may choose to take overload to a state of complete muscular failure, stimulating greater gains. With progressive overload, the body will be forced to adapt and increase in fitness. Without progressive overload, the body will not need to make any adaptations, and fitness will not improve. Recovery Time After an RT session, adequate recovery time is required for the body to make the necessary adaptations. It is difficult to be exact because individual response to training is so varied. However, the following guidelines are useful: Strength/power 2 -­‐ 3 days recovery Hypertrophy 2 -­‐ 3 days recovery Endurance 1 -­‐ 3 days recovery Rest from strength/power training is longest, allowing recovery for the central nervous system (CNS) and metabolism. Recovery from endurance training is shorter, allowing for replenishment of muscle glycogen stores, and restoration of vitamins and enzymes. Recovery is affected by genetics and lifestyle factors. For many individuals a rest of two to three days may be necessary between workouts for the same body part to allow recovery of muscles, skeleton and central/peripheral nervous systems. Large muscle groups generally require more recovery time. Smaller muscle groups tend to recover more quickly. Muscles with a high percentage of slow twitch fibres also recover more quickly than those with a high percentage of fast twitch fibres. Training too frequently, and not allowing sufficient recovery, can simply lead to over-­‐training and a lack of progression. 65
Adaptation Progressive overload causes the body to adapt and become fitter. The main adaptations and health benefits resulting from RT are: •
Improvement in everyday function, such as lifting, carrying, climbing stairs, or standing from a chair unaided •
Improvement in static posture, by correction of muscle imbalance •
Improved lower back and joint stability, thus reducing the chance of injury when performing everyday tasks •
Increased bone density in specific areas of the skeleton placed under load •
Increased lean tissue, and therefore metabolic rate, which can help improve body composition Specificity The term specificity refers to the principle that adaptations are specific to the demands placed upon the body. This is easily remembered as the SAID principle: •
•
•
•
Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demand Thus a power lifter must spend a majority of their training with their three competition lifts (back squat, dead lift and bench press) using very heavy resistances. In contrast, a rugby player would include a variety of specific exercises into their weight training, aiming to improve their ability to sprint, tackle, withstand impact, avoid injury, etc. All types of training will give general health benefits to the muscles, skeleton and connective tissues. However, to excel at a particular activity requires specific training. Reversibility Most of the adaptations to training are reversible. Gains in muscular strength or endurance will be lost if muscles are not stimulated to the same degree and this may result in muscular wastage or 'atrophy'. Atrophy occurs naturally as part of the ageing process, especially between the ages of 50 -­‐ 70 years. An active lifestyle can help to offset this loss of muscle mass and strength. Individuality The term individuality simply reminds us that all clients are individuals. Although we have clear guidelines for effective RT, they may not suit everyone. Instructors should always be prepared to be adaptable when writing programmes, and try to cater for individual needs and preferences. 66
Muscular Strength and Endurance Continuum Muscular strength can be defined as: The maximum amount of force that can be generated by a muscle or group of muscles against a resistance in one voluntary contraction. This can be written as the 1 Repetition Maximum (1 RM). Muscular endurance can be defined as: The ability of a muscle or group of muscles to exert sub-­‐
maximal force against a resistance over an extended period of time. Any exercise can be placed on a continuum of resistance and repetitions according to an individual's muscular fitness level. This continuum ranges from absolute strength at one end to muscular endurance at the other. In simple terms, an individual who can perform only five full press ups would be working muscular strength, whereas an individual who could perform 25 full press ups would be working muscular endurance. Everyday tasks require varying degrees of muscular effort. Some may tend more towards strength, such as moving heavy furniture. Whereas other tasks may be more endurance biased, such as carrying shopping, or housework. The continuum ranges from absolute strength at one end to muscular endurance at the other (table 5.1). As repetitions increase, there is a corresponding change in the predominant energy system and muscle fibre type used. There is no absolute cut-­‐off point where strength training ceases and endurance starts. Rather, there is a gradual shift in emphasis along the continuum. Strength Strength/endurance Endurance Heavy resistance Heavy/moderate Moderate resistance 1 -­‐ 8 repetitions 8 – 12 repetitions 12+ repetitions ATP/PC PC/LA LA/O2 Fast twitch fibres Mix of Fibres (Type II) (Type I and II) Table 5.1 Muscular strength – endurance continuum Slow twitch fibres (Type I) Poliquin (1990) researched the continuum in some detail, and made specific recommendations about what repetitions and resistance give the best strength and hypertrophy gains (table 5.2). The most noticeable feature in these guidelines is that the greatest hypertrophy gains happened in the 8 -­‐ 12 repetition range, with a moderate resistance of 70 -­‐ 76% of 1 RM. This is contrary to the popular belief that very heavy weights must be lifted to build bulky muscles. Resistances of 5RM and heavier do increase strength, but seem to do so by increasing the 'neural drive' to the muscles (i.e. improving the recruitment of fibres by the nervous system). Increase in muscle size seems to be less of a factor. 67
Repetitions % of 1RM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 100 94.3 90.6 88.1 85.6 83.1 80.7 78.6 76.5 74.4 72.5 70.3 68.8 67.5 66.2 65 63.8 62.7 61.6 60.6 Physiological effects Increased strength via enhanced neural drive Maximal strength plus some hypertrophy Best hypertrophy gains leading to maximal strength Best endurance gains. Lower strength and hypertrophy gains Table 5.2 Repetition Ranges and Physiological Effects (Poliquin, 1990) 68
Establishing Repetition Maximums For the above guidelines to work effectively, the resistance used must be close to the repetition maximum (RM) for that specific repetition range. Fleck & Kraemer (1992) recommend the following method for establishing any RM weight from 1 RM to 25 RM with an individual who is already participating in a resistance-­‐training programme. These guidelines are not appropriate for individuals who are new to exercise, because they could feel intimidated both mentally and physically by the testing procedures. • Warm up with 5 -­‐ 10 repetitions at 50% of an estimated RM. • Rest for 1-­‐2 minutes, then use 70% of that estimated RM to perform the desired number of repetitions. • Repeat step two using 90% of the estimated RM. • Rest for two to three minutes then repeat using 100 -­‐ 105% of estimated RM. • If desired repetition range is completed, rest; then go back to step 2 and repeat using 1 -­‐ 5% more weight. • If desired repetitions are achieved again, rest for a complete day and then repeat the whole process using a heavier resistance for step one than previously used. Repetitive testing is time-­‐consuming. However, this can be overcome by the use of repetition maximum predictor tables. Using Prediction Tables to Estimate Training Load It is inappropriate to test a 1 RM with many clients because it is very stressful on the joints and muscles, and also because the process just described can be time-­‐consuming. This is especially true when 1 RM figures are needed for several different exercises. An alternative approach is to measure a specific repetition maximum, and then use a prediction table to estimate other RM loads. 1 ORM is popular as a test because it is reasonably challenging, yet much safer than testing with heavier loads. Table 5.3 can be used to estimate any maximum between 1 RM and 15RM. For example: A client's 1ORM for a back squat is measured and found to be 90kg. 1.
Read across the top row of the table (RM) and find 10. 2.
Follow this column down and find 90. 3.
The numbers in this horizontal row will give the estimated RM required. Therefore: 1RM = 120kg 6RM = 102kg And so on. For example: A client's 12RM for a lat pull down is measured and found to be 40kg. What is their estimated 8RM and 4RM? (Answers: 48kg, 54kg) Estimating repetition maximums in this way is clearly less accurate than direct measurement. However, it does offer significant benefits in terms of time, effort, safety and convenience.
69
Load (lb or kg) RM % 1RM 1 100 2 95 3 93 4 90 5 87 6 85 7 83 8 80 9 77 10 75 12 67 15 65 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 10 19 29 38 48 57 67 76 86 95 105 114 124 133 143 152 162 171 181 190 200 209 219 228 238 247 257 266 276 285 295 304 314 323 333 342 352 361 371 380 390 339 409 418 428 9 19 28 37 47 56 65 74 84 93 102 112 121 130 140 149 158 167 177 186 195 205 214 223 233 242 251 260 270 279 288 298 307 316 326 335 344 353 363 372 381 391 400 409 419 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108 117 126 135 144 153 162 171 180 189 198 207 216 225 234 243 252 261 270 279 288 297 306 315 324 333 342 351 360 369 378 387 396 405 9 17 26 35 44 52 61 70 78 87 96 104 113 122 131 139 48 157 165 174 183 191 200 209 218 226 235 244 252 261 270 278 287 296 305 313 322 331 339 348 357 365 374 383 392 70
9 17 26 34 43 51 60 68 77 85 94 102 111 119 128 136 145 153 162 170 179 187 196 204 213 221 230 238 247 255 264 272 281 289 298 306 315 323 332 340 36 357 36 374 383 8 17 25 33 43 50 58 66 75 83 91 100 108 116 125 133 141 149 158 166 174 183 191 199 208 216 224 232 241 249 257 266 274 282 291 299 307 315 324 332 340 349 357 365 374 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104 112 120 128 136 144 152 160 168 176 184 192 200 208 216 224 232 240 248 256 264 272 280 288 296 304 312 320 328 336 344 352 360 8 15 23 31 39 46 54 62 69 77 85 92 100 108 116 123 131 139 146 154 162 169 177 185 193 200 208 216 223 231 239 246 254 262 270 277 285 293 300 308 316 323 331 339 347 8 15 23 30 38 45 53 60 68 75 83 90 98 105 113 120 128 135 143 150 158 165 173 180 188 195 203 210 218 225 233 240 248 255 263 270 277 285 295 300 308 315 323 330 338 7 13 20 27 34 40 47 54 60 67 74 80 87 94 101 107 114 121 127 134 141 147 154 161 168 174 181 188 194 201 208 214 221 228 235 241 248 255 261 268 274 281 288 295 302 7 13 20 26 33 39 46 52 59 65 72 78 85 91 98 104 111 117 124 130 137 143 150 156 163 169 176 182 189 195 202 208 215 221 228 234 241 247 254 260 267 273 280 286 293 Training for Power Fitness instructors constantly talk about the need for 'power' to perform various exercises and sports, yet information and research on power training is confusing and contradictory. The word `power' is often used arbitrarily, sometimes taken to mean training 'with heavy weights' or at other times taken to mean training 'explosively', neither of which is strictly true. What is Power? For an everyday example of power, think of a household light bulb. If I pedal a cycle connected to a dynamo, I could generate enough electricity to light one 100W bulb. If I doubled my effort on the cycle and generated 200W of power, then I would be able to light two similar bulbs, a near-­‐
maximal effort of 300W would light three bulbs, and so on. Power is defined as: the rate of doing work Power is measured in: watts (W) Work done Power = Rate of doing work = Time
However, Work done = Force X Distance Therefore, Power = Force Distance Time
Distance However, Speed = Time
Therefore, Power = Force x Speed Power combines strength (force) with speed (velocity). For example, if person A can move 100kg 1 metre in 1 second, and person B can move the same weight the same distance in just 0.5 seconds, Person B can generate twice the power of person A. Thus power is related to movement time. If movement time is improved, power will be improved. 'Plyometrics' is a popular name given to a particular type of explosive power training. This subject is covered in more detail in section 6. Power Training Guidelines Power training involves moving a resistance at speed. This is in contrast to regular resistance training, where slow and controlled movements are usually recommended. A general prescription for improving power is to use a moderate resistance for medium/high repetitions, performing the movements as quickly as possible. Table 5.4 summarises power training guidelines. 6
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Resistance 50 – 80% of 1RM Repetitions 8 – 20 Sets 4 – 6 Rest between sets 3 – 5 minutes Exercise speed Maximal with good technique Table 5.4 General prescription for power training (Bompa, 1983) Training with a moderate resistance at high speed has been shown to improve movement speed whether the participant has to move high, moderate or low resistances in their chosen activity. In other words, there is transference of power improvement to both heavily and lightly resisted movements. Training with very heavy resistances does not appear to give the same overall benefit to speed. Although the participant's strength increases, the muscle's ability to contract quickly when lightly loaded does not improve. Thus, if the aim is to throw a ball further (light load) or throw a faster punch (light load), heavy resistance will have little effect. Similarly, training with very light resistances will improve the muscles ability to contract quickly when lightly loaded, but does not appear to help when the muscle must contract quickly under moderate or heavy loads. Thus, if the aim is to increase shot put distance (heavy load), then training by throwing a light ball will have little effect. Put as simply as possible: heavy training will improve the speed of heavily loaded movements, but will have little effect on the speed of lightly loaded movements, and vice versa, Training with moderate loads appears to improve speed across the entire range of loads (lkai, 1970; Kanehisa & Miyashita, 1983). Is the Resistance Projected? Another factor to consider is whether the resistance is still in contact with the body at the end of the movement, or is the resistance 'projected'? For example, in weightlifting, the bar is still held in the hands at the end of the movement. In rowing, the hands are still in contact with the oars at the end of the stroke. Both involve power, but there must be a slowing down (deceleration) of the movement at the end of the range in order to stay in contact with the resistance. The power generation is concentrated in the first portion of the move. In contrast, throwing a ball or jumping involves a separation of resistance from the body at the end of the range (the ball leaves the hand or the feet leave the ground). This implies that there is no deceleration at the end of the movement. The muscles continue to accelerate the resistance through their full range, and the power generation is now needed throughout full range. Only when the resistance is projected does the body or limb decelerate, which then involves a strong eccentric contraction of the antagonistic muscle groups. 72
If the resistance is projected, this has two implications for power training; 1.
Exercises should allow the resistance to be released at the end of the range. A bench press, for example, doesn't allow acceleration of the bar through the full range because it has to be slowed down and held at the finish. On the other hand, a clap press up or a medicine ball chest throw both allow acceleration through the full range. 2.
Training the antagonistic muscles becomes important because of their role in decelerating the body or limb. Other Resistance Training Variables Number of Sets Number of Sets Increases in muscle size and strength occur with only one set of an exercise per session when undertaken by previously untrained people (ACSM, 2006). However most of the research and evidence supports the theory that multiple sets of an exercise show increased gains when compared to one set. Research and impirical evidence suggests that three sets per exercise seems to be the minimum number of sets needed to bring about maximum gains in strength, power and hypertrophy. The number of sets within a training session can also be varied in order to prioritise specific muscle groups. Six sets should be considered as the maximum; doing more sets will give no further benefit, and may even produce inferior results due to over-­‐training (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004). Exercise Choice (Compound/Isolation) For general fitness, choosing one exercise per major muscle group is a sensible approach. For more ambitious goals, then the rule of specificity applies. For example, the exercises selected for an athlete should be geared towards the needs of their sport. A bodybuilder would require a variety of exercises that developed specific muscle groups, and prioritised either hypertrophy or muscular definition depending on the phase of training. In addition, instructors should always be aware of the relative merits of compound and isolation exercises. Compound refers to a multi-­‐joint exercise, utilising several main muscles, such as a chest press. Isolation refers to a single-­‐joint exercise, utilising only one main muscle, such as a triceps extension Table 5.5 gives a comparison of compound and isolation exercises.
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Compound Isolation Resistance moves in a straight line Resistance moves in an arc Tend to work muscles through their strongest mid-­‐range Tend to recruit many small synergist and fixator muscles Limbs have a good leverage advantage Work muscles through full ROM, including weaker inner and outer range Fewer synergist and fixator muscles recruited Limbs have a poor leverage advantage Suitable for heavy, moderate or light resistances More suitable for only moderate or light resistances Suitable for building muscle bulk and basic Suitable for targeting smaller muscles and functional strength specific movements Table 5.5 Comparison of compound and isolation exercises
A well-­‐designed programme should include compound, multi-­‐joint exercises that utilise all three planes of movement (sagittal, frontal and transverse). This leads to better coordination and balance, and will result in strength development that is more transferable to daily activities and sport. For example, a step-­‐up is more valuable than the leg extension machine because it offers more functional strength development for walking up a flight of stairs. For participants that are involved in sports that predominantly rely on the use of the legs, the squat is superior to using a leg press machine, since the squat requires greater balance, weight and body control in all three planes of motion. Exercise Sequence Research has shown that sequence of exercises affects adaptation. In most training sessions, multi-­‐joint or exercises working major muscle groups such as chest, back or legs are trained first. The rationale behind this is that if small muscle groups are fatigued before major muscle groups, the smaller muscle groups become a 'weak link' in an exercise using multiple joints or muscles. For example, performing biceps curls prior to lat pull downs. In this example the pre-­‐fatigued biceps would be a limiting factor in the performance of the lat pull down and fatigue of the supporting muscle groups would result in the participant stopping the exercise prior to achieving overload in the target muscle groups. By using multi-­‐joint exercises early in the training session this problem is overcome. It is also important to consider the safety issues when performing complex multi joint exercises with pre-­‐
fatigued muscles as one of the potential outcomes of fatigue may be reduced co-­‐ordination and motor skills. When deciding the sequence of exercises it is also important to look at the position of each exercise and which muscle groups will be involved in fixating a position or acting as a synergist. For this reason it is common to work the core stabiliser muscles of the trunk and smaller muscle groups towards the end of a training session. Here are some useful guidelines. •
For sedentary (untrained) clients it is preferable to alternate exercises from upper to lower body to avoid excessive fatigue in specific areas. •
Another general recommendation is that compound exercises training large muscle groups are used first (e.g. dead lift, bench press, etc.) 74
If cardiovascular benefits are the principal goal of training, then it makes sense to choose a circuit approach, and an exercise order that alternates regularly between large muscles •
Active (trained) and well-­‐trained clients may generate greater intensity by focussing on the same muscles for several consecutive exercises, for instance, back squat, followed by lunges, then leg extensions. This method is utilised in training systems such as tri-­‐sets and giant sets (section 6) •
Well-­‐trained clients may deliberately use a sequence of isolation and compound exercises to 'pre-­‐exhaust' specific muscles (section 6) Split Routines Many experienced resistance trainers use a split routine, which means training different body parts on different days of the week. The reason for this is that, once training has reached a point where multiple sets of two or more exercises are being performed for each body part, training sessions become very time consuming. Research suggests that due to stress hormones, training for more than 60 minutes may result in diminishing returns and possibly over-­‐training. Therefore is it reasonable to suggest that not all parts of the body can be exercised optimally in a single session. This can be resolved by splitting the training so that only certain body areas are trained on certain days. There are many approaches available for achieving this. For example: Monday Chest, shoulders & triceps Tuesday Back & biceps Wednesday Legs & abdominals Thursday Rest day Friday Chest, shoulders & triceps Saturday Back & biceps Sunday Legs & abdominals Monday Etc…………… Other examples are: one body part per day, upper body/lower body routines, and push/pull routines. If the programme is developed correctly, the same body parts are not trained on successive days. 75
Split routines allow for higher levels of intensity to be maintained for a specific body part than is possible with trying to achieve the same volume of work over three workouts per week. They also allow more attention to be paid to assistance exercises, which may improve overall strength development. Type of Muscular Contraction Used (Isometric/Concentric/Eccentric) An isometric contraction involves no change of length or movement. Instead, the muscle contracts to hold a static position. An exercise such as the plank is a good example. However, for most resistance training programmes concentric and eccentric contractions are used (i.e. lifting and lowering the weight rhythmically in a slow and controlled manner). An exercise such as a squat is a good example. Concentric and eccentric contractions, where the muscles are shortening and lengthening, are together known as 'isotonic'. The principle of specificity should be considered when planning which types of contraction to use. For example, muscles that hold posture often work statically for long periods, so it makes sense to train them using isometric contractions. In contrast, muscles in the legs used for walking, standing from a chair, or climbing stairs would gain more specific benefits from isotonic training. Table 5.6 compares the different types of contraction. Isometric contractions Only train the muscle at the specific joint angle used in the exercise Harder to measure progression in strength Used all the time to fixate during any exercise Isotonic contractions (concentric/eccentric) Train the muscles through their full range of movement Easy to measure progression in strength Requires coordination to perform the exercise in a controlled manner Used by physiotherapists to allow them to train a Causes a smaller rise in blood pressure muscle group without having to move a joint Good transference of strength gains to activities Good transference of strength gains to activities requiring no moement, such as gripping bnags of requiring movement, such as walking, climbing shopping, holding good posture, or carrying a stairs, standing from a chair unaided, etc young child, etc. Useful when training for specific sportin Useful when training for specific sporting applications (e.g. pushing in a rugby scrum) applications (e.g. running, jumping, weight lifting, etc) Causes breath-­‐holding, a rapid raise in blood Eccentric contractions are associated with high pressure, and potential valsalva effect. For this levels of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) reason, encourage normal breathing, and limit the contraction duration to 10 seconds with untrained clietns Table 5.6 Comparison of isometric and isotonic contractions Workout Duration Duration refers to the total time the participant spends training at an effective intensity. The nature of resistance training means that the number of sets and exercises utilised varies greatly, and also a lot of gym time is actually spent resting between sets. This makes it difficult to give a definite rule about duration of a training session. However, the following are useful guidelines: 76
The ACSM (table 5.12) suggest a minimum duration of 20 minutes to achieve a whole body workout •
A maximum duration of 60 minutes is reasonable. This is based on research that shows that intense training programmes of longer than one hour's duration cause a decrease in anabolic hormones (e.g. testosterone) and an increase in catabolic stress hormones (e.g. cortisol) Recovery Time between Sets Rest intervals should allow adequate recovery time for replenishment of ATP/PC and to combat the excessive build up of lactic acid that might compromise training ability. Fleck and Kraemer (2004) suggests the following guidelines: •
Strength/power 3 – 5 minutes •
Hypertrophy 1 – 2 minutes •
Endurance 30 – 90 seconds Fatigue gradually reduces the frequency of nerve impulses arriving at the muscle fibres. Therefore as training continues and nervous system fatigue increases, contractile force of the muscles is decreased. In the strength training phase of a programme, where very heavy resistances are used, it may be necessary to increase the rest intervals up to 7 minutes to allow for recovery of the nervous system. In terms of neuromuscular junction activity 2 -­‐ 3 minutes of rest may be required after completion of a set in order to allow the nerve electrical activity to return to normal. In the case of muscular strength training, rest interval time may require in excess of 3 minutes. Speed A moderate speed is recommended for most resistance training purposes. This equates to 3 seconds for the concentric phase, and 3 seconds for the eccentric phase (ACSM, 2006). An exception to this 'moderate speed' rule is training for power. To develop power, the resistance must be moved at maximum speed (whilst still maintaining safety and good technique). Range of Movement For general fitness it is advisable to perform all exercises through a full ROM, providing the range of movement used does not compromise safety and effectiveness. This will ensure strength gains throughout the full range. Be aware that individuals have different ranges of movement in different joints. Care should be taken to make sure that the individual is comfortable with the range of movement used in the exercises selected. The gym instructor may be required to write a programme for a variety of individuals with different needs and abilities. Each programme will be made unique to the client by taking into account the above factors. 77
Variations of Generic Resistance Training Exercises It is important to have a variety of exercises in a training programme. Each exercise is unique in the way it challenges the body, and therefore unique in the adaptations it will bring about. Table 5.7 lists common basic lifts used in the gym, and some of the most useful variations, alternatives or modifications of each lift. Generic Movement Basic Lifts Compound leg movements Squat Lunge Dead lift Back squat Front squat Split stance lunge Dumbbell or barbell Wide or narrow stance Smith machine Isolation leg movements Extension Curl Calf raise Both leg or alternate Seated or lying Different foot positions Seated or standing Pushing movements Bench press Shoulder press Incline or decline Dumbbell or barbell In front or behind head Seated or standing Pulling movements Various grips Lat pull down Vary angle of body Seated/bent over row Pull ups Bent over row T-­‐bar row (chins) Various grips Assisted or body weight Isolation chest/shoulder movements Flyes Lateral raise Isolation arm movements Biceps curl Triceps extension Preacher curls Cables or dumbbells Flexion (curl) Extension Rotation Isometric Body weight Cable Machine On a Swiss Ball Core (trunk) movements Example /Variation /Alternative /Modification Table 5.7 Variations of generic resistance training exercises 78
Incline or decline Cables or dumbbells Cable or dumbbells Bent over lateral raise When selecting which variation of an exercise is most suitable for a client, safety and specificity should be taken into account. Safety Any version of an exercise chosen from table 5.7 must be safe for the client. This will depend on whether the client is untrained, trained or well-­‐trained; what is safe for one individual may be unsafe for another. Stability Generally speaking, the more stable an exercise, the safer and easier it is for clients of any level or ability. Curl ups on a mat are more stable than curl ups on a Swiss Ball; squats performed on the floor are more stable than squats performed on a stability disc, and so on. However, the decreased stability can also be considered to be a challenge to stabiliser muscles (and hence a good thing) for trained clients, increasing the overload and the training adaptations. Leverage Leverage refers to the distance from the joint (pivot point) to the resistance being lifted. A large distance offers poor leverage for the muscles and relatively high stresses on the joint. Only moderate resistances can be lifted. A dumbbell lateral raise is a good example (shoulder is the pivot, and the lever is the full length of the outstretched arm). In the gym, individuals can frequently be observed using this exercise, but 'cheating' by bending the arm at the elbow to reduce the lever length. A shorter distance from pivot to resistance offers better leverage for the muscles, so more weight can be lifted. In addition, the stresses placed on the joint are relatively low. A good example is a shoulder press (shoulder is the pivot, and the lever is the arm bent to 90 degrees). Alignment This refers to alignment of the skeleton and major joints during exercise. If alignment is not maintained within the correct range for the joints in question, then other connective tissues are placed under stress. For example, during a squat or dead lift, do the knees work as a hinge joint and travel in line with the second toe, or do they roll inwards (due to excessive medial rotation at the hip) thus stressing the medial collateral ligaments? Or during a bench press, do the elbows hyperextend due to poor muscular control at the joint? Special attention should be paid to the spine, and whether correct alignment of the natural curves is maintained during some exercises. For example, when performing bent over rows or T-­‐bar rows, the client must be able to flex for-­‐
wards primarily from the hip joint whilst maintaining the normal curve in the lumbar spine. If they cannot do this, then a seated row or single arm row would be safer options. Momentum This refers to the speed at which the resistance is moved (Momentum = mass x velocity). When momentum in an exercise is excessive, then greater muscular control is required, otherwise joints can be taken beyond their normal range of movement and individuals are more likely to injure themselves. This is particularly true of untrained clients. The usual rule is to maintain a 'slow and controlled' movement for most training purposes. 79
However, when training to improve muscular power, it is necessary to move the resistance at maximum speed, so the momentum generated will inevitably be high. This is one of the reasons why power training is most suitable for trained and well-­‐trained clients. Specificity, Functional Compatibility and Muscle Fibre Recruitment Patterns Functional compatibility refers to exercises that improve muscular strength and neuromuscular efficiency in such a way that it helps the client to perform specific activities or 'functions'. This is in contrast to exercises that are aimed at simply making the body look better. As usual, the principle of specificity should be applied. For good functional compatibility, we need to choose exercises that overload the correct muscles in their specific pattern of fibre recruitment. However, rather than trying to analyse all the muscles involved in a particular action (which becomes very complicated and time-­‐consuming), it is more productive to think of the movement used instead, and try to mimic this closely. For example, if we wish to strengthen the legs to make climbing the stairs easier, then it makes sense to use a step-­‐up action, rather than a leg press, leg extension, or squat, etc. The step up most closely simulates the real life action (a movement where one leg raises the whole body weight through the outer range of movement at the knee, whilst engaging various stabiliser muscles to prevent the pelvis dipping, and keep the rest of the body balanced). If a client requires strength to lift objects from the floor and place them in an overhead locker, then it makes sense to use a dead lift followed by a standing shoulder press, because these exercises closely match the movement pattern needed. A combination of leg extension machine, back extension machine, and seated shoulder press could be used instead and would train similar muscles, but this would be less effective in terms of functional compatibility. Rotator Cuff Muscles and Shoulder Stability The shoulder (glenohumeral) joint needs to be a highly mobile joint for day-­‐to-­‐day function. To facilitate this, the 'socket' of the glenoid cavity is very shallow, allowing the 'ball' of the humeral head a large degree of freedom. However, this also makes the shoulder joint structurally unstable. Therefore, the rotator cuff muscles serve to hold the head of the humerus in the correct position in the glenoid cavity during a wide range of shoulder movements. Table 5.8 summarises the position and actions of the four rotator cuff muscles. Origin Scapula Insertion Head of the humerus Joint crossed Shoulder 80
Joint action Supraspinatus: Assists deltoid in abduction fo the arm. Weak lateral rotator Infraspinatus: Rotates arm laterally Teres minor: Rotates arm laterally Subscapularis: Rotates arm medially All four muscles together hold the head of the humerus in the correct position relative to the glenoid cavity, helping to prevent unwanted gliding movement and dislocation Table 5.8 Rotator cuff muscles (and picture below) Because of their primary role in shoulder stabilisation, the rotator cuff muscles suffer significant wear and tear. If they are not functioning correctly, they may not be sufficiently strong to counteract the upwards pull of the deltoids during shoulder flexion and abduction. The head of the humerus may then glide upwards and pinch the rotator cuff tendons in the very narrow gap under the acromion. This is a common and painful condition often referred to as impingement syndrome. All movements of the shoulder joint, but particularly overhead activities involving rotational movement should be performed with control, and through a comfortable range of movement. This includes exercises such as shoulder press, lat pull down, upright row, pullovers, swimming, a tennis serve, bowling in cricket, etc. Also, it is important that the scapula is moving correctly, which in turn depends upon the correct functioning of trapezius, serratus antereior, rhomboids, pectoralis minor, and levator scapula. If there is insufficient upwards rotation of the scapula, then the shoulder joint itself must achieve a larger-­‐than-­‐normal range of movement to achieve the intended movement of the arm. This then places undue stress on the rotator cuff muscles. Exercises to Improve Rotator Cuff Function The rotator cuff muscles are engaged to some extent in any shoulder movement, whether it is abduction, flexion, horizontal extension, and so on. Therefore any shoulder exercise, if performed correctly, will improve rotator cuff function. If the goal is to train the rotator cuff muscles in isolation, then there are many exercises that can be used. Here are some options that are easy to apply in the gym or the home. External (lateral) Rotation A strict external rotation movement of the shoulder will isolate primarily infraspinatus and teres minor, with some involvement of supraspinatus. •
Side-­‐lying, with the elbow of the arm on top at 90 degrees, and a light dumbbell in hand. External rotation is then performed by moving the hand away from the midline of the body whist keeping the elbow tucked into the waist •
Seated, with both elbows at 90 degrees, and an exercise band stretched between the hands. External rotation is then performed by moving both hands away from the midline of the body, whist keeping the elbows tucked into the waist 81
•
Standing, with the elbow at 90 degrees, and using a cable set at waist height to provide resistance. External rotation is then performed by moving the hand away from the midline of the body whilst keeping the elbow tucked into the waist. Internal (medial) Rotation A strict internal rotation movement of the shoulder will isolate primarily the subscapularis. •
Seated, with the elbow at 90 degrees, and an exercise band stretched from the hand to an immoveable object on the same side. Internal rotation is then performed by moving the hand towards the midline of the body, whilst keeping the elbow tucked into the waist •
Standing, with the elbow at 90 degrees, and using a cable set at waist height to provide resistance. Internal rotation is then performed by moving the hand towards the midline of the body, whilst keeping the elbow tucked into the waist It is difficult to completely isolate subscapularis because the bigger stronger pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi muscles also medially rotate the shoulder and are likely to dominate the movement. Persisting with exercises that target the wrong 'dominant' muscles rather than isolating the 'weak' or 'under-­‐active' muscles can simply make existing muscle imbalance worse. If in doubt, then refer the client to a qualified physiotherapist. Selecting Training Equipment In this section, we compare the different types of resistance training equipment in terms of suitability for training, as well as practical considerations such as cost of purchase and convenience. Resistance Machines These form the main part of most modern gyms. They are usually found in a health and fitness suite, where the surroundings are pleasant and the atmosphere is designed to be welcoming to all different types of client. Machines are generally of the single station type, each designed to perform one specific exercise. This means that a large number of machines are needed in order to train all the major muscles. Most machines apply resistance by using a graduated weight stack where the different weights are selected by inserting a pin. The design of the machine can have a big influence on the training effect on the body. Table 5.9 lists the advantages and disadvantages of resistance training machines. Advantages Disadvantages Non-­‐intimidating image Expensive Low skill level needed Many machines needed to achieve a whole body workout Easy to select and change weight Large floor area needed Safety – no weights to drop on yourself or others Regular maintenance required No spotter needed Weight increments can be too large Body is well supported Not versatile: joint angle and ROM is often pre-­‐
determined by machine Makes it possible to isolate certain muscle groups Table 5.9 Resistance machines 82
Fixed Axis Machines and Variable Axis Machines Muscles vary in the force they can produce throughout the range of movement (ROM) of an exercise. For example, in a biceps curl the muscle can create most force in the mid range. At either extreme of the movement, the force created is less. This is partly because of the changing leverage the muscle has as the limb moves, and also because of the degree of overlap of the actin and myosin filaments within the muscle fibres. A machine that has a weight stack lifted through a fixed axis system applies a constant resistance throughout the ROM. This means that muscles will be worked maximally at their weakest point, but may not be effectively worked at their strongest point in the movement. To overcome this, many machines are now variable axis. This means they use a simple cam device to give a variable resistance throughout the ROM. A cam is similar to a pulley except that it is not perfectly circular; instead it is more egg-­‐shaped. This means that when the cable runs around the cam the resistance varies at different points through the ROM by correctly shaping the cam the resistance should match the force output of the muscles at any particular point. In theory this should then overload the muscles more effectively throughout the whole range. There are practical problems to making variable resistance machines effective. The main one is individuality. No two users are the same. They will have different limb lengths (which will greatly affect leverage), tendon length, muscle length, fibre type proportions, tendon attachment points etc. All these affect the force that the muscles can apply at any particular position, and therefore, it is not possible to have one cam profile to suit all users. The other problem is that each exercise requires a unique cam profile to vary the resistance correctly. Pulley Systems This would include high and low pulley machines, cable cross over machines and various dual axis pulley machines. The exerciser holds onto handles which can move in any direction, hence cables offer a much greater freedom of movement for the user compared to most machines that have a fixed pivot or slide movement. This means that there are a wide variety of exercises that can be performed on them. It also means that many every day movement patterns or sports specific movement patterns can be closely simulated. For example, the throwing movements for a javelin, or a leg sweep movement to pass a football. Free Weights The term 'free weights' describes barbells and dumbbells, and the various benches and stands that are also necessary for performing exercises correctly. Free weights have existed far longer than resistance machines, and still offer many major advantages for trained and well-­‐trained clients, compared to using machines. Table 5.10 lists the advantages and disadvantages of free weights. In the past, free weights have been most closely associated with bodybuilding and power lifting, and this is unfortunate because the 'muscle-­‐bound' image tends to discourage clients who would benefit greatly from using free weights. The introduction of studio resistance type classes has broken down many of these barriers, and individuals who were intimidated by entering the gym environment are now using free weights in a studio setting. 83
Advantages Disadvantages Relatively inexpensive Risk of dropping weights Take up little space and can be stored away Spotter needed for some exercises Transportable Higher skill level needed Versatile – can work muscles at different joint angles Train fixator and stabilizer muscles Harder to teach and to learn More intimidating image than machines Table 5.10 Free weights Exercise Bands/Tubing Exercise bands and tubing can be a very useful tool when used for resistance training. The are light, portable and very versatile. They can be purchased in different colours that represent various intensities, and they are inexpensive in comparison to other forms of resistance equipment. Table 5.11 lists the advantages and disadvantages of exercise bands. One significant problem with exercise bands is that the resistance is at its greatest at the ends of the ROM, which does not match the natural strength curve of the muscles. This can make some exercises difficult to perform. Also, the individual needs to have the ability to control the movements eccentrically in order to stop the band taking over and springing back on the return phase. Advantages Disadvantages Inexpensive East to vary resistasnce (different colour bands) They wear out and need checking regularly and replacing Resistance is proportional to the degree of stretch High resistance at the end of ROM doesn’t accommodate natural strength curve Not suitable for applying very heavy resistances Versatile – all main muscles can be exercised Very light and easy to transport to a client’s home or office Take up little space and can be stored away Table 5.11 Exercise Bands Body Weight Exercises These include exercises such as squats, press ups, abdominal curls and pull-­‐ups etc. Untrained clients often start by using body weight exercises because there is no equipment required and they can be performed away from the gym environment. Body weight exercises are often incorporated into a programme for trained or well-­‐trained clients to complement the use of free weights or machines, and to work the core trunk stabiliser muscles. Progression can be incorporated by changing levers, speed, ROM etc. However, once a client is capable of performing an exercise at a realistic speed, incorporating long levers and using full ROM, it is difficult to progress the exercise further. Hence, body weight exercises are limited in their application to heavy strength training. Also, it is important to note that the resistance is relative to an individual's body weight and body proportions. For example, a pull up for a 70kg person is easier than a pull up for a 100kg person. 84
Selecting Resistance Training Activities for Different Clients Now that we have explored the different choices that need to be made when planning a resistance training programme, this section will give general guidelines about how to combine the many variables in a sensible way, based on the client's experience, ability level and goals. Apparently Healthy and Sedentary (untrained) Clients A single set programme covering all the large muscle groups is ideal for anyone new to resistance training. Table 5.12 shows the ACSM minimum guidelines for improving muscular fitness, which are an ideal starting point for a sedentary client. The programme is time efficient, simple to follow, and develops a mix of both muscular strength and endurance. Progression can be achieved over a number of weeks by increasing resistance and varying the exercises used. Freqeuncy 2 – 3 times per week Intrensity One set of 8 – 12 repetitions @ 75% of 1RM 8 – 10 exercised (large muscle groups).Slow to moderate speed 20 minutes Time Table 5.12 Minimum guidelines to improve muscular fitness (AGSM 2006) Resistance machines would be most suitable initially for an untrained client because they are: non-­‐intimidating, low skill level, easy to select and change weight, safe, no spotter is needed, and the body is well supported. A balanced whole body workout can be achieved by using a simple circuit of machines. Body weight exercises and exercise bands are also appropriate for untrained clients, especially if they choose to exercise outside of the gym environment. Table 5.13 summarises more general training guidelines for a sedentary client depending upon their goals.
Sedentary (untrained) clients Strength Hypertrophy Endurance Frequency 2 – 3 times / week 2 – 3 times / week 2 – 3 times / week Loading 60 – 70% of 1RM 60 – 70% of 1RM 50 – 70% 1 RM Volume 1 – 3 sets of 8 – 12 reps 1 – 3 sets of 8 – 12 reps 1 – 3 sets of 10 – 15 reps Veolicty Slow – moderate Exercise selection Exercise order Rest intervals Slow – moderate Slow velocity for sets of 10 – 15 reps Moderate velocity for higher reps Compound (multi-­‐joint) Compound (multi-­‐joint) Compound (multi-­‐joint) and isolation (single and isolation (single and isolation (single joint) joint) joint) Emphasis on Emphasis on compound Emphasis on compound compound Large muscles first Large muscles first Variety in sequencing is Compound/high Compound/high recommended intensity exercise first intensity exercise first 2 – 3 minutes for high-­‐ 2 – 3 minutes for high-­‐ Less than 1 minute for intensity compound intensity compound sets of 10 – 15 reps exercises exercises 1 – 2 minutes for higher 1 – 2 minutes for others 1 – 2 minutes for others reps Table 5.13 Resistance training guidelines for sedentary clients 85
Apparently Healthy and Active (trained) Clients Trained clients will probably base their programme around free weights because they are versatile and can work muscles at different joint angles (important for full muscle development). Free weights also train fixator and stabiliser muscles. Resistance machines would be used to isolate certain muscle groups (e.g. latissimus dorsi, hamstrings and calves) more effectively than free weights can. Multiple sets, rather than a single set, will generate greater intensity, and training systems such as basic sets, Delorme and Watkins 1ORM, and super-­‐setting provide a further training stimulus. Table 5.14 summarises training guidelines for a trained client depending upon their goals. Currently active (trained) clients Strength Hypertrophy Endurance Frequency 2 – 4 times / week 2 – 4 times / week 2 – 4 times / week Loading 70 – 80% of 1RM 70 – 85% of 1RM 50 – 70% 1 RM Volume Multiple sets of 6 – 12 reps Slow – moderate Multiple sets of 6 – 12 reps Slow – moderate Veolicty Exercise selection Exercise order Rest intervals Multiple sets of 10 – 15 reps Slow velocity for sets of 10 – 15 reps Moderate velocity for higher reps Compound (multi-­‐joint) Compound (multi-­‐joint) Compound (multi-­‐joint) and isolation (single and isolation (single and isolation (single joint) joint) joint) Emphasis on Emphasis on compound Emphasis on compound compound Large muscles first Large muscles first Variety in sequencing is Compound/high Compound/high recommended intensity exercise first intensity exercise first 2 – 3 minutes for high-­‐ 2 – 3 minutes for high-­‐ Less than 1 minute for intensity compound intensity compound sets of 10 – 15 reps exercises exercises 1 – 2 minutes for higher 1 – 2 minutes for others 1 – 2 minutes for others reps Table 5.14 Resistance training guidelines for trained clients 86
Peak Performing (well-­‐trained) Clients Well-­‐trained clients will also base their programme around free weights for the same reason given for the trained client. The intensity of each session is very high therefore a split routine will probably be used to give adequate recovery for each body part. Well-­‐trained clients are more likely to use heavier resistances and a wider variety of gym equipment, including Olympic barbells for exercises such as the dead lift and clean, and pulley systems to provide a large range of exercises stimulating the muscles at different angles. In addition to basic sets, advanced training systems such as full pyramids, negatives and stripping will be employed to generate greater intensity. Lastly, for long-­‐term progression, the programme will be periodised (see section 8). Table 5.15 summarises training guidelines for a well-­‐trained client depending upon their goals. Sedentary (untrained) clients Strength Hypertrophy Frequency 4 – 6 times / week using a split routine 80 – 100% of 1RM 4 – 6 times / week using 4 – 6 times / week using a split routine a split routine 70 – 100% of 1RM 30 – 80% 1 RM Multiple sets of 1 – 12 reps Periodised Multiple sets of 1 – 2 reps Periodised Emphasised on 6 – 12 reps Vary velocity: slow moderate fast Loading Volume Velocity Vary velocity: Super slow slow moderate fast Exercise selection Compound (multi-­‐joint) Compound (multi-­‐joint) and isolation (single and isolation (single joint) joint) Emphasis on compound Emphasis on compound Exercise order Large muscles first Large muscles first Compound/high Compound/high intensity exercise first intensity exercise first Rest intervals 2 – 3 minutes for high-­‐ 2 – 3 minutes for high-­‐
intensity compound intensity compound exercises exercises 1 – 2 minutes for others 1 – 2 minutes for others Table 5.15 Resistance training guidelines for well-­‐trained clients 87
Endurance Multiple sets of 10 – 25 reps Periodised Slow velocity for sets of 10 – 15 reps Moderate velocity for higher reps Compound (multi-­‐joint) and isolation (single joint) Emphasis on compound Variety in sequencing is recommended Less than 1 minute for sets of 10 – 15 reps 1 – 2 minutes for higher reps Clients with Sports Specific Goals Pulley systems are excellent for applying resistance to arms and legs to simulate a sports-­‐specific movement pattern. Free weights can also be used for generic squat/lunge/push/dead lift movement patterns common in most sports. Clients who are Recovering from Injury with Medical Clearance Any client who has a serious injury or illness should be advised not to train, and be referred to their General Practitioner (GP) for treatment. However, clients recovering from injury, and who already have medical clearance from their GP, may still be able to train, provided that you take certain precautions when advising them: • Work within your level of qualifications and experience. Even if a client has medical clearance, they may still be regarded as a 'specialist population', requiring you to have specific training and certification to advise them • Refer to another instructor who is qualified in exercise referral/older adult etc. if necessary • Follow any written advice from doctor or physiotherapist. If you are unsure of any technical terms used, then clarify them before proceeding • Avoid use of specific areas affected. For example, a client with an upper body injury may still be able to perform leg press, lunges, etc. For a client with a lower body injury, they may still be able to train their upper body without causing harm • Intensity of training will be lower than usual, until recovery from the injury is complete • For clients recovering from injuries to the ankle, knee, hip and lower back, use of exercises where the body weight is supported (e.g. swimming or aqua classes) may be beneficial • Some joints/muscles that are recovering from injury may respond to low-­‐intensity training. If so, then use just the pain-­‐free range of movement (ROM) Clients who are Over-­‐trained Over-­‐training is covered fully in section 3. Resistance Training for Teenagers During childhood and teenage years the skeleton is still growing and maturing. This makes The bones more vulnerable to injury, especially at the growth plates (epiphyseal plates) where ossification is still in progress. Thus, excessive strength training in teenage years carries the potential risk of bone micro-­‐trauma. It is difficult to say precisely what constitutes 'excessive' strength training. Moderate resistances (no heavier than lORM) and high repetitions (10 minimum) are sensible guidelines (Fleck and Kraemer, 2004). Particular caution should be taken with overhead exercises that place a compression load on the immature spine. Any teenager participating in a resistance training programme must be emotionally mature enough to follow directions, and abide by normal rules of gym behaviour. 88
SECTION 6 Resistance Training Systems This section describes different systems of resistance training. Most of these systems have evolved from bodybuilding, Olympic weight lifting, power lifting, and athletics. The most appropriate method of training for a particular client should be based upon their current fitness level and their agreed goals. Objectives By the end of this section you should be able to: 1. Describe the following resistance training systems: •
Single set training •
Giant sets •
Circuit resistance training •
Stripping method/descending sets •
Basic sets •
Pre and post-­‐exhaust •
Delorme & Watkins 10RM system •
Forced repititions •
Berger 6RM system •
Negative repititions •
Pyramids (ascending/descending/full) •
Cheating method •
Super-­‐setting •
Plyometrics •
Tri-­‐sets 2. Discuss the purpose and the advantages and disadvantages of each training system 3. Discuss the suitability of each training system for the client, when fitness level and goals are considered 89
Single Set System Significant gains in muscular fitness have been demonstrated using the single set approach (Hurley 1984, Stone 1979). The AGSM recommends this method of training as a minimum guideline for developing muscular fitness. A single set to overload is performed on each exercise. Resistance and repetitions are chosen according to the client's goal. A sequence of exercises is normally chosen to target each of the
main muscle groups and achieve a whole body approach (WBA).
Single set system Advantages •
•
•
•
Disadvantages Reliable research to show it is effective Recommended by ACSM Time efficient Achieves good resulta with minimal effort •
•
•
•
Doesn’t include a warm up set Not always possible to judge the correct weight to overload in just one set Many clients are resistant to the idea that only one set can be effective, when so many other people are using three, four or five sets May not give sufficient volume of training Suitable for: •
•
•
Clients of any level of fitness from sedentary to well-­‐trained Clients with limited time to train Greater emphasis on health goals, rather than fitness or performance Table 6.1 Summary of single set system Circuit Resistance Training A circuit is a series of exercises performed in rotation, with one set being performed at each station, and a brief rest period to move on to the next one. A sequence of exercises is normally chosen to target each of the main muscle groups and achieve a WBA (figure 6.2). Resistance and repetitions are chosen according to the client's goal, but are generally more endurance biased. Alternatively, a work period can be set in which to complete as many repetitions as possible on each exercise. 90
Shoulder Press Back Extension Leg Press Lat Pull Down Calf Raises Chest Press Leg Extension Biceps Curl Abdominal Crunch Triceps Pushdown Leg Curl Seated Lever Row Work Period: 45 seconds Rest Period: 30 seconds Resistance: Approx 50% of 1RM Figure 6.2 Example circuit resistance training workout Circuit Resistance Training Advantages Disadvantages • Time efficient • Not always possible to use the desired machine ina • Work/rest ratio and busy gym resistance can be adjusted to suit any • May not give sufficient fitness level volume of training • A large number of exercises can be included • Ideal for group sessions • Significant CV benefits can be gained with high • Repititions and a short rest period (Gettman & Pollock,1981) • Avoids the problem of members sitting on machines between sets Table 6.3 Summary of circuit resistance training 91
•
•
•
•
Suitable for: Clients of any level of fitness from sedentary to well-­‐trained Clients with limited time to train Clients with CV goals as well as muscular fitness goals Healthy, fitness or performace goals depending on work/rest ratio and resistances selected Basic Sets Two or more sets are performed on the same exercise before moving on to the next one. Resistance and repetitions are chosen according to the client's goal, and are kept the same on every set (tables 6.4 and 6.5). The rest time between sets now also needs to be considered, and should be chosen according to whether endurance or strength gains are the goal (see section 5). Exercise: Lat Pull Down Set Repititions Resistance Rest Time 1st 15 20kg 60 seconds 2nd 15 20kg N/A Table 6.4 Example of basic sets to suit a moderately fit client with an endurance goal Exercise: Bench Press Set Repititions Resistance Rest Time 1st 4 80kg 2 minutes 2nd 4 80kg 2 minutes 3rd 4 80kg 2 minutes 4th 4 80kg 2 minutes Table 6.5 Example of basic sets to suit a well-­‐trained client with a strength goal Basic Sets Advantages •
•
Disadvantages Simple Enables client to focus on specific muscles with greater intensity than single set or circuit resistance training •
•
•
Higher intensity, therefore may discourage de-­‐
conditioned clients Takes up more time than a single set o r circuit approach Individuals will monopolise equipment for longer, often sitting on machines during the rest periods Table 6.6 Summary of basic sets 92
Suitable for: •
•
•
Clients of any level of fitness from sedentary to well-­‐trained Clients with more time available to train Endurance, hypertrophy or strength goals, depending on repititions and resistance selected Delorme and Watkins 10RM system This system is built around research done by Delorme & Watkins in (1948). Initially, after a suitable warm up, the client has to find his/her 10 RM by trial and error on an exercise. When the correct resistance has been established, three sets are performed, using 50%, 75% and 100% of 1 ORM respectively (table 6.7). Exercise: Shoulder Press Set Repititions Resistance Rest Time 1st 10 50% of 10RM = 20kg 90 seconds 2nd 10 75% of 10RM = 30kg 90 seconds rd
3 10 100% of 10RM = 40kg Table 6.7 Example of Delorme & Watkins 1ORM system N/A If the 10 RM has been correctly established, then failure should occur during the last set, hence giving th
perform more than ten repetitions in the final set, then a new 10 RM will need to be established if impr
maintained. Delorme and Watkins 10RM system Advantages Working to failure may discourage de-­‐conditioned clients • Takes time to establish a 10RM on each exercise in the first place •
• Takes up more time than a single set or circuit approach •
• Individuals will monopolise equipment for longer, often sitting on machines during the rest periods • Only the last set is difficult. This may not challenge experienced clients sufficiently Table 6.8 Summary of Delorme and Watkins 10 RM system •
•
Methodical Based around a measured RM, rather than an estimate of resistance Easy to measure progress over time (the 10RM increases) Introduces working to ‘failure’ Disadvantages •
Suitable for: •
•
•
Currently active (trained) and well-­‐
trained clients Clients with more time available to train Hypertrophy or strength goals Berger 6RM system Research by Berger (1962) suggested that three sets of six repetitions each using the same 6 RM was an effective method for improving muscular strength (table 6.9). This is a popular system with well-­‐trained individuals wanting to improve strength. 93
Exercise: Dead Lift Set Repetitions Resistance Rest Time 1st 6 100% of 6RM = 120kg 2 minutes + nd
2 6
100% of 6RM = 120kg
2 minutes + 3rd 6
100% of 6RM = 120kg
N/A Table 6.9 Example of Berger 6RM system If the 6RM has been correctly established, then failure should occur in all three sets, hence giving the necessary 'overload' three times. Although the client always aims for six repetitions, they will probably only manage six in the first set, then five in the second set, and only two or three in the third. Once the client can perform six reps in all three sets, then a new 6 RM will need to be established if improvements in strength are to be maintained. Berger 6 RM system Advantages •
•
•
Disadvantages Methodical Based around a measured RM, rather than an estimate of resistance Easy to measure progress over time (the 6RM increases) •
•
•
•
•
Working to failure in all 3 sets is very demanding, it is therefore not suitable for sedentary clients Working with heavy resistance places high stresses on joints and connective tissues Takes time to establish a 6RM on each exercise in the first place Takes up more time than a single set or circuit approach Individuals will monopolise equipment for longer, often sitting on machines during the rest periods Table 6.10 Summary of Berger 6 RM system 94
Suitable for: •
•
•
Well-­‐trained clients Clients with more time available to train Primarily strength goals. Also suitable for hypertrophy goals Pyramid Training Pyramid system can be roughly divided into three different categories: •
Ascending pyramid (light-­‐to-­‐heavy) •
Descending pyramid (heavy-­‐to-­‐light) •
Full pyramid (light-­‐to-­‐heavy-­‐back to-­‐light) The general principle used by all of them is changing both resistance and repetitions on each successive set. Table 6.14 summarises advantages and disadvantages of pyramid systems. Ascending Pyramid This begins with a light resistance and high repetitions and progresses to heavier resistance and low repetitions (table 6.11). Set Repetitions Resistance Rest Time 1st 12 60kg 2 minutes 2nd 10 80kg 2 minutes 3rd 8 100kg 2 minutes 120kg N/A 4th 6 Table 6.11 Example of an ascending pyramid Descending Pyramid This begins with a heavy resistance and low repetitions and progresses to lighter resistance and higher repetitions on each successive set (table 6.12). Set Repetitions Resistance Rest Time 1st 4 70kg 2 minutes 2nd 8 50kg 2 minutes 3rd 12 45kg 2 minutes 4th 15 40kg N/A Table 6.12 Example of a descending pyramid Full Pyramid This begins with a light resistance and high repetitions, progresses to heavier resistance and fewer repetitions, and then returns to lighter resistance and high repetitions on each successive set (table 6.13). 95
Set Repetitions Resistance Rest Time 1st 10 70kg 3 minutes 2nd 7 80kg 3 minutes
3rd 5 85kg 3 minutes
4th 3 90kg 3 minutes
5th 5 85kg 3 minutes
6th 7 80kg 3 minutes
7th 10 70kg N/A Table 6.13 Example of a full pyramid Pyramid systems Advantages •
•
•
•
Disadvantages Targets both endurance and strength in one training sessions Trains a full range of fast and slow-­‐twitch muscle fibres Light sets in an ascending or full pyramid give a warm up effect Descending pyramid allows performance of the heaviest set first, when the muscles are un-­‐fatigued •
•
•
Working to fatigue or failure in several sets is very demanding Takes up more time than other systems (the example given in table 6.13 would take about 25 minutes for just one exercise) Doubtful whether 20 many sets are significantly better, in terms of hypertrophy gain or strength gain, than just 1-­‐3 sets Suitable for: •
•
•
Well-­‐conditioned clients Strength training (using appropriate repetition ranges up to 1RM) Hypertrophy (using appropriate repetition ranges) Table 6.14 Summary of Pyramid Systems Super-­‐setting The term 'super-­‐setting' can refer to two different methods of training. The first involves performing exercises for opposing muscle groups with little or no rest between the two activities (table 6.15). 96
Set Exercise Repetitions Resistance 1st Leg extension 12 40kg 2nd Leg curl 12
30kg
3rd Leg extension 12
40kg 4th Leg curl 12
30kg
5th Leg extension 12
40kg 6th Leg curl 12
30kg
Table 6.15 Example of super-­‐setting opposing muscles Super-­‐setting opposing muscles Advantages •
•
•
Disadvantages Saves time. Effectively it can halve the time spent in the gym, which is of great interest to busy people with only a lunch hour to spare for their workout It is a method of increasing workout intensity for well-­‐
conditioned client Approropriate machines are often sited next to one another in the Gym, for eample: Leg extension & Leg curl, Abductors & Adductors, Seated chest press and Lever row etc. •
•
Very demanding. Although one muscle has recovery time whilst the opposite muscle is being worked, there is no complete rest of the whole body between sets Requires two machines/free weights to be available at once, which is not always easy at peak times in the gym Table 6.16 Summary of super-­‐setting opposing muscles 97
Suitable for: •
•
Well-­‐trained clients A hypertrophy (if 8-­‐12 repetition range is used) The second method of super-­‐setting involves performing two exercises for the same body part in quick succession, only resting when both are complete (table 6.17). Set Exercise Repetitions Resistance 1st Shoulder press 8 None 2nd Upright row 8
2 minutes
3rd Shoulder press 8
None 4th Upright row 8
2 minutes
3rd Shoulder press 8
None 4th Upright row 8
N/A Table 6.17 Example of super-­‐setting one muscle group Super-­‐setting one muscle group Advantages •
•
•
It is a method of increasing workout intensity for the muscle group concerned, because there is minimal rest between the two sets Saves time when compared to a ‘basic sets’ approach or ‘pyramid’ approach The muscle group being trained is worked through slightly different angles and ranges of movement by each exercise. This may be beneficial in recruiting more muscle fibres than doing two sets of the same exercise, and therefore beneficial to overall development Disadvantages •
•
Very demanding due to the minimal rest between first and second exercises. It is therefore not suitable for de-­‐conditioned clients Requires two machines/free weights to be available at once, which is not always easy at peak times in the gym Table 6.18 Summary of super-­‐setting one muscle group 98
Suitable for: •
•
Well-­‐trained clients A hypertrophy (using appropriate repetition ranges) Tri-­‐sets Tri-­‐sets involve selecting three exercises for the same muscle or muscle group and performing each exercise in sequence, with little or no rest (table 6.19). This sequence would count as one set. Each set would be followed by a rest period before following the sequence again. The short rest periods combined with three exercises for the same muscle group, make this a good system for developing local muscular endurance. Set Exercise Repetitions Resistance 1st Barbell shoulder press 8 No rest 2nd Upright row 8
No rest
3rd Dumbbell lateral raise 8
N/A Table 6.19 Example tri-­‐set for the shoulders Giant Sets Giant sets are carried out in the same way as tri-­‐sets, but using four or five exercises for each muscle group instead of just three (table 6.20). The selected exercises are performed in sequence with little or no rest. As with tri-­‐sets this system enhances local muscular endurance. Table 6.21 summarises advantages and disadvantages of the tri/giant sets systems. Set Exercise Repetitions Resistance Rest time 1st Seated row 8 – 10 60kg No rest
2nd Lat pulldown 8 – 10
55kg No rest
3rd Shrugs 8 – 10
65kg No rest
4th Single arm row 8 – 10
20kg No rest
3rd Chins 4 -­‐ 8
Body weight/assisted N/A Table 6.20 Example giant set for the back Tri/giant sets systems Advantages •
•
Each exercise works muscle from different angles, engaging more muscle fibres than doing one exercise Completes a high volume of training in a short time period Disadvantages •
•
Requires a lot of free weights and machines to be available at the right time Limited rest makes the system very demanding Table 6.21 Summary of tri/giant sets systems 99
Suitable for: •
•
•
Well-­‐trained clients An endurance goal (if high repetitions are used) A hypertrophy goal (if 8 – 12 repetition rnage is used) Stripping Method/Descending Sets The stripping method is also known as 'descending sets'. This approach involves selecting a lift and resistance and training to momentary muscular failure. Once failure has been reached, the load is immediately decreased and further repetitions are performed until muscular failure is achieved again. The load may be decreased again and further repetitions performed, and so on. This process of reducing the weight is usually repeated three or four times, although it can be done as many times as desired (table 6.22). This system of training can be used on its own, or it can be used on only the last set of an exercise to ensure fatigue is achieved in as many muscle fibres as possible. It is recommended that this approach is performed sparingly as over-­‐training can rapidly occur if used too often. Table 6.23 summarises advantages and disadvantages of the stripping method. Set Repetitions Resistance Rest time 1st To failure 120kg No rest 2nd To failure
100kg No rest
3rd To failure
80kg No rest
4th To failure
60kg N/A Table 6.22 Example stripping method for standing calf raises Stripping method Advantages •
•
•
•
Disadvantages Targets both endurance and strength in one training sessions Trains a full range of fast and slow-­‐twitch muscle fibres Allows performance of the heaviest set first, when the muscles are un-­‐fatigued Completes a high volume of training in a short time period •
•
•
Limited rest makes the system very demanding Requires a thorough warm up before the first set Not easy to ‘strip’ the weight quickly on some equipment Table 6.23 Summary of stripping methods 100
Suitable for: •
•
•
Well-­‐trained clients ‘Shocking’ the muscles occasionally, if they are more used to basic sets or light-­‐to-­‐heavy systems Mainly hypertrophy and endurance goals Pre and Post-­‐Exhaust Systems Pre and post-­‐exhaust systems are based around the concepts that compound exercises cause fatigue in the smaller assistant or synergistic muscle group, before overloading the major muscle group. This results in less than optimal stimulation for the major muscle group. For example, in the chest press, which is a compound exercise for the pectorals, it is usually the smaller triceps and anterior deltoids that fatigue prior to the pectorals. Pre-­‐exhaust uses sets of an isolation exercise such as flyes or pec-­‐deck to pre-­‐fatigue the pectorals prior to performing a chest press (table 6.24). The triceps are then relatively fresh, allowing more stimulation of the pectorals (already fatigued from the isolation exercise). Set Exercise Repetitions Resistance Rest time 1st Dumbbell flyes 8 – 10 110kg No rest
2nd Seated chest press 8 – 10
50kg N/A
Table 6.24 Example pre-­‐exhaust for the pectorals Post-­‐exhaust is the opposite of pre-­‐exhaust, in that it utilises a compound exercise followed by an isolation exercise. For example, squats followed by leg extension (table 6.25). Table 6.26 summarises advantages and disadvantages of the pre/post exhaust systems. Set Exercise Repetitions Resistance Rest time 1st Squats 8 – 10 110kg No rest
2nd Leg extension 8 – 10
50kg N/A
Table 6.25 Example post-­‐exhaust for the quadriceps Pre/post-­‐exhaust systems Advantages •
•
•
•
Targets both endurance and strength in one training sessions Trains a full range of fast and slow-­‐twitch muscle fibres Allows performance of the heaviest set first, when the muscles are un-­‐fatigued Completes a high volume of training in a short time period Disadvantages •
•
•
•
Requires correct free weights and machines to be available at the right time Limited rest makes the system quite demanding May neglect smaller muscles in the compound exercise Strength gains may therefore not be useful functionally Table 6.26 Summary of pre/post-­‐exhaust systems 101
Suitable for: •
•
Well-­‐trained clients Hypertrophy, where development of a particular muscle group lags behind the rest of the body Forced Repetitions Forced repetitions involve using a spotter to assist in performing two or three extra repetitions following training to exhaustion. The spotter provides just enough assistance to allow completion of the extra repetitions. This system forces the muscles to continue working when it is partially fatigued, and pushes it further into overload. This system should be used sparingly because it produces high levels of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and can easily result in over-­‐training. Negative Repetitions The eccentric or lowering phase of the lift is also referred to as the 'negative' phase. During this phase the muscles involved are actively lengthening to lower the resistance in a controlled manner. It is an interesting fact that it is possible to lower a greater resistance in the negative phase than can ever be lifted in the positive phase. Negative repetitions therefore involve using resistances in excess of a client's 1 RM. This is achieved by having a spotter to help the lifter by raising the weight into position. The weight is then lowered through the negative phase of the lift unassisted. The spotter then helps raise the weight again ready for the next repetition. Sets of one to six repetitions are common. Alternatively, two or three negative repetitions can be performed at the end of a normal setto failure. It is vital that proper lifting and safe spotting techniques are used throughout this approach. Also, negative training is associated with high levels of delayed-­‐onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Therefore, in common with other advanced systems, it should be followed with adequate recovery days. Cheating Method The cheat system is most popular with bodybuilders. It involves using assistance from other muscle groups or momentum, to overcome resistance, for example using a small body swing to start a barbell moving in a barbell bicep curl. The object of cheating is to either allow the use of heavier resistances than usual or to achieve extra repetitions at the end of a set taken to failure using strict technique. The use of cheating to overcome heavier resistances than normally used, forces the muscles to develop maximal tension through a greater range of movement. This can improve strength gains. Care should be taken using the cheat system because adding momentum to any lift increases the chance of injury. Also, this system cannot be applied safely to some lifts (e.g. squats, bench press). Comparisons of gains in strength achieved using the cheat system when measured against other systems suggests that this system is quite effective. 102
Table 6.27 summarises advantages and disadvantages of forced reps, negatives, and cheating systems. Pre/post-­‐exhaust systems Advantages Suitable for: High degree of overload makes • Very well-­‐trained these systems very demanding clients/peak performers • Very heavy resistances and •
• Mainly strength and emphasis on eccentric phase (negatives) places high stress hypertrophy goals on connective tissue and tendons •
• Results in high levels of DOMS • Requires longer than normal recovery between training •
sessions • Requires high skill level • Usually requires the services of a competent spotter Table 6.27 Summary of negatives, forced repetitions, cheating and partial repetitions systems •
Enables the client to work beyond their normal point of failure Enables the client to handle heavier than normal resistances (negatives and cheating) Therefore creates a higher degree of overload Presence of a spotter can help to motivate client Disadvantages •
What is Power? Coaches constantly talk about the need for ‘power’ in their sport, yet information and research on power training is confusing and contradictory. The word ‘power’ is often used arbitrarily, sometimes taken to mean training ‘with heavy weight’ or at other times taken to mean training ‘explosively’ neither of which is strictrly true. Power is defined as: The rate of doing work Power is measured in: watts (w) For an everyday example of power, think of a light bulb. If I pedaled a cycle connected to a dynamo with an output of 100w I would generate just enough power to light one 100w bulb. If I doubled my effort on the cycle and generated 200w, then I would be able to light 2 similar bulbs, and so on. Power = rate of doing work = work done Time However, work done = force x distance Therefore, power = force x distance time however, speed = distance time 103
Therefore, power = force x speed Power combines strength (force) with speed (velocity). For example, player ~A can move 100kg 1 metre in 1 second. Player B can move the same weight the same distance in just 0.5 second. Player 2 therefore has twice the power of player 1. Thus power is related to movement time. If the movement time is improved, then the power will be improved. Power is sometimes needed in a very short burst lasting only fractions of a second, such as throwing a ball or performing a high jump. In other sports, power must be sustained over a period of many seconds, such as sprinting 100 metres (see ‘a-­‐cyclic’ power). If the basic principle of (force x speed) is now related to sport, we can see its importance to performance. Consider the following examples: • A footballer making a throw in • A basketball player jumping to score a basket • A cyclist sprinting for the finish line In all of the above cases, the muscles need to move the resistance with maximum speed in order to achieve the best result. If the movement time is improved, then the performance will be improved. The muscles could be very strong from a basic weight-­‐training programme, but that does not necessarily mean they can contract quickly enough to create the necessary speed (and therefore power). To achieve this, a different type of training is needed. Task What other sports can you thing of where power is important? Make a list of ten examples, being specific about exactly which moves within the sport require power. Load projection Another factor to consider is whether the resistance is still in contract with the body at the end of the movement, or is the resistance ‘projected’? In weight lifting, the bar is still held in the hands at the end of the movement. In rowing the hands are still in contact with the oars at the end of the stroke. Both involve power, but there must be a slowing down (deceleration) of the movement at the end of range in order to stay in contact with the resistance. The power generation is concentrated in the first portion of the move. In contrast, throwing a ball or jumping involves a separation of resistance from the body at the end of range (the ball leaves the hand or the feet leave the ground). This implies that there is no deceleration at the end of the movement. The muscles continue to accelerate the resistance through their full range, and the power generation is now needed throughout full range. Only when the resistance is projected does the body or limb decelerate, which then involves a strong contraction of the antagonistic muscle groups. If the resistance is ‘projected’ in the sprot, this has two implications to power training: Firstly, exercises should allow the resistance to be released at the end of range. A bench press, for example, doesn’t allow acceleration of the bar through full range because it has to be slowed down and held at the finish. On the other hand, a jump press up or a medicine ball chest throw 104
both allow acceleration through the full range. Secondly, training the antagonistic muscles becomes important because of their role in decelerating the body or limb. Cyclic Power Some sports require power to be sustained repetitively and rapidly over a period of time. This is referred to as cyclic power. Examples include any short burst race such as sprint running, swimming, canoeing Or rowing. Following the general principle of specificity, it makes sense that cyclic power is best improved by doing continuous rapid repetitions of the movement. A-­‐Cyclic Power Some sports require power to be applied maximally just once. This is referred to as a-­‐cyclic power. Examples include Javelin, hammer, high jump, Olympic weight lifting (snatch/clean & jerk), a golf swing, or a tennis serve. Following the general principle of specificity it makes sense that a-­‐cyclic power is best improved by doing single, maximal, explosive repetitions of the movement with long rest periods between each one. Power Training From the discussion above, it should be clear that power training involves moving a resistance at speed. This is in contrast to regular strength training where slow, controlled movements are recommended. A general prescription for improving power is to use a moderate resistance for medium/high reps, performing the repetitions as quickly as possible (Tables 6.1 & 6.2). Sets Exercise speed Repetitions Resistance 4 -­‐ 6 Maximal with good 8 – 20 50 – 80% of 1 RM technique Table 6.28 General prescription for power training (Bompa, 1994) Sets Exercise speed Rest time 3 – 5 minutes
Repetitions Resistance Rest time 15 -­‐ 25 30 – 60% of 1 RM 3 – 5 minutes
No Maximal with good recommendation technique Table 6.29 General prescription for power training (Sharkey, 1990) As you can see, the two prescriptions are similar, with slight variations in the resistance and repetition ranges. The exact regime that best suits one individual will be influenced by many factors. Training with a moderate resistance at high speed has been shown to improve movement speed whether the participant has to move high, moderate or low resistances in their sport. In other words, there is transference of power improvement to both heavily and lightly resisted movements. 105
Training with heavy resistances does not give the same overall benefit to speed. Although the participant's strength increases, the muscles ability to contract quickly when lightly loaded does not appear to improve. Thus, if the aim is to throw a ball further (light load) or throw a faster punch (light load), then heavy resistance training will have little effect. Similarly, training with very light resistances will improve the muscles ability to contract quickly when lightly loaded, but does not appear to help when the muscle must contract quickly under moderate or heavy loads. Thus, if the aim is to increase shot putt distance, training by throwing a light ball will have little effect. Put as simply as possible: Heavy training will improve the speed of heavily loaded movements, but will have little effect on the speed of lightly loaded movements, and vice versa. Training with moderate loads appears to improve speed across the entire range of loads (Ikai, 1970; Kanehisa & Miyashita, 1983). Stretch-­‐Shortening Cycle (SSe) I Plyometrics Plyometrics is a popular name given to a particular type of explosive power training. A plyometric exercise is one where an eccentric (lengthening) phase of contraction immediately precedes a concentric (shortening) phase. In doing so, the muscle is ore-­‐stretched and can create more concentric force than when it is at its resting length. This process is also referred to, more correctly, as the stretch-­‐shortening cycle (SSC). The SSC is an integral part of everyday movement -­‐ in walking or running, for example, the calf and quadriceps both go through a SSC every time the foot strikes the ground. Two factors may contribute to the increased force obtained from a prestretched muscle: The natural elasticity of the muscle/tendon unit. The principle is exactly the same as stretching a rubber band and then letting it spring back: the band recoils, releasing its stored up energy. The more the band is stretched, the stronger it will-­‐ spring back. The stretch reflex. When the muscle/tendon unit is rapidly lengthened the stretch reflex will detect this and, to prevent over-­‐stretching and damage, it will trigger an instant and forceful contraction to shorten the same muscle. An example of the plyometric principle in practice is a vertical jump where the participant first bends the legs to lower the body (eccentric phase) followed immediately by straightening the legs to propel the body off the floor (concentric phase). This concept is easy to test: First try a vertical jump from a static bent-­‐leg position and see how high you can get. Then try the same jump, but lower quickly into the bent-­‐leg position before instantly springing up. Can you jump higher using the second method? In fact, between concentric and eccentric phases there is a very brief static contraction known as the 'amortisation' phase. The shortest possible amortisation phase is crucial. If it is too long, then the stored elastic energy from the pre-­‐stretch is lost in the form of heat instead of being used to recoil the muscle. 106
Hence the main focus of plyometric training is to reduce the duration of the amortisation phase, and transfer as much of the potential energy as possible from the eccentric phase into the concentric phase. Three main body adaptations appear to contribute to this reduced amortisation phase: Inter-­‐muscular co-­‐ordination (better co-­‐ordination of muscles through the full range of movement during the exercise) Intra-­‐muscular co-­‐ordination (better recruitment of muscle fibres within the muscles) Stronger nerve impulses travelling to the muscles leading to a more forceful contraction. The concept of plyometric training is not new, dating back at least as far as the ancient Greeks, although they did not use the same word for it. In East European Countries, 'jump training' was used extensively from the 1950's onwards, and was one factor that contributed in that era to the great successes of the former U.S.S.R. and East Germany in track and field. Other countries inevitably copied the same training methods, and in 1975 an American coach called Fred Wilt introduced the actual term plyometrics. The name originates from the Latin which, roughly translated, means 'measurable increase'. The term 'stretch-­‐shortening cycle' is becoming more accepted because it describes this type of training more accurately. SSC Training Guidelines Prior to Any Training A good overall fitness level is preferable before incorporating SSC exercises into a training programme because of the high stresses placed on the muscles and joints. Firstly, the participant must have sound skill (technique) before SSC drills are used extensively and before they are progressed with extra resistance or complexity. Secondly, a sufficient base of strength is needed, so that the muscles and connective tissue are already trained to withstand high loading. It is difficult to be exact on what 'sufficient' strength is. Early European writers suggested that the individual should be able to back squat 2.5 times their own body weight before embarking on a SSC programme. This equates to an average male (80kg) squatting with 200kg and an average female (6Skg) squatting with 162.5kg, hence it rules out almost everyone! A more realistic measure is to use a weight equivalent to 60% of the individual's body weight on the bar, and see if they can perform 5 squats within 5 seconds. If the participant cannot do this, then standard resistance training should be the main focus, and any SSC training should be of low volume and low intensity (Chu, 1998). Lastly, good flexibility is important in SSC training to help reduce the risk of injury. This is because the muscle is being lengthened very quickly under high tension and the theoretical risk of muscle strains is high. 107
Frequency There is no conclusive evidence on the optimum frequency of SSC training for best results. Most practitioners suggest a recovery period of 48-­‐72 hours between sessions, making the recommended training frequency similar to strength training: 2 -­‐ 3 times/week. Intensity I Progression Intensity refers to how hard each repetition of the exercise is. In SSC, intensity depends upon factors such as: body weight, added resistance, height or distance of the jump attempted, complexity of the movement, use of equipment, etc All of these may be used to progress intensity from low to moderate to high over a period of weeks and months (progressive overload). Volume Volume of training refers to the total amount of work performed in a single exercise session. Guidelines inevitably vary from expert to expert, but the following seem reasonable: •
The beginner may do approximately 60-­‐100 foot contacts at low intensity, whereas intermediate exercisers may perform 100-­‐150 foot contacts of both low and moderate intensity. •
The advanced exerciser may perform 150-­‐200 foot contacts of both low and moderate intensity. The volume of bounded running can also be measured by distance. In the early phases of training 30 metres per set would be a reasonable distance, progressing to 100 metres per set for more experienced participants. Work I Recovery Time A work / recovery ratio of between 1 to 5 and 1 to 10 is recommended when performing SSC type activities. For example, a 10-­‐second work period would be followed by a 50-­‐100 second recovery period. SSC training guidelines are summarised in table 6.3. 108
Frequency Intensity Volume 2 – 3 times per Dependent upon type of week maximum drill, body weight, added resistance, height or distance of jump, complexity of movement, equipment used etc. Work/recovery time Beginners: Work / rest ration 60 – 100 foot between 1:5 and 1:10 is contact/up to 30 metres recommended distance per repetition of bounding Intermediate: 100 – 150 foot contacts/up to 7-­‐ metres distance per repetition of bounding Advanced: 150 – 200 foot contacts/up to 100 metres distance per repetition of boudning Table 6.30 Summary of SSC training guidelines (Adapted from Chu 1998) Example SSC Exercises There are literally hundreds of different SSC activities or drills that can be performed for sports conditioning incorporating jumping for the lower body and throwing using medicine balls for the upper body. Jumps-­‐in-­‐Place These are performed by taking off and landing on the same spot several times. They are fairly low intensity exercises, but are useful for developing a shorter amortisation phase. Standing Jumps These are performed as single repetitions of maximum effort. They are therefore high intensity. They can be either horizontal or vertical and the exercise can be repeated several times with a full recovery period in between each jump. Multiple Hops & Jumps These are performed as several repetitions of maximum effort. They can be done in place, or over a short distance, such as jumping over a series of small hurdles Bounding Exercises These are performed by exaggerating the normal running stride, and are used. to improve stride length and frequency. 109
Depth Jumps These involve jumping to the ground from a box to create an intense pre-­‐ stretch in the muscles. This is then followed immediately by a jump to get the SSC effect. Depth jumps are done as single repetitions and are moderate to high intensity depending on the height of the box. They are generally not for beginners. Box Drills These are effectively depth jumps and hops performed for several repetitions. The intensity can be adapted by altering the height of the box used or by incorporating both horizontal and vertical components. Medicine Ball Drills These are used for a variety of upper-­‐body exercises, such as: overhead throws, underhand throws, trunk rotations, side throws and backward throws. These exercises can be either low or high intensity and can be used to increase an athlete's performance especially in throwing and racquet sports. Sports-­‐Specific Power Training We now need to consider how to make power training specific to a particular sport. To achieve this we need to refer back to the needs analysis and movement analysis in Section 2. When planning the power training component the most important factors from the needs analysis will be muscles and movement patterns used. Also important will be injury prevention Table 6.31 Components of a needs analysis that relate to power training 110
Plyometrics Advantages •
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Very well-­‐trained clients/peak performers Power and speed goals Sports-­‐specific goals Table 6.32 Summary of plyometrics training Muscular Strength and Endurance Exercises Using the Core Stability Ball Exercise & Muscles Worked Dumbbell Bicep Curl Biceps Teaching Points for Exercises whilst Seated on the Ball Hold dumbbells at side of ball. Keep elbows close to sides. Bend and straighten arms. Keep elbows unlocked. Overhead Dumbbell Triceps Press Triceps Dumbbell Shoulder Hold dumbbell in both hands overhead. Relax shoulders away from ears. Bend and straighten elbows, lowering dumbbell behind head. Elbows unlocked. Elbows stay close to head. Hold dumbbells at side of body level with shoulders. Press Deltoids/triceps/upper Trapezius Dumbbell Lateral Raise Medial deltoid Relax shoulders. Elbows at 900angle. Extend arms overhead and lower down under control. Elbows unlocked. Wrist firm and knuckles face upwards Hold dumbbells at side of body. Raise dumbbells level with shoulders. Elbows and wrists in line. Elbows unlocked. Hold dumbbells at side of body. Dumbbell Front Raise Anterior deltoid Leg Extension Quadriceps Alternately raise one hand and then the other in front of the body to shoulder height. Keep shoulder blades squeezing lightly back and downwards. Elbows unlocked. Feet hip width apart. Maintain tight abdominals. Raise one leg straight, knee unlocked. Keep weight central 111
Exercise & Muscles Worked Sit Up Rectus abdominus Sit Up and Twist Obliques Dumbbell Chest Press Pectorals Triceps Anterior deltoid Back Raise (prone lying on ball) Teaching Points for Exercises whilst Lying on the Ball (back and front) Lying with back on the ball, feet firmly on floor, hip width apart. Raise and lower the body. Care not to arch the back. Lying with back on the ball, feet firmly on floor, hip width apart. Raise and lower the head and shoulders, rotating towards one side. Lower under control. Repeat raisinq to other side. Lying with back on ball, feet hip width apart and firmly on floor. Raise dumbbells above chest, palms inwards. Lower dumbbells out to the side of body and level with the mid chest. Elbows and wrist in alignment, knuckles face up, palms face towards the feet. Raise back UP under control, elbows unlocked. Erector spinae Lying with tummy on ball and feet on the floor. Hands either on buttocks or at side of head. Raise the body upwards and lower down under control. Press Ups Pectorals Triceps Anterior deltoid With either the front thighs or feet on ball. Hands on floor, shoulder width and half apart, shoulders in advance of thumbs. Lower the chest towards the floor. Raise under control elbows unlocked. Prone Flyes (prone lying on ball) Middle trapezius Rhomboids Shoulder stabilisers Lying with tummy on ball and feet on the floor. Hands out to the side of the body close to the floor. Raise arms to level with shoulder girdle. Initiate the movement by squeezing the muscles between the shoulder blades. Lower under control. Gluteal Raise Gluteals Lying with the tummy on the ball, hands on the floor and feet on the on the floor. Raise and lower one leg to hip height by squeezing the buttock muscles. Keep the knee unlocked. Control the movement. 112
Exercise & Muscles Worked Sit Up Rectus abdominus Teaching Points for Exercises whilst Lying on Floor With Feet on the Ball Hands at side of head. Curl head and shoulders off the floor and lower back down under control. Sit Up and Twist Obliques Hands at side of head. Curl head and shoulders off the floor, rotating shoulder towards opposite knee. Bridge (feet on ball) Transverses abdominus Internal obliques Gluteals Bridge and Roll Transverses abdominus Internal obliques Gluteals hamstrings Abductors •
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Lower under control. Feet or calves on ball. Squeeze buttocks to raise pelvis off the floor -­‐ hold 5 -­‐ 10 seconds. Curl down, one vertebrae at a time. Breathe naturally throughout. Feet on ball. Bend knees and roll ball towards the buttocks. Extend knees and roll ball away from buttocks. Keep the buttocks tight throughout. There are many more advanced exercises that can be performed on the ball. These are not illustrated. It is recommended that teachers attend training to gain further knowledge about working with the ball before attempting more advanced exercises. The reduced stability for all exercises will require additional work from other core stability muscles. Stretches that can be Performed on a Stability Ball Muscles Stretched Pectorals, triceps, latissimus dorsi, obliques trapezius Teaching points performed whilst Seated on the Ball Use traditional stretches for these muscles in seated position. Body needs to stabilise while performing the stretches. Harnstrinos adductors Use traditional seated stretch positions. Muscles Stretched Teachinq points performed whilst Lying on the Ball Pectorals Lie with the back on the ball and allow the arms and hands to drop towards the floor stretching the chest. Summary The systems discussed in this section have each evolved for a reason, and each has its advantages and disadvantages. The skill of the trainer is to choose the most appropriate system for their client. It is good practice for the instructor to keep a training diary or log of each workout, recording exercises, sets and repetitions as well as resistance used. This will monitor progression, and help to identify which programmes were most successful in achieving the client's goals. 113
BOSU® (Both Sides Up) General Safety Considerations • Clean regularly and maintain inflation • Store away from direct heat of sunlight to avoid heat distortion • Wear supportive trainers and appropriate clothing when working on a BOSU® • Never stand on the BOSU® with the dome side on the floor • Stay close to the BOSU® when mounting and dismounting and performing stepping actions • Use correct lifting techniques for moving or turning the BOSU® over • Step or kneel on the centre of the BOSU®, avoid movement to one side General Postural Alignment • Pelvis neutral (pubic bone and hip bones aligned) • Abdominals pulled in, chest lifted • Head looking forwards and chin parallel to floor • Shoulders relaxed and down, lengthening between the head and shoulders • Lengthen between the ribs and hips Warming Up on the BOSU® Stepping On or Over Standing On Bouncing Bouncing on the dome Stepping on and Traditional mobility exercises: off can be spine rotations, and lateral bends, shoulder performed in all lifts and rolls, neck bends, arm lines directions Balancing on one leg Walking over the Bounce and knee bend Side leg raises BOSU® combination for Knee lifts advanced clients Standing still and closing eyes Some jumping actions All basic step Squatting on the dome of the BOSU® actions Squatting with rotations Rest compressions: shifting from one foot to the other to Marching on and off provide rest for the feet (gripping) and regain balance. 114
Main Work Out on the BOSU® (Standing and Dome Down) Stepping On or Over (Cardio) See all basic stepping patterns (step section) Basic step Standing and Bouncing Dome Down (Cardio & MSE) (Cardio) (Hold the Edge of the BOSU®) Ski jumps -­‐ one foot on dome Squat thrusts and jumping other leg to floor Bouncinq on the dome Alternate lee squat thrusts Over the top Up and tap and any variation Spotty dogs Jump and turn . 1/2 turn 1/2 turn full turn Press ups Plank (3/4 or full) or one legged Main Workout on the BOSU® (Seated, Kneeling and Lying) Lying Supine On Sitting On BOSU® BOSU® -­‐ Feet On Floor Sit ups All dumbbell exercises Oblique curls Bicep curl Lying Face Down or Kneeling On BOSU® With hands on floor glut raises Lying glut raise V sits Overhead tricep press tvlnc back extensions Cycle sits Dumbbell shoulder press Lying prone flves Stretching on the BOSU® Most traditional stretch positions can be performed standing or seated. 115
Core Board General Safety Considerations • Clean regularly after use • Wear supportive trainers and appropriate clothing when working on the board • Use correct lifting techniques for moving or turning the core board • Use the board at a stability level appropriate to the clients needs • Stack core boards at no more than 5 board height and ensure the adjustment lever is returned to stable position Position High stability position Progression High levels of stability. This position should be used at the start of the workout. Lower fitness levels may need to use this level throughout the workout as it offers more resistance and thus, greater stability. Medium stability position Moderate levels of stability. Can be introduced in client work for specific exercises when client has reached a reasonable level of stability. Low stability position Low level of stability.For more advanced students. Stability Positions Postural Alignment • Pelvis neutral (pubic bone and hip bones aligned) • Abdominals pulled in, chest lifted • Head looking forwards and chin parallel to floor • Shoulders relaxed and down, lengthening between the head and shoulders • Lengthen between the ribs and hips 116
Examples of Exercises Using the Core Board Basic Exercises Instructions Foot tRo ocks-­‐ Side Side Foot Rocks -­‐ Diagonal •
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Staggered stance (one foot slightly ahead of the other) on board Shift weight forward and back Repeat with both legs leading Wide or narrow squat stance •
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Position body at back of board for incline Squat down as if sitting into a chair •
Wide or narrow squat stance on board •
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chair Wide stance with one leg on •
the board at side edge, one • leg on floor Squat down and UP •
Wide leg stance with one leg • on the board at side edge •
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Squat down and on lift raise • floor leg to the side (abduction) Repeat with both legs leading 117
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Maintain postural alignment Keep body weight centred Shoulders above hips, buttocks above knees (z-­‐shape) •
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Repeat with both legs inwards Tricep Dips Press Ups Abdominal Rock Toe Dips •
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• Teaching Points • Maintain correct postural alignment • Lunge and sink bodyweight rather than diving forward • Knee in line with ankle • Ensure knees do not roll Hands centre of board at shoulder width Knees bent and bottom raised Lower and lift body weiqht •
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Maintain postural alignment Shoulders relaxed away from ears Elbows unlocked • Maintain postural • Hands on board either wide • alignment or narrow • Elbows unclocked • Press up action as per • Can progress to incline traditional programme or decline • Maintain neutral pelvis • Lying with back on board and abdominals tight • Knees bent towards body and over hips (900 angle at both joints) • Shins parallel to floor • Hands side of head • Rock the board forward • Contract abdominals to return to centre •• Lying with back on board •
• • Knees bent towards body and over hips (900 angle at both joints) • Shins parallel to floor • Contract abdominals and move the hip joint so that •
toe dips to floor and then return to start position • Repeat both legs 118
Progression for Using Core Board • Decrease work time using board for beginners, increase work time on board for intermediate/advanced clients progressively • Use higher board level resistance for beginners for increased stability, introduce lower board resistance as fitness and balance improve • Use simpler exercises (one plane of movement) for beginners and introduce more complex exercises and various planes of movement progressively • Vary exercise speed, rhythm, leverage and range of motion as fitness and skill level improve NB: There are more advanced techniques and training programmes that can be performed using core stability equipment for sport specific training etc. PersonalTrainers are advised to seek out further training from equipment manufacturers such as Reebok, BOSU® to identify training organisations who deliver more focused and specific training. Focus Pads/Skipping Ropes/Medicine Balls The use of skipping ropes, focus pads for punching techniques and medicine balls can be incorporated into a training programme for more skilled clients who have a good base level of fitness. These activities are similar to the techniques used in boxing and similar brand name exercise programmes such as Cardio Kick®, Boxercise@ and Body Combat® training. The Personal Trainer should have an up to date knowledge and personal experience of training in this way before including this type of work with their clients. The benefits of these training programmes can include: •
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Improvements to cardiovascular fitness Improved muscular strength and endurance and muscle conditioning Improved agility, co-­‐ordination, balance, power and speed Increased mental alertness, focus, concentration and self determination Assistance with stress management (particularly the venting of anger!) Assistance with weight management and calorie burning Adding variety to an exercise programme General Postural Alignment •
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Pelvis neutral (pubic bone and hip bones aligned) Abdominals pulled in Chest lifted Head looking forwards and chin parallel to floor Shoulders relaxed and down Lengthen between the ribs and hips Lengthen between the head and shoulders 119
Skipping This can provide great cardiovascular and muscular endurance training benefits as well as improving agility, co-­‐ordination and speed. Skipping Technique •
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Keep the feet close to the floor Keep the arms long and elbows slightly bent Use the wrists to generate movement of the rope Knees unlocked Upright posture (as above: lengthen spine, neutral pelvis, abdominals in and relaxed shoulders) Heels land lightly, although the movement predominantly occurs on the balls of the feet Variations of Skipping Alternating Alternate leg hopping on single rope turn (moving from one leg to the other) Jumping Both legs jumping on single rope turn Hopping Double Rope Turn One lee is lifted and skipping leg jumps on single rope turn For advanced skippers -­‐ all the above movements with a double rope turn for one lump. Focus Pads and Punching Techniques The use of punching techniques can provide a safe way for clients to vent stress and anger and thus manage stress levels. The footwork and movement required to perform certain punches may also have an impact on cardiovascular fitness, co-­‐ordination, agility and other motor skills. All punching techniques can be performed by shadow boxing. They can also be performed with light dumbbells for advanced exercisers to increase resistance and assist with improving muscular endurance. 120
General Postural Alignment and Stances Straddled Stance •
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Feet shoulder width and half apart Feet face forwards Knees unlocked Pelvis neutral (pubic bone and hip bones aligned} Abdominals pulled in Chest lifted Head looking forwards and chin parallel to floor Shoulders relaxed and down Lengthen between the ribs and hips Lengthen between the head and shoulders Staggered Stance •
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Feet shoulder width and half apart One foot slightly in front of the other with body turned slightly Front foot faces forwards, rear foot turned out slightly (approximately 45 degrees) Knees unlocked Pelvis neutral (pubic bone and hip bones aligned) Abdominals pulled in Chest lifted Head looking forwards and chin parallel to floor Shoulders relaxed and down Lengthen between the ribs and hips Lengthen between the head and shoulders Making a Fist and Punching Clench fist firmly and fold thumbs across knuckles, keeping the wrist and knuckles aligned. Punch with the larger knuckles. Exercise Technique: Jab Punch NB: Focus pads to be held at head height of trainer or client and facing forwards. •
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Staggered foot position (one foot slightly in front of the other) Clench fist firmly Focus and punch forwards toward the pad with leading side arm, aiming for chin height Keep abdominals tight throughout Pivot the hip slightly as you punch Keep elbow unlocked Return punching arm swiftly to guard position Keep non punching arm in guard position Exercise Technique: Cross Punch NB: Focus pads to be held at head height of trainer or client and facing forwards. •
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Staggered foot position (one foot slightly in front of the other) Clench fist firmly Focus and punch forwards toward the pad with non-­‐leading side arm, aiming for chin height Keep abdominals tight throughout Pivot rear hip and shoulder forward to punch straight 121
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Rotate fist so that palm faces down Keep elbow unlocked Return punching arm swiftly to guard position Keep non punching arm in guard position Exercise Technique: Hook Punch NB: Focus pads to be held at head height of trainer or client and facing forwards. • Staggered foot position (one foot slightly in front of the other) • Clench fist firmly • Focus and punch in a semi-­‐circular action toward the pad with non-­‐leading side • arm, aiming for side of the head • Keep abdominals tight throughout • Elbow is lifted so that the forearm is parallel to the floor • Pivot rear hip and shoulder forward to punch straight, allowing heel to lift • Rotate fist so that palm faces down • Keep elbow unlocked • Return punching arm swiftly to guard position • Keep non punching arm in guard position Exercise Technique: Uppercut Punch NB: Focus pads to be held at head height of trainer or client and facing slightly downwards. •
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Straddled foot position (feet parallel and a little wider than hip width) Clench fist firmly Focus and punch upwards toward the pad, by lowering the shoulder of the punching arm Aim for an upward punch to the lower jaw, the palm faces the body of the puncher Keep abdominals tight throughout Pivot hip and allow heel to lift of punching side Rotate fist so that palm faces down Keep elbow unlocked Return punching arm swiftly to guard position Keep non punching arm in guard position NB: Personal Trainers who wish to develop their use of focus pad and punching or kicking work with clients are recommended to seek additional training from specific training organisations that focus on specialist training in these areas. Medicine Balls These can be used to add resistance to specific exercises and can be used to develop muscular power. The postural alignment advice for all these exercises is the same as it would be for each specific exercise without using the equipment. General Postural Alignment •
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Pelvis neutral (pubic bone and hip bones aligned) Abdominals pulled in Chest lifted Head looking forwards and chin parallel to floor Shoulders relaxed and down Lengthen between the ribs and hips Lengthen between the head and shoulders 122
The only additional point is that clients would need a comparatively higher level of core stability, abdominal and back strength before using this equipment. In addition, care must be taken to ensure the breath is not held during any of the movements. Exercises Using the Medicine Ball Sit Ups Perform sit ups with medicine ball held to add resistance on the chest. Follow teaching guidelines for body weight abdominal curl. Sit Up, Throw and Catch Perform sit ups holding the medicine ball-­‐ throw the medicine ball either towards a Personal Trainer or against a wall. Training partner can be either seated or standing. Follow teaching guidelines for body weight abdominal curl. Ensure the abs are tight when throwing and catching. Keep the elbows unlocked. Sit Up and Twist Perform sit up and twist with medicine ball resting on the chest to add resistance. Follow teaching guidelines for traditional sit up and twist. Sit Up, Twist and Throw As above. Throw ball to a partner between each sit up and rotation and catching the ball after completing a lower and lift to the other side. Ensure alternating sides are used to throw and catch equally to promote balance of power. Side Bends Oblique Rotations Standing or seated. Hold the medicine ball to the chest – bend directly to one side and then the other. NB: The ball can be held above the head for more skilled clients with more advanced fitness. Standing or seated: Hold the ball to the chest, shoulders relaxed, elbows out to the side. Rotate to right and left. With partner: Standing back to back (either Personal Trainer and client, or two clients). Partner A rotates the spine and passes the ball to one side of the body. Partner B takes hold of the ball and twists to opposite side and passes the ball back to partner A, who takes the ball and repeats the action. This exercise can be repeated in both directions. Ensure movement occurs from the spine and that the pelvis is maintained in a neutral position, with no twisting from the hips. NB: Can be performed with arms extended. 123
Twist and Throw Chest Press As above. Standing or seated oblique rotation -­‐ throw ball to a Partner or against a wall in between each rotation. Follow teaching guidelines for traditional twisting movements. Hips face forward, knees unlocked etc. Lying on the back. press the ball upwards. Following the teaching guidelines for a narrow arm chest press. Progression -­‐ throw the ball slightly and catch. NB: There are safety implications that need to be considered if the ball is not caught! Medicine Ball Leg Push With the front of the foot placed against the ball, use the leg muscles to push the ball (in a kicking like action) upwards and towards the wall. Maintain a neutral pelvis and strong abdominal contraction. Ensure the ball is pushed and not kicked. Double Leg Medicine Ball Push Medicine Ball Throws Seated Chest Throws Overhead Throws Gripping the ball either between the ankles or placing the toes under the ball, push the ball upwards and towards the wall. Ensure a neutral pelvis and tight abdominals. Ensure breathing is natural and do not hold breath. From either a straddle or staggered foot position, throw the medicine ball towards either a training partner or against the wall and catch the ball on return. Progression -­‐ use one arm to throw the ball and/or jump into the air and throw the ball, in a reboundinq action. Sit facing a partner and throw the ball to them level with the chest. The ball can be thrown against a wall. Sit facing a partner or wall. Throw the ball towards partner or wall using an overhead arm throw action. Back Extensions The medicine ball can be used by advanced clients to perform back extensions. Ball can be balanced between the shoulder blades with the trainer holding the ball in place. Stepping With a Different step actions can be performed whilst holding a medicine ball to add weight to the movement. Medicine Ball Leg Curls Squats and Squat Jumps Stronger clients can grip the ball between their legs and perform reverse curls. The medicine ball can be held across the front of the chest to perform squats and squat jumps (squatting and then jumping into the air).Alternatively, one legged squats can be performed, balancing against a wall and lowering the body towards the medicine ball. 124
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SECTION 7 Flexibility In this section we review the benefits of having good flexibility. We will compare some of the different methods of stretching available to the instructor, and discuss which are most suitable to use when the client's fitness level and goals are considered. Objectives By the end of this section you should be able to: 1. State the benefits of increased range of movement 2. Identify tight/over-­‐active muscle groups (calf, hamstring, adductor, iliopsoas, pectoralis major, upper trapezius) 3. Describe and compare the following methods of stretching: • Static •
Dynamic •
Ballistic •
PNF (contract-­‐relax and contract-­‐relax-­‐antagonist contract) 4. Practice applying PNF stretching to variety of muscle groups. 5. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of partner stretching to both client and instructor. The following muscles are frequently found to be shortened or over active in many clients: •
•
Calf Hamstring Adductor •
•
Hip flexors Pectoralis major •
Upper trapezius) •
However, it is unwise to generalise too much. It should be standard practice to assess a client's flexibility before selecting which muscles to stretch. With experience, this can be done visually, by simply watching how easily the client is able to perform a range of stretches. Alternatively many standard tests have been developed to assess flexibility on a more formal basis (Kendall, 2005, ACSM 2006). 125
The health, fitness and medical professions have developed many different methods of stretching muscles with the purpose of improving flexibility. Below is a brief review of the main methods of stretching that are available, and that are most relevant to the fitness instructor (as opposed to physiotherapists for rehabilitation purposes). Static Stretching This means that the muscle is lengthened slowly until mild tension is experienced, then the stretch is held statically for up to 30 seconds. A static stretch may be held actively or passively (see below). The use of static stretching is well established in health-­‐related fitness. Improvements in flexibility appear to result from desensitisation of the stretch reflex, and lengthening of tightened connective tissue ('developmental' stretching). The greatest change in flexibility happens between 15-­‐30 seconds hold, and the optimal number of stretches per muscle group is two to four (ACSM, 2006). Health-­‐related training uses static stretching almost exclusively; this is mainly for reasons of safety. However, a static stretch may not fully prepare a muscle to be stretched rapidly and powerfully, which would be the case in most sporting movements. Therefore a slowly applied static stretch may not always be appropriate, especially where sports performance is the main aim and safety has a lower priority. Dynamic Stretching This refers to stretching 'with movement', i.e. the muscle is being continually lengthened then shortened, without being held at full length for any significant duration. Movement should be with control, for example, circling the shoulders through their full range at a moderate speed, or bringing the heels up to touch the backside. Safety is considered to be lower for a dynamic stretch than for a static stretch because of the greater speeds involved, leading to less control of the limbs and possible over-­‐stretch. Despite the safety issues, dynamic stretching may prepare muscles more fully for rapid lengthening of the type encountered in most sports (Norris, 1995). Contract-­‐Relax Technique (CR) CR is also referred to as `hold-­‐relax', or 'post-­‐isometric relaxation'. This is the simplest PNF method to utilise, and is carried out as follows: • The client should be thoroughly warm. • The muscle to be stretched is lengthened until mild tension is felt. • In this position, the muscle is then placed under isometric contraction by pushing against an immoveable object. (The most effective duration and intensity of hold is the subject of debate. However, a 10 second contraction at approximately 50% of maximal effort is a good guide, and definitely works). • The muscle is then allowed to relax briefly in position, before being passively stretched to its new length and held. The process can then be repeated. Contract-­‐Relax-­‐Antagonist-­‐Contract (CRAG) CRAC follows the same procedure as CR for the first three steps. However, during the final stretch phase, the antagonist muscle is now actively contracted to help stretch the target 126
muscle to its new length (e.g. the quadriceps are contracted to help stretch the hamstrings). This makes use of 'reciprocal innervation' which causes reflex inhibition (i.e. the contraction of the quadriceps inhibits the hamstrings, causing them to relax even further). CRAG should obtain superior result compared to CR. However, in practice, it demands considerable body awareness on the part of the client to isolate and actively contract the correct muscle at the right time. In the long term, it is debatable whether PNF stretching is superior to regular static stretching for increasing range of movement. The technique is popular amongst personal trainers because of the impressive immediate results. Partner Stretching In general, there is very little need for a gym instructor to touch a client, or use 'hands-­‐
on' teaching in the course of their job. However, if touching is necessary, then it should be used appropriately, and for a clear and specific purpose, such as partner stretching. 127
SECTION 8 Periodised Programming Periodised programming is a method of planning that aims to achieve long-­‐term progression by changing training sessions at regular intervals. In this section we will discuss the origins and benefits of periodisation, and how it can be applied to health related training, as well as endurance and strength/power athletes. Objectives By the end of this section you should be able to: 1. Describe the origins of periodised programmes. 2. State the benefits of employing periodised programmes. 3. Describe the basic principles of periodisation. 4. Construct a periodised programme for a sedentary (untrained) client with health-­‐
related goals. 5. Describe a periodised CV programme for a peak performing (well-­‐trained) client. 6. Describe a periodised RT programme for a peak performing (well-­‐trained) client. Benefits of Periodised Programmes The main benefits of adopting a periodised training approach are: • Ensuring continued physiological and anatomical gains, by avoiding training plateaus • Ensuring regular rest and recovery (which is just as important as the actual training for achieving fitness gains) • Ensuring that peak fitness is achieved to coincide with major events and competitions • Preventing the training schedule from becoming boring • Prevention of over-­‐training syndrome (see section 3) • Prevention of over-­‐use injuries Origins of Periodisation Modern ideas about periodisation began in Eastern Europe, where it was used as a method of optimising performance and recovery with weight lifters and field athletes. The application of these training patters have now been shown to be beneficial for recreational training goals as well as for elite athletes. Hans Selye (1956), a prominent endocrinologist, first proposed the principles that underpin the concept of periodisation. Selye suggested that the human body goes through three stages when presented with any form of stress, such as that imposed by intense training (figure 8.1) 128
Stage 3 Stage 2 Performance Stage 1 Time Figure 8.1 Selye’s general adaption syndrome Stage 1: Shock This represents the response to the initial training stimulus, where fatigue and soreness result in a performance decrease, as the body attempts to recover from the stresses imposed on it. Stage 2: Adaptation The body adapts physiologically (over-­‐compensation) to the training stimulus and performance increases. This phase results in greater strength, endurance, muscular hypertrophy, or CV fitness, according to the stimulus imposed. Stage 3: Staleness Once the body has adapted, no further adaptions will take place until a new stimulus is introduced (the next training session), and a training plateau will occur unless the new session is different in some respect from the last one. Training plateaus naturally limit progress, and they are inevitable unless the programme is varied on a regular basis to constantly present a new stimulus. This is the basis for periodisation. 129
Basic Principles of Periodisation The first step in designing any programme is to establish a participant's training goal. The more specifically the goal can be stated the easier it is to write a suitable programme. Vague statements such as 'lose some weight' or 'tone up' are not really helpful, and can be achieved by almost any sensible training and lifestyle suggestions (see section 2 for SMART goal setting). Once the long-­‐term goal has been decided, it can then be broken down into medium and short-­‐term goals. This leads us into some essential periodisation terminology: macrocycles, mesocycles and microcycles. Macrocycle/long-­‐term goal (12 weeks plus) The macrocycle refers to a long block of training time that aims to accomplish the overall goal, such as winning a competition, or achieving a certain body weight. An athlete's macrocycle typically covers a period of 12 months, and relates to a competitive season. The recreational trainer may set a more modest macrocycle of 12 weeks. An Olympic athlete could plan a macrocycle lasting 4 years or beyond. The macrocycle is then divided into smaller phases of training called mesocycles. Mesocycle/medium-­‐term goal (between 1 -­‐ 12 weeks) Each mesocycle will emphasise a particular medium-­‐term goal, such as, muscular endurance, aerobic fitness, fat loss, active rest, etc. The mesocycles represent steps along the way towards the long-­‐term goal. Each mesocycle is then divided into smaller phases of training called microcycles. Microcycle/short-­‐term goal (1 week) A typical microcycle refers to one week of training. Each microcycle will have its own specific training aim that contributes to the medium and long-­‐term goals. This is where the detailed content of each training session is decided upon. Volume and Intensity These are the two main variables that are manipulated in a periodised programme. Volume refers to the quantity of training done during a given period and can be measured in distance (miles per week), or time (hours per week), or the total resistance lifted (exercises x sets x repetitions x resistance). For instance, the total distance run in a session i.e. 10 intervals of 200m equates to a training volume of 2000m. Intensity refers to the degree of difficulty of the training. In CV training, intensity is described as a percentage of maximum heart rate, or RPE. In resistance training, intensity relates to how heavy the weight. In general, the first mesocycle contains a high volume of low intensity training, and subsequent mesocycles gradually reduce the volume whilst at the same time increasing the intensity of training, although, to some extent, it depends upon the end goal. The basic principles of periodisation are summarized in figure 8.2. Present state Goal Macrocycle 130
1st Mesocycles 2nd 3rd 4th Microcycles Volume Intensity 131
Periodisation and Health Related Fitness Periodisation is not a necessity for health related fitness; however, as physiological adaptation still follows the model outlined by Selye, it is logical to suggest that long-­‐term training programmes for health related fitness would be more effective if planned in phases. It is important that terminology used, and phases employed, are appropriate to the client. For example, a sedentary (untrained) client might use phases outlined in figure 8.3. Microcycles Macrocycle 6 months t
Mesocycles ‘Getting started’ ‘Improving’ ‘Maintaining’ r
a
i
n
i
n
g
.
Specific goals To establish a positive new exercise habit To gradually increase duration and intensity until ACSM minimum guidelines are attained Figure 8.3 Mesocycles for a sedentary (untrained) client 132
To maintain long-­‐
term adherence by using varied and enjoyable training Periodised CV Programme for a Peak Performing (well-­‐trained) Client The classic model for a well-­‐trained client preparing for an endurance event consists of four mesocycles (table 8.4). Base Preparation Low to moderate intensity (60 – 70%) and high volume Moderate to vigorous Very high intensity intensity (60 – 85%) (85% -­‐ 100%) Light intensity, using varied activities High volume Moderate volume To develop OBLA, race pace, skill, speed and psychological conditioning Fartlek training Cruise internals Tempo training Low volume Low volume To develop peak fitness just in time for competition Allows the person to rest and recover from competition Expletive intervals Peaking sprints Time trials Relaxing activities To develop basic aerobic endurance Easy workouts LSC training Competition Active rest Table 8.4 CV mesocycles for a well-­‐trained client Typically, the base phase is longest in duration, followed by a shorter preparation phase, and finishing with a competition phase of only a few weeks. It is difficult to maintain peak fitness for any length of time, and risk of over-­‐training threatens to affect performance. Clearly, the exact time period for each mesocycle varies according to the length of the training season, and the specific needs of the athlete. If a mesocycle is several months in duration, then it is good to split it into smaller chunks (base phase 1 & 2, preparation phase 1 & 2 etc.). Periodised RT Programme for a Peak Performing (well-­‐trained) Client There are many ways in which a resistance-­‐training programme can be periodised. Stone, O’Briant and Garhammer developed the classical model in the United Stated in 1981. This hypothetical model is intended for strength and power sports and divides the training year into five phases (table 8.5) Hypertrophy Strength Power Peaking Active rest 3 – 5 sets 3 – 5 sets 3 – 5 sets 1 – 3 sets NA 8 – 20 reps 2 – 6 reps 2 – 3 reps 1 – 5 reps NA Moderate intensity High intensity High intensity Very high intensity Light intensity High volume Moderate volume Low volume Low volume Low volume To increase muscle mass To increase strength To increase power Tapering training to develop peak power just in time for competition Allows the person to rest and recover from competition 133
Relaxing activities Basic sets Basic sets Basic sets Basic sets Tri sets Berger Forced reps Forced reps Giant Sets Pyramid Negatives Negatives Stripping Cheating Cheating Pre/post exhaust Table 8.5 RT mesocycles for a well-­‐trained client (Stone et al, 1981) There are many different types of periodisation models, most of them complex to grasp. Perhaps the definitive guide to periodisation is Theory and methodology of training: the key to athletic performance (Bompa, 1994). This contains a wealth of information on varied periodisation models for the keen student. 134
Section 9 Preparing, Instructing, Reviewing and modifying an Exercise Programme Objectives: By the end of this section you should be able to: 1.
Prepare for the planned exercise session 2.
Record the session in an appropriate format (warm up/main section/cool down/core stability/flexibility) 3.
Prepare the client physically for the session by delivering a safe and effective warm up 4.
Use appropriate teaching methods and skills to demonstrate effective communication 5.
Recognise the importance of developing a professional and motivational relationship with clients. 6.
Discuss how teaching approach may need to be adapted to suit the participant's learning style 7.
Discuss hands-­‐on teaching 8.
End the session using activities that are safe and effective for the client to cool down 9.
Review the programme to monitor client progress and achievement of goals 10. Evaluate personal performance and the session content against agreed objectives 11. Identify methods of monitoring exercise intensity Preparing for the Planned Session It is important that instructors arrive at a venue in good time for a planned session, and wearing appropriate clothing and footwear. This is because there are many preparation tasks to complete before the client arrives. These include: •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Collecting and recording information about the facility and the environment Ensuring that you have access to the appropriate environment and equipment Preparing the environment and equipment Check that equipment is in good working order Planning and preparing alternatives when equipment is not available. Ensuring sufficient space and an appropriate layout for safe exercise Checking that the temperature and ventilation is suitable for exercise. Becoming familiar with the facility’s emergency procedures (location of the nearest telephone, fire exits, meeting point in the event of a fire drill, identity of the duty first aider, etc). 135
•
•
Have a record of the client’s progressive programme written in an appropriate format (programme card or session plan). This should include the warm up, main section, cool down, core stability and flexibility, along with timings of all components Undertake a risk assessment When the client arrives, the following preparation tasks should be completed: • Collect information and complete a pre-­‐activity screening PAR-­‐Q (see section 2) • Ensure clients have appropriate supportive footwear, and comfortable, non-­‐restrictive clothing • Show the client their programme card or session plan, and explain the aims and demands of their programme • Advise the client on appropriate health and safety procedures, such as the location of drinking water, using towels to wipe down equipment after use, and what to do in the event of a fire drill. Instructing for the Planned Session Warm Up Any session should begin with a safe and effective warm up. This will consist of the following components: •
•
•
Joint mobility Pulse raiser Preparatory stretches (static /dynamic depending upon client) Teaching Methods and Skills During the exercise session the instructor should use appropriate teaching methods and skills to demonstrate effective communication. These include the following. • Explain the purpose and value of the exercise or training approach • Ensure explanations and demonstrations are technically correct, observable, relevant, safe and appropriate to the client. Sometimes complex exercises need to be broken down into component part, and built up gradually to develop coordination. A 'whole-­‐
part-­‐whole' or an `add on' teaching procedure is ideal for this • Verbal instructions should be clear, concise, specific, audible and use understandable terminology • Non-­‐verbal communication skills (body language) should be positive, friendly, motivating, and appropriate to the situation. This includes aspects such as positioning (too close invades personal space, too far away is impersonal and they can't hear you), facial expressions, adequate eye contact, and hand/arm gestures. Non-­‐verbal signs are easily and instinctively read by most people. They are particularly important for motivating the client (an instructor that leans on the CV machine with hands in pockets and looks around the room instead of engaging with the client creates an instant impression that they are bored and uninterested) If you need to touch the client ('hands-­‐on teaching') to apply a stretch, then be aware that you are invading their personal space and that they may not be comfortable with this. Hands-­‐on teaching is discussed in greater depth in Section 7 on stretching. 136
Observe and monitor the client in the session. This is to ensure safety and good technique, to check that the intensity is right for the client •
•
•
Correct and improve client's performance where necessary. This can be done by giving verbal feedback, and by reinforcement of teaching points Provide positive feedback for the participant's achievements, along with reasons Adapt activities during the session due to the environment, the equipment, the number of clients and the client's needs and abilities For a complete list of teaching methods and skills expected at level 3, refer to the criteria on your assessment checklist. Developing a Professional and Motivational Relationship with Clients The health and fitness industry, under the guidance of the register of exercise professionals (REPS), has developed a voluntary code of behavior for instructors to follow. The aim of the code is to promote a high standard of professionalism amongst instructors and teachers, and throughout the industry as a whole. One of the most important aspects of the REPs code is that instructors present a positive image. This includes: •
•
•
•
•
•
•
Being appropriately qualified Having good personal hygiene Dressing smartly Being a role model in terms of physical fitness Adopting a healthy lifestyle (not smoking, eating healthily, etc) Being punctual Being polite Adapting the Teaching Approach to suit the Participant’s Learning Style Not all clients will respond to the same teaching approach, and it is important that the instructor adapts to their style accordingly. For example, untrained clients may need demonstrations of every exercise, whereas trained clients will just be bored by them. Some participants lack confidence and require lots of verbal encouragement, whilst others would find this approach Patronizing or irritating preparing targets and challenges to motivate them. Try to respond to each client individually based on the information you have collected and the feedback you are getting, rather than having one standard approach for everyone. This is a vital skill to develop, which will separate the advanced instructor from the merely competent. Contingency Plans The programme should be monitored and adjusted to meet the changing needs and circumstances of the client. Instructors should have contingency plans for: • Participant injury/illness • Availability of equipment • Short term goals not met (or exceeded) • Relapse 137
Cool down Any session should end with a safe and effective cool down. This will consist of the following components: 1. Pulse lowering/re-­‐warmer 2. Post-­‐workout stretches Post workout stretches for each muscle will be either maintenance (held 10-­‐15 seconds), or developmental (held 15-­‐30 seconds) depending upon whether the muscle needs to be maintained at its original length or developed (lengthened). Ending the Session When the cool down has been completed, the instructor should also consider time for the following: •
Allow an opportunity for the client to ask questions and give feedback about the session, and also for the instructor to give support and encouragement to the client. Feedback should be timely, constructive, and relevant to the stated goals •
Provide Information about future sessions. This could be a verbal reminder, or in the form of leaflets or a notice •
Clear away equipment and tidy up the environment. The facility should be left in acceptable condition for the next instructor to use Reviewing and Modifying a Programme Exercise programmes should be reviewed on a regular basis to monitor the client's progress, and to check whether their goals have been achieved. A review should cover: •
Has the category of client changed? (I.e. is the client still un-­‐trained? Or are they now well-­‐trained or a peak performer?) •
Are they happy with an individual programme or would they benefit more from group exercise? •
What stage of fitness have they now achieved? •
How is each component of their fitness progressing? •
Is the current activity programme appropriate? •
Does their lifestyle complement their programme and help them achieve their goals? •
Are they adhering to their programme? •
Are they satisfied with their programme? 138
•
Have there been any changes in their circumstances? •
Have their exercise preferences changed? •
Has the availability of resources, services and time changed? The client's programme can then be modified based on feedback received, and new SMART goals can be set. These changes should be recorded using a programme card. Evaluating At the end of a session, the instructor should self-­‐evaluate their personal performance and the session content against agreed objectives. Good evaluation questions are: • Were the session aims achieved? • Did the session contribute to the client’s SMART goals? • Were the activities appropriate to the client? • How well did the client perform? • Was my own performance good in terms of preparation and delivery? • Did I adhere to health and safety guidelines? An honest evaluation should identify strategies to change and improve the session for next time. These can then be agreed with the client and implemented. Methods of Monitoring Exercise Intensity Age-­‐adjusted Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) The most accurate way to determine your maximum heart rate is to have a maximal stress test, which is usually performed on a treadmill or exercise cycle. However, this is not advisable to feasible with many clients because: • Individual tests take a lot of time and equipment • There is cost involved • Maximal testing causes a high degree of discomfort, which may discourage many clients • There may be health risks for inactive clients For these reasons an estimate of maximum heart rate is normally used. Many different formulas exist, but the most common one is: 220 -­‐ Age The margin of error for this formula is plus or minus about 12 beats. For example, a 40 year old would have an age-­‐adjusted maximum heart rate of 180. But it could vary anywhere between 168 beats and 192 beats. 139
Research by Whaley (1992) suggests that the strongest reasons for differences between measured and predicted maximal heart rates were age, lifestyle (smoking, stress and diet) and environmental factors. The maximum heart rate achievable also varies for different activities. Maximum heart rate for running will be slightly different compared to that achieved in cycling, rowing or swimming. To determine target HR range, simply multiply the maximum heart rate by the desired percentage. For example: Assuming an age of 20 Maximum heart rate (MHR) is: 220 -­‐ 20 = 200 Client wants to work at 70% Therefore client target heart rate is: 200 x 70% = 1401apm The advantage of this method is that it is quick and easy to calculate. But it is worth remembering that it is based on an estimate, and that individual variation can be quite significant. Heart Rate Reserve (HRR) and Karvonen Method Heart rate reserve is calculated by the following formula: Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) -­‐ Resting Heart Rate (RHR) = Heart Rate Reserve (HRR) For example: MHR = 200 RHR = 60 Therefore HRR is: 200 -­‐ 60 = 140 The greater the HRR, the bigger the potential training range will be. In the example above, if the resting heart rate were 72 instead of 60 (as it may well be in a less fit individual), then the HRR would be reduced from 140 to 128. The Karvonen method uses the HRR to calculate a training heart rate more specific to the individual. It is calculated as follows: Target HR = (HRR x target %) + RHR For example: MHR = 200 RHR = 60 HRR = 140 If a client wants to work at 70% then, Target HR = (140 x 70%) + 60 Therefore. Target I IR = 158 140
The Karvonen Formula will always give a target heart rate higher than using the simple MHR Formula. Compare the figure of 158 calculated above with the figure of 140 calculated by the original method. Sometimes the difference is of the order of 30 to 40 bpm and is, therefore, quite significant. Instructors should be aware of this, and realize that when using the Karvonen Formula the usual guidelines for training zones may no longer apply. Karvonen’s original work used a true measured MHR rather than estimated. For the reasons already stated, it may not be feasible to measure the client’s MHR. This would, however, give the best ‘personalised training zone’. Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) Scale RPE is a psychophysical scale for “rate of perceived exertion”. Borg has shown that individuals can perceive how hard they are working on a scale from 6-­‐20 (table 9.1). RPE 6-­‐20 is supposed to reflect heart rates from 60-­‐200 bpm. Therefore, if a person perceives the exercise as ‘somewhat hard’ and rates it at 13, multiplying this by 10 would give an equivalent heart rate of 130 bpm (Borg 1967; 1982). Heart rate equivalents are b ased on a maximum heart rate of 2—bpm, which, of course, will not always be the case. Although the 6-­‐20 scale is useful in the research setting, it is not so useful in the Health Club. Clients do not easily relate to the numbers, finding it easier to relate instinctively to a scale based around 10. Hence Borg later developed the ‘category ratio’ RPE scale, which in turn has evolved into the ‘how it feels’ scale (table 9.2) It is important to explain the RPE scale to the client before use; Dr William Morgan (Ross and Jackson 1990) developed the following instructions: “By perceived exertion we mean the total amount of exertion and physical fatigue. Don’t concern yourself with factors such as leg pain or shortness of breath, but try to concentrate on your total, inner feeling of exertion”. RPE scales have the advantage of being simple to use. They do not require any special equipment and are not reliant on heart rate. However, they do rely on the accurate self-­‐perceptions of the client and on his/her honesty in describing them to the instructor. 141
The 6 – 20 Borg scale 6 No exertion at all 7 Extremely light 8 9 10 11 12 13 Somewhat hard 14 15 Hard (heavy) 16 17 18 19 Extremely hard 20 Maximum exertion Table 9.1 Borg’s 6 – 20 RPE scale 142
Very light Light Very hard 0 0.5 Extremely weak – just noticeable 1 Very weak 2 Weak (light) 3 Moderate 4 Somewhat strong 5 Strong 6 7 8 9 Extremely strong (almost maximal) 10 Maximal Nothing at all Very strong Table 9.2 1 – 10 ‘how it feels’ scale 143
The AGSM has carded out comprehensive research that correlates physiological indicators of intensity to APE. Cl % MHR % HRR RPE Very light < 35 <20 <10 Light 35-­‐54 20-­‐39 10-­‐11 Moderate 55-­‐69 40-­‐59 12-­‐13 Hard 70-­‐89 60-­‐84 14-­‐16 Very hard ≥ 90 ≥ 85 17 -­‐ 19 Maximal 100 100 20 Intensity Classification Table 9.3 Correlation between different methods of monitoring intensity (Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 1998). Although these methods of monitoring intensity add scientific rigour to the process, effort levels can also be monitored on the basis of simpler and more obvious indicators such as sweat rate, skin colour, loss of technique and degree of breathlessness, although these indicators vary enormously between individuals. Breathing Rate/Talk Test The talk test can be utilised as a simple monitoring tool for establishing whether the client is exercising at an aerobic intensity or not, i.e. the client should be able to hold a conversation and breathe comfortably and rhythmically whilst exercising aerobically. When sentences start to become broken and interrupted because of breathing demand, then the client will be working at an anaerobic intensity. The change in breathing rate can therefore be a useful indicator of a client's anaerobic threshold. Observation Observation of the client can tell the Instructor how hard the exercise is. The following factors can all be visual indicators of intensity: • Facial expression • Quality of technique • Posture • Skin colour * • Sweating * *Note: the last two vary considerably between individuals and because of environmental conditions. They are perhaps the least reliable visual signs. Observation of the client should be second nature to the fitness instructor. Used in conjunction with the talk test it can give very accurate information about intensity. 144