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Comunicar, 49, XXIV, 2016
Introduction
Media Education around the World:
Curriculum & Citizenship
La educación en comunicación en el mundo: currículum y ciudadanía
C
Guest-edited special issue:
Dr. Alexander Fedorov, Rostov State University of Economics (Russia)
Dr. Jorge-Abelardo Cortés-Montalvo, Autonomous University of Chihuahua (Mexico)
Dr. Yamile Sandoval-Romero, University of Santiago de Cali (Colombia)
ommunicative competence, positioned today globally in a transverse axis for the exercise and
performance of any other academic competence, marks a required pattern to recognize that
it is necessary for educational environments to contribute to the process of media literacy as
an essential part of it is vital in everyday life both for teachers and students, aimed primarily
at the formation of responsible and critical citizenship.
The incorporation of education and media literacy in the curriculum for all levels of education,
from preschool to university, has been the subject of recent discussions and analysis in several countries,
the proposals also include teacher training, as is the case Curriculum for Media and Information
Literacy for Teachers (Media Information Literacy, MIL), in which UNESCO points out a set of competencies, goals, activities and materials. However, in few countries, media literacy has become a part
of the compulsory curriculum structure within the general education system. There are also cases when
policies have been adopted to encourage, through procedures of non-formal education, which prepares citizens to be media literate, both in regard to the reception, the analysis, and production of messages in multiple formats.
Still due to inertia and resistance of educational institution system in general, and in particular in the
countries with distinct and urgent political and economic priorities, it makes it difficult to pay due attention to media literacy challenge. Another possible reason for this lag, lies in the belief that the effort in
training teachers and students in developing skills in managing and updating information and communication technology (ICT) or its more recent conceptualization, learning and knowledge technologies
(LKT) comprises in itself media competence, with the result of poor training of educators in the recognition and mastery of the factors that make up the dimensions of media communication.
It is therefore important to document the situation in the educational structure that media literacy is
in worldwide and answer questions such as: what is the current state of academic development of
media literacy?, what features does a successful media literacy curriculum have (based on a specific
educational level)?, what elements authorize a curriculum for media literacy education aimed at teachers?, is it necessary to introduce mandatory courses on media education in the curriculum?, what are
the best strategies and methods to educate citizens about media?, etc.
The “Comunicar” Journal current issue shares the results of experience and research into the possibilities of gradual, but consistent inclusion of programs and projects aimed at the development of
media literacy. In the dossier of the monograph there are important contributions of research conducted
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293
in a wide geography. They include the analysis
of a set of case studies, qualitative and quantitative research analyzed with the phocus on
the implementation of civic engagement
through online activities in several regions of
Portugal. Data and empirical results obtained
through questionnaires were used to create a
scoring system capable of reflecting school participation and strategies on media literacy and
civic action online of teachers and students.
The article, entitled “Media education as a
strategy for online civic participation in Portuguese schools” is written by Tânia Dias-Fonseca and John Potter.
Jennifer Tiede and Silke Grafe, being convinced that media pedagogy should be integrated into pre-service teacher training in order to
use the media in their classrooms effectively
and successfully, focus on examples of Germany and the US, reviewing different models
of media of both countries and try pedagogical
skills, through a study that measured the skills in
media education of students from both countries, to answer the question of whether these
skills are promoted by training programs. The
data allow, likewise, to identify different ways
of integrating media pedagogy in teacher training. In addition, conclusions can be drawn about the consequences of processes involved in teacher training and media literacy.
The Nupairoj Nudee’s article entitled “The ecosystem of media literacy: A holistic approach to
media education” proposes a systematic way to spread media literacy education in Thailand following the
MIL competencies of UNESCO. The ecosystem is composed of the apprenticeship scheme (students,
facilitators, curriculum and pedagogy), society (community, civil sector, media and parents) and politics,
the purpose of which is to bring a change of behaviour among students and to have an impact on their
way of life.
The investigation and analysis on out-of-school models is illustrated with the contribution of Mônica
Pegurer-Caprino and Juan-Francisco Martínez-Cerdá. This article analyzes the current status of the existing media literacy education in Brazil from the perspective of informal education. The situation is described through a sample of projects and organizations operating under the three internationally recognized
dimensions of media education: access / use, critical understanding, and production of media content.
From the data provided the study proposes a model of media literacy projects developed in the field of
non-formal education.
Formal school media education is exemplified by research “Media competence of teachers and students of compulsory education in Spain”, reported by Antonia Ramirez-Garcia and Natalia González© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293
9omunicar, 48, XXIV, 2016
Introduction
Comunicar, 48, XXIV, 2016
Fernández. This research uses a quantitative methodology to determine the levels of media competence
of teachers and students of compulsory education in the six dimensions that comprise it. These levels
provide a preliminary assessment of possible shortcomings and needs of educational intervention. Their
observations and findings show that despite the existance of the curriculum that meets the needs of
media literacy in the compulsory education and proliferate technology supporting policies, in practice
one of the greatest weakness of the teachers- participants is that they tend to focus on the technological
aspect. The authors suggest that a critical review of school curricula should prevent media literacy education from possible exclusion.
Number 49 of the Scientific Journal Comunicar with such a big scale international sampling, is
aimed at researchers, teachers and others readers interested in the inclusion of media literacy education
in plans and curricula, as well as its empowering strategies beneficial for broad social sectors and specific
segments of the population.
© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293
European Researcher, 2015, Vol.(93), Is. 4
Copyright © 2015 by Academic Publishing House Researcher
Published in the Russian Federation
European Researcher
Has been issued since 2010.
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 93, Is. 4, pp. 331-334, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/er.2015.93.331
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 37
Media Literacy Function in Critical Blogs
1 Alexander
2 Anastasia
Fedorov
Levitskaya
1 Anton
Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russian Federation
Branch of Rostov State University of Economics
Doctor of Pedagogic Sciences, Professor
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
2 Taganrog Management and Economics Institute, Russian Federation
PhD, Associate professor
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Abstract
The Internet is widely recognized as playing an important role in facilitating education on a
range of issues, including media literacy. Analyzing the media critical activity of contemporary
Russian bloggers, the authors of the article reveal the following reasons for popularity or, on the
contrary, unpopularity of blogger's media criticism: targeted orientation, emotional charge,
entertainment nature, duration, interactiveness, multimedia mode, simplicity/complexity of the
language of a media text, the level of conformity.
Keywords: media criticism; media education; media literacy; media competence; analytical
thinking; ethics; media blogger.
Introduction
It is difficult to challenge the viewpoint that the new "hyper technological environment, this
deepening of communicative globalization, has not only altered the way we perceive and use time
and space, it has also changed the chemistry of our everyday life and our culture. This new life and
cultural chemistry fostered by the acceleration of the rapid configuration of huge, changing publics
is in fact generating chain reactions of an unheard of scope and complexity that we are still far from
being able to grasp. It is affecting our environment, our culture and also our way of being
individuals, our way of framing ourselves as human beings. Perhaps we are not prepared to wholly
explain the change, but we must examine it because it affects all the dimensions of our existence.
Perhaps this is an unprecedented mutation that will not only affect our environment but also
decisively influence our psyche and our character" [Perez Tornero, Varis, 2010, p. 13-14].
In fact, interactive media, engaging their user into the creating process, thus turning him/her
from a receiver/translator into a creator of media texts, have made a real breakthrough to a personal
freedom in mass information sphere. The degree of dependence of a person from the dictate of a media
message's producer has significantly decreased and the borders of choice have been broadened; the
personality's status and self esteem have been raised [Korkonosenko, 2013, p. 38].
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European Researcher, 2015, Vol.(93), Is. 4
Materials and methods
S.V. Ushakova (2006) classified the forms of media contribution to the development of
citizens' media competence. According to her, there are two groups - of direct and of indirect
participation.
The forms of indirect participation include:
- self education of the audience during media exposure; additionally, broadening of one's
communicative experience;
- enhancement of the audience's media competence due to its cooperation with media
agencies as freelance correspondents, sources of journalistic information, and/or participants of
television/radio programs;
- release of periodicals and TV/radio programs by a media center in an educational
institution/club/community center;
- blogging - publishing discussion or informational posts on the World Wide Web;
- "self-press" - participation in publication of alternative (informal) periodicals;
- public, out-of-editorial body communication of journalists and other media sphere
specialists with representatives of the audience (in the form of special events, journalists' meetings
with public, television audiences, etc.).
In contrast, the forms of direct participation include:
- media education publications and programs in mass media;
- media journalists/ media critics articles, containing analysis, interpretation and evaluation
of the contents of mass media and the issues of their functioning in society;
- publishing periodical TV guides and film guides, targeted at the mass audience and aimed at
the development of basic abilities to perceive and evaluate audiovisual media texts (facilitated by
reading publications, related to the analysis of TV programs and films);
- publishing syllabi, lesson plans and other materials produced by public media monitoring
organizations and media activists - representatives of civic society;
- sections and columns in mass media aimed at maintaining the feedback with the audience,
and explaining the "inside" journalism policy of collecting, evaluating, and verifying the
information;
- ombudsmen's columns, inquiring into disputable cases of journalism [Ushakova, 2006].
Whereby, speaking about professional media criticism, the peculiarity of the current situation is
connected to the fact that some media critics, actively involved in press, also successfully collaborate with
electronic media as well, thus television criticism begins to acquire some synthetic forms, uniting political
analysis and dismantling internal corporate problems, political bias and the independent view, theoretical
analysis of the form and method, and superficial, tabloid-tinted simplistic view [Gureev, 2004].
One would think that such active media critics as Dmitry Bykov, working nearly 24/7 in press, on
TV and on the Internet, would fully get hold of the audiences' attention. However it is not happening there are quite a few media bloggers on the Internet who sometimes attract even more readers.
Conclusions
Why is bloggers' media criticism popular?
We suggest the following reasons for popularity or, vice versa, unpopularity of bloggers'
media criticism:
1) Targeted orientation: media texts of popular bloggers may be aimed at a broad audience (thus
potentially popular) or at a narrow circle, joined by thematic or other interests. Professional media
critics' texts, apart from being targeted at a wide audience, may be corporative, that is "can influence
comparatively small, but strategically important groups of audiences (journalists and top media
managers, teachers and students of journalism schools, working journalists, researchers in various
fields of social studies and humanities, and social activists), empowering them with new ideas and
approaches, new vision of common problems of media functioning" [Korochensky, 2003, p.33].
2) Duration: popular media bloggers' texts are usually short, and professional media critics'
texts, on the contrary, often require prolonged reading/listening, that, evidently, discourages the
concentration of an impatient part of the audience with a short attention span (especially, the young);
3) Interactiveness, multi-media mode: popular media bloggers' texts are often interactive.
Short texts are accompanied by photographs, video clips, links to other sites, etc. On the other
hand, professional media critics' texts, even on the web, resemble the format of print press;
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European Researcher, 2015, Vol.(93), Is. 4
4) Language. Popular media bloggers' texts are written in plain, understandable for a wide
audience, language; often without a deep analysis and logical structure. Meanwhile professional
media critics' texts are well structured, logical, and often aimed at media competent readers who
are aware of the social and cultural context of the issue, understand media language, and
specialized media terms, know the functions of media agencies, manipulative effects, the creative
work of media professionals, and so on.
5) Emotional charge. The texts written by media bloggers, in general, are clearly emotionally
charged. They sometimes contain sharp, straightforward judgments and comments, while
professional media critics' texts are characterized by the understatement, sometimes ambivalent,
(implicitly) ironic, reasonable, argumentative evaluation of the ethical, aesthetic and other
categories. Moreover, the media critics of older generation often act in the spirit of "enlightenment"
and development of good taste in their audience.
6) Entertainment. Popular media bloggers' texts frequently exploit the entertainment
function, while professional media critics' texts are occasionally too serious, or even pompous.
7) Conformity. On the one hand, non-conformist texts of media bloggers commonly oppose
any authority, criticize media personalities of any scale and position. On the other hand,
professional media critics avoid any personal attacks, they tend to use apophasis, they do not break
social taboos. That said, we encounter that both bloggers and professional journalists frequently
break social norms [Muratov, 2001], and are not shy to use abusive language, including obscene
lexis, in their political propaganda statements.
What does the above-said mean for the media education practice? In this sense, it implies that
besides the mass communications theory, the syllabi for media teachers' pre-service or in-service
education should include theoretical units on non-mass mediated communication - ranging from
auto-media communication and interpersonal communication to in-group and intergroup media
communication. This theoretical background should become a starting point for the development of
the new framework of media education both in schools and universities [Sharikov, 2012]. Bloggers'
media texts may become a useful teaching and learning tool for a modern teacher, the same as
traditional media texts, created by professionals working in press, on television, and on radio.
Acknowledgement
The article is written within the framework of a study supported by the grant of the Russian
Science Foundation (RSF). Project № 14-18-00014 "Synthesis of media education and media
criticism in the preparation of future teachers", performed at Taganrog Management and
Economics Institute.
References:
1.
Gureev, M. Does modern television criticism exist? // Culture. 2004. № 44.
2.
Korkonosenko, S.G. Journalism education: the need for pedagogical conceptualization
// International journal of experimental education. 2013. №1, pp. 38-41.
3.
Korochensky, A.P. Media criticism in the theory and practice of journalism. Ph.D. dis.
St.Petersburg, 2003.
4.
Muratov, S.A. TV - the evolution of intolerance. Moscow: Logos, 2001. 240 p.
5.
Sharikov, A.V. On the need for reconceptualization of media education // Media
Education. 2013. № 4.
6.
Ushakova, S.V. The role of journalism in the development of media culture of the
audience // Journalism and Media Education in the XXI century. Belgorod: Belgorod State
University, 2006.
333
European Researcher, 2015, Vol.(93), Is. 4
УДК 37
Медиаобразовательная функция блогерской медиакритики
1 Александр
2 Анастасия
Федоров
Левицкая
1 Таганрогский
институт имени А.П. Чехова, Российская Федерация
Доктор педагогических наук, профессор
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
2 Таганрогский институт управления и экономики, Российская Федерация
Кандидат педагогических наук, доцент
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Аннотация. Анализируя медиакритическую деятельность современных российских
блоггеров, авторы статьи выявили следующие причины популярности или, наоборот,
непопулярности блоггерской медиакритики: целевые ориентации, эмоциональность,
развлекательный характер, продолжительность, интерактивность, мультимедиахарактер,
простота/сложность языка медиатекста.
Ключевые слова: медиа; медиакритика; медиаобразование; медиаграмотность;
медиакомпетентность; аналитическое мышление; этика; средства массовой информации;
блоггер.
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European Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2015, Vol.(6), Is. 2
Matej Bel University, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia
Has been issued since 2014
ISSN 1339-6773
E-ISSN 1339-875X
Narrative Analysis of Media Texts in the Classroom for Student Audience
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, branch of Rostov State University of Economics, Russian
Federation
Prof. Dr. (Pedagogy)
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Abstract
The author analyzes the features of the narrative analysis of media texts on media education
classes in the university. The paper also provides examples of creative problems and issues
associated with this type of narrative analysis in the context of media education problems, ie based
on six key concepts of media literacy education: agency, category, language, technology, audience,
representation. The author argues that the narrative analysis of media texts on media education
classes can significantly develop media competence of students, including critical thinking and
perception.
Keywords: narrative analysis, media, media texts, media education, media literacy, media
competence, students.
Introduction
Narrative Analysis is the analysis of the plots of media texts. This analysis is closely related
with the structural, mythological, and other types of semiotic analysis of media and media texts
[Barthes, 1964; 1965; Berelson, 1984; Gripsrud, 1999; Eco, 1976; Masterman, 1984; Propp, 1998;
W.J. Potter [Potter, 2014], A. Silverblatt [Silverblatt, 2001; 2014].
Media literacy education offers a variety of creative ways to develop students‟ capacities for
the analysis of story / narrative concepts (plot, scene, topic, conflict, composition and others).
In general terms, these methods can be divided into: 1) literary simulations works (writing
applications for the scenario, writing mini scenario of media texts); 2) theatrical-role works
(dramatization of various episodes of media texts, the process of creating a media text, etc.);
3) image simulation (create posters, collages, drawings on the themes of culture media, etc.).
Imitation is a very popular method of learning media, and simulation is a form of role-playing
games: it attracts students and gives them the opportunity to be the creators of media texts
[Buckingham, 2003, p.79], because students do not play the role of cineastes, journalists or
advertisers: they are cineastes, journalists or advertisers. And even though students‟ achievements
can be amateurish, they involved in the decision-making processes [Craggs, 1992, p.21].
Narrative analysis of media texts implies a number of creative tasks (part of these tasks is
available at: BFI, 1990; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Berger, 2005, p.74; Nechay, 1989, p.265-280;
Usov, 1989; Fedorov, 2004, p.43-51; Fedorov, 2006, p.175-228, however, the cycle of tasks
I substantially supplemented and revised): literary simulation, drama, role-playing, image
simulation. Each of these tasks includes analysis of the key concepts of media literacy education
(media agencies, media categories, media language, media technologies, media representations,
media audiences, etc.).
Materials and methods
Cycle of literary simulation tasks for the narrative analysis of media texts in the classroom
at the student audience:
Media agencies:
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European Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2015, Vol.(6), Is. 2
- writing the application for original screenplay (scenario plan) of media text (any types and
genre) followed his suggestion producers of hypothetical media company;
- drawing up of the producer‟s plan for media project.
Media / media text categories:
- writing the original text (in the genres of articles, reports, interviews, etc.) for a newspaper,
magazine, internet publication;
- writing the same plot synopsis in the different media genres.
Media technologies:
- development plan of technological methods that will be used in the scenario of a media
(film, radio / television program, computer animation, etc.).
Media languages:
- writing the shooting mini-script of a media (film, radio / television program, computer
animation, etc.): camera angles, camera movements, installation techniques, etc.
Media representations:
- writing of the mini-scenario for one of episode from famous book;
- writing of mini-scenario for one of episodes from your own application for the original
script;
- writing of the mini-scenario for the original product media culture (for example, the plot for
approximately 2-3 minutes of video action);
- create annotations and scenarios for advertising media texts;
- writing of the messages for TV-news, related to the case of your life;
- writing the story for the sequel of well-known media text;
- preparing newspaper website with stories, that are associated with events of your life or the
lives of your friends and acquaintances.
Media audiences:
- use the same plot for the scenario, designed for audiences of different ages, education level,
ethnicity, socio-cultural environment, etc.
Thus, the audience develops in practice (with the creative literary and performing simulation
tasks), such important concepts of narrative analysis of media texts as an idea, topic, scenario,
synopsis, plot, conflict, composition, script, screening, etc., without separate study of so-called
“means of expression.”
Of course, each such occupation is preceded by introductory remarks by the teacher (on
goals, objectives, and course assignments). The majority of literary and simulation tasks are
perceived audience is not just an abstract exercise, but have a real prospect for practical
implementation in a further series of training sessions.
Students‟ mini-scenario, episodes for hypothetical films; structural and thematic plans for
hypothetical magazines and newspapers, radio / TV programs, interactive sites can be submitted
for collective discussion, the best ones are selected for further media literacy works.
In this assignment, students should imagine that mini-scenario can be realized only for the
subjects that do not require bulky accessories, complex scenery, costumes, makeup, etc. However,
the scenario‟s fantasy is not limited to: students can develop any fantastic, unbelievable stories and
themes. But for video shooting understandably, purely practical reasons, only those selected
scenario development, which could be used without too much difficulty, for example, in the class
room, or to the nearest street.
Step by step, the audience on their own experience becomes aware of the role of the authorscreenwriter in the creation of media texts, the basics of narrative works of media culture.
The main indicator of the literary and performing simulation creative tasks: the student's ability to
formulate briefly their scenic designs, verbally disclosing audiovisual, space-time image of a
hypothetical media text.
Thus, students increase the level of their media competence on the basis of practice
developing of creative potential, critical thinking, and imagination.
Cycle of theatrical role-creative tasks for the narrative analysis of media texts in the
classroom at the student audience:
Media agencies:
- dramatization of the discussions about media text scenario with various authorities from
the media agency.
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European Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2015, Vol.(6), Is. 2
Media / media text categories:
- dramatization of the media text episode with the same story line, but in a format different
media genres.
Media technologies:
- dramatization of the implementation of various technological methods that are used in the
scenario of a media text (film, radio / television program, computer animation, etc.).
Media languages:
- shooting short movie (duration: 2-3 min.) using different techniques of visual and sound
solutions;
Media representations:
- dramatization on acting roles performed by students: the characters must be close to the
plot of an episode of a particular media text. Work is proceeding in groups of 2-3 people. Each
group prepares and puts into practice your game project of the plot of the episode of a media text.
The teacher acts as a consultant. The results are discussed and compared;
- interview (various options for interviews with various imaginary media text person and
characters);
- dramatization of “press conference with the "author" of media text” (imaginary writer,
director, producer and others.);
- dramatization of interviews with imaginary “foreign persons of media culture” (can be in
foreign languages);
- dramatization of imaginary “international meeting of media criticism”: discussions about
various topics related to the subjects of media texts, analyze the plot, etc.;
- casting (casting of the characters or actors of media texts);
- shooting a video short movie or TV show.
Media audiences:
- use the same plot for theatrical sketches on the theme of hypothetical media texts, designed
for audiences of different ages, education level, ethnicity, socio-cultural environment, etc.
Naturally, all the above work collectively discussed and compared.
In fact, the role creative activities complement and enrich the skills acquired by the audience
during the literary simulation workshops. In addition to the practical immersion in the logic of the
plot structure of a media text, they promote emancipation, sociability audience, make it looser
students, and activate improvisational abilities.
The disadvantages of some role-playing activities can probably be attributed quite a long
stage of preliminary preparation of the audience who want to get into the role of “author”,
“journalists”, etc.
Cycle of graphic creative tasks for the narrative analysis of media texts in the classroom at
the student audience:
Media agencies:
- preparation of a series of cards, drawings, which could relate to the main stages of the
creation of a media text in the studio / edition.
Media / media text categories:
- preparation of a series of cards, drawings, which could relate to the implementation of the
same plot in media texts of different genres.
Media technologies:
- preparation of a series of cards, drawings, which could relate to the implementation of the
same plot of a media text using different technologies.
Media languages:
- preparation of a series of pictures that could be used as a basis of a plot to shoot fight scene,
for example, in the western or detective (with support for various types of crop - the general plan,
close-up, detail, etc.).
Media representations:
- preparation of a series of pictures / cards that might correlate with the plot of a media text;
- creation of a posters, collages, drawings on the themes of various media texts;
- reading some scenic line (for example: "We take our books in the library”) and preparation
of a series of pictures that might correlate with this line.
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European Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2015, Vol.(6), Is. 2
Media audiences:
- preparation of a series of pictures that visually would disclose various emotional reactions
in the perception of media texts audiences of different ages, education level, ethnicity, sociocultural environment, etc.
Cycle of literary and analytical creative tasks aimed at developing the skills of audience for
narrative analysis of media texts in the classroom:
Media agencies:
- analysis of factors, causes, which may affect the agency change the original story, the
narrative skills.
Media / media text categories:
- analysis of the factors that may affect the transformation scenes in media texts, depending
on specific genres.
Media technologies:
- analysis of the factors that may affect the transformation scenes in media texts depending
on the specific technology chosen for their implementation;
Media languages:
- analysis of promotional posters of media texts in terms of reflecting them in the narrative
media text;
- analysis of possible audiovisual, stylistic interpretations of the same plot of a media text.
Media representations:
- creating a “time line” to show the sequence of events in media text;
- modeling (in tabular / structural form) of narrative stereotypes of media texts (characters, a
significant change in the lives of the characters, problems encountered, solutions to the problem,
the solution / return to stability); revealing the narrative structure of a particular episode of a
media text;
- selection of thesis from the point of view of the student, truly reflects the logic of the plot of
a media text;
- selection of media text abstracts in order of importance for the understanding and
description of the narrative structure of a media text;
- separation of media text blocks on the plot. Attempt to interchange these blocks and,
consequently, the creation of options for changing the course of events;
- understanding of the mechanism of “emotional pendulum” in the media text plot
(alternation of episodes that cause positive and negative emotions of the audience);
- acquaintance with the first (or final) episode of a media text, followed by an attempt to
predict the future (past) events in the story;
- analysis of stereotypes in particular genre of media texts;
- analysis of the relationship between significant events and characters in the media texts;
- analysis of the plot of a media text on a historical theme, based on documentary evidence.
The study of regional geographic, political and historical materials relating to the subject and the
time period. Comparison of the studied material depicting historical events in the story of a
particular media text;
- identification plot stereotypes image of the country, nation, race, nationality, social
structure, political governance, the justice system, education, employment, etc.;
- comparison of reviews and discussion (articles, books about media texts) in professional
media criticism, and journalism;
- preparing essays devoted to the peculiarities of narrative in media texts;
- students‟ reviews about the media texts of different types and genres (with emphasis on the
analysis of the plot).
- group discussions (with the help of problem questions of the teacher) about plots of media
texts.
Media audiences:
- analysis of media perception typology of same media stories for audience of different age,
education level, ethnicity, socio-cultural environment, etc.
Narrative analysis of a media text is as follows: identification and review content of the
scenes of media texts, with maximum brightness embody the characteristic patterns of narrative
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European Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2015, Vol.(6), Is. 2
work as a whole; analysis of logic thinking of authors in the plot of a media text (in the
development of conflicts, characters, ideas, audio-visual, spatial images, etc.).
Concludes with a discussion of problem-test questions, affecting the utilization of the
audience received a plot of a media text analysis skills (for example: "What are the known media
texts stories you can compare this story? Why? What do they have in common?", etc.).
Classes for the formation of skills of analysis of media texts‟ plots aimed at training the
memory, the stimulation of creative abilities of the individual, on improvisation, independence, a
culture of critical thinking, the ability to apply this knowledge in new pedagogical situations, the
reflections on the moral and artistic values, etc. etc.
Methodical implementation of these steps based on a cycle of workshops devoted to the
analysis of specific media texts.
However, as my experience shows, it is necessary, first, to go from simple to more complex:
first choose to discuss, analyze of the plot, the author's thoughts, the style of media texts.
And secondly aim: to take into account the genre, thematic preferences of the audience.
Using creative, game, heuristic and problem tasks, significantly increasing the activity and
interest of the audience. Heuristic form of the class, in which the audience is invited to a few wrong
and right judgment, much easier for the audience analytical tasks and serves as a first step to
subsequent gaming and problematic forms of media texts discussion.
During the implementation of heuristic approaches methodology of training audiences
include:
- true and false interpretations of the story on the material of a particular episode of a media
text;
- right and incorrect versions of the author's conception, reveals in a particular media text.
Such a heuristic form of employment is particularly effective in the classroom with low media
competence, with mild personality beginning and independent thinking. This audience will
undoubtedly need "support" theses on the basis of which (plus own additions, etc.) can be
formulated as a particular analytical judgment.
Critical analysis of media texts stories also connected with an acquaintance with the works of
critics' community professionals (reviews, theoretical articles, monographs devoted to media
culture and specific media texts), in which the audience can judge the different approaches and
forms of this type of work.
The audience is looking for answers to the following problematic questions:
- What media critic opinion about the advantages and disadvantages of the media text?
- How deep reviewers penetrate the author's intention?
- Do you agree or not with this or that estimates reviewers? Why Are?
- Do this reviewer has the individual style? If yes, what is it manifests itself (style, vocabulary,
accessibility, irony, humor, etc.)?
- Why the author has constructed story composition of his media text so and not otherwise?
Performing creative tasks related to the plot analysis of media texts, student Paul D., for
example, composed entirely convincing imaginary interview with a famous director. Student
Natalya B. created the interesting texts on subjects of continuing a newspaper article about a
woman who has lost her memory at the accident. Student Sergei S. wrote several short stories in a
variety of genres (comedy, romance, thriller, etc.).
Student Anna V. in his creative work moved the action comedy "Operation "Y" in the
fantastic future on one of the planets of distant galaxies. Student Irina K. suffered another action
comedy "Prisoner of the Caucasus" in contemporary America. Student Eugene V. transformed the
comedy "Home Alone" into a dark bloody drama...
Questions for narrative analysis of media texts [Buckingham, 2003, pp.54-60; Silverblatt,
2001, pp.107-108; Fedorov, 2004, pp.43-51; Fedorov, 2006, pp.175-228]:
Media agencies:
- What agency / communicator wants to make you feel in specific scenes of the story?
- Why creators of media text want you to feel this?
Media / media text categories:
- What stereotypical stories, storylines conventions specific to the genre?
- Is it possible to trace the evolution of specific stereotypical scenes? These changes in the
subjects talk about changes in the culture of the society?
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European Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2015, Vol.(6), Is. 2
- Is it possible creating of media text without the dramatic conflict?
- As a genre is refracted in the plots of specific persons of media culture (the same genre in
plots of different figures of media culture, different genres of stories in the works of the same
person of media culture)?
Media technologies:
- How different media technologies used in the development of plots of specific figures of
media culture (for example, different technologies in the development of plots of the same person
of media culture)?
Media languages:
- Are audio-visual, stylistic features of a media text depend on whether or not from the
concrete plot? If so, how?
Media representations:
- What is the significance for the understanding of the plot is called a media text?
- What is the relationship between significant events and characters in the story of a media
text?
- What are the causes of action, the characters' behavior?
- What the characters have learned as a result of their experiences gained in the development
of a media story?
- What events occur in the complication of the plot of a media text? What that tells us about a
media text?
- Do you trust this media text? If not, what prevents your trust?
- Can you identify the secondary storylines?
- Are there any links between secondary storylines that help to understand the world, the
characters and themes of media text?
Whether the final set in the logic complication of the plot, the logic of the characters and their
world?
Media audiences:
- What is your emotional response for the media text?
- Does your emotional reactions understanding your personal value system?
- What types of media text stories, in your opinion, cause difficulties in the perception of a
mass audience?
Conclusions
So I presented the main path for the narrative analysis of media texts on media education
classes in the university, including the examples of creative problems and issues associated with
this type of narrative analysis in the context of media education problems, ie based on six key
concepts of media literacy education: agency, category, language, technology, audience,
representation. I suppose that the narrative analysis of media texts on media education classes can
significantly develop media competence of students, including critical thinking and perception.
References:
1. Barthes, R. (1964). Elements de semiologie. Communications, N 4, pp. 91-135.
2. Barthes, R. (1965). Mythologies. Paris: Editions de Seuil.
3. Berelson, B. (1954). Content Analysis in Communication Research. New York: Free
Press, pp. 13-165.
4. Berger, A.A. Seeing is believing. Introduction to visual communication. Moscow:
Williams, 2005. 288 p.
5. BFI. Film Education. Moscow, 1990. 124 p.
6. Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education: Literacy, Learning and Contemporary
Culture. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 219 p.
7. Craggs, C.E. (1992). Media Education in the Primary School. London – New York:
Routledge, 185 p.
8. Eco, U. (1976). A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
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Education. 2006. N 4, pp. 175-228.
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10. Fedorov, A.V. Specificity of media pedagogical students // Pedagogy. 2004. № 4,
pp. 43-51.
11. Gripsrud, J. (1999). Understanding Media Culture. London – New York: Arnold &
Oxford University Press Inc., 330 p.
12. Masterman, L. (1984). Television Mythologies. New York: Comedia.
13. Nechay, O.F. Film education in the context of fiction // Specialist. № 5. 1993, pp. 11-13.
14. Nechay, O.F. Fundamentals of Cinema Art. Moscow: Education, 1989, pp. 265-280.
15. Propp, V.Y. Folklore and Reality. Moscow: Art, 1976, pp.51-63.
16. Propp, V.Y. The morphology of the fairy tale. The historical roots of the fairy tale.
Moscow: Labirint, 1998. 512 p.
17. Semali, L.M. (2000). Literacy in Multimedia America. New York – London: Falmer
Press, 243 p.
18. Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London: Praeger, 449 p.
19. Usov, Y.N. Film education as a means of aesthetic education and artistic development
of pupils. Ph.D. Dis. Moscow, 1989. 362 p.
88
Available online at www.jmle.org
The National Association for Media Literacy Education’s
Journal of Media Literacy Education 7(2), 12 - 22
Soviet Cineclubs: Baranov’s Film/Media Education Model
Alexander Fedorov, Anton Chekhov Taganrog State Pedagogical Institute
Elizaveta Friesem, Temple University
Abstract
In this paper we analyze a historical form of media literacy education that is still insufficiently discussed in Englishlanguage literature: Russian cineclubs. We focus on one particular cineclub that was created by a Soviet educator Oleg
Baranov in the 1950s. We describe this cineclub’s context and structure, and discuss its popularity among students. The
content of Baranov’s classes might have been shaped by ideological requirements of the time. However, we believe that
the structure of his model can be used as an inspiration for a media literacy club in today’s schools globally, and not only
in Russia.
Keywords: film, education, critical thinking, ideology, film clubs, Russia, Soviet, history
According to the definition of the National Association for Media Literacy Education, “[t]he purpose of
media literacy education is to help individuals of all ages develop the habits of inquiry and skills of expression
that they need to be critical thinkers, effective communicators and active citizens in today’s world” (Core
Principle of MLE, n.d.). Many European countries, as well as Russia, use the definition of media literacy
education formulated by UNESCO which states that “[i]nformation and media literacy enables people to
interpret and make informed judgments as users of information and media, as well as to become skillful creators
and producers of information and media messages in their own right” (Media and Information Literacy, n.d.).
What these and many other definitions of media literacy education share is the focus on teaching audiences to
critically engage with media messages (e.g. Fedorov, 2012; Buckingham, 2003; Hobbs, 1998; Masterman,
1985; Potter, 2004). Thus, it should not come as a surprise that many activities in media literacy classes involve
interactions with media texts. Students discuss films, TV programs, commercials, music videos, magazines, and
websites while the teacher provides examples and questions (Hobbs, 2011). Sometimes young people also
create media texts to express their voices using the power of the media (Goodman, 2003).
We argue that the emergence of media literacy education can be traced back to the days when educators
started to encourage their students to critically analyze media texts, which happened when popular media began
to play increasingly important role in people’s lives. The goal of these educators was often to protect audiences
from negative effects of entertainment culture, which seemed to sway the masses in the beginning of the
twentieth century (Ortega-y- Gasset, 1985 [1930]). For example, the U.S. film education movement in the
1930s “consisted of a series of efforts to regulate the conditions and effects of film viewing” (Jacobs, 1990, p.
29). The goal of these efforts was not to develop critical thinking skills in the way media literacy educators
understand them today (Hobbs, 2011), but to protect people from the dangerous influence of entertainment
media (Leavis & Thompson, 1977 [1933]; Macdonald, 1962).
Exploring the history of the field, it is important to pay attention to these first initiatives, however
different they might seem from media education today (Hobbs & Jensen, 2009). In this paper, we describe a
historical form of media literacy education that is still insufficiently explored in English-language literature:
Soviet cineclubs.
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A. Fedorov & E. Friesem / Journal of Media Literacy Education 7(2), 12 - 22
Educational cineclubs in U.S.S.R. had much in common with the film education courses described by
Jacobs (1990). In both cases, one of the main goals was to teach the appreciation of “better” films and to
influence audiences’ tastes (Baranov, 1968). Cineclubs were recreational and/or educational clubs where
participants gathered to watch and discuss films. They were not an exclusively Russian phenomenon. The first
cineclubs (сiné-clubs) appeared in France in the beginning of the twentieth century, soon after the cinema was
invented. A variety of educated people who loved cinema gathered in these clubs to watch and discuss
experimental films of the French avant-garde, which were unavailable in ordinary cinema theaters (Hoare, n.d.;
Martineau, 1988; Pinel, 1964). Soon, similar clubs appeared in other European countries, such as Great Britain
and Belgium (Geens, 2000).
In the U.S.S.R., cineclubs emerged in the 1920s. Soviet cinema theaters of the time mostly showed
entertainment movies, many of them imported from European countries. The U.S. Soviet cineclubs initially
offered spaces where people could watch films that were difficult or impossible to find; in this sense, they were
similar to European сiné-clubs. Later, the number of their purposes expanded. They began to be used for
political propaganda, entertainment, research, and education – to improve popular tastes in films (Penzin, 1987).
As media literacy scholars, we are primarily interested in the educational application.
In this paper, we focus on one educational cineclub that was created in the end of the 1950s by Oleg
Baranov in a school of Tver/Kalinin, a Russian town located between Moscow and St. Petersburg. We chose
this cineclub because of the role that Baranov has played in Soviet/Russian film (later media) education (Penzin,
1987). When he started this cineclub, Baranov was a physics teacher with a passion for developing young
people’s aesthetic taste and moral values through cinema. Soon he became known as one the first film educators
in the U.S.S.R., and the author of a successful film education model. Baranov’s model (also known as the
Kalinin/Tver model) was based on the spiral approach (Harden, 1999) – reiterative teaching with levels of
difficulty increasing from elementary to middle to high school. Activities in this cineclub included not only
viewing and discussing films, but also a variety of games, trips to film studios, correspondence with actors and
film directors, media production (short films, wall newspaper), maintenance of a cinema museum, and peer-topeer teaching (Baranov, 2008b). This model inspired Baranov’s colleagues (Monastirsky, 1995; Penzin, 1987)
and helped this pedagogue to maintain the popularity of his cineclub among students for almost two decades.
Baranov has authored numerous books and articles where he describes his educational practices and the success
of his cineclub (e.g., 1967, 1973, 1979, 2008a, 2008b).
On the following pages, we offer a detailed description of Baranov’s model and explain its relevance for
media literacy education today. Baranov’s focus on cultivating in his students an understanding of the difference
between high cinema art and mindless entertainment (Baranov & Penzin, 2014) might be not be considered
media literacy education by some scholar who emphasize inquiry-based approach and independent thinking
(Hobbs, 1998). We admit that the content of Baranov’s classes might have been rooted in and shaped by
ideological requirements of the time. However, we believe that the structure of his model can be used as an
inspiration for a media literacy club in today’s schools globally, and not only in Russia.
At the time when Baranov created his cineclub, films were one of the most popular kinds of media texts.
Today, this is not the case. To be relevant, a modern media literacy club would need to include not only films,
but also TV programs, video games, Internet websites, advertising, social networks, and other types of media.
Such a club, engaging students on all stages of a school program, attracting them with exciting activities and
thrilling opportunities, could offer an alternative to stand-alone media education courses (which largely remain
an ideal in the rigidly-structured U.S. school system), integrated media literacy education (see Hobbs, 2007;
Masterman, 1985), and short-term (often extracurricular) initiatives (e.g., Friesem, 2014; Irving, Dupen, &
Berel, 1998; Scharrer, 2006).
Terms and Sources
Before moving any further, it is necessary to briefly discuss several key terms we use on the following
pages. Although in this paper we talk about media literacy education, Russian scholars usually use the term
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mediaobrazovanie, which is literally translated as media education. In the period from the 1950s to the 1980s,
when Baranov’s cineclub existed, Russian academic and education literature did not mention media education in
their writings. Rather, Soviet scholars and practitioners of the time usually talked about film education
(kinoobrazovanie), defined as education about and through the cinema. The term film education in Soviet
literature was first used by Oleg Baranov, whose cineclub is in the focus of this paper (Baranov, 1967).
As far as we know, Soviet educators had little access to academic works outside of their country.
Therefore, we believe that the term film education did not appear because of the Western influence. In his
works, Baranov does not talk about film education efforts outside of the U.S.S.R. and it is likely that he was not
aware of them. We assume that educators within and outside of the U.S.S.R. developed the idea to teach film
appreciation independently from each other. As for media education, this term eventually came to the U.S.S.R.
in the 1980s, when more academic literature from outside of the Soviet Union started to penetrate the Iron
Curtain (Sharikov, 1990).
Many Soviet cineclub theorists initially defined themselves as film educators and their field as film
education. Since the 1980s, they started to use terms media education and film education interchangeably
(Baranov, 2008). As the shift in terminology occurred when cineclubs already existed, we use the term
film/media education in order to reflect this change.
For this study we reviewed a number of Russian-language sources on cineclubs and film/media
education in the U.S.S.R. We used works of several key film/media educators, such as Penzin (1987),
Rabinovich (1969), Monastirsky (1995), and Levshina (1978). Penzin (1987) has been a prominent Russian
film/media educator for over three decades. He was one of the first Soviet educators who systematized the
theory of film education and cineclubs in the U.S.S.R. Rabinovich (1969) has worked in the area of film
education since the 1950s, and later became one of the leading authorities of media education in the U.S.S.R.
Monastirsky (1995) has studied cineclubs since the 1970s, and created his own cineclub in Tambov. Levshina
(1978) is a renowned cinema critique and educator. All these authors have worked in the field of film/media
education alongside Baranov, the author of the model we discuss on the following pages. They witnessed the
popularity of his cineclub and described it in their works. Some of them even collaborated with Baranov. Penzin
and Baranov still co-author works on theory and practice of film/media education (Baranov & Penzin, 2014).
Last but not least, in our analysis we used several works by Baranov himself (e.g., 1967,
1973, 1979, 2008a, 2008b). Over the five decades of working in film/media education, Baranov wrote an
impressive amount of articles and books on the role of the cinema in aesthetic and moral education of youth. For
this study, we were particularly interested in Baranov’s works where he described the history and structure of
his famous cineclub.
Historical Context and Structure of
Soviet Cineclubs
The first cineclubs appeared in Russia in the 1920s. As soon as in 1925, the Soviet government
recognized the value of cineclubs for the propaganda of communism and created the Society for Friends of the
Soviet Cinema (SFSC), whose board of directors included such prominent Soviet cinematographers of the time
as Sergei Eisenstein. SFSC started to use cineclubs for introducing ideology-laden films to Soviet audiences
(Maltsev, 1925).
While in French сiné-clubs of the time audiences could see surreal films of Buñuel, Clair, Vigo, and
other famous cinematographers, in Soviet cineclubs people often discussed works of Eisenstein (Battleship
Potemkin), Kuleshov (The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr. West in the Land of the Bolsheviks), Dovzhenko
(Earth) and Pudovkin (Mother). All these films combined cinematic innovation with explicit ideological
propaganda. For example, Battleship Potemkin tells the story of the mutiny that occurred on the Russian
battleship of the same name in 1905. The crewmembers of the ship are portrayed as noble heroes who rebel
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against the Tsarist regime represented by cruel officers. The film Mother encourages the viewer to sympathize
with the plight of a woman who is trying to help her son to fight against the unfair and ruthless Tsarist regime.
Cineclubs served for promotion of these and other ideological films, which were usually less popular among the
public than entertaining cinema hits of the time (Ilyichev & Nashekin, 1986).
SFSC made sure that most Soviet cineclubs of the 1920s and the beginning of the 1930s watched films
approved by the government. Although during this period discussing political aspects of screened films was not
explicitly prohibited, cineclub-goers understood very well that not all opinions could be openly expressed
(Monastirsky, 1995). As Stalin started gaining power in the end of the 1920s, the situation got worse.
Expressing dissident opinions could lead to arrest, a concentration camp, or even execution. In 1934 Stalin
closed the Society for Friends of the Soviet Cinema. One can assume that discussions about the communist
ideology in cineclubs led to more reflection than the government could tolerate (Zalessky, 2009).
From 1935 to the mid-1950s cineclubs virtually did not exist in Russia (Stalin died in
1953). The cineclub movement started to re-emerge only during Khrushchev’s thaw – a period from the mid1950s to the early 1960s when political repression and censorship were partially reversed and the communist
regime softened. New cineclubs were in many ways similar to the pre-Stalin ones. The government was still
pushing cineclub organizers to use films for communist propaganda. At the same time, the focus on aesthetic
qualities remained prominent (Monastirsky, 1995). Combining these two functions, cineclubs were increasingly
seen as a place of aesthetic and moral education for Soviet youth.
The sociocultural situation in Russia from the end of 1950s until the middle of the 1980s contributed to
the popularity of cineclubs, especially among young people. During this period, there was no organization like
SFSC that would directly control cineclubs; thus, cineclub organizers could combine ideological films with
popular and art house movies. Films were still seldom shown on TV, and the number of television channels was
limited (Vladimirova, 2011). Despite the effects of Khrushchev’s thaw, censorship persisted, in particular in
relation to the information about the “West.” Audiences also felt the lack of access to films of some cult
directors whose work the government did not favor (e.g., Tarkovsky and Parajanov). The screen of some
cineclubs offered to Soviet cinema lovers an access to this censored and desired material.
During Khrushchev’s thaw, cineclubs appeared in so-called palaces of culture (establishments for
recreational activities such as cinema watching, singing, dancing, and theater), as well as in many cinema
theaters, schools, and colleges. The target audience of U.S.S.R. cineclubs of the 1950s-1980s was primarily
youth, especially students (Monastirsky, 1995). Films for cineclubs – including Soviet and “Western” movies –
were selected according to their perceived artistic value, although ideological requirements of the time also had
to be taken into consideration. Cineclub organizers had a variety of goals: to provide a venue for recreation, to
promote ideological films, to give access to films that were seldom screened in commercial cinema theaters,
and/or to educate people by developing their tastes (Ilyichev & Nashekin, 1986).
Two main activities in post-thaw cineclubs were, predictably enough, watching films and discussing
them. Typically, before the screening, the head of the cineclub or one of its participants made a short
introduction to tell the audience about the time the film was created, its scriptwriter, director, photographer,
composer, and actors. Following the introduction, participants watched the film and discussed it for 30-40
minutes (Penzin, 1987).
In the case of educational cineclubs – at school and colleges they were often called cinema electives
(Baranov, 1977) – activities included studying the history of the cinema, cinematic language, and biographies of
distinguished cinema personalities. Sometimes participants also practiced media production (Baranov & Penzin,
2014). Cineclubs in cinema theaters and palaces of culture charged a fee for every session. The price was only a
bit higher than that of a ticket for ordinary cinema screenings (Levshina, 1978). Cineclubs in educations settings
were usually free for students.
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Baranov and His Film/Media Education Model
Oleg Baranov was born in 1934. He graduated from Kalinin Pedagogical University in 1957, the same
year that he started working in the Internat-school #1 (the equivalent of a foster home) as a physics teacher and
founded his soon to be famous cineclub. In 1965, Baranov started combining teaching at the Kalinin State
University with his work at school. In 1967, the pedagogue described the history of his cineclub and the theory
behind it in his first book (Baranov, 1967). In 1968, he finished graduate studies at the All-Union State Institute
of Cinematography. He was one of the first Soviet scholars to defend a dissertation in film education (Baranov,
1968). In 1971, Internat-school #1 was closed, and Baranov moved his cineclub experiments to several other
schools in Kalinin. After his last school cineclub was closed in 1984, the by then renowned scholar focused on
teaching in the Kalinin (Tver after 1990) State University. While there, he served for many years as chair of the
Pedagogy Department. During his pedagogical career, Baranov made more than forty presentations at academic
conferences and published more than eighty scholarly works. His model of film/media education (the
Kalinin/Tver model) has been famous among Russian film and media educators for several decades.
The first cineclub, which Baranov started in 1957, shared a number of characteristics with similar
educational cineclubs of the time. It aimed to develop students’ aesthetic taste and moral values by focusing
their attention on what Baranov deemed to be the best examples of cinema art. The cineclub also emphasized
the importance of growing young people’s knowledge base about the cinema by helping them memorize facts
about films, actors, and directors using a variety of activities. Bearing in mind these similarities, here we would
like to focus on characteristics that made Baranov’s cineclub unique.
Baranov’s model, which he started to develop through trial and error as soon as he opened his first
cineclub, was characterized by several features. In his cineclub, Baranov used a spiral approach to teaching,
which emphasized students’ independent work, peer-to-peer learning and the combination of various activities:
memory games, media production (short videos and wall newspaper), trips to famous cinema studios,
communication with prominent cinema personalities (in person and through letters), staging scenes from
popular films, and maintaining a cinema museum. We describe this structure and some of the activities in more
detail below.
The cineclub existed in the Internat-school #1 until 1971, when Baranov moved his film education
project (including the museum) to several other schools in Kalinin. This second stage of Baranov’s cineclub
lasted from 1972 to 1984. Starting from the middle of the 1980s, cineclubs began to lose their popularity.
Television was offering more and more channels, cinemas expanded their repertoire, and increasing numbers of
“Western” films were penetrating (both legally and illegally) into the Soviet market. After Baranov’s last school
cineclub was closed in 1984, he focused on teaching film/media education in Kalinin (later, Tver) State
University.
Inside Baranov’s Cineclub
Baranov’s cineclub started with a school cinema theater. Such theaters were common at the time. They
usually consisted of a large auditorium equipped with a 16-millimeter projector and a screen. However, Baranov
added to the familiar an unusual twist; he delegated many responsibilities of maintaining the theater to his
students. With Baranov’s help, young people decided how to divide assignments. The students became
technicians, decorators, and ticket sellers. The theater even had its own director (one of the students) and
janitors (Baranov, 2008b). Young people created posters for upcoming screenings, chose the price of the ticket
(no low grades during a given week), and supervised screening sessions. Those who wanted to join in had to
start by doing simple tasks (e.g., cleaning); later, they could move up the career ladder, and choose
responsibilities that were more entertaining.
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Interestingly, all cineclub participants were volunteers. Baranov advertised his club by going to different
classes of the school (Baranov, 1979). What made students come to Baranov’s cineclub and become its
members? We believe that Baranov’s secret might have been his ability to offer young people a variety of
engaging activities together with an opportunity to play a major role in organizing the cineclub’s work (Baranov
& Penzin, 2014).
The popularity of the cineclub among students continued to grow. Initially, only older students could
join, but soon the cineclub spanned across elementary, middle, and high schools. Baranov decided to structure
his program in a way that allowed students to return to the same topics, terms, and texts repeatedly on different
stages (spiral approach), gradually adding new materials and making the analysis more and more sophisticated.
The model was built so that students could join the cineclub starting from the first grade and participate in it
until they graduated. Soon after establishing the cineclub, Baranov decided that young people should study the
history of the cinema; in his understanding, this would enable them to discuss cinematic masterpieces and help
further develop their aesthetic taste. Beginning with entertaining and easy-to-remember facts about films, the
pedagogue gradually offered his students materials that were more complex. In the final year, young people
summarized everything they had learned so far. This cumulative approach based on reiteration and the growing
complexity of class materials is similar to the structure of many standard school classes. However, in the case of
the cineclub, the spiral approach was combined with many additional features. Although film screenings and
discussions remained the foundation of Baranov’s project until the end, soon after transforming the school
cinema into the cineclub Baranov started to experiment by adding new activities.
In order to help students of all ages memorize large amounts of information about the history of the
cinema, Baranov used a variety of memory games. These games included all sorts of competitions, word
puzzles, charades, and crosswords about cinema. To play these games, students used film excerpts, audio
recordings, snapshots, photos of actors, cards with questions, and quotes from books and articles discussed in
class. For example, for the game “Do you know cinema?” students created 100 cards with images on one side
and questions for the audience on the other side, such as: “What is this film?,” “What other works of this
director do you know?,” “Who is in the frame?,” etc. (Baranov, 1979). To play the game called “Cinema
mystification” one of the participants read a text (e.g., about a certain period in the history of the cinema) out
loud. The text contained mistakes in dates, surnames, and other facts. The audience had to find mistakes and
correct them (Baranov, 1979).
To foster students’ independence, Baranov relied on peer-to-peer teaching approach. In one of his books,
he described how “acquiring vast knowledge, kids simultaneously learn to ‘give back’: they offer themed
evenings, deliver lectures, organize exhibitions and festivals, create clubs for cinema enthusiasts in younger
classes and outside of the school, passionately promote cinema art” (Baranov, 1979, p. 8). Baranov believed
that, by teaching others, students become more responsible and can better articulate things they had studied.
Peer-to-peer activities also helped the cineclub to attract new participants and spread Baranov’s message about
aesthetic and moral values of the authentic cinema art.
Apart from watching films, Baranov’s students also practiced media production. They made short films
about their lives, the school, and the cineclub. Baranov believed that making their own films, however amateur
they would be, prepared young people to better understand masterpieces that they watched in the cineclub
(Baranov, 2008b). Another form of media production was a wall newspaper, which students periodically issued
to tell the school about their accomplishments. Yet another creative activity that cineclub participants engaged
in was staging scenes from some of their favorite movies.
One the major projects that Baranov used to foster young people’s independence and their love for the
cinema art was a cinema museum. Believing in students’ ability to accomplish important projects
independently, Baranov encouraged young people to create the museum by themselves. This project later
became the hallmark of Baranov’s cineclub and one of the biggest school cinema museums in the U.S.S.R.
Collecting artifacts for the museum, young people maintained a busy correspondence with film directors, actors,
and cinema critics. They also sent letters to the All-Union State Institute of Cinematography and famous film
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A. Fedorov & E. Friesem / Journal of Media Literacy Education 7(2), 12 - 22
studios of the time, such as “Moscow” and “Lenfilm.” In response, young people regularly received film scripts,
drafts, sketches, set props, and autobiographies. All these artifacts became museum exhibits.
Occasionally, young people made trips to visit major centers of cinema art. They were able to talk to many
famous cinema personalities face-to-face, see how new films were made, and sometimes even participate in the
first screenings closed to the public (Baranov & Penzin, 2014). When young people were not traveling, some
media celebrities of the time visited the cineclub to give lectures about cinema.
Selection of Films
Although initially young people preferred to choose light entertainment films for the cineclub repertoire,
Baranov encouraged them to put more emphasis on what he considered cinema art. After all, developing
students’ taste for so-called good films was one of Baranov’s main goals. Baranov also used cinema as a vehicle
for moral education. In his opinion, the conflict between protagonists and antagonists on the screen could
illustrate for young people the battle between good and evil, and teach them to make the right choices in their
own lives (Baranov, 2008b).
What films did Baranov select for his cineclub? The pedagogue favored such classics of the Soviet
cinema as Battleship Potemkin (1925) and Ivan the Terrible, Part I (1944) by Eisenstein, Earth (1930) by
Dovzhenko, and The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr. West in the Land of the Bolsheviks (1924) and Fragment
of an Empire (1929) by Ermler. While Battleship Potemkin portrays the mutiny against Tsarist officers as an
epic moral battle, Ivan the Terrible, Part I shows the powerful leader who fights his enemies in order to
strengthen Russia. Earth glorifies the fight against rich landowners who opposed the process of collectivization
(replacement of individual peasant farms by collective ones) in Ukraine. The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr.
West in the Land of the Bolsheviks satirizes stereotypes that U.S. people allegedly had about the Soviet Russia in
the 1920s. It shows caricatured representations of Americans and the greatness of the Soviet regime, which is so
impressive that the main character Mr. West ends up putting a portrait of Lenin in his study. Fragment of an
empire portrays the Soviet regime as the positive force, which helps people finally become free and equal.
Baranov has never been a big fan of contemporary films, preferring good old Soviet classics (Baranov &
Penzin, 2014). According to the pedagogue, his priorities were shaped not by the ideological requirements or
the time but by the aesthetic qualities of the films (Baranov, 1979). However, we can see that at least some of
them were in alignment with the ideology of the communist regime and contained elements of political
propaganda. Occasionally Baranov’s cineclub screened explicitly ideological films, such as Lenin in 1918,
created in 1939 by Romm.
In order to engage young people, Baranov allowed them to watch popular comedies, detectives, and
melodramas. Among popular contemporary films that students discussed in Baranov’s cineclub was a satirical
comedy by Klimov about pioneer camps, Welcome, or No Trespassing, released in 1964. This film mocks a
pioneer camp director who tries to control children by imposing strict rules. Another example of a light film that
Baranov let young people watch was the science fiction movie Amphibian Man made in 1962 by Chebotaryov
and Kazansky. It tells a dramatic love story of a pearl-fisher’s daughter and a man whose father had to implant
him with gills in order to save his life.
Although Baranov let his students watch these popular movies, he saw it as a necessary stage of the
educational process that would let him introduce authentic cinema art. Baranov believed that to explain concepts
and ideas he wanted his students to understand, he had to start with entertainment media. An opportunity to
watch entertainment movies made students more engaged and attracted new members to the cineclub. However,
Baranov made sure to stress the idea that all the “light” films were inferior to timeless classics created by such
cinema personalities as Eisenstein and Dovzhenko.
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A talented pedagogue, Baranov used his passion for the cinema, and his strong belief in the importance
of shared aesthetic and moral values to create the unique cineclub. By offering young people independence,
responsibility and the wide variety of activities, he kept the project going for many years.
From Baranov’s Cineclub to Media Literacy Club
Today, cinema is but one form of popular media, competing with television, the Internet, video games,
and social networks. Although a few cineclubs still exist, the popularity of the phenomenon is unlikely to come
back. Does it mean that Baranov’s model has become obsolete? And if not, can educators in other countries use
Baranov’s successful experience in Soviet schools as an example? We argue that Baranov’s model of media
education can be applied outside of Russia – if adjusted to the different time and place requirements. Whether or
not you share Baranov’s goal to teach young people about moral values and develop their aesthetic taste, you
can select some elements of his cineclub’s structure to create a media literacy club in your school.
Introducing and maintaining stand-alone media education courses within the U.S. public school system
is problematic due to the system’s rigidity. A more realistic model involves integrating media literacy activities
into existing courses, such as English (Hobbs, 2007), History, or Geography (Masterman, 1985). This approach
requires some creativity and flexibility, but does not necessitate significant bending of the existing school
program. Finally, young people can learn about media literacy through workshops and various extracurricular
programs (Friesem, 2014). Such initiatives are usually short-term, although they can be regularly repeated (e.g.,
Scharrer, 2006).
A media literacy club based on Baranov’s model could be a variation of this third strategy. Here are
some features that such a club could have: (1) its own space, and its doors could be open for students every day
of the school year; (2) it could be run by several teachers interested in media literacy education and by volunteer
student peer mentors; (3) the club could attract participants by a variety of engaging activities. Its members
could discuss and create videos, photos, ads, websites, and video games. Young people could search for
information on topics they are interested in online and learn to evaluate Internet sources. Participants could also
contact media personalities or even invite them to visit their school; (4) teachers running the club could choose
several key ideas that they would like their students to learn and/or questions they want young people to ask of
media texts. Teachers could then structure the materials using the spiral approach, to make sure that the key
ideas are addressed on every learning stage. In addition, (5) students could participate in the club over the period
of several years. In this case activities and materials would vary, but the key principles taught at the club would
remain the same year after year. Thus, students could gradually hone their media literacy skills even if they visit
the club only once in a while. This approach could solve a problem that many media literacy initiatives
currently have – short time spans. Furthermore, (6) the club could foster peer-to-peer learning and collaboration
between students of different ages. Older students could pass on media literacy knowledge and skills to younger
students. Finally, (7) the club could rely on students’ enthusiasm and independent work. First, this could help
the club to attract participants. Second, this could make the club easier to handle, as teachers who run it would
delegate some of their responsibilities to young people (peer mentors).
Attracting participants to such a club might seem challenging on the initial stage. However, if it is
endorsed by school administration, and if its activities are engaging and appealing, some students might be
willing to give it a try. Once the club exists for a while and becomes known in the school, more and more
students might start seeking an opportunity to participate.
Conclusion
Media literacy education has come a long way from the time educators first started to develop students’
critical thinking skills and consider different strategies of helping them understand the role of the media in their
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A. Fedorov & E. Friesem / Journal of Media Literacy Education 7(2), 12 - 22
lives (Hobbs & Jensen, 2009). Influenced by different cultural contexts, both in terms of time and place, media
literacy education evolved into a variety of forms (Buckingham, 2003; Hobbs, 1998; Potter, 2004).
Because of the significant changes of the media over the past decades, it may seem that many historical
forms of media literacy education are nowadays irrelevant. By the same token, Soviet cineclubs, which were
popular in the U.S.S.R. until the 1980s, might appear outdated and obsolete. After all, they were specifically
created to discuss films, while now movies are just one kind of popular media texts. By ignoring magazines, TV
programs, websites, and social networks, media literacy educators would seriously limit the effectiveness of
their efforts. In addition, Soviet cineclubs were often used to develop students’ aesthetic taste and moral values;
critical thinking was not a priority for Soviet cinema educators, although they talked about it in their writings
(Baranov, 1977). Taking into consideration these limitations, we argue that modern media literacy practitioners
do have something to learn from cineclubs of the past. Even if we do not entirely agree with what students
learned in Baranov’s classes, it can be useful to consider how they learned it.
Baranov’s model of film/media education provides an example of a long-term media literacy education
program that maintained its popularity by being engaging and by relying on students’ natural curiosity. Even an
educator who does not think that developing students’ aesthetic taste equates raising their levels of media
literacy might use this cineclub’s structure as a basis for media education initiative in their school.
The structure of Baranov’s model has several key elements that educators might want to borrow. First,
Baranov’s cineclub attracted students by offering a variety of entertaining activities. Young people were not
forced to participate; they came to the club because they were attracted by the opportunities it offered. Second,
assignments that fostered independent work helped students to develop the feeling of ownership for the club.
Third, because Baranov used the spiral approach, students learned the key ideas he wanted them to retain by
repeatedly returning to the club. Fourth, a peer-to-peer approach helped Baranov’s students better memorize
information and practice skills they learned in the club. Active peer-to-peer mentors were able to constantly
attract new participants, which contributed to the cineclub’s popularity. And, fifth, by having the club’s doors
open all year long for many years, Baranov was able to turn this project into a long-term media literacy
initiative.
Learning from the past is an important enterprise. It helps us better understand how we got to where we
are now. It also allows us to learn from mistakes that our predecessors made and cherry-pick some of their
practices. Learning from the past teaches us to be flexible, curious, and humble, and it encourages us to think
about the future. We must remember that those who will come after us might be critical of our biases and
choices as we are critical of our media education “grandparents.” We do not know which of our strategies those
who come after us will use and which they will discard. In this paper, we wanted to give the reader a glimpse of
the journey that media literacy education has travelled in Russia. Most importantly, we wanted to reflect on how
our past can enrich our present and future.
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22
European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
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Published in the Russian Federation
European Journal of Contemporary Education
ISSN 2304-9650
E-ISSN 2305-6746
Vol. 16, Is. 2, pp. 205-216, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2016.16.205
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UDC 37
Modern Media Criticism and Media Literacy Education:
The Opinions of Russian University Students
Alexander Fedorov a , * , Anastasia Levitskaya b
a Anton
Chekhov Taganrog Institute (branch of Rostov State Economic University),
Russian Federation
b Taganrog Management and Economics Institute, Russian Federation
Abstract
The authors analyze the results of two universities students' survey aimed at finding out the
respondents' media competence levels. The findings confirm a general tendency, that commonly,
less than a quarter of the young audience reveals a high level development of the media
competence's motivational index. A considerably larger part of respondents, about a half,
demonstrates a low level of the motivational index. The analysis of the received data proves that a
high degree of the media contact frequency and a high level of media competence’s motivational
index are not directly linked with an ability level to analyze a media text comprehensively.
Nevertheless, the levels of interpretational/evaluation parameters of the audience's media
competence to a large extent reflect the levels of their informational and motivational descriptors.
Moreover, it turns out that the high level of informational index does not necessarily correlate to
the level of media competence’s evaluation index. On the whole, the survey shows that media
competence of modern students needs to be developed. Therefore, university students (not less
that school students) do need media literacy courses.
Keywords: media literacy, education, media criticism, students, Russia, university, survey.
Corresponding author
E-mail addresses: 1954alex@mail.ru (A. Fedorov), a.levitskaya@tmei.ru (A. Levitskaya)
*
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
1. Introduction
The students' survey was organized in order to find out levels of the audience’s media
competence (with emphasis on the synthesis of media education and criticism). Media competence
is defined as a complex of motives, knowledge, skills, abilities (descriptors: contact, motivational,
informational, interpretation/evaluation, activity), facilitating the choice, use, critical analysis,
evaluation, creation and communicating media texts in different forms, types and genres, analysis
of the media functioning in society (Ashley et al., 2013; Downey et al., 2014; Fantin, 2010; Fedorov,
2003; Korochensky, 2003; Marchessault, 2014; Myasnikova, 2010; Potter, 2014; Soldatova, 2013;
Sourbati, 2009; Sparks, 2013; Tsymbalenko et al., 2013; Wilson et al., 2011; Zircon, 2013).
While developing most of the units of questions and assignments we deliberately chose the
close form of a questionnaire (so that a question was followed by several options to choose from).
This decision is explained by the fact that most students are as a rule not able to provide clear and
brief argumentation for their viewpoint on media preferences. Therefore several most probable
variants of an answer were offered. Moreover, close questionnaires take less time to fill out for the
respondents, and can fit in within the time limit of a class period.
The differentiation of media competence levels is based on the classification of media
competence levels (the audience's development in the media culture sphere). According to it,
audiences are offered 5 main units of questions and assignments:
 the unit of questions for ascertaining the media competence’s contact index level (frequency
of contacts with different types of media, media criticism and media literacy texts);
 the unit of questions to determine motivational level of the audience's media competence
(genre, thematic, psychological, therapeutic, emotional, gnoseological, moral, intellectual, creative,
and aesthetical motives that effect the audience's choice to contact various media texts);
 the unit of questions to discover the informational level (knowledge of terminology, history
and theory of media culture, media education and media criticism) of the audience's media
competence;
 the unit of analytical assignments to determine the interpretation/evaluation level of the
audience's media competence;
 the unit of assignments to ascertain the activity (practical, hands-on) index of the
audience's media competence.
2. Materials and Methods
The following respondents took part in the survey:
 61 first and second year students of Taganrog Management and Economics Institute
(respondents only participating in summative experiment), including 38 young women and
23 young men;
 59 first and second year students of Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute (respondents,
participating both in summative and formative experiments), including 39 female and 20 male
students.
The aim of ascertaining the media competence’s contact index level: to determine the
frequency of contacts of the audience with various types of media. Gained results reflect the degree
of respondents' involvement with media culture, media critics and educators' texts.
Each respondent was offered to choose an option characteristic of his/her frequency of contacts
with different media (press, TV, radio, Internet, etc.).
While determining the contact level we decided to consider the following scale:
 high level: respondent’s daily contacts with media texts;
 medium level: respondent's contact vary from several times a week to a month;
 low level: rare contacts with media or total isolation from media.
It is clear that the content of such contacts is affected by media competence’s motivational
factor. However, according to our hypothesis, such influence is not direct: i.e. single contacts with
media do not necessarily mean that a respondent possesses a wide spectrum of media motives and
vice versa.
The aim of determining motivational index levels was to ascertain most popular with the
audience contact motives (genre, thematic, psychological, therapeutic, emotional, gnoseological,
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
moral, intellectual, aesthetical, functional) with media texts (including media critics' texts and
media educational texts).
While determining the motivational index levels of media competence development, we
defined:
 high level as a wide complex of genre, thematic, emotional, hedonistic, intellectual, creative,
psychological, aesthetical motives (including: choice of various genre and thematic spectrum, in
particular including non-entertaining genres; pursuit for philosophical/intellectual, aesthetic
challenge/dialogue with a media text's creators, criticism; identification, sympathy; quest for
aesthetical impressions; quest for new information; for proving own competence in various spheres
of life and media culture; search for material for study, research objectives, etc.);
 medium level as a complex of genre, thematic, emotional, hedonistic, intellectual, creative,
psychological, aesthetical motives, including: the choice of rather varied genre and thematic range,
search for study/research materials; however without significant evidence of pursuit for
philosophical/intellectual, aesthetical challenge/dialogue with media text's creators;
 low level: narrow range of genre, thematic, emotional, hedonistic, psychological motives,
mainly the choice of entertainment genre; pursuit for compensation, for psychological "treatment";
search for suspense, recreation, absence of aesthetical, intellectual, creative motives of contacts
with media texts.
Achieved results help us to account for audiences’ real preferences, take into consideration
concrete media genres and themes, that the audiences are motivated by, and therefore, are
considerably affected (morally and psychologically). These findings need to be compared with the
written creative assignments, and interviews, in order to more specifically ascertain audiences’ self
evaluation of preferences and underpinning grounds, as revealed by the research.
At this stage students were offered a list of media genres and functions (press, radio,
television, Internet, video games, etc.) to choose the ones they prefer. Respondents were also
presented a list of psychological, therapeutical, emotional, gnoseological, moral, intellectual,
creative, and aesthetic motives of contacts with media texts. Knowing media genre and functions
direction, chosen by the respondents, with high degree of probability we were able to suppose the
types of most important motives of contacts with media. For example, if a person prefers
entertainment, blockbuster media, he/she is likely to choose the search for recreation,
entertainment, suspense, as his/her main motives for media contacts.
Detection of informational index level was aimed at discovering the audience's knowledge of
terminology, history, and theory of media culture, media education, and media criticism. Students
were asked to answer 22 questions. While defining media competence’s informational index levels,
we agreed upon:
 high level: more than 75 % of correct answers;
 medium level: more than 50 % of correct answers;
 low level: less than 50 % of correct answers.
Of course, there is a linkage between levels of contact, motivational and informational
factors. A person not contacting with media, cannot possess any information about media culture.
However, according to our hypothesis, a high level of contact and motivational descriptors of media
competence can combine with a low/medium level of informational index and vice versa.
Undoubtedly, a survey based on the multiple choice questions, is always limited by a chance
of getting a correct answer unfairly, a guess, not based on real knowledge. Moreover, some
respondents might even cheat. Therefore, the results of the tests were validated later by additional
individual analytical and creative tasks, and interviews.
While working on determining the levels of interpretation/evaluation index we agreed upon
the following scale:
 high level: media texts analysis is based on the ability to relate with its author, ability to
analyze and synthesize space and time form of a media text; understanding, interpretation, and
evaluation of the author's concept in the context of a media text's structure; the ability to correlate
emotional appreciation with the conceptual judgment, to transfer this opinion onto other media
culture types; to connect a media text with own experience and other people's experience;
 medium level: ability to characterize a media character’s behavior and psychological state;
using fragments of knowledge to be able to explain the logics of the events in the plot, ability to
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
comment on some components of a media image; absence of the interpretation of the author's
stance (or its simplistic interpretation);
 low level: naive comprehension of a media text, poor knowledge of media language,
incomprehensibly expressed opinions, conformity to other opinions, neither interpretation of
characters' and authors' positions, nor their evaluation.
We gave to the respondents the choice between three topics for writing assignments:
a) "Audiovisual media text that impressed me",
b) "Audiovisual media text that influenced my self esteem and/or relation to other people",
c) "Analysis of a single episode from an impressive media text".
Respondents had to choose one topic and write a 3-4 page essay. According to Usov (1989),
the very choice of the topic can indirectly testify of the interpretation/evaluation index level of a
respondent’s media competence: option c), as a rule, is chosen by respondents with higher level of
interpretation/evaluation parameter. With that, it is logical to suppose that the motivational index
level of media competence is considerably linked with the interpretation/evaluation index level.
That is, the more varied media contact motives are (including intellectual and aesthetic
components), the higher his/her level of media competence’s interpretation/evaluation index.
While ascertaining levels of media competence’s activity factor, i.e. practical/hands-on skills
to create and communicate media texts of various types and genres, we agreed upon the following:
 high level: independent/autonomous skills to create media texts of various types and
genres;
 medium level: practical skills of media texts creation with the help of
teachers/experts/peers;
 low level: practical skills are deficient.
The audience was offered to do several hands-on tasks aimed at a media text creation
(video/photo, layout of a poster, etc.). Noticeably, a high level of activity parameter can combine
with a low/medium level of interpretation/evaluation index and vice versa.
3. Results
Table 1. Classification of Contact Index Levels
Levels of
contact index
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute students:
control group (%)
Female
Male
Total
73.7
23.7
2.6
95.7
4.3
0.0
82.0
16.4
1.6
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
Total
84.5
12.9
2.6
80.0
15.0
5.0
83.1
13.5
3.4
Table 1 data testify that there is no big difference between the media contact levels of the
students in two universities (control and experimental groups). Over 80 % of the respondents show
high (daily) level of contact index. However, from the start, we didn't consider the contact index as
an ultimate parameter for media competence. Certainly, a respondent never contacting with media,
cannot be media competent. Nevertheless, the highest level of contacts cannot guarantee a high
level of media competence if a person does not acquire analytical skills.
On the other hand, there are less than 4 % of the students who show a low level of contact
index providing evidence that our category of respondents cannot imagine their life without media.
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
Table 2. Classification of the Contact Levels Index of the Students' Media Competence
Development Related to Media Critics' Texts
Levels of
contact index
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute students:
control group (%)
Female
Male
Total
10.4
44.8
44.8
8.7
43.5
47.8
9.8
44.2
46.0
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
12.8
61.6
25.6
10.0
45.0
45.0
Total
11.9
55.9
32.2
The Table 2 data indicate that on the whole there is no significant difference between the
contact levels with media criticism texts between two universities (control and experimental
groups). Less than 12 % show high (daily) level of contact with media criticism texts. On the other
hand, students revealing medium contact level comprise from 42.2 % to 55.9 %, so about half of the
given respondents category in that or another way (several times a week/a month) do
read/listen/watch media critics' texts.
Table 3. Classification of Contact Levels Index of the Media Competence Development Related to
Media Education Texts
Levels of
contact index
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute students:
control group (%)
Female
Male
Total
2.6
21.1
76.3
13.1
17.4
69.5
6.6
19.6
73.8
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
Total
0.0
33.3
66.7
15.0
20.0
65.0
5.1
28.8
66.1
The data of Table 3 attests no significant difference between levels of contact related to media
education texts expressed by the students in two universities (control and experimental groups).
On the whole, less than 7 % of them reveal a high (daily) level of contact related to media education
texts. On the other hand, there are 19.6 % to 28.8 % of students who manifest medium level, which
testifies that nearly one quarter of respondents do address media education texts several times a
week/month.
Table 4. Classification of the Motivation Index of Students' Media Competence Development
Levels of
motivational
index
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute students:
control group (%)
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
Total
Female
Male
15.8
28.9
55.3
17.4
30.4
52.2
16.4
29.5
54.1
17.9
25.7
56.4
15.0
30.0
55.0
Total
17.0
27.1
55.9
Table 4 data show that a high level of media competence’s motivational index development,
i.e. a wide complex of genre, thematic, emotional, gnoseological, hedonistic, intellectual,
psychological, creative, aesthetic motives (including: choice of various genre and thematic
spectrum of media texts, in particular including non-entertaining genres; pursuit for
philosophical/intellectual, aesthetic challenge/dialogue with a media text's creators, criticism;
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
identification, sympathy; quest for aesthetical impressions; quest for new information; for proving
own competence in various spheres of life and media culture; search for material for study,
research objectives, etc.) is only expressed by 16–17 % of the students (with no significant gender
differentiation). And vice versa, a lot more respondents – ranging from 54.1 % (Taganrog
Management and Economics Institute) up to 55.9 % (Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute) show a
low level of motivational parameter, meaning a narrow spectrum of genre, thematic, emotional,
hedonistic, psychological motives, including: the choice of media texts that are of strictly
entertaining genres and themes; pursuit of compensation; pursuit of psychological "therapy";
longing for thrill; recreation, entertainment and absence of aesthetical, intellectual, or creative
reasons of contacts with media).
Herewith, a deeper study of the findings showed that the students of two Russian universities
- Taganrog Management and Economics Institute (further: TMEI) and Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute (further: ACTI) - are attracted by the following genres most:
 comedy – from 77.1 % (TMEI) to 76.3 % (ACTI);
 science fiction – from 55.8 % (TMEI) to 59.3 % (ACTI);
 thriller – from 49.1 % (TMEI) to 40.7 % (ACTI);
 detective – from 45.9 % (TMEI) to 47.5 % (ACTI).
As far as the gender is concerned, it turns out that the number of male students preferring
such entertaining genres as science fiction, thriller and a detective story, is somewhat higher than
the number of female ones:
 science fiction: 60.9 % of male students and 52.7 % female students (TMEI); 60 % of male
students and 59 % of female students (ACTI);
 thriller: 60.9 % of males and 42.2 % of females (TMEI); 45.0 % of male students and 38.5 %
of female students (ACTI);
 detective genre: 47.8 % of male students and 44.8 % of females (TMEI); 50.0 % of male and
46.2 % of female students (ACTI).
At the same time, female students prefer a sentimental melodrama genre: 17.4 % of male
preferences vs. 42.2 % of female preferences (TMEI); 15.0 % of male preferences vs. 53.8 % of
female preferences (ACTI).
The following genres became outsiders:
 musical comedy - from 1.6 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 5.1 % (ACTI);
 operetta - from 1.7 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 6.8 % (ACTI);
 opera - from 5.0 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 11.9 % (ACTI);
 satire - from 5.0 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 18.6 % (ACTI).
Subsequent talks with the respondents in focus groups showed that modern students
perceive opera and operetta as archaic, boring genres; and they appreciate not satire in comedies
but pure entertainment (gags, tricks, funny jokes, stand-up comedian acts, etc.).
The answer of the students of two Russian institutes - TMEI and ACTI - to the question about
the appealing functions in print/audiovisual media texts, media critics' works, media education
literature (in press, Internet, radio or TV), has considerably assisted us to correlate them to
previously expressed genre preferences.
The analysis of students' answers demonstrates that the most popular function of media texts
is a recreational one: 60.7 % of TMEI students (at that this function is 20 % more popular with
female respondents than with male ones) and 52.5 % of ACTI students (without significant genre
difference).
Then follow:
 information-communicative function (46.0 % of students' answers in TMEI; 28.8 % of
students' answers in ACTI, no big gender difference);
 aesthetical, artistic function (41.0 % of TMEI students, with females prevailing by 23.9 %;
and 44.1 % of ACTI students’ preferences, with female answers prevailing 21.3 %).
Gender differences are visible in the answers about other functions of media texts:
 analytical function: 60.9 % of male TMEI students vs. 15.8 % of female students; 35.0 % of
male ACTI students vs. 28.2 % of female students;
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
 ideological, political function: the function is popular with 39.1 % of male TMEI and 26.3 %
female students, while in ACTI – 15.2 % of male vs. 28.2 % of female students;
 aesthetical function: in TMEI it is favoured by 30.4 % male and 18.5 % female students,
while in ACTI this function is popular with 20.0 % of male respondents and 10.3 % of female ones;
 advertising / commercial function: 4.3 % of male and 15.8 % of female TMEI students;
30.0 % of male and 15.4 % of female respondents in ACTI marked this function.
Let us bear in mind that the analysis of genre motivation showed that on the whole,
entertaining media texts ranked from 45.9 % to 77.0 %, that correlates to popularity of the
recreational function with the surveyed audience. The smallest number of votes (1.6–1.7 %) of both
universities' students was collected by the regulatory-corporation function of media texts. We have
expected that because our survey group was not a media-related major, but comprised of future
managers, economists, lawyers, and teachers who are not very keen on professional backstage of
media industry.
Answering the question of what main psychological, intellectual, creative, aesthetic, etc.
motives of the students' contacts with media critics’ works, are, revealed the following leading
motives:
 pursuit to access new information – 82.0 % (preferences of TMEI students, with female
students' answers prevailing 13.0 %) and 67 % (ACTI students with female answers prevailing by
26.9 %);
 search for entertainment, recreation - 60.7 % (TMEI students, with 20.7 % more female
answers than male ones) and 52.5 % of ACTI students, without significant gender differentiation;
 search for aesthetical, artistic impressions – 44.3 % (preferences of TMEI students, with
female voices dominating by 22.3 %) and 41.1 % (preferences of ACTI students, with female
students dominating by 21.3 %);
 longing for spending one's free time - from 29.5 % (TMEI students with female voices
exceeding male ones by 12.6 %) to 32.2 % (ACTI students with no big gender difference).
On the whole, the students' aspiration for entertainment and recreation (60.7 %) and relaxed
way of watching/listening media (29.5 %) correlates to students' preferences of entertaining media
genres and functions.
The less number of students' voices was received by:
 aspiration for improving one's skills in media literacy – 2.6 % (TMEI students) and 1.9 %
(ACTI students);
 pursuit of developing one's knowledge in media education - 4.4 % of TMEI students and
3.2 % of ACTI students.
To sum up, the low motivation of students to gain knowledge and skills in the field of media
literacy was something we had expected because the survey was conducted with 1-2 year students
who had never taken a media education course.
Table 5. Classification of the Informational Index Levels
Levels of
information
index
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute
students: control group (%)
Female
Male
Total
0.0
55.3
44.7
0.0
52.2
47.8
0.0
54.1
45.9
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
Total
0.0
51.3
48.7
0.0
55.0
45.0
0.0
52.5
47.5
The detection of the information index levels of TMEI and ACTI students' media competence
development was conducted with the help of a test. The testing procedure with the developed
questions (see Appendix) had some vulnerable spots. On the one hand, the test format contains the
opportunity of guessing (intuitive or logic – by eliminating most ambiguous answers) the right
answer with the probability of 25 %. On the other hand, during the testing there might have
occurred cheating or prompting by some participants. However, the test results were verified by
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
the finding of focus groups and face-to-face interviews that to a large extent facilitated the
clarification and validation of students' competence levels.
None of the students questioned demonstrated the high level of media competence
development’s information index (which was assigned as 75–100 % of correct answers to questions
related to terminology, history and theory of media, media culture, media criticism and media
education). About 52–54 % of surveyed students showed a medium level of the information
parameter (without significant gender differences between the respondents). 45-47 % of the
students revealed a low level of media competence's information index that is they were able to give
less than 50 % of correct answers. Herewith, the minimal number of correct answers (less than
40 %) was received to the questions connected to the knowledge of media specialists' activities,
media educators, media theories, and a media text production stages.
Completing a phrase "Media criticism is ..." from 65.6 % (TMEI students) to 69.5 % (ACTI
students) could choose a correct answer out of four suggested. Preliminary conversations with
students in focus groups showed that without multiple choice options they, as a rule, found it hard
to give a definition to media criticism. Still, we should note that even having a correct answer as
one of the options, one third of the students could not detect it.
Completing a sentence “Media culture is...”, from 85.3 % of TMEI students to 89.8 % of ACTI
students were able to choose a correct answer out of the four given options. However, as focus
groups had previously revealed, without ready answers to choose from, students were at a loss.
Completing a definition for media education, from 77.1 % of TMEI students to 83.0 % of
ACTI students could choose a correct answer. But again, the same question in focus groups was
difficult for the participants.
Finishing a phrase "Media perception is...", 72.1 % of TMEI students and 69.5 % of ACTI
students chose the correct option. As before, they had difficulty giving this definition without
suggested answers in focus groups.
Completing a phrase "Media language is..." 91.8 % of TMEI students and 83.0 % of ACTI
students surveyed could choose the correct answer out of the four provided. Nevertheless,
preliminary conversations with students in focus groups showed that without multiple choice
options they, as a rule, found it hard to give a definition.
Completing a definition for media competence, 62.3 % of TMEI students and 59.3 % of ACTI
students chose the right answer. 64.0 % of TMEI students and 52.5 % of ACTI students were able
to differentiate a correct answer while completing a sentence "Media text is...".
Matching a "story line" with its definition, 62.3 % of TMEI students and 47.4 % of ACTI
students recognized the correct answer out of the four offered options. 72.1 % TMEI and 67.8 %
ACTI students gave the correct answer continuing the phrase "Manipulative influence of media
is...".
When answering a question about the workplace of a media critic, 72.1 % of TMEI students
and 67.8 % of ACTI students gave the correct answer. We should remember that the latter and all
of the above listed questions raised problems when they were asked in focus groups with no
multiple choice options. Therefore, the students' choice during a test is more likely a result of
logical comparison of the suggested options for choice (the so called "test-wiseness"), but not of the
real knowledge. Moreover, a test's major weakness is that it promotes guessing (one can get 25 %
by choosing all "a"s or "b"s , etc.). So it should be stressed, that the test results have been balanced
with other forms of research.
Answering the question about the job of a media teacher, 37.7 % of TMEI students and
50.8 % of ACTI students got the right answer. Choosing a surname of a researcher who had
introduced the media theory concept of the "global village", only one third – 37.7 % of TMEI
students and 37.3 % of ACTI students chose the correct answer. While in focus groups none of the
participants could remember the name of Marshall McLuhan as its author.
Looking for a term not related to media culture, media criticism or education, 70.5 % (TMEI
students) and 72.9 % (ACTI students) were able to choose the correct answer.
However, identifying skills, not related to media culture, media criticism or education, only
14.8 % of Management and Economics Institute, and 27.1 % of ACTI were able to choose the
correct answer out of the four options. Another rather low result was shown by the choice of the
media-related "wrong sentence": only 34.4 % of TMEI students and 50.8 % of ACTI students could
identify the correct answer.
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
While answering the question, which of the following theories of media is based on the idea
of strong, direct impact of a media text on the audience, the impact that provokes immediate
reaction, only 34.4 % of respondents from TMEI and 32.2 % of ACTI students chose the correct
answer (inoculatory approach). Answering the question, which of the suggested media theories is
based on studying sign systems, only 39.4 % of TMEI students and 52.5 % of ACTI students
surveyed identified semiotic theory as the correct one.
Choosing the correct phrase (out of 4 options) connected to media criticism, 19.7 % of TMEI
students and 18.6 % of ACTI students were able to find it. Answering the question about what
media critic's writing about television, only 16.4 % and 23.7 % (students of TMEI and ACTI,
correspondently) identified the right person. When doing the assignment to re-arrange the stages
of an audiovisual or print media critic's text in the logical sequence, only 39.3 % of TMEI and
23.7 % of ACTI students coped with the task.
Table 6. Classification of the Interpretation/evaluation Index Levels
Levels of
interpretation/
evaluation
index
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute students:
control group (%)
Female
Male
Total
0.0
76.3
23.7
0.0
73.9
26.1
0.0
75.4
24.6
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
Total
0.0
76.9
23.1
0.0
75.0
25.0
0.0
76.3
23.7
Exposure of the interpretation/evaluation index levels was conducted through the
assignments related to the analysis of various media texts.
As a result (Table 6) it turned out that none of the respondents demonstrated a high level of
interpretation/evaluation index. The high level presumes a media text’s analysis based on the
ability to relate to its author, analysis and synthesis of the space and time form, its understanding,
interpretation and evaluation of the author's concept in the context of a media text’s structure; the
ability to correlate emotional perception with concept opinion, to transfer this opinion onto other
genres and types of media culture, to relate a media text with own experience or experience of
other people.
The medium level of media competence development’s interpretation/evaluation index
assumes the ability to characterize characters' behaviour and psychological state on the basis of
rudimentary knowledge; the ability to explain the logic of the events sequence in a plot; the ability
to dwell on some components of a media image; lack of an author's stance interpretation (or its
simplistic interpretation). The medium level was demonstrated by 75-76 % of students without a
significant gender difference in both universities.
The low level of interpretation/evaluation parameter presumes a naive, realistic perception of
a media text's story line, unawareness of media language peculiarities, inconsistency, confusion of
opinions, dependency on peer influence; simplistic interpretation of characters' positions and the
author's stance. This level was shown approximately by a quarter of respondents in both
universities.
Table 7. Classification of Activity Index Levels
Activity index
levels
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute students:
control group (%)
Female
Male
Total
28.9
55.3
15.8
34.8
56.5
8.7
31.2
55.7
13.1
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Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
Total
25.6
56.4
18.0
30.0
60.0
10.0
27.1
57.6
15.3
European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
The identification of activity index levels was realized in the course of analysis of their
assignments targeted at creation and communication of media texts’ various forms and genres.
On the whole (Table 7), the high level of the activity index (practical skills to create a media
text) was demonstrated by 27-31 % of students. With that male students prevailed by 5 %
approximately.
The medium level of activity parameter (hands-on skills to create a media text with the help
of a teacher/specialist/other people) was revealed by about a half of the students, with male
respondents outnumbering female ones by 1-4 %.
The low level of activity index (inability to create a media text or unwillingness to do it) was
shown by 13-15 % of students, with female students prevailing by 7-8 %.
4. Discussion
Validness of our findings can be proved by the research results of Moscow sociological group
"Zircon" under the title "Current state and perspectives of media literacy of the Russian citizens
based on the national monitoring of media behavior (2009-2013)" which was initiated by the
Ministry of Communications and Mass Media of the Russian Federation and used the volume of
1600 respondents (representative sample). The surveys were held annually in five stages from
2009 to 2013. As reported by "Zircon", on average, over 80 % of Russian population watch
television (i.e. contact with television media texts) daily (Zircon, 2013).
If we address the survey results of teenagers’ Internet contacts, held by the research group
headed by G. Soldatova in 2013 (1203 teenagers aged 12-17 were questioned, living in 58 Russian
cities with the population of 100 thousand people and more, from 45 regions and 8 federal areas),
we'll see that Russian teens somewhat surpass both adults and university students as far as the
frequency of contacts with media texts is concerned. 89 % of teenagers use Internet daily
(Soldatova, 2013). Similar findings were gained by other Russian (Tsymbalenko et al., 2013),
British (Ofcom, 2013) researches of teenagers' media behavior, and others media researches
(Fenton, 2009; Garcia-Ruiz, Ramirez-Garcia, Rodriguez-Rosell, 2014; Hammer, 2011; Hermes et
al., 2013; Holt, & Von Krogh, 2010).
The comparative analysis of the students’ answers in two Russian universities – Taganrog
Management and Economics Institute and Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute - to the question
about the frequency of their contacts with media texts showed that on average, over 80 % of
students (82.0 % in TMEI and 83.0 % in ACTI) contact with media on a daily basis. On the whole,
the findings verify the results of many sociological surveys (Fedorov, 2003; Myasnikova, 2010;
Zircon, 2013; Ofcom, 2013), held in different years. The level of media contacts is very high, while
entertaining genres dominate in their preferences. Male respondents to a larger degree than female
prefer action/thriller genres, female respondents tend to favor melodramas.
At the same time, as far as we know, neither in Russia, nor in other countries, a research of
audience's (including students') contacts with media criticism was conducted. Comparative
analysis of students' answers testifies the degree of demand for print and audiovisual media critics'
texts: without a significant gender difference, it turned out that from 9.8 % (TMEI students) to
11.9 % (ACTI students) have such contacts daily. Another 42-55 % students read/listen/watch
media critical text several times a week/month. Still, as we had anticipated, there are young people
in both universities who rarely or never contact media critics' messages: ranging from 32 to 47 %.
Focus groups conversations showed that the respondents in the first place, contact with texts of
popular but "amateur" media bloggers (who review latest films and computer games, videos, etc.),
because these texts are easier and more understandable for them than texts of media professionals.
As far as the research of audience's contacts with media literacy texts, we also have not found
the previously done similar surveys in Russia or elsewhere. Before conducting a survey, we took
into account that the first or second year students had not studied any media literacy course yet,
therefore a percentage of respondents who contacted media education texts on a regular basis
would be very low. However the findings corrected our initial expectation: there is a demand for
that kind of media texts. It turned out that 5.1 % (ACTI students) to 6.6 % (TMEI students) contact
with media education texts daily. From 19.6 % to 28.8 % of students try and do that several times a
week/month. However, as we had anticipated, the vast majority of young people - from 66.1 %
(ACTI) to 73.8 % (TMEI) never have anything to do with media literacy texts. Focus group
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
discussions showed that the respondents, in the first place, read the texts related to technical,
computer learning aids, and do not differentiate between media education and computer literacy.
Our research has affirmed the tendencies, that had been revealed in previous researches
(Ashley et al., 2013; Downey et. Al, 2014; Fantin, 2010; Korochensky, 2003; Marchessault, 2014;
Myasnikova, 2010; Sparks, 2013; Potter, 2014).
Noticeably, a high level of motivational index is demonstrated, as a rule, by less than a
quarter of young audience. Whereas a considerably larger number of respondents - about a half has a low level of motivational parameter.
Our research findings proved that the high frequency of contacts with media and high level of
motivational index are not directly linked with the high level of comprehensive media texts
analysis. Although the information and motivational index levels of media competence are
reflected on levels of interpretation/evaluation parameter.
We have also acknowledged a tendency that a high level of media competence's information
index does not necessarily correspond to an equally high level of evaluation index. Therefore,
awareness of media terms, theory and history of media culture and media criticism does not
automatically foster analytical skills related to media texts.
The high level of media competence's information index was not demonstrated by a single
student of two universities surveyed that is characteristic of non-media studies departments. We
have found that half of respondents have a medium level of information index, that is they do have
some knowledge about media terminology, history and theory, gained through self education
or/and family education.
As far as the activity levels of media competence development are concerned, our analysis has
shown that they are rather similar to previous survey results (Fedorov, 2003; Myasnikova, 2010;
Soldatova, 2013; Zircon, 2013; Wilson et al., 2011; Tsymbalenko et al. 2013; Sourbati, 2009), when
a high level of this parameter was indicated by around a quarter of a similar age group respondents
(with male respondents slightly exceeding female ones).
5. Conclusion
In summary, we can draw a conclusion that our research demonstrates that modern students'
media competence in several parameters (motivational, information, interpretation/evaluation,
activity) needs to be considerably elevated. The development of the media competence’s above
mentioned parameters, in our opinion, is possible in the course of media education. Therefore,
university students (not less than school students) need to take media literacy courses. In that case
we can only speak about significant advancement of the UNESCO concept (Wilson et al., 2011)
about the synthesis of information and media literacy.
6. Support and acknowledgement
This article is written within the framework of a study supported by the grant of the Russian
Science Foundation (RSF) project No. 14-18-00014 “Synthesis of media education and media
criticism in the preparation of future teachers," performed at Taganrog Management and
Economics Institute.
References
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Scale. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 68 (1), 7–21.
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International Journal of Digital Literacy and Digital Competence, 1(4), 10-15.
Fedorov, 2003 - Fedorov A. (2003). Media Education and Media Literacy: Experts’ Opinions.
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Fenton, 2009 - Fenton N. (2009). My Media Studies: Getting Political in a Global, Digital
Age. Television New Media, 10, 55-57.
Garcia-Ruiz et al., 2014 - Garcia-Ruiz R., Ramirez-Garcia A., Rodriguez-Rosell M.M. (2014).
Media Literacy Education for a New Prosumer Citizenship. Comunicar. 22 (43), 15-23.
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Hammer, 2011 – Hammer R. (2011) Critical Media Literacy as Engaged Pedagogy.
E-Learning and Digital Media, 8(4), 357-363.
Hermes et al., 2013 - Hermes J., Van den Ber, A., Mol M. (2013). Sleeping with the Enemy:
Audience Studies and Critical Literacy. International Journal of Cultural Studies, 16 (5), 457–473.
Holt, Von Krogh, 2010 - Holt K., Von Krogh T. (2010). The Citizen as Media Critic in Periods
of Media Change. Observatorio Journal, 4 (4), 287-306.
Korochensky, 2003 - Korochensky A.P. (2003). Media Criticism in the Theory and Practice of
Journalism. Rostov: Rostov State University Press.
Marchessault, 2014 - Marchessault J. (2014). Media Studies as Interdisciplinary Exploration.
Journal of Visual Culture, 13, 82-84.
Myasnikova, 2010 - Myasnikova T.I. (2010). Comparative analysis of the media preferences
of Russian and German students: axiological perspective. Bulletin of the Orenburg State
University, 10, 25-32.
OFCOM, 2013 - OFCOM (2013). Children and Parents: Media Use and Attitudes. Report.
London: Ofcom.
Potter, 2014 - Potter W.J. (2014). Media literacy. LA: Sage.
Soldatova et al., 2013 - Soldatova G.U. et al. (2013). Digital competence of adolescents and
parents. The results of nationwide research. Moscow: Foundation for Internet Development.
Sourbati, 2009 - Sourbati M. (2009). Media Literacy and Universal Access in Europe.
The Information Society, 25, 248–254.
Sparks, 2013 - Sparks C. (2013). Global Media Studies: Its Development and Dilemmas.
Media, Culture & Society, 35(1), 121–131.
Tsymbalenko et al., 2013 - Tsymbalenko S.B., Sharikov A.V. et al (2013). Monitoring and
analysis of the Moscow informational and educational space: results of sociological research and
programming. Moscow: Moscow state University of Humanity.
Usov, 1989 - Usov Y.N. (1989). Film education as a means of aesthetic education and artistic
development of students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Russian Academy of Education,
Moscow.
Wilson et al., 2011 - Wilson C., Grizzle A., Tuazon R. Akyempong K., Cheung C.-K. (2011).
Media and Information Literacy. Curriculum for Teachers. Paris: UNESCO.
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Russian Federation on the basis of national monitoring of media conduct (2009-2013). Moscow:
Zircon.
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European Researcher, 2015, Vol.(93), Is. 4
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Published in the Russian Federation
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Has been issued since 2010.
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 93, Is. 4, pp. 331-334, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/er.2015.93.331
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 37
Media Literacy Function in Critical Blogs
1 Alexander
2 Anastasia
Fedorov
Levitskaya
1 Anton
Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russian Federation
Branch of Rostov State University of Economics
Doctor of Pedagogic Sciences, Professor
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
2 Taganrog Management and Economics Institute, Russian Federation
PhD, Associate professor
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Abstract
The Internet is widely recognized as playing an important role in facilitating education on a
range of issues, including media literacy. Analyzing the media critical activity of contemporary
Russian bloggers, the authors of the article reveal the following reasons for popularity or, on the
contrary, unpopularity of blogger's media criticism: targeted orientation, emotional charge,
entertainment nature, duration, interactiveness, multimedia mode, simplicity/complexity of the
language of a media text, the level of conformity.
Keywords: media criticism; media education; media literacy; media competence; analytical
thinking; ethics; media blogger.
Introduction
It is difficult to challenge the viewpoint that the new "hyper technological environment, this
deepening of communicative globalization, has not only altered the way we perceive and use time
and space, it has also changed the chemistry of our everyday life and our culture. This new life and
cultural chemistry fostered by the acceleration of the rapid configuration of huge, changing publics
is in fact generating chain reactions of an unheard of scope and complexity that we are still far from
being able to grasp. It is affecting our environment, our culture and also our way of being
individuals, our way of framing ourselves as human beings. Perhaps we are not prepared to wholly
explain the change, but we must examine it because it affects all the dimensions of our existence.
Perhaps this is an unprecedented mutation that will not only affect our environment but also
decisively influence our psyche and our character" [Perez Tornero, Varis, 2010, p. 13-14].
In fact, interactive media, engaging their user into the creating process, thus turning him/her
from a receiver/translator into a creator of media texts, have made a real breakthrough to a personal
freedom in mass information sphere. The degree of dependence of a person from the dictate of a media
message's producer has significantly decreased and the borders of choice have been broadened; the
personality's status and self esteem have been raised [Korkonosenko, 2013, p. 38].
331
European Researcher, 2015, Vol.(93), Is. 4
Materials and methods
S.V. Ushakova (2006) classified the forms of media contribution to the development of
citizens' media competence. According to her, there are two groups - of direct and of indirect
participation.
The forms of indirect participation include:
- self education of the audience during media exposure; additionally, broadening of one's
communicative experience;
- enhancement of the audience's media competence due to its cooperation with media
agencies as freelance correspondents, sources of journalistic information, and/or participants of
television/radio programs;
- release of periodicals and TV/radio programs by a media center in an educational
institution/club/community center;
- blogging - publishing discussion or informational posts on the World Wide Web;
- "self-press" - participation in publication of alternative (informal) periodicals;
- public, out-of-editorial body communication of journalists and other media sphere
specialists with representatives of the audience (in the form of special events, journalists' meetings
with public, television audiences, etc.).
In contrast, the forms of direct participation include:
- media education publications and programs in mass media;
- media journalists/ media critics articles, containing analysis, interpretation and evaluation
of the contents of mass media and the issues of their functioning in society;
- publishing periodical TV guides and film guides, targeted at the mass audience and aimed at
the development of basic abilities to perceive and evaluate audiovisual media texts (facilitated by
reading publications, related to the analysis of TV programs and films);
- publishing syllabi, lesson plans and other materials produced by public media monitoring
organizations and media activists - representatives of civic society;
- sections and columns in mass media aimed at maintaining the feedback with the audience,
and explaining the "inside" journalism policy of collecting, evaluating, and verifying the
information;
- ombudsmen's columns, inquiring into disputable cases of journalism [Ushakova, 2006].
Whereby, speaking about professional media criticism, the peculiarity of the current situation is
connected to the fact that some media critics, actively involved in press, also successfully collaborate with
electronic media as well, thus television criticism begins to acquire some synthetic forms, uniting political
analysis and dismantling internal corporate problems, political bias and the independent view, theoretical
analysis of the form and method, and superficial, tabloid-tinted simplistic view [Gureev, 2004].
One would think that such active media critics as Dmitry Bykov, working nearly 24/7 in press, on
TV and on the Internet, would fully get hold of the audiences' attention. However it is not happening there are quite a few media bloggers on the Internet who sometimes attract even more readers.
Conclusions
Why is bloggers' media criticism popular?
We suggest the following reasons for popularity or, vice versa, unpopularity of bloggers'
media criticism:
1) Targeted orientation: media texts of popular bloggers may be aimed at a broad audience (thus
potentially popular) or at a narrow circle, joined by thematic or other interests. Professional media
critics' texts, apart from being targeted at a wide audience, may be corporative, that is "can influence
comparatively small, but strategically important groups of audiences (journalists and top media
managers, teachers and students of journalism schools, working journalists, researchers in various
fields of social studies and humanities, and social activists), empowering them with new ideas and
approaches, new vision of common problems of media functioning" [Korochensky, 2003, p.33].
2) Duration: popular media bloggers' texts are usually short, and professional media critics'
texts, on the contrary, often require prolonged reading/listening, that, evidently, discourages the
concentration of an impatient part of the audience with a short attention span (especially, the young);
3) Interactiveness, multi-media mode: popular media bloggers' texts are often interactive.
Short texts are accompanied by photographs, video clips, links to other sites, etc. On the other
hand, professional media critics' texts, even on the web, resemble the format of print press;
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European Researcher, 2015, Vol.(93), Is. 4
4) Language. Popular media bloggers' texts are written in plain, understandable for a wide
audience, language; often without a deep analysis and logical structure. Meanwhile professional
media critics' texts are well structured, logical, and often aimed at media competent readers who
are aware of the social and cultural context of the issue, understand media language, and
specialized media terms, know the functions of media agencies, manipulative effects, the creative
work of media professionals, and so on.
5) Emotional charge. The texts written by media bloggers, in general, are clearly emotionally
charged. They sometimes contain sharp, straightforward judgments and comments, while
professional media critics' texts are characterized by the understatement, sometimes ambivalent,
(implicitly) ironic, reasonable, argumentative evaluation of the ethical, aesthetic and other
categories. Moreover, the media critics of older generation often act in the spirit of "enlightenment"
and development of good taste in their audience.
6) Entertainment. Popular media bloggers' texts frequently exploit the entertainment
function, while professional media critics' texts are occasionally too serious, or even pompous.
7) Conformity. On the one hand, non-conformist texts of media bloggers commonly oppose
any authority, criticize media personalities of any scale and position. On the other hand,
professional media critics avoid any personal attacks, they tend to use apophasis, they do not break
social taboos. That said, we encounter that both bloggers and professional journalists frequently
break social norms [Muratov, 2001], and are not shy to use abusive language, including obscene
lexis, in their political propaganda statements.
What does the above-said mean for the media education practice? In this sense, it implies that
besides the mass communications theory, the syllabi for media teachers' pre-service or in-service
education should include theoretical units on non-mass mediated communication - ranging from
auto-media communication and interpersonal communication to in-group and intergroup media
communication. This theoretical background should become a starting point for the development of
the new framework of media education both in schools and universities [Sharikov, 2012]. Bloggers'
media texts may become a useful teaching and learning tool for a modern teacher, the same as
traditional media texts, created by professionals working in press, on television, and on radio.
Acknowledgement
The article is written within the framework of a study supported by the grant of the Russian
Science Foundation (RSF). Project № 14-18-00014 "Synthesis of media education and media
criticism in the preparation of future teachers", performed at Taganrog Management and
Economics Institute.
References:
1.
Gureev, M. Does modern television criticism exist? // Culture. 2004. № 44.
2.
Korkonosenko, S.G. Journalism education: the need for pedagogical conceptualization
// International journal of experimental education. 2013. №1, pp. 38-41.
3.
Korochensky, A.P. Media criticism in the theory and practice of journalism. Ph.D. dis.
St.Petersburg, 2003.
4.
Muratov, S.A. TV - the evolution of intolerance. Moscow: Logos, 2001. 240 p.
5.
Sharikov, A.V. On the need for reconceptualization of media education // Media
Education. 2013. № 4.
6.
Ushakova, S.V. The role of journalism in the development of media culture of the
audience // Journalism and Media Education in the XXI century. Belgorod: Belgorod State
University, 2006.
333
European Researcher, 2015, Vol.(93), Is. 4
УДК 37
Медиаобразовательная функция блогерской медиакритики
1 Александр
2 Анастасия
Федоров
Левицкая
1 Таганрогский
институт имени А.П. Чехова, Российская Федерация
Доктор педагогических наук, профессор
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
2 Таганрогский институт управления и экономики, Российская Федерация
Кандидат педагогических наук, доцент
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Аннотация. Анализируя медиакритическую деятельность современных российских
блоггеров, авторы статьи выявили следующие причины популярности или, наоборот,
непопулярности блоггерской медиакритики: целевые ориентации, эмоциональность,
развлекательный характер, продолжительность, интерактивность, мультимедиахарактер,
простота/сложность языка медиатекста.
Ключевые слова: медиа; медиакритика; медиаобразование; медиаграмотность;
медиакомпетентность; аналитическое мышление; этика; средства массовой информации;
блоггер.
334
European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
Copyright © 2016 by Academic Publishing House
Researcher
All rights reserved.
Published in the Russian Federation
European Journal of Contemporary Education
ISSN 2304-9650
E-ISSN 2305-6746
Vol. 16, Is. 2, pp. 205-216, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2016.16.205
www.ejournal1.com
WARNING!
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or in part), or otherwise commercial use of the
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a violation of copyright.
UDC 37
Modern Media Criticism and Media Literacy Education:
The Opinions of Russian University Students
Alexander Fedorov a , * , Anastasia Levitskaya b
a Anton
Chekhov Taganrog Institute (branch of Rostov State Economic University),
Russian Federation
b Taganrog Management and Economics Institute, Russian Federation
Abstract
The authors analyze the results of two universities students' survey aimed at finding out the
respondents' media competence levels. The findings confirm a general tendency, that commonly,
less than a quarter of the young audience reveals a high level development of the media
competence's motivational index. A considerably larger part of respondents, about a half,
demonstrates a low level of the motivational index. The analysis of the received data proves that a
high degree of the media contact frequency and a high level of media competence’s motivational
index are not directly linked with an ability level to analyze a media text comprehensively.
Nevertheless, the levels of interpretational/evaluation parameters of the audience's media
competence to a large extent reflect the levels of their informational and motivational descriptors.
Moreover, it turns out that the high level of informational index does not necessarily correlate to
the level of media competence’s evaluation index. On the whole, the survey shows that media
competence of modern students needs to be developed. Therefore, university students (not less
that school students) do need media literacy courses.
Keywords: media literacy, education, media criticism, students, Russia, university, survey.
Corresponding author
E-mail addresses: 1954alex@mail.ru (A. Fedorov), a.levitskaya@tmei.ru (A. Levitskaya)
*
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
1. Introduction
The students' survey was organized in order to find out levels of the audience’s media
competence (with emphasis on the synthesis of media education and criticism). Media competence
is defined as a complex of motives, knowledge, skills, abilities (descriptors: contact, motivational,
informational, interpretation/evaluation, activity), facilitating the choice, use, critical analysis,
evaluation, creation and communicating media texts in different forms, types and genres, analysis
of the media functioning in society (Ashley et al., 2013; Downey et al., 2014; Fantin, 2010; Fedorov,
2003; Korochensky, 2003; Marchessault, 2014; Myasnikova, 2010; Potter, 2014; Soldatova, 2013;
Sourbati, 2009; Sparks, 2013; Tsymbalenko et al., 2013; Wilson et al., 2011; Zircon, 2013).
While developing most of the units of questions and assignments we deliberately chose the
close form of a questionnaire (so that a question was followed by several options to choose from).
This decision is explained by the fact that most students are as a rule not able to provide clear and
brief argumentation for their viewpoint on media preferences. Therefore several most probable
variants of an answer were offered. Moreover, close questionnaires take less time to fill out for the
respondents, and can fit in within the time limit of a class period.
The differentiation of media competence levels is based on the classification of media
competence levels (the audience's development in the media culture sphere). According to it,
audiences are offered 5 main units of questions and assignments:
 the unit of questions for ascertaining the media competence’s contact index level (frequency
of contacts with different types of media, media criticism and media literacy texts);
 the unit of questions to determine motivational level of the audience's media competence
(genre, thematic, psychological, therapeutic, emotional, gnoseological, moral, intellectual, creative,
and aesthetical motives that effect the audience's choice to contact various media texts);
 the unit of questions to discover the informational level (knowledge of terminology, history
and theory of media culture, media education and media criticism) of the audience's media
competence;
 the unit of analytical assignments to determine the interpretation/evaluation level of the
audience's media competence;
 the unit of assignments to ascertain the activity (practical, hands-on) index of the
audience's media competence.
2. Materials and Methods
The following respondents took part in the survey:
 61 first and second year students of Taganrog Management and Economics Institute
(respondents only participating in summative experiment), including 38 young women and
23 young men;
 59 first and second year students of Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute (respondents,
participating both in summative and formative experiments), including 39 female and 20 male
students.
The aim of ascertaining the media competence’s contact index level: to determine the
frequency of contacts of the audience with various types of media. Gained results reflect the degree
of respondents' involvement with media culture, media critics and educators' texts.
Each respondent was offered to choose an option characteristic of his/her frequency of contacts
with different media (press, TV, radio, Internet, etc.).
While determining the contact level we decided to consider the following scale:
 high level: respondent’s daily contacts with media texts;
 medium level: respondent's contact vary from several times a week to a month;
 low level: rare contacts with media or total isolation from media.
It is clear that the content of such contacts is affected by media competence’s motivational
factor. However, according to our hypothesis, such influence is not direct: i.e. single contacts with
media do not necessarily mean that a respondent possesses a wide spectrum of media motives and
vice versa.
The aim of determining motivational index levels was to ascertain most popular with the
audience contact motives (genre, thematic, psychological, therapeutic, emotional, gnoseological,
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
moral, intellectual, aesthetical, functional) with media texts (including media critics' texts and
media educational texts).
While determining the motivational index levels of media competence development, we
defined:
 high level as a wide complex of genre, thematic, emotional, hedonistic, intellectual, creative,
psychological, aesthetical motives (including: choice of various genre and thematic spectrum, in
particular including non-entertaining genres; pursuit for philosophical/intellectual, aesthetic
challenge/dialogue with a media text's creators, criticism; identification, sympathy; quest for
aesthetical impressions; quest for new information; for proving own competence in various spheres
of life and media culture; search for material for study, research objectives, etc.);
 medium level as a complex of genre, thematic, emotional, hedonistic, intellectual, creative,
psychological, aesthetical motives, including: the choice of rather varied genre and thematic range,
search for study/research materials; however without significant evidence of pursuit for
philosophical/intellectual, aesthetical challenge/dialogue with media text's creators;
 low level: narrow range of genre, thematic, emotional, hedonistic, psychological motives,
mainly the choice of entertainment genre; pursuit for compensation, for psychological "treatment";
search for suspense, recreation, absence of aesthetical, intellectual, creative motives of contacts
with media texts.
Achieved results help us to account for audiences’ real preferences, take into consideration
concrete media genres and themes, that the audiences are motivated by, and therefore, are
considerably affected (morally and psychologically). These findings need to be compared with the
written creative assignments, and interviews, in order to more specifically ascertain audiences’ self
evaluation of preferences and underpinning grounds, as revealed by the research.
At this stage students were offered a list of media genres and functions (press, radio,
television, Internet, video games, etc.) to choose the ones they prefer. Respondents were also
presented a list of psychological, therapeutical, emotional, gnoseological, moral, intellectual,
creative, and aesthetic motives of contacts with media texts. Knowing media genre and functions
direction, chosen by the respondents, with high degree of probability we were able to suppose the
types of most important motives of contacts with media. For example, if a person prefers
entertainment, blockbuster media, he/she is likely to choose the search for recreation,
entertainment, suspense, as his/her main motives for media contacts.
Detection of informational index level was aimed at discovering the audience's knowledge of
terminology, history, and theory of media culture, media education, and media criticism. Students
were asked to answer 22 questions. While defining media competence’s informational index levels,
we agreed upon:
 high level: more than 75 % of correct answers;
 medium level: more than 50 % of correct answers;
 low level: less than 50 % of correct answers.
Of course, there is a linkage between levels of contact, motivational and informational
factors. A person not contacting with media, cannot possess any information about media culture.
However, according to our hypothesis, a high level of contact and motivational descriptors of media
competence can combine with a low/medium level of informational index and vice versa.
Undoubtedly, a survey based on the multiple choice questions, is always limited by a chance
of getting a correct answer unfairly, a guess, not based on real knowledge. Moreover, some
respondents might even cheat. Therefore, the results of the tests were validated later by additional
individual analytical and creative tasks, and interviews.
While working on determining the levels of interpretation/evaluation index we agreed upon
the following scale:
 high level: media texts analysis is based on the ability to relate with its author, ability to
analyze and synthesize space and time form of a media text; understanding, interpretation, and
evaluation of the author's concept in the context of a media text's structure; the ability to correlate
emotional appreciation with the conceptual judgment, to transfer this opinion onto other media
culture types; to connect a media text with own experience and other people's experience;
 medium level: ability to characterize a media character’s behavior and psychological state;
using fragments of knowledge to be able to explain the logics of the events in the plot, ability to
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
comment on some components of a media image; absence of the interpretation of the author's
stance (or its simplistic interpretation);
 low level: naive comprehension of a media text, poor knowledge of media language,
incomprehensibly expressed opinions, conformity to other opinions, neither interpretation of
characters' and authors' positions, nor their evaluation.
We gave to the respondents the choice between three topics for writing assignments:
a) "Audiovisual media text that impressed me",
b) "Audiovisual media text that influenced my self esteem and/or relation to other people",
c) "Analysis of a single episode from an impressive media text".
Respondents had to choose one topic and write a 3-4 page essay. According to Usov (1989),
the very choice of the topic can indirectly testify of the interpretation/evaluation index level of a
respondent’s media competence: option c), as a rule, is chosen by respondents with higher level of
interpretation/evaluation parameter. With that, it is logical to suppose that the motivational index
level of media competence is considerably linked with the interpretation/evaluation index level.
That is, the more varied media contact motives are (including intellectual and aesthetic
components), the higher his/her level of media competence’s interpretation/evaluation index.
While ascertaining levels of media competence’s activity factor, i.e. practical/hands-on skills
to create and communicate media texts of various types and genres, we agreed upon the following:
 high level: independent/autonomous skills to create media texts of various types and
genres;
 medium level: practical skills of media texts creation with the help of
teachers/experts/peers;
 low level: practical skills are deficient.
The audience was offered to do several hands-on tasks aimed at a media text creation
(video/photo, layout of a poster, etc.). Noticeably, a high level of activity parameter can combine
with a low/medium level of interpretation/evaluation index and vice versa.
3. Results
Table 1. Classification of Contact Index Levels
Levels of
contact index
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute students:
control group (%)
Female
Male
Total
73.7
23.7
2.6
95.7
4.3
0.0
82.0
16.4
1.6
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
Total
84.5
12.9
2.6
80.0
15.0
5.0
83.1
13.5
3.4
Table 1 data testify that there is no big difference between the media contact levels of the
students in two universities (control and experimental groups). Over 80 % of the respondents show
high (daily) level of contact index. However, from the start, we didn't consider the contact index as
an ultimate parameter for media competence. Certainly, a respondent never contacting with media,
cannot be media competent. Nevertheless, the highest level of contacts cannot guarantee a high
level of media competence if a person does not acquire analytical skills.
On the other hand, there are less than 4 % of the students who show a low level of contact
index providing evidence that our category of respondents cannot imagine their life without media.
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
Table 2. Classification of the Contact Levels Index of the Students' Media Competence
Development Related to Media Critics' Texts
Levels of
contact index
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute students:
control group (%)
Female
Male
Total
10.4
44.8
44.8
8.7
43.5
47.8
9.8
44.2
46.0
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
12.8
61.6
25.6
10.0
45.0
45.0
Total
11.9
55.9
32.2
The Table 2 data indicate that on the whole there is no significant difference between the
contact levels with media criticism texts between two universities (control and experimental
groups). Less than 12 % show high (daily) level of contact with media criticism texts. On the other
hand, students revealing medium contact level comprise from 42.2 % to 55.9 %, so about half of the
given respondents category in that or another way (several times a week/a month) do
read/listen/watch media critics' texts.
Table 3. Classification of Contact Levels Index of the Media Competence Development Related to
Media Education Texts
Levels of
contact index
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute students:
control group (%)
Female
Male
Total
2.6
21.1
76.3
13.1
17.4
69.5
6.6
19.6
73.8
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
Total
0.0
33.3
66.7
15.0
20.0
65.0
5.1
28.8
66.1
The data of Table 3 attests no significant difference between levels of contact related to media
education texts expressed by the students in two universities (control and experimental groups).
On the whole, less than 7 % of them reveal a high (daily) level of contact related to media education
texts. On the other hand, there are 19.6 % to 28.8 % of students who manifest medium level, which
testifies that nearly one quarter of respondents do address media education texts several times a
week/month.
Table 4. Classification of the Motivation Index of Students' Media Competence Development
Levels of
motivational
index
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute students:
control group (%)
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
Total
Female
Male
15.8
28.9
55.3
17.4
30.4
52.2
16.4
29.5
54.1
17.9
25.7
56.4
15.0
30.0
55.0
Total
17.0
27.1
55.9
Table 4 data show that a high level of media competence’s motivational index development,
i.e. a wide complex of genre, thematic, emotional, gnoseological, hedonistic, intellectual,
psychological, creative, aesthetic motives (including: choice of various genre and thematic
spectrum of media texts, in particular including non-entertaining genres; pursuit for
philosophical/intellectual, aesthetic challenge/dialogue with a media text's creators, criticism;
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
identification, sympathy; quest for aesthetical impressions; quest for new information; for proving
own competence in various spheres of life and media culture; search for material for study,
research objectives, etc.) is only expressed by 16–17 % of the students (with no significant gender
differentiation). And vice versa, a lot more respondents – ranging from 54.1 % (Taganrog
Management and Economics Institute) up to 55.9 % (Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute) show a
low level of motivational parameter, meaning a narrow spectrum of genre, thematic, emotional,
hedonistic, psychological motives, including: the choice of media texts that are of strictly
entertaining genres and themes; pursuit of compensation; pursuit of psychological "therapy";
longing for thrill; recreation, entertainment and absence of aesthetical, intellectual, or creative
reasons of contacts with media).
Herewith, a deeper study of the findings showed that the students of two Russian universities
- Taganrog Management and Economics Institute (further: TMEI) and Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute (further: ACTI) - are attracted by the following genres most:
 comedy – from 77.1 % (TMEI) to 76.3 % (ACTI);
 science fiction – from 55.8 % (TMEI) to 59.3 % (ACTI);
 thriller – from 49.1 % (TMEI) to 40.7 % (ACTI);
 detective – from 45.9 % (TMEI) to 47.5 % (ACTI).
As far as the gender is concerned, it turns out that the number of male students preferring
such entertaining genres as science fiction, thriller and a detective story, is somewhat higher than
the number of female ones:
 science fiction: 60.9 % of male students and 52.7 % female students (TMEI); 60 % of male
students and 59 % of female students (ACTI);
 thriller: 60.9 % of males and 42.2 % of females (TMEI); 45.0 % of male students and 38.5 %
of female students (ACTI);
 detective genre: 47.8 % of male students and 44.8 % of females (TMEI); 50.0 % of male and
46.2 % of female students (ACTI).
At the same time, female students prefer a sentimental melodrama genre: 17.4 % of male
preferences vs. 42.2 % of female preferences (TMEI); 15.0 % of male preferences vs. 53.8 % of
female preferences (ACTI).
The following genres became outsiders:
 musical comedy - from 1.6 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 5.1 % (ACTI);
 operetta - from 1.7 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 6.8 % (ACTI);
 opera - from 5.0 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 11.9 % (ACTI);
 satire - from 5.0 % (preferences of students of TMEI) to 18.6 % (ACTI).
Subsequent talks with the respondents in focus groups showed that modern students
perceive opera and operetta as archaic, boring genres; and they appreciate not satire in comedies
but pure entertainment (gags, tricks, funny jokes, stand-up comedian acts, etc.).
The answer of the students of two Russian institutes - TMEI and ACTI - to the question about
the appealing functions in print/audiovisual media texts, media critics' works, media education
literature (in press, Internet, radio or TV), has considerably assisted us to correlate them to
previously expressed genre preferences.
The analysis of students' answers demonstrates that the most popular function of media texts
is a recreational one: 60.7 % of TMEI students (at that this function is 20 % more popular with
female respondents than with male ones) and 52.5 % of ACTI students (without significant genre
difference).
Then follow:
 information-communicative function (46.0 % of students' answers in TMEI; 28.8 % of
students' answers in ACTI, no big gender difference);
 aesthetical, artistic function (41.0 % of TMEI students, with females prevailing by 23.9 %;
and 44.1 % of ACTI students’ preferences, with female answers prevailing 21.3 %).
Gender differences are visible in the answers about other functions of media texts:
 analytical function: 60.9 % of male TMEI students vs. 15.8 % of female students; 35.0 % of
male ACTI students vs. 28.2 % of female students;
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
 ideological, political function: the function is popular with 39.1 % of male TMEI and 26.3 %
female students, while in ACTI – 15.2 % of male vs. 28.2 % of female students;
 aesthetical function: in TMEI it is favoured by 30.4 % male and 18.5 % female students,
while in ACTI this function is popular with 20.0 % of male respondents and 10.3 % of female ones;
 advertising / commercial function: 4.3 % of male and 15.8 % of female TMEI students;
30.0 % of male and 15.4 % of female respondents in ACTI marked this function.
Let us bear in mind that the analysis of genre motivation showed that on the whole,
entertaining media texts ranked from 45.9 % to 77.0 %, that correlates to popularity of the
recreational function with the surveyed audience. The smallest number of votes (1.6–1.7 %) of both
universities' students was collected by the regulatory-corporation function of media texts. We have
expected that because our survey group was not a media-related major, but comprised of future
managers, economists, lawyers, and teachers who are not very keen on professional backstage of
media industry.
Answering the question of what main psychological, intellectual, creative, aesthetic, etc.
motives of the students' contacts with media critics’ works, are, revealed the following leading
motives:
 pursuit to access new information – 82.0 % (preferences of TMEI students, with female
students' answers prevailing 13.0 %) and 67 % (ACTI students with female answers prevailing by
26.9 %);
 search for entertainment, recreation - 60.7 % (TMEI students, with 20.7 % more female
answers than male ones) and 52.5 % of ACTI students, without significant gender differentiation;
 search for aesthetical, artistic impressions – 44.3 % (preferences of TMEI students, with
female voices dominating by 22.3 %) and 41.1 % (preferences of ACTI students, with female
students dominating by 21.3 %);
 longing for spending one's free time - from 29.5 % (TMEI students with female voices
exceeding male ones by 12.6 %) to 32.2 % (ACTI students with no big gender difference).
On the whole, the students' aspiration for entertainment and recreation (60.7 %) and relaxed
way of watching/listening media (29.5 %) correlates to students' preferences of entertaining media
genres and functions.
The less number of students' voices was received by:
 aspiration for improving one's skills in media literacy – 2.6 % (TMEI students) and 1.9 %
(ACTI students);
 pursuit of developing one's knowledge in media education - 4.4 % of TMEI students and
3.2 % of ACTI students.
To sum up, the low motivation of students to gain knowledge and skills in the field of media
literacy was something we had expected because the survey was conducted with 1-2 year students
who had never taken a media education course.
Table 5. Classification of the Informational Index Levels
Levels of
information
index
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute
students: control group (%)
Female
Male
Total
0.0
55.3
44.7
0.0
52.2
47.8
0.0
54.1
45.9
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
Total
0.0
51.3
48.7
0.0
55.0
45.0
0.0
52.5
47.5
The detection of the information index levels of TMEI and ACTI students' media competence
development was conducted with the help of a test. The testing procedure with the developed
questions (see Appendix) had some vulnerable spots. On the one hand, the test format contains the
opportunity of guessing (intuitive or logic – by eliminating most ambiguous answers) the right
answer with the probability of 25 %. On the other hand, during the testing there might have
occurred cheating or prompting by some participants. However, the test results were verified by
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
the finding of focus groups and face-to-face interviews that to a large extent facilitated the
clarification and validation of students' competence levels.
None of the students questioned demonstrated the high level of media competence
development’s information index (which was assigned as 75–100 % of correct answers to questions
related to terminology, history and theory of media, media culture, media criticism and media
education). About 52–54 % of surveyed students showed a medium level of the information
parameter (without significant gender differences between the respondents). 45-47 % of the
students revealed a low level of media competence's information index that is they were able to give
less than 50 % of correct answers. Herewith, the minimal number of correct answers (less than
40 %) was received to the questions connected to the knowledge of media specialists' activities,
media educators, media theories, and a media text production stages.
Completing a phrase "Media criticism is ..." from 65.6 % (TMEI students) to 69.5 % (ACTI
students) could choose a correct answer out of four suggested. Preliminary conversations with
students in focus groups showed that without multiple choice options they, as a rule, found it hard
to give a definition to media criticism. Still, we should note that even having a correct answer as
one of the options, one third of the students could not detect it.
Completing a sentence “Media culture is...”, from 85.3 % of TMEI students to 89.8 % of ACTI
students were able to choose a correct answer out of the four given options. However, as focus
groups had previously revealed, without ready answers to choose from, students were at a loss.
Completing a definition for media education, from 77.1 % of TMEI students to 83.0 % of
ACTI students could choose a correct answer. But again, the same question in focus groups was
difficult for the participants.
Finishing a phrase "Media perception is...", 72.1 % of TMEI students and 69.5 % of ACTI
students chose the correct option. As before, they had difficulty giving this definition without
suggested answers in focus groups.
Completing a phrase "Media language is..." 91.8 % of TMEI students and 83.0 % of ACTI
students surveyed could choose the correct answer out of the four provided. Nevertheless,
preliminary conversations with students in focus groups showed that without multiple choice
options they, as a rule, found it hard to give a definition.
Completing a definition for media competence, 62.3 % of TMEI students and 59.3 % of ACTI
students chose the right answer. 64.0 % of TMEI students and 52.5 % of ACTI students were able
to differentiate a correct answer while completing a sentence "Media text is...".
Matching a "story line" with its definition, 62.3 % of TMEI students and 47.4 % of ACTI
students recognized the correct answer out of the four offered options. 72.1 % TMEI and 67.8 %
ACTI students gave the correct answer continuing the phrase "Manipulative influence of media
is...".
When answering a question about the workplace of a media critic, 72.1 % of TMEI students
and 67.8 % of ACTI students gave the correct answer. We should remember that the latter and all
of the above listed questions raised problems when they were asked in focus groups with no
multiple choice options. Therefore, the students' choice during a test is more likely a result of
logical comparison of the suggested options for choice (the so called "test-wiseness"), but not of the
real knowledge. Moreover, a test's major weakness is that it promotes guessing (one can get 25 %
by choosing all "a"s or "b"s , etc.). So it should be stressed, that the test results have been balanced
with other forms of research.
Answering the question about the job of a media teacher, 37.7 % of TMEI students and
50.8 % of ACTI students got the right answer. Choosing a surname of a researcher who had
introduced the media theory concept of the "global village", only one third – 37.7 % of TMEI
students and 37.3 % of ACTI students chose the correct answer. While in focus groups none of the
participants could remember the name of Marshall McLuhan as its author.
Looking for a term not related to media culture, media criticism or education, 70.5 % (TMEI
students) and 72.9 % (ACTI students) were able to choose the correct answer.
However, identifying skills, not related to media culture, media criticism or education, only
14.8 % of Management and Economics Institute, and 27.1 % of ACTI were able to choose the
correct answer out of the four options. Another rather low result was shown by the choice of the
media-related "wrong sentence": only 34.4 % of TMEI students and 50.8 % of ACTI students could
identify the correct answer.
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
While answering the question, which of the following theories of media is based on the idea
of strong, direct impact of a media text on the audience, the impact that provokes immediate
reaction, only 34.4 % of respondents from TMEI and 32.2 % of ACTI students chose the correct
answer (inoculatory approach). Answering the question, which of the suggested media theories is
based on studying sign systems, only 39.4 % of TMEI students and 52.5 % of ACTI students
surveyed identified semiotic theory as the correct one.
Choosing the correct phrase (out of 4 options) connected to media criticism, 19.7 % of TMEI
students and 18.6 % of ACTI students were able to find it. Answering the question about what
media critic's writing about television, only 16.4 % and 23.7 % (students of TMEI and ACTI,
correspondently) identified the right person. When doing the assignment to re-arrange the stages
of an audiovisual or print media critic's text in the logical sequence, only 39.3 % of TMEI and
23.7 % of ACTI students coped with the task.
Table 6. Classification of the Interpretation/evaluation Index Levels
Levels of
interpretation/
evaluation
index
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute students:
control group (%)
Female
Male
Total
0.0
76.3
23.7
0.0
73.9
26.1
0.0
75.4
24.6
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
Total
0.0
76.9
23.1
0.0
75.0
25.0
0.0
76.3
23.7
Exposure of the interpretation/evaluation index levels was conducted through the
assignments related to the analysis of various media texts.
As a result (Table 6) it turned out that none of the respondents demonstrated a high level of
interpretation/evaluation index. The high level presumes a media text’s analysis based on the
ability to relate to its author, analysis and synthesis of the space and time form, its understanding,
interpretation and evaluation of the author's concept in the context of a media text’s structure; the
ability to correlate emotional perception with concept opinion, to transfer this opinion onto other
genres and types of media culture, to relate a media text with own experience or experience of
other people.
The medium level of media competence development’s interpretation/evaluation index
assumes the ability to characterize characters' behaviour and psychological state on the basis of
rudimentary knowledge; the ability to explain the logic of the events sequence in a plot; the ability
to dwell on some components of a media image; lack of an author's stance interpretation (or its
simplistic interpretation). The medium level was demonstrated by 75-76 % of students without a
significant gender difference in both universities.
The low level of interpretation/evaluation parameter presumes a naive, realistic perception of
a media text's story line, unawareness of media language peculiarities, inconsistency, confusion of
opinions, dependency on peer influence; simplistic interpretation of characters' positions and the
author's stance. This level was shown approximately by a quarter of respondents in both
universities.
Table 7. Classification of Activity Index Levels
Activity index
levels
High
Medium
Low
Taganrog Management
and Economics Institute students:
control group (%)
Female
Male
Total
28.9
55.3
15.8
34.8
56.5
8.7
31.2
55.7
13.1
213
Anton Chekhov Taganrog
Institute students:
experimental group (%)
Female
Male
Total
25.6
56.4
18.0
30.0
60.0
10.0
27.1
57.6
15.3
European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
The identification of activity index levels was realized in the course of analysis of their
assignments targeted at creation and communication of media texts’ various forms and genres.
On the whole (Table 7), the high level of the activity index (practical skills to create a media
text) was demonstrated by 27-31 % of students. With that male students prevailed by 5 %
approximately.
The medium level of activity parameter (hands-on skills to create a media text with the help
of a teacher/specialist/other people) was revealed by about a half of the students, with male
respondents outnumbering female ones by 1-4 %.
The low level of activity index (inability to create a media text or unwillingness to do it) was
shown by 13-15 % of students, with female students prevailing by 7-8 %.
4. Discussion
Validness of our findings can be proved by the research results of Moscow sociological group
"Zircon" under the title "Current state and perspectives of media literacy of the Russian citizens
based on the national monitoring of media behavior (2009-2013)" which was initiated by the
Ministry of Communications and Mass Media of the Russian Federation and used the volume of
1600 respondents (representative sample). The surveys were held annually in five stages from
2009 to 2013. As reported by "Zircon", on average, over 80 % of Russian population watch
television (i.e. contact with television media texts) daily (Zircon, 2013).
If we address the survey results of teenagers’ Internet contacts, held by the research group
headed by G. Soldatova in 2013 (1203 teenagers aged 12-17 were questioned, living in 58 Russian
cities with the population of 100 thousand people and more, from 45 regions and 8 federal areas),
we'll see that Russian teens somewhat surpass both adults and university students as far as the
frequency of contacts with media texts is concerned. 89 % of teenagers use Internet daily
(Soldatova, 2013). Similar findings were gained by other Russian (Tsymbalenko et al., 2013),
British (Ofcom, 2013) researches of teenagers' media behavior, and others media researches
(Fenton, 2009; Garcia-Ruiz, Ramirez-Garcia, Rodriguez-Rosell, 2014; Hammer, 2011; Hermes et
al., 2013; Holt, & Von Krogh, 2010).
The comparative analysis of the students’ answers in two Russian universities – Taganrog
Management and Economics Institute and Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute - to the question
about the frequency of their contacts with media texts showed that on average, over 80 % of
students (82.0 % in TMEI and 83.0 % in ACTI) contact with media on a daily basis. On the whole,
the findings verify the results of many sociological surveys (Fedorov, 2003; Myasnikova, 2010;
Zircon, 2013; Ofcom, 2013), held in different years. The level of media contacts is very high, while
entertaining genres dominate in their preferences. Male respondents to a larger degree than female
prefer action/thriller genres, female respondents tend to favor melodramas.
At the same time, as far as we know, neither in Russia, nor in other countries, a research of
audience's (including students') contacts with media criticism was conducted. Comparative
analysis of students' answers testifies the degree of demand for print and audiovisual media critics'
texts: without a significant gender difference, it turned out that from 9.8 % (TMEI students) to
11.9 % (ACTI students) have such contacts daily. Another 42-55 % students read/listen/watch
media critical text several times a week/month. Still, as we had anticipated, there are young people
in both universities who rarely or never contact media critics' messages: ranging from 32 to 47 %.
Focus groups conversations showed that the respondents in the first place, contact with texts of
popular but "amateur" media bloggers (who review latest films and computer games, videos, etc.),
because these texts are easier and more understandable for them than texts of media professionals.
As far as the research of audience's contacts with media literacy texts, we also have not found
the previously done similar surveys in Russia or elsewhere. Before conducting a survey, we took
into account that the first or second year students had not studied any media literacy course yet,
therefore a percentage of respondents who contacted media education texts on a regular basis
would be very low. However the findings corrected our initial expectation: there is a demand for
that kind of media texts. It turned out that 5.1 % (ACTI students) to 6.6 % (TMEI students) contact
with media education texts daily. From 19.6 % to 28.8 % of students try and do that several times a
week/month. However, as we had anticipated, the vast majority of young people - from 66.1 %
(ACTI) to 73.8 % (TMEI) never have anything to do with media literacy texts. Focus group
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2016, Vol. (16), Is. 2
discussions showed that the respondents, in the first place, read the texts related to technical,
computer learning aids, and do not differentiate between media education and computer literacy.
Our research has affirmed the tendencies, that had been revealed in previous researches
(Ashley et al., 2013; Downey et. Al, 2014; Fantin, 2010; Korochensky, 2003; Marchessault, 2014;
Myasnikova, 2010; Sparks, 2013; Potter, 2014).
Noticeably, a high level of motivational index is demonstrated, as a rule, by less than a
quarter of young audience. Whereas a considerably larger number of respondents - about a half has a low level of motivational parameter.
Our research findings proved that the high frequency of contacts with media and high level of
motivational index are not directly linked with the high level of comprehensive media texts
analysis. Although the information and motivational index levels of media competence are
reflected on levels of interpretation/evaluation parameter.
We have also acknowledged a tendency that a high level of media competence's information
index does not necessarily correspond to an equally high level of evaluation index. Therefore,
awareness of media terms, theory and history of media culture and media criticism does not
automatically foster analytical skills related to media texts.
The high level of media competence's information index was not demonstrated by a single
student of two universities surveyed that is characteristic of non-media studies departments. We
have found that half of respondents have a medium level of information index, that is they do have
some knowledge about media terminology, history and theory, gained through self education
or/and family education.
As far as the activity levels of media competence development are concerned, our analysis has
shown that they are rather similar to previous survey results (Fedorov, 2003; Myasnikova, 2010;
Soldatova, 2013; Zircon, 2013; Wilson et al., 2011; Tsymbalenko et al. 2013; Sourbati, 2009), when
a high level of this parameter was indicated by around a quarter of a similar age group respondents
(with male respondents slightly exceeding female ones).
5. Conclusion
In summary, we can draw a conclusion that our research demonstrates that modern students'
media competence in several parameters (motivational, information, interpretation/evaluation,
activity) needs to be considerably elevated. The development of the media competence’s above
mentioned parameters, in our opinion, is possible in the course of media education. Therefore,
university students (not less than school students) need to take media literacy courses. In that case
we can only speak about significant advancement of the UNESCO concept (Wilson et al., 2011)
about the synthesis of information and media literacy.
6. Support and acknowledgement
This article is written within the framework of a study supported by the grant of the Russian
Science Foundation (RSF) project No. 14-18-00014 “Synthesis of media education and media
criticism in the preparation of future teachers," performed at Taganrog Management and
Economics Institute.
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Asian Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2016, Vol.(1), Is. 1
Copyright © 2016 by Academic Publishing House Researcher
Published in the Russian Federation
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Has been issued since 2016.
ISSN: хххх-хххх
Vol. 1, Is. 1, pp. 14-18, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/slave.2016.1.4
www.ejournal45.com
Autobiographical Analysis on Media Education Classes for Student Audience
Alexander Fedorov a , *
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, branch of Rostov State University of Economics, Russian
Federation
a
Abstract
Autobiographical analysis – a comparison of person’s life experiences with the life experience
of media texts’ characters. This analytical approach is based on human associative memory (flashes
of memory) and helps the audience to understand the impact of media culture is critical for the
development of the human personality, contributes to the development of media competence.
The compensations of the feelings, missing in the person’s real life and experiences, are absolutely
natural. And the autobiographical analysis on media literacy education classes is associated with
the therapeutic effect and the phenomenon of compensation. The article presents the main
directions for autobiographical analysis on media education classes for student audience, including
the examples of creative problems and issues associated with this type of the analysis in the context
of media education problems, i.e. based on six key concepts of media literacy education: agency,
category, language, technology, audience, representation. The author thinks that the
autobiographical analysis of media texts on media education classes can significantly develop
media competence of students, including critical thinking and perception.
Keywords: autobiographical analysis, media, media texts, media education, media literacy,
media competence, students.
1. Introduction
Autobiographical analysis – a comparison of person’s life experiences with the life experience
of media texts’ characters. This analytical approach is based on human associative memory (flashes
of memory) and helps the audience to understand the impact of media culture is critical for the
development of the human personality, contributes to the development of media competence. The
compensations of the feelings, missing in the person’s real life and experiences, are absolutely
natural. And the autobiographical analysis on media literacy education classes is associated with
the therapeutic effect and the phenomenon of compensation.
The autobiographical analysis on media education classes in the student audience may apply
different tasks, activating critical and creative thinking of students, contributing to the
development of media competence.
2. Materials and methods
The main material for this article was the area of the books and articles about the
autobiographical analysis of media texts. The method of the autobiographical analysis implies a
number of students of creative tasks.
Corresponding author
E-mail addresses: mediashkola@rambler.ru (A. Fedorov)
*
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Asian Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2016, Vol.(1), Is. 1
3. Discussion
Cycle of literary creative tasks for autobiographical analysis of media texts in the classroom at
the student audience (Semali, 2000: 229-231; Berger, 2005: 125, 145, Fedorov, 2004; Fedorov,
2006: 175-228; Potter, 2014; Silverblatte, 2001; 2014) needs a number of students of creative tasks
(BFI, 1990; Buckingham, 2003; Berger, 2005:, 125; Fedorov, 2004, Potter, 2014; Silverblatt, 2001;
2014), but the cycle of tasks I significantly updated and revised. These tasks include analysis of the
key concepts of media literacy education [media agencies, media categories, media language,
media technologies, media representations, media audiences etc.].
4. Results
Media agencies (media agencies):
- imagine yourself as an employee of the media agency and create a detailed plan for a
hypothetical for publication or TV show.
Media / media text categories:
- writing a mini-scenario on the subject of how you would behave in different situations in
the frame of comedy, drama, detective genre.
Media technologies:
- imagine yourself as an employee of the media agency and write the justification of the
technology of the future media text.
Media languages:
- imagine yourself as one of the media personalities, whose eyes "see" or "hear" this or that
event and write a mini-scenario on topics similar events seen / heard with the audiovisual language
"subjective view" (angle, size of plan, detail, strength, tone, sound, etc.).
Media representations:
- writing the story on behalf of the protagonist or secondary character of media texts,
presenting yourself in his place (identification, compassion, co-creation);
- imagine yourself in a role of a well-known media text, but to change certain of its
components (genre, song, time, place, action skills; age, nationality character, etc.), write an
imaginary monologue of such a character;
- imagine yourself as an inanimate object or animal, appearing in media texts, thus changing
the narrative perspective in a paradoxical, fantasy-eccentric side; write an imaginary "inner
monologue" of such a character;
- write mini-scenario about funniest, darkest, happy and most unbelievable stories from his
life;
- take in consideration the certain features of media text’s character and the facts of your life,
to come up with new media images of characters, their conversations, emotional and moral
conditions;
- write the texts for the magazine, talks about your future life;
- write the text for TV-news associated with any event of your life.
Media audiences:
- write the monologues representatives audiences like your type of media insight, but you
different age and social status.
Cycle of the theatrical role-creative tasks for autobiographical analysis of media texts in the
classroom at the student audience:
Media agencies:
- role game with a variety of options for your hypothetical action role in media agency.
Media / media text categories:
- role game with variety of options to influence the audience of all ages and social status of
media texts of different genres.
Media technologies:
- preparing of the pantomime about the impact the television, computers, the Internet on
your personality.
Media languages:
- preparing of the theatrical sketches on the theme of various audiovisual interpretations of
your behavior in some real life situations.
Media representations:
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Asian Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2016, Vol.(1), Is. 1
- role game: the press conference with “domestic and foreign authors' of media text”
(“writers”, “directors”, “actors”, “producers” and others). The “authors” based in their responses to
their real life experiences, personal life events;
- role game about the process of "investigation" of the crimes in the media text, some
students playing the roles of "negative character".
Media audiences:
- role game about the audience dispute, with different types of media insight, age and social
status.
Graphic-cycle simulation creative tasks for autobiographical analysis of media texts in the
classroom at the student audience:
Media agencies:
- preparing series of drawings / comics, which revealed a variety of options for your
hypothetical action role in media agency.
Media / media text categories:
- create a series of drawings in which you portray yourself as a character of media texts of
different genres.
Media technologies:
- preparing series of drawings about the impact the television, computers and the Internet on
your personality.
Media languages:
- preparing comics with different visual interpretations of your behavior in some real life
situations;
Media representations:
- drafting a series of photographs "One day of my life";
- create your own website on the Internet on the topic of your personal life achievements;
then discuss the content (advantages, disadvantages) of this site with your friends, relatives,
acquaintances.
Media audiences:
- create a series of drawings on the theme of emotional reactions representatives audiences
with different types of media insight, the same or different from your age and social status.
Cycle of literary and analytical creative tasks for autobiographical analysis of media texts
in the classroom at the student audience (Semali, 2000: 229-231; Berger, 2005: 125, 145; Fedorov,
2004):
Media agencies:
- imagine yourself as an employee of the media agencies and analyze the impact of this
investment by a large amount in a risky project (correlating their actions with your life experiences
related to responsible financial transactions).
Media / media text categories:
- analysis of some associations (flashbacks) from your life, connected with some media
genres.
Media technologies:
- imagine yourself as an employee of the media agencies and analyze possible criteria for the
selection of technology to create a hypothetical media text.
Media languages:
- imagine yourself as one of the media personalities, whose eyes "see" or "hear" this or that
event, and analyze them based on their life experiences.
Media representations:
- analysis of the behavior of a particular media character based on a comparison of his
character and actions with your own.
Media audiences:
- analysis of the best / worst subjective (mood, individual physiological data, etc.) conditions
for the reception of media text;
- drafting the list of the top five (in your opinion) books / newspapers / magazines / movies /
radio / TV programs; Describe your criteria for this assessment.
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Asian Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2016, Vol.(1), Is. 1
Questions to the autobiographical analysis of media texts in the classroom at the student
audience (Semali, 2000; Berger, 2005; Fedorov, 2004: 43-51; Fedorov, 2006: 175-228; Silverblatt,
2001; 2014):
Media agencies:
- What action will you take if you mainly produced in solid media agency, if you feel that you
proposed projects threaten the company losses?
Media / media text categories:
What types of media texts and genres contribute more identification with media characters?
Media technologies:
Do you feel some effect of the computer technology, the Internet on you personality? If yes,
what?
Media languages:
Why certain characters’ items (including clothing, etc.) are represented this way? What these
things tell us about the media text characters, their lifestyle, their relation to each other?
Can you remember the episodes of media texts, where the events narrated / seen through the
eyes of a character?
Media representations:
Who is an active element of action in this media text - male or female character? What
actions make these characters? Could you make the same actions? Why (not) be able to?
What causes the characters' actions? Does the implications of this relationship to a particular
character's behavior? Do you tend to this kind of behavior? Why are?
At what stages and how it reveals the conflicts between the characters in this media text?
What would you do in such situations of conflict?
The characters of the media text to express their views on life, ideas? Do you close this kind of
ideas and views? Why Are?
What is your opinion about the character N.? Could you do the same as the character N. in
this or that situation?
Media audiences:
What makes you sympathize with one hero and condemn others?
Can change your sympathy for the characters in the course of the action in the story of a
media text? Whether it is connected with the features of your character, temperament, outlook?
What qualities, character traits you would ideally like to find the hero / heroine? Why are?
What feelings caused you this media text? If you do not feel, why not? If any media works
aroused strong feelings in you, how would you explain it? Did you feel envy, desire, anxiety, fear,
disgust, sadness or joy? Why Are?
Can you prepare an interview about the TV program on any day for yourself. Answer the
questions about your favorite shows, why you are interested to watch them, and can you to discuss
after? What programs you do not like?
If you were offered to make an exhibition / festival of media texts that reflect your individual
qualities, which texts would you choose? Why these media texts?
If you are asked to select ten of media texts that could tell about your country, which would
you choose? Why these media texts?
You are invited to read a university lecture on media culture in your country. What media
texts you could choose to illustrate your presentation? Justify your choice.
Here are a few typical opinions of students who used the method of autobiographical analysis
for media texts:
Statistics relentless: young people usually are not interested for art house media texts,
deprived of entertainment. Heroes and problems of art house media text are simply uninteresting
for many young viewers:
- I started watching it on TV a psychological film. People locked themselves within the four
walls. And they talk, talk... The main heroine of all time suffered because of something. She
talked very long about her love experiences. Boring! I did not understood. I switched to another
channel ... I am not against love. I recently watched one episode: the beautiful actress, interesting
plot, great shot! ... (Alex C.).
However, the analysis of autobiographical elements can be easily read and the statements of
the students focused on the entertainment media texts:
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Asian Journal of Social and Human Sciences, 2016, Vol.(1), Is. 1
- If my peers ask what they would like to see - comedy or tragedy (or drama - it is all one
for them!), they immediately will say, of course, a comedy! Relax, laugh! Yes, I have also
sometimes a bad mood and I that want to escape from with ... comedy, only to laugh ... I like
also Western melodrama, because there is a life which I never will. Of course, I would like to have
a big house, a closet full of fashionable clothes, the expensive car. And I would like to go every
year to different countries, to rest on the Mediterranean resorts, meet with celebrities ... So watch
TV or videos - and eyes run! How many countries, how many interesting things! But I want to
visit France. But I and my parents have not money for this trip. I know: I will not live so
beautiful ... My father and mother are not businessmen! Well, I can see the best style of the life in
the screen only (Tatiana F.).
Empathy, identification, in most cases it is something for which millions of people to
communicate with the media. We mentally put yourself in the shoes of a media text’s characters,
get used to the image, virtually "play" the role of the fancy. According to Anna K., given below, she
understands the topic and events of media text. Assessment of the status of the heroine of a media
text is given, though without nuance, but relatively faithful, though her and there is no deep insight
of the author's concept:
- I think there is a true life of the protagonist. She has no light in the window, there is no
real purpose in her life. It seems that the world is open, available. But, alas, is not for everyone ...
Rather, for those who have rich parents, husbands, relatives. Here at me, like the protagonist,
nothing. Like her, I live in a dorm ... It is so hard to get a job and a money for a separate
apartment. I like the main character, understand that we must remain optimistic, to hope for
something. Well, she was unlucky in the final. And me? I do not know ... (Anna K.).
Well, students would like to be in the country, where people live a normal and optimistic
life...
5. Conclusion
In this article I presented the main directions for Autobiographical Analysis on media
education classes for student audience, including the examples of creative problems and issues
associated with this type of the analysis in the context of media education problems, ie based on six
key concepts of media literacy education: agency, category, language, technology, audience,
representation. I suppose that the Autobiographical Analysis of media texts on media education
classes can significantly develop media competence of students, including critical thinking and
perception.
References
Berger, 2005 - Berger, A.A. (2005). Seeing is believing. Introduction to visual
communication. Moscow: Williams, 288 p.
Fedorov, 2004 - Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Specificity of media pedagogical students. Pedagogy.
№ 4, pp. 43-51.
Fedorov, 2006 - Fedorov, A.V. (2006). Media Education: creative tasks for students and
pupils. Innovation in Education. N 4, pp. 175-228.
Potter, 2014 - Potter, W.J. (2014). Media Literacy. L.A.: Sage.
Semali, 2000 - Semali, L.M. (2000). Literacy in Multimedia America. New York – London:
Falmer Press, 243 p.
Silverblatt, 2001 - Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London:
Praeger, 449 p.
Silverblatt, 2014 - Silverblatt, A. (Ed.). (2014). The Praeger Handbook of Media Literacy (in
2 volumes). Santa Barbara, California and Oxford, England: Praeger.
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Zhurnal ministerstva narodnogo prosveshcheniya, 2016, Vol.(8), Is. 2
Copyright © 2016 by Academic Publishing House Researcher
Published in the Russian Federation
Zhurnal ministerstva narodnogo prosveshcheniya
Has been issued since 1834.
ISSN: 2409-3378
E-ISSN: 2413-7294
Vol. 8, Is. 2, pp. 71-77, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/zhmnp.2016.8.71
www.ejournal18.com
UDC 37
Character Analysis in the Media Literacy Education of Students
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, branch of Rostov State University of Economics,
Russian Federation
Doctor of pedagogy, professor
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Abstract
Development of critical thinking of the audience in the process of media education is
inextricably linked with the analysis of media texts of different types of genres. Character Analysis
is the analysis of the nature, motives, ideological orientations, behavior / action of media texts’
characters with use a variety of tasks that activate critical and creative thinking of students. As a
result, students wrote stories on behalf of the heroes of the popular films of mass success.
When the students were of this kind of writing, they sometimes unconsciously penetrated into the
author's world of media text and psychology of the character. Practical mastering of media insight
typology contribute and creative tasks offering the audience the possibilities to simulate various
types of persons in the letters on behalf of the members of the audience of different age, level of
education, artistic perception and taste, etc. An indicator of mastering the material can serve as the
ability to identify with an imaginary "recipient" having one or another level of media reception.
Keywords: character analysis, media, media texts, media education, media literacy, media
competence, students.
Introduction
Development of critical thinking of the audience in the process of media education is
inextricably linked with the analysis of media texts of different types of genres. Character Analysis
is the analysis of the nature, motives, ideological orientations, behavior / action of media texts’
characters with use a variety of tasks that activate critical and creative thinking of students.
And here we can find support in the dialogue between cultures [Bibler, 1992; Bibler, 1993, p.27].
Materials and methods
The main material for this article was the area of the books and articles about the character
analysis of media texts. The method of the character analysis implies a number of students
of creative tasks. I believe that this kind of work has the correlation with V. Bibler’s teaching
methodology [Bibler, 1993, p.13-14].
Discussion
Analysis of the characters of media texts implies a number of students of creative tasks [BFI,
1990; Buckingham, 2003; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Berger, 2005, p.125; Fedorov 2004, p. 43-51,
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Potter, 2014; Silverblatt, 2001; Silberblatt, 2014, but the cycle of tasks I significantly updated and
revised]: literary simulation, theatrical role-playing, art-simulation. These tasks include analysis of
the key concepts of media literacy education [media agencies, media categories, media language,
media technologies, media representations, media audiences etc.].
Results
Cycle of literary creative tasks for the analyze of media text’s characters in the student
audience:
Media agencies:
- writing of the text containing justification, as a famous media personalities can be a logo,
a brand media agency / firm.
Media / media text categories:
- writing of the synopses, where the same stereotypical character acts in media texts of
different types and genres.
Media technologies:
- writing the plan using a variety of media technologies for the creation of a well-known
character.
Media languages:
- writing the "shooting script" for media text (eg, for up to 2-3 minutes of screen action film /
TV programs, realizable in practice) with two or three main characters (film, radio / television
program, computer animation, etc.): camera angles, camera movement, editing, etc.
Media representations:
- drafting the story on behalf of the leading or secondary character of a media text: preserving
the features of his character, vocabulary, etc. ("identification", "compassion", "co-creation");
- drafting the story on behalf of one of inanimate objects appearing in the media texts, thus
changing the narrative perspective in a paradoxical, fantasy-eccentric side;
- inclusion of a media text’s character in changing situation (with a change of name, genre,
time, place, action media text, its composition: strings, climax, denouement, epilogue, etc.; age,
gender, nationality, character, etc.);
- inventing new media text’s characters, their dialogue;
- writing the "screening" episode of the famous literary work, with an emphasis on the
development of the characters;
- writing the episode from the applications for original screenplay, where the main
characters are joined to each other in a sharp conflict;
- writing the original synopsis with an emphasis on the development of the characters;
- writing the original media text (reports, interviews and so on.) for a newspaper, magazine,
internet publication of the site with an emphasis on the development of the characters.
Media audiences:
- writing the monologues ("letters" in the editorial offices of newspapers and magazines, on
television, in the Ministry of Culture, etc.) from various representatives of the audience age, social,
professional, educational, and other data at different levels of media insight ("primary
identification" "secondary identification", "complex identification," according to the orientation on
entertainment, recreational, compensatory, and other functions of media culture, etc.).
In this way the teacher achieves the goal of creative tasks: the audience gets to the lab
creating media personalities.
For example, student Alena S. wrote the continuation of the famous film adaptation of the
fairy tale Cinderella, on behalf of the main character. And Andrew Y. wrote stories on behalf of the
boxer Rocky...
And we have even more paradoxical, fantastic view, when students wrote a story on behalf of
an inanimate object, animal, appearing in the media text. For example, banknotes, passing from
hand to hand, the mirror in the personage’s room, the car in which the hero pursues criminals, etc.
During our classes, students wrote stories on behalf of inanimate characters like the revolver from
the gangster film, ocean liner "Titanic", a magic wand of Harry Potter, etc.).
For example, Elena B. wrote this text:
“Hello! Let me introduce myself, I just played a major role in the film “Perfume” (2006).
I - bubble, which first mix all the ingredients of the very spirits that created my brilliant host.
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I felt every drop that slowly slid down my glass faces. Each of them was great. When I was filled
to the brim, it felt very important, the great! It was an incredible feeling! Finally my master
opened me to the area where he was to be executed, well, and then you know - the effect was
amazing! At this point I realized that I was a star! But, alas, soon had to come down from heaven
on the earth: I ended up in the mud, completely devastated, trampled ... And I did not stand-ins,
I hope the audience will appreciate my efforts!".
Many students are attracted by the idea of creating imaginary interviews with well-known
characters of media texts (Batman, Shrek, etc.).
And here, for example, the creative work of Catherine F. and Daria K.:
"- Good day, dear listeners. Daria and Catherine at the microphone of radio station.
And today in our weekly column "We have a party," the famous cartoon character Shrek.
- Tell me how you managed to win the hearts of millions of girls?
- First, I do not wash like normal guys. Only once a month, take a mud bath. Secondly
I have a beautiful tan all year round. There are still a lot of advantages…
- Do you have any bad habits?
- Oh yes! I love picking my nose!
- And what is your relationship with your friend?
- It is very talkative, it annoys me ...
- Do you have a favorite dish?
- Yes, I like to eat slugs in their own juice. Fiona - my wife - their delicious cooking.
- Tell me, what are your plans for the next season of the cartoon?
- I Would like to play in any action movie. But only a major role!
- Very laudable desire. We wish you success!
- Chao, Peaches!
- And we remind you that today our guest star was the biggest and friendly cartoon Shrek.
Since you were Ekaterina and Daria. We will meet again!".
Performance indicators for the creative tasks “The Story on behalf of the character”,
“Character in an altered situation” becomes the student's ability to identify with the character,
understand and verbally recreate his psychology, language, justify his motives and actions.
The phrase of student Valeria H .: "I always empathize characters, put yourself in their shoes,
I try to understand why they do so and not otherwise" is very important in this sense.
For example, this is the results of the creative task called "Letter on behalf of the viewer."
Here are some examples of successful works of students, where most clearly palpable creative
learning of theoretical material, which was an indicator of the ability to identify with an imaginary
viewer-reader-listener, having one or another level of media insight:
By Irina O. "Monologue on behalf of female pensioner over melodramatic television series":
"Yesterday - even threw wash – I looked TV series. Poor girl, so sweet, kind, and how much
grief at her fallen! And this bastard holds the land of this! I like cruelty have not seen! I used it
with their own hands strangled ... Poor girl, how to play well as spiritually! Such a sad look, as
much heart grasps! (...) I think they still remain together! Oh, such a cute couple ... Oh, I shall live
there, when all these series will be shown to the end ... If only all ended well".
And this is the text of Vlad E. "Letter to the Kremlin on behalf of a well-deserved weaver":
"Our dear, dear President! I'll start with the main. I looked for the last time a few films and
programs on television and say that my indignation is no limit. My husband and me kissed for
the first time when I married him. But now so many films show the acts of love! What the moral
for the youth? I am normal woman, not prostitute, I and don’t like to see “free love” on the screen!
Yes, a lot of enemies want to infect our people every dirty trick and pornography. But I know,
I'm not alone. Every dog has his day! I beg you, do something! Do not disregard my letter!
Sincerely, Anna Ivanova."
And this is the text of Daria K.: "Letter to the Minister of Culture" from the pensioner":
"On behalf of the older generation of Russian citizens write you my opinion on the state of
culture in our country. Cinema, television, press clearly aimed at the corruption of children and
youth: no positive ideology, only betrayal, fighting, murder, etc. And most importantly: these
films and TV programs teach young people how to kill, cheat, rob, that is all that it takes to
become a criminal. We also demand a ban frank sex scenes! And how many cram advertising!
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Nerves can not stand! Is it possible that all this advertising will be on one channel only? Please,
help! ".
As seen from these creative works, students quite successfully coped with the task. Suffice it
to compare the above monologues fictional characters with real letters viewers that have been
published in the Russian press. Coincidences are obvious, sometimes even textual. Therefore,
students who wrote these texts, not bad learned to navigate the typology of perception, right caught
some characteristic tendencies inherent in the mass media insight (focus on recreational,
compensatory function of media culture, the prevalence levels of "primary" and "secondary"
identification with media texts, the desire to see them improved model of reality, etc.). This kind of
creative tasks developed imagination, fantasy audience, its ability to "get used" to the image of a
fictional character (in this case - "the writer").
As a result, the whole complex activities of a creative nature is in addition to the knowledge
and skills acquired in previous lessons audience: students develop cognitive interests, fantasy,
imagination, associative, creative, critical, individual thinking, media competence. The knowledge
and skills connected with the concepts of the courses of literature, culture, world culture, music,
and others. The audience learns the deeper concepts such as "perception," "empathy",
"identification", etc.
My study showed that a large part of media insight student audience is at the level of
"secondary identification" ("identification with the character of a media"). Oral group discussions,
individual interviews, written work showed that the audience with a level of perception is able to
give moral characteristics of the character, to justify the motives of characters’ actions, highlight
the main conflict (or more conflicts) plot.
Analysis of the characters of a particular media text can be with gender-based description of
representation in a media category: characters’ age, race, clothes, physique level, profession,
hobby, marital status, social status, temperament, facial expressions, gestures, vocabulary, value
orientation (ideological, religious, etc.), actions, methods of conflict resolution, etc. Students can to
name the conventional codes of typical characters of media texts: Cinderella, Superman (Hercules,
Hero), Cully (Ivan the Fool), King (Ruler), Beauty & Beast, Outsider (Loser), Villain or Maniac,
Spy (Scout), Traitor, Vampire, Victim, etc.
I used also the special discussion topic of media characters’ influence on the behavior of the
audience. For example, American scientists studied the effects of the behavior of young viewers,
depending on the presence of films viewed episodes of violence. Within 7 days scientists measured
the levels of aggression, the analysis of which led researchers to the conclusion that the negative
impact of these tapes [Parke, et all, 1977, pp.148-153]. However, in my opinion, others sociological
concepts look more convincing: there is no direct cause-and-effect relationship between viewing
violence screen stories and crime. But media violence have, of course, a great impact in terms of
stimulating aggressive tendencies faced by people with unstable or mental disorders, with a weak
intelligence, criminal and / or drug-dependent environment ...
No doubt, after watching an action movie about gangsters vast majority of young viewers will
not rob the shop and pull money out of the pockets of passers-by. Everything is so. But whether all
of young people have ironically attitude toward the portrayal of violence on the screen? In our
opinion, here it is necessary to think ... Thoughtless, fun, exciting, and well! - Consumption of such
media texts leads other teens to that bloody entertaining spectacle is not only desirable, but almost
the only favorite media topic [For more details: Tarasov, 2005; Fedorov, 2001, 2003; 2004, 2006;
Fedorov, 2000; 2005]. Young people with this thinking mode can be in the stereotype circle: if
funny or shoot it is great, if the characters overwhelmed by serious problems it is boring. As a
result, young audience can blunt in their personalities such a natural feeling of compassion for
human pain. But I agree with S. Freud wrote that “culture should mobilize all its forces to put a
limit aggressive primary human urge to slow down their displays by creating the necessary
psychological reactions” [Freud, 1990, p.29] ...
Questions to the analysis of a media text characters in the classroom with students (some of
the questions is available at: BFI, 1990; Semali, 2000; Silverblatt, 2001; Berger, 2005; Usov, 1989;
Fedorov, 2004, p.43-51; Fedorov, 2006, p.175-228., however, this cycle of questions substantially
supplemented and revised):
Media agencies:
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Can the media characters depend on the theme / genre / political, etc. orientation specific
media agencies? If so, how?
Media / media text categories:
What are the similarities and differences heroes of tragedy, drama and melodrama?
Media technologies:
Does the image of characters depends from the media technologies? If so, how?
Media languages:
As exaggerated facial expressions and gestures of the characters associated with the genres of
comedy, musical, science fiction?
How the authors of media texts can show that their character has changed?
Can you remember the episodes of media texts, where the events narrated / seen through the
eyes of a character? Is there such episodes are times when the proposed point of view helps to
create a sense of danger or surprise?
How certain items (including clothing of characters, etc.) are represented in most
stereotypical stories (Cinderella, Superman, King, Beauty & Beast, Loser, Villain or Maniac, Spy,
Traitor, Vampire, Victim, etc.). What tell us these things about the characters, their lifestyle, their
relation to each other?
Media representations:
What is the image mode of characters’ family, class, gender, race, etc. in the popular media
texts of different genres and countries?
What political, social and cultural sentiments are reflected in the views and actions of the
characters of the media text? Are there visible signs of deviant behavior, sexism, anxiety, conflicts,
etc.?
How characters of the media text can express their views on life, ideas?
What are the psychological relationships between the characters in media texts, the reasons
for their actions, the consequences of these actions?
That the characters have learned as a result of a media text story?
At what stages and how it reveals the conflicts between the characters in this media text?
Who is an active element of action in this media text: male or female character? What
actions make these characters? There is a need for the presence in the story of the female
character?
Are there any links between secondary storylines that help to understand the world, the
characters and themes of media text?
Should the creators of media texts portray negative characters as the embodiment of evil?
Is it really straightforward life itself?
What do you think about the final logic of the characters development in this media text?
Which would you prefer finale? Why Are?
Media Audiences:
What about the character N.? Whether it arrives? Could you do the same as the character
N. in this or that situation?
What makes you sympathize with one character and condemn others?
What is the contribution of each character of a media text in your understanding of the
protagonist?
Can change your sympathy for the characters in the course of the action in the story of a
media text?
What qualities, character traits you would ideally like to find the hero / heroine? Can one of
your favorite character called active?
Can the reaction of the audience to extend / terminate the life of serial media characters?
Conclusion
As a result, students can write stories on behalf of the heroes of the popular films of mass
success. When the students wrote of this kind of texts, they sometimes penetrated into the author's
world of media text and psychology of the character. Practical mastering of media insight typology
contribute and creative tasks offering the audience the possibilities to simulate various types of
persons in the letters on behalf of the characters of different age, level of education, artistic
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Zhurnal ministerstva narodnogo prosveshcheniya, 2016, Vol.(8), Is. 2
perception and taste, etc. An indicator of mastering the material can serve as the ability to identify
with an character.
References:
1.
Berger, A.A. (2005). Seeing is believing. Introduction to visual communication.
Moscow: Williams, 288 p.
2.
BFI (British Film Institute). Film Education. Moscow, 1990. 124 p.
3.
Bibler, V.S. (1992). Basics program // School of Dialogue of Cultures: the basics of the
program. Kemerovo: Aleph, pp. 5-38.
4.
Bibler, V.S. (1993). Dialogue of Cultures and School XXI Century // School of Dialogue
of Cultures: Ideas, experiences, challenges. Kemerovo: Aleph, pp. 9-106.
5.
Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education: Literacy, Learning and Contemporary
Culture. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 219 p.
6.
Fedorov, A. (2000). Russian Teenagers and Violence on the Screen: Social Influence of
Screen Violence for the Russian Young People // International Research Forum on Children and
Media (Australia), N 9, p.5.
7.
Fedorov, A. (2000). Violence in Russian Films and Programmes // International
Clearinghouse on Children and Violence on the Screen (UNESCO), N 2, p. 5.
8.
Fedorov, A. (2005). School Students and Computer Games with Screen Violence //
Russian Education and Society. (USA). Vol. 47. N 11, pp. 88-96.
9.
Fedorov, A.V. (2001). Violence on the screen and the Russian youth // Bulletin of the
Russian Humanitarian Foundation. 2001. № 1, p. 131-145.
10. Fedorov, A.V. (2003). Young audience and screen violence problem // Kino-Kolo.
2003. № 20, pp. 86-103.
11. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Influence of violence on television screens children's audience in
the USA // US-Canada: Economics, Politics, Culture. 2004. № 1, pp. 77-93.
12. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Rights of the child and violence on the screen // Monitoring.
2004. № 2, pp.87-93.
13.
Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Specificity of media pedagogical students // Pedagogy. 2004.
№ 4, pp. 43-51.
14.
Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Violence on the screen // Chelovek. 2004. № 5, pp. 142-151.
15.
Fedorov, A.V. (2006). Media Education: creative tasks for students and pupils //
Innovation in Education. 2006. N 4, pp. 175-228.
16.
Fedorov, A.V. (2006). School teachers and the problem of "screen violence" //
Innovative educational technology. № 1, pp. 35-47.
17.
Freud, S. (1990). Dissatisfaction culture // Cinema Art. 1990. № 12, pp. 18-31.
18.
Parke R.D., Berkowitz L., Leyens J.P., West S.J., Sebastian P.J. (1977). Some Effects of
Violent and Nonviolent Movies on the Behavior of Juvenile Delinquents. In: Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology. N.Y. Academia Press, N 10, pp. 148-153.
19. Potter, W.J. (2014). Media Literacy. L.A.: Sage.
20. Semali, L.M. (2000). Literacy in Multimedia America. New York – London: Falmer
Press, 243 p.
21.
Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London: Praeger,
449 p.
22. Silverblatt, A. (Ed.). (2014). The Praeger Handbook of Media Literacy (in 2 volumes).
Santa Barbara, California and Oxford, England: Praeger.
23. Tarasov, K.A. (2005). Violence in the mirror audiovisual culture. Moscow: Research
Institute of Film Arts, White Beach, 384 p.
24. Usov, Y.N. (1989). Film education as a means of aesthetic education and artistic
development of pupils. Ph.D. Dis. Moscow, 362 p.
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УДК 37
Анализ персонажей медитекстов в процессе медиаобразования студентов
Александр Федоров
Таганрогский институт имени А.П. Чехова,
университета экономики, Российская Федерация
Доктор педагогических наук, профессор
E-почта: mediashkola@rambler.ru
филиал Ростовского
государственного
Аннотация.
Развитие
критического
мышления
аудитории
в
процессе
медиаобразования неразрывно связано с анализом медиатекстов различных видов жанров.
Анализ персонажей медиатекстов – это анализ характеров, мотивов, идеологических
ориентаций,
поведения/действия
персонажей
медиатекстов
с
использованием
разнообразных задач, которые активируют критическое и творческое мышление учащихся.
В результате, студенты могут писать рассказы от имени героев популярных фильмов
массового успеха. Когда студенты пишут такого рода письма, они проникают в авторский
мир медиатекста и психологию персонажа. В практическое освоение медиавосприятия через
типологию вносят свой вклад и творческие задачи, предлагающие аудитории возможности
моделировать различные типы персонажей в письмах от имени персонажей разного
возраста, уровня образования, художественного восприятия и вкуса, и т.д. Показателем
усвоения материала может служить способность идентифицировать себя с персонажами.
Ключевые слова: анализ персонажей, медиа, медиатекст, медиаобразование,
медиаграмотность, медиакомпетентность, студенты.
77
Russian Education & Society
Volume 57, Issue 10, 2015
Articles
The Application of Hermeneutical Analysis to Research on the Cold War in Soviet
Animation Media Texts from the Second Half of the 1940s
Full text HTML
PDF
Full access
DOI: 10.1080/10609393.2016.1148951
A.V. Fedorov
pages 817-829
Publishing models and article dates explained

Published online: 21 Mar 2015
Abstract
The Cold War era, which spawned a mutual ideological confrontation between communist and
capitalist countries, left its mark on all categories of media texts, including cartoons and
animations. Cartoons were used by the authorities as tools for delivering the necessary
confrontational ideological content in an attractive folkloric, fairy-tale packaging in order to
influence adults as well as children.


Full text HTML
PDF
A.V. Fedorov (2015) The Application of Hermeneutical Analysis to Research
on the Cold War in Soviet Animation Media Texts from the Second Half of the 1940s, Russian
Education & Society, 57:10, 817-829, DOI: 10.1080/10609393.2016.1148951
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10609393.2016.1148951
European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2015, Vol.(14), Is. 4
Copyright © 2015 by Academic Publishing House
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Published in the Russian Federation
European Journal of Contemporary Education
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 14, Is. 4, pp. 223-231, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/ejced.2015.14.223
www.ejournal1.com
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UDC 37
The Potential of an Alliance of Media Literacy Education
and Media Criticism in Russia
Anastasia Levitskaya
Institute of Management and Economics in Taganrog, Russian Federation
Dr.
E-mail: a.levitskaya@tmei.ru
Abstract
Media criticism and media literacy education have much in common. For example, media
literacy education and media criticism attaches great importance to the development of analytical
thinking audience. Indeed, one of the most important tasks of media literacy education is precisely
to teach the audience not only to analyze media texts of any kinds and types, but also to understand
the mechanisms of creation and functioning in society. Actually, the same is engaged in media
criticism and, at the same time addressing both the professional and to the widest possible
audience. That is why, in our opinion, is so important synthesis of media criticism and media
literacy education. That is why it is so important debate on the role and functions of the media in
society and analysis of media texts of different types and genres in classrooms of schools and
universities.
Keywords: media criticism, media literacy, media competence, media education, pupils,
students, media texts, Russia.
Introduction
In recent years, the position of the supporters of practical ways for media literacy education,
considering it as a set of skills to use modern media technology exclusively for practical purposes
(Razlogov, 2005, 68-75), finds fewer supporters. Without denying the importance of this aspect of
teaching modern "Great Russian Encyclopedia" defines media literacy education as “a process of
personal development with the help and on material means of mass communication in order to
build a culture of communication with the media, creative and communicative abilities, critical
thinking, perception, interpretation, analysis and evaluation of media texts, teaching different
forms of self-expression with media technology, media literacy acquisition. The positive result of
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2015, Vol.(14), Is. 4
media literacy education should be considered as media competence of the individual (media
competence of personality) - the set of her motives, knowledge, skills, abilities (indicators:
motivational, contact, information, perceptual, interpretative, practices and activity, creative)
contributing to the selection, use, critical analysis, evaluation, creation and transfer of media texts
in different types, forms and genres, the analysis of complex processes of media functioning in
society” (Fedorov, 2012, 480).
And here is one of the most important components - training audience skills analysis of
media texts of different types and genres, where true and effective help, in our opinion, it is media
criticism - creative and cognitive activity, during which the critical knowledge and evaluation of
socially significant, relevant creative, professional and ethical aspects of the production of
information in the media, with a focus on the creative side of media content. This is a
communication with the audience, in which based on the analysis, interpretation and evaluation of
media texts, genre and stylistic forms of their implementation have an impact on the perception of
the media content on the presentation of the material and the spiritual world, are formed in the
minds of the audience (Korochensky, 2003). These problems associated with the use of media
information (different kinds of genres and forms), its analysis, the definition of economic, political,
social and / or cultural interests that are associated with it.
Media criticism can be divided into academic (relating to the publication of scientific
research related to the comprehension of the media sphere, and is designed primarily for media
professionals and teachers of media schools and faculties), professional (published in publications
intended for a professional audience from media sphere) and mass (designed for a mass audience)
(Korochensky, 2003).
Thus, it is media criticism in mass media, as well as media literacy education tend to increase
the level of media competence / literacy of widest audience.
Materials and methods
The materials of this articles: the UNESCO documents about media literacy education, the
articles about media literacy education and media criticism. The methods: sociocultural historical,
comparative analysis of the topic’s problems, analysis of scholars’ discussion about media criticism
and media education literacy.
History of question
Media competence of the individual is multidimensional and requires a broad perspective
based on knowledge developed structure. It is not a rigid category, we can theoretically increase the
level of media competence for all human life, perceiving, interpreting and analyzing the cognitive,
emotional, aesthetic and ethical media information and audience, located on a higher level of
media literacy has a higher level of understanding, control and evaluation media world (McQuail,
2010, 12).
However, as correctly noted Art Silverblatt media literacy education and media criticism are
many obstacles: "elitist" - people can easily notice the influence of the media on the others, but the
same people are not willing to recognize the impact of media on their own life; the complexity of
the language of the media; emotional media effects, imposing patterns of behavior in society, and
public confidence in the media (for a large part of the audience it becomes an obstacle to the
analysis of media texts) (Silverblatt, 2001, 5-6).
Turning to the situation in Russia, we agree that the problem of preparing the younger
generation for life in the era of the explosion of information technology, the increasing role of
information as an economic category is not updated in the context of school education, graduate
school is not ready for integration into the world information space (Zaznobina, 1998) in which the
manipulation component takes, unfortunately, a significant place. Unavailability of the graduate
school to resist manipulative influence of modern media, largely a consequence of the low media
competence of Russian teachers.
There is a contradiction between insufficient research in the field of media education and
media criticism synthesis (including in the preparation of future teachers) and the actual
development of media competence and analytical thinking of students of pedagogical profile. Not
only in the field of media activities (ie the creation, use and distribution of media information of
different kinds of genres and forms), but its comprehensive analysis, determination of economic,
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2015, Vol.(14), Is. 4
political, social and / or cultural interests that are associated with it. Although, of course, the
process of analyzing media texts - the same kind of activity.
In particular, we clearly trace problematic contradiction between 1) journalistic model of
media education (Dzaloshinsky & Pilgun, 2011; Zhilavskaya, 2009), aimed at the development of
audience’s media activities in the practical creation and distribution of media texts, 2) media
education integrated model (6; 7), where the main emphasis is on the study of media education in
support of mandatory school disciplines, and 3) the need to go beyond the utilitarian framework by
creating more important for a wide audience model for development of media competence and
analytical thinking, built on a synthesis of media literacy education and media criticism.
In addition, in our opinion, there is a contradiction in the theoretical and practical
approaches of the supporters of "protective theory" of media literacy education, calling to protect
the audience from the harmful media manipulation effects, including by educating the younger
generation in samples of "high art" and supporters of cultural and sociocultural theories of media
literacy education, the problem of media literacy education in a broad social, cultural, genre and
thematic spectrum of media texts (Sharikov, 2005; Buckingham, 2003; Silverblatt, 2001).
And here too, we believe that the successful resolution of this contradiction can help the synthesis
of media literacy education and media criticism.
The history of media criticism in Russia goes back more than three centuries. It is understood
that the beginning of his career (XVIII century) we can find in the pages of newspapers and
magazines only literary criticism. However, since the end of the XIX century the spectrum of media
criticism increased by analyzing photo / cinema sphere. And the media criticism of XX century has
included such new types of media as broadcasting, sound recording, television and the Internet.
At all stages of its development, media criticism (corporate, academic, mass) perform analytical,
educational, information and communication, regulatory, commercial and other functions
throughout the variety of genres of media texts.
With the advent of the mass distribution of Internet number of critics' community has
increased dramatically due to the amateur authors, because now the audience does not necessarily
apply to the traditional press. However, as shown by an Roman Bakanov’s content analysis of
publications, almost all of these amateur try to criticize the TV based on their own experiences and
emotions, not bothering to analytical, evidence-based work. They set themselves the task to assert
themselves, to attract the audience's attention to their texts with negative assessments. Perhaps
that is why the vast majority of their performances have a negative opinions about any part of
media production. In addition, the text does not attempt to examine and analyze the identified
problems from different angles, to understand the causes and to find out the possible
consequences. To do this, the media analyst needs Research glance, the ability to not only search,
but also collect, compile information (Bakanov, 2009).
However, this certainly does not mean that true professional of media criticism
(Lev Anninsky, Roman Bakanov, Yuri Bogomolov, Dmytry Bykov, Anry Vartanov, Dannil
Dondurei, Valary Kitchin, Aalexander Korochensky, Irina Petrovskaya, Andrei Plakhov, Kirill
Razlogov) have lost their influence. Each of them has its own target audience. A favorite theme of
many of them (in addition to working in the press) found time to lead author websites, live
journals, forums and so on.
In our opinion, a professional media criticism can positively influence a mass audience media
competence. That's what this media critic Irina Pertrovslaya writes: “Do I need to indulge baser
tastes, or, on the contrary, to confront them and to improve the taste and manners of the audience?
Most of TV believe that we should indulge in, because that is the audience, are the people and the
means of television they do not alter. But the horror is that television can make people worse than
they really are, to lower the bar to such an extent that people would no longer be able to distinguish
what is good and what is bad” (Petrovskaya, 2003, 43- 44).
The relevance of the synthesis of media literacy education and media criticism evidenced by
the European Parliament resolution of 16 December 2008 on media literacy in a digital world,
which states mandatory media literacy education. The resolution, inter alia, states that media
literacy education should be a component of formal education available to all students, it must be
an integral part of the curriculum at every stage of schooling; should be included in teacher
training programs required modules on media literacy education for all levels of schooling to
promote a more intensive introduction of the subject; authorities should introduce teachers of all
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2015, Vol.(14), Is. 4
disciplines and in all types of schools with the use of audiovisual teaching aids and with the
problems relating to media education (European..., 2008).
The Moscow Declaration on Media and Information Literacy, developed by the
Intergovernmental Council for UNESCO's "Information for All" (2012) stresses the need for
inclusion of media and information literacy among the priorities of the national policy on
education, culture, information, media, etc.; the inevitable pedagogical reform for the development
of media and information literacy; inclusion of media and information literacy, and assessment of
its level in the curricula at all levels of education, including education in lifelong learning in the
workplace, training and retraining of teachers; promote intercultural dialogue and international
cooperation in the development of media and information literacy around the world (Moscow...,
2012). A similar declaration was adopted and held at the end of May 2014 the First European
Forum on Media Literacy, held at UNESCO headquarters in Paris (The First European..., 2014).
All this is very important and significant in the light of the official registration of Russian
Ministry of Education of the university specialization for pedagogical universities - Media
Education (03.13.30) and implementation (since September 2002) this specialization by our team.
The urgency of the need for further development of media literacy education is confirmed
and at the state level: November 17, 2008, the Government of Russia approved the Concept of
long-term socio-economic development of the Russian Federation for the period till 2020. Among
the priorities in the concept called “the increased use of information and communication
technologies for the development of new forms and methods of education, including distance
education and media literacy education” (Concept..., 2008).
Discussion
Kirill Razlogov published polemically sharpened article, which expresses the idea that media
personality develops and should develop spontaneously (Razlogov, 2005, 68-75). This article was
the beginning of discussions in the journal "Media Education". However, later K. Razlogov
explained that although the question of general media literacy education remains open to him, “a
special media literacy education is certainly needed. It is necessary for teachers ... and for people
who seriously interested in classical and contemporary art” (Razlogov, 2006, 92).
In our view, in terms of the discussion can be very useful and problematic questions raised by
Alexander Korochensky:
1) Is the idea of forming a rational and critical awareness of media competence illusion
masking the inability to realize in the socioeconomic and cultural context of the proclaimed
humanistic concept of training people to conditions of life and work in the information age? Is it
possible to widely rational-critical communications culture in social environments where there are
powerful tendencies working to reduce the level of critical consciousness recipients of media
information? Does under these conditions the chances of success of the attempts of local social
planning of media education literacy?
2) The instincts, the unconscious impulses and emotions play a very significant role in the life
and activity. Effective use of modern media technologies of various effects on the area of the
collective unconscious, rational overwhelming reaction of people is a clear proof of that. In this
regard, the question is: is the ideal rational-critical communications culture phantom purely
speculative purpose, elusive due to the inherent characteristics of the human person and human
communities?
3) Is the critical autonomy in dealing with the media myth, masking the inability in the sociopolitical context of the real emancipation and self-emancipation of citizens from the manipulative
influence of the media and other harmful influences from the media? (Korochensky, 2005, 41-42).
It seems, A. Korochensky correctly outlined the dangers that stand in the way of media
literacy education and media criticism. But, in our view, if we can to say to all of these questions
"yes", then on media literacy education probably have to give up at all resigned to the fact that the
obstacles to this process too much, and their head irresistibly strong and aggressive (some human /
biological instincts are worth!). You can add here and irrefutable results of numerous sociological
studies show that the subculture of creative intelligence in any society covers only 4 to 7 percent of
the population (Razlogov, 2006, 92)....
But ... any education is opposed to the human instinct. And is manipulative tendencies in
modern society only concern media culture?
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2015, Vol.(14), Is. 4
Undoubtedly, a wholly-owned media competence humanity as illusory as a wholly human
equality in all spheres of life, including in the field of education and culture. However, if we have
the desire, ability and opportunity to develop media competence, and analytical thinking not for
millions, but only for thousands, hundreds or even dozens of people, this is a worthy goal, to
achieve that is to work hard ...
Expansion of the concept of media literacy education Alexander Korochensky (Korochensky,
2003, 163) proposes to extend the concept of media literacy education as a long-term socioeducational activities aimed not only at schoolchildren and students, but also at an adult audience.
Then we can talk about the continuous development of a culture of adequate perception of media
messages (articles, radio / television, movies, the Internet site, etc.) and self-evaluation of the
media based on democratic and humanitarian ideals and values.
The theory of media literacy education as the development of critical thinking (critical
thinking approach in media education), most fully developed of Len Masterman (1985; 1997), in
the last decade has gained not only supporters but also opponents. Although we carried out an
expert survey of experts in the field of media literacy education in different countries has shown
that the majority of them (84%) believes that the most important goal of media education is
developing the ability to critical thinking / critical autonomy, perception, assessment,
understanding of media texts (Fedorov, 2003).
Len Masterman believes that successful media literacy education should be due to the
following factors: a clear understanding of the purpose of teacher training; productive discussion of
these goals with the students, based on their own comments, priorities and enthusiasm; regular
inspections, analysis (and if necessary - and reviewing) the purpose of studies (Masterman, 1985,
19).
At the same time, the practical implementation of the tasks of forming a rational-critical
communication culture of citizens on the basis of rational self-critical thinking faces a number of
significant interference and difficulties. It can not be explained only undeveloped institutions,
media literacy education or incomplete conceptualization of the goals, methods and content of the
activities in this field of pedagogy (although both of these phenomena do occur). Scale
"achievements" of the mass media in manipulating the consciousness and behavior of the audience
for political and commercial purposes; progressive irrationally of media reality formed by means of
mass communication; intellectual passivity and emotional infantilism significant portion of the
citizens in the face of negative media influences - all of this is observed both in Russia and other
countries where mass media literacy education is at the stage of formation and in the countries
where it has already become a mandatory component of the educational process at its various
levels " (Korochensky, 2005, 37-38).
In fact, today's media focused primarily on the commercial viability of an (almost) any way.
So it is quite natural that in the long run media industry is not interested in the fact that the
audience has developed analytical thinking in relation to the functioning of the media in society
and to all kinds of media texts and genres. Lonely island focused on lucrative advertising Russian
media agencies (such as the TV channel "Culture" or the newspaper of the same name) will
inevitably drown in the flow of the mainstream market...
On the other hand, as noted Alexander Korochensky precisely, there is another danger for the
development of media competence of the individual, the postmodern skepticism with regard to
reason and cognitive abilities of man (and, correspondingly, to the possibilities of his
enlightenment and improvement); intellectual and moral relativism, giving birth scornful and
ironic attitude to the fundamental human values, the ideals of democracy and social justice.
Against this background, in certain social circles, not excluding the impact of media professionals,
there are signs of a negative attitude to the idea of widespread rational-critical communications
culture - ranging from a fundamental negation of its feasibility under current conditions (for
example: Razlogov, 2005, 68 -75) to open hostility, aggressive rejection of the spirit of
enlightenment and civilization inherent in this intelligent initiative (Korochensky, 2005, 39-40).
This correctly noticed a trend in recent years, and is recognized in the West (McMahon, 2003).
Unfortunately, the great importance of the mass media in the lives of today's Russian society,
paradoxically combined with the lack of development of the domestic media criticism, whereas it
(regarded as a special area of journalism) aims to analyze the current creative, professional and
ethical, legal, economic and technological aspects of information production in the media and
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2015, Vol.(14), Is. 4
thereby increase the level of media competence and analytical thinking wide audience of all ages.
In Russia, many talented critics' community of practitioners, however, not all of them are capable
of significant theoretical generalizations.
In principle, it is clear why the development of media criticism and media literacy education
has not received the official support of the Soviet era. Power was interested in the fact that the mass
audience (both adults and students) as little thought about the goals and objectives of a particular
(especially the “national importance”) media text. Prevalence of incompetence in the public media
sphere always opens a wide scope for manipulation in the press, on radio and TV.
Today, the situation of media criticism and media literacy education in Russia has changed
significantly. “Media criticism, - says Alexander Korochensky, - is communication with the
audience, in which based on the analysis, interpretation and evaluation of the whole complex of
media content and genre and stylistic forms there of influence the perception of the content of the
public, on presentation of the material and the spiritual world, are formed in the minds of
recipients. Media criticism examines and evaluates not only the creativity of the media creators and
media content, but also evaluates the complex relationship of diverse print and electronic media
with the audience and the society as a whole. This allows you to define the subject of media
criticism as the actual operation of the multifaceted social media” (Korochensky, 2003, 32).
Based on this definition clearly distinguishes Alexander Korochensky formulates the basic
functions of media criticism (information and communication, educational, correctional, social,
organizational, educational, commercial) and the main tasks of media criticism: the knowledge of a
source of information; the study and change the public perception of media content and
perceptions of the outside world, prevailing in the minds of the media audience; to influence the
attitude of the public to the media, the formation of a certain social culture study and evaluation of
the mass media, the development of the spiritual world of the audience; to promote the
development and improvement of creative and professional culture of the creators of media texts;
social media functioning of the media, etc. (Korochensky, 2003, 32).
The latter, in our opinion, is of particular importance due to the fact that all Russian audience
with less confidence in the media. We think the reason for the decrease of the level of audience’s
trust to Russian media (Vartanova, 2003, 23; RIA News, 2013) not only the abundance of low-brow
television, but also - to some extent - the impact on the public media criticism, which, thanks to the
Internet is becoming increasingly accessible to the population, are increasingly aware of
manipulative of many media texts.
Based on the analysis of multiple sources, Alexander Korochensky organizes the most
common manipulative elements of modern media: the schematic simplification; the identity of the
logical and alogical; improperly formed reflection; the absence of clearly defined criteria for
distinguishing between surface and deep relationships; references to tradition, authority,
precedent, regulatory, divine will; syncretism aesthetic and imaginative, ethical and regulatory and
proper cognitive elements of the myth; play polysyllabic mythical picture of the world through
binary oppositions ("good-evil", "friend or foe"); claim to the only true explanation of the
phenomena of reality outside history and the absolute correctness of the practical actions arising
from this case; estimated-orienting nature of media texts; deliberate creation, and others
(Korochensky, 2003, 83-84).
So, we see the enormous potential of media criticism in terms of supporting the efforts of
training and educational institutions in the development of audience’s media competence. And
then at the media criticism and media literacy education have a lot in common, as one of the most
important tasks of media education is precisely to teach the audience not only to analyze media
texts of any kinds and types, but also to understand the mechanisms of creation and functioning in
society.
Moreover, the British media educators (Bazalgette, 1995) among the six key concepts of
media literacy education emit “agency” (referring to a comprehensive study, an analysis of how the
structures created by media messages, for what purpose it creates a particular media text and etc.),
“the language of the media” (includes a study of the characteristics of the media language),
“representation” (an understanding of how this or that “agency” is in reality a media text) and
“media audience” (here provides an analysis of typology of perception audience and its degree of
susceptibility to influence by “agency”).
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2015, Vol.(14), Is. 4
Actually, the same key concepts of media analyzes and media criticism, addressing at the
same time as a professional, and to a wide audience. That is why it is so important a strong
association between media criticism and media literacy education.
Noting that the English-language literature is used the term “media criticism” to refer to both
the scientific analysis of the media in academic writings, as well as for “operational analysis” of
actual problems of functioning of the media (Masterman, 1997; McMahon, 2003), we will focus on
this form of media criticism.
We agree with Alexander Korochensky: we need a psychological, cultural and sociological
analysis of media texts of entertainment popular culture to identify embedded in their content and
social flawed ideas, cultural and behavioral stereotypes. In fact, television shows like Russian
“House-2”, fixed in the public mind ideas about the fundamental impossibility of perfection
supposedly lowly human nature, reducibility motivations of human actions to the effects of the
elementary instincts of the moral permissibility and social legitimacy of the use of immoral
methods (slander, harassment, backroom collusion) to suppress and eliminate people who were an
obstacle on the road to success (Korochensky, 2003, 83-84).
A. Korochensky proposes to extend the concept of media literacy education as a long-term
socio-educational activities aimed not only at schoolchildren and students, but also at an adult
audience (Korochensky, 2003, 164). Then we can talk about the continuous development of a
culture of adequate perception of media messages (articles, radio / television, movies, the Internet
site, etc.) and self-evaluation of the media based on democratic and humanitarian ideals and
values.
Meanwhile, as in media literacy education and media criticism have huge potential in terms
of supporting the efforts of training and educational institutions in the development of media
competence audience. And it makes sense to increase the participation of academics, scientists and
experts in different fields (teachers, sociologists, psychologists, cultural scientists, journalists, and
others.), cultural and educational institutions, public organizations and foundations for the
development of media literacy / media competence of citizens in the creation of organizational
structures capable of performing the full spectrum of media literacy education in cooperation with
the media criticism (Korochensky, 2003, 254).
The development of media competence audience includes active use of methods of analysis of
media texts and functioning of media in society. Among these methods are the following (Propp,
1998; Potter, 2011; Fedorov, 2007; Fedorov et al, 2012; Eco, 1976): Autobiographical Analysis;
Stereotypes Analysis; Cultural Mythology Analysis; Character Analysis; Hermeneutic Analysis of
Cultural Context; Identification Analysis; Ideological and Philosophical Analysis; Iconographic
Analysis; Content Analysis; Cultivation Analysis; Semiotic analysis; Structural Analysis;
Narrative Analysis; Aesthetical Analysis; Ethical Analysis.
All of these methods, one way or another, include an analysis of the key concepts of media
literacy education as a media agencies, media categories, media language, media technologies,
media representations, media audiences.
Of course, the study of these concepts takes place in an integrated, interdisciplinary,
integrated manner, immersed in a social and cultural context, thus confirming that media
education is the process of formation of human culture of media & social communication
(Sharikov, 2005, 78-79).
Conclusions
Media criticism and media literacy education have much in common. For example, media
literacy education and media criticism attaches great importance to the development of analytical
thinking audience. Indeed, one of the most important tasks of media literacy education is precisely
to teach the audience not only to analyze media texts of any kinds and types, but also to understand
the mechanisms of creation and functioning in society. Actually, the same is engaged in media
criticism and, at the same time addressing both the professional and to the widest possible
audience (Pocheptsov, 2012). That is why, in our opinion, is so important synthesis of media
criticism and media literacy education. That is why it is so important debate on the role and
functions of the media in society and analysis of media texts of different types and genres in
classrooms of schools and universities.
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European Journal of Contemporary Education, 2015, Vol.(14), Is. 4
Support and acknowledgement
This article is written within the framework of a study supported by the grant of the Russian
Science Foundation (RSF). Project 14-18- 00014 «Synthesis of media education and media
criticism in the preparation of future teachers», performed at Taganrog Management and
Economics Institute.
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Russian Journal of Sociology, 2015, Vol. (1), Is. 1
Copyright © 2015 by Academic Publishing House Researcher
Published in the Russian Federation
Russian Journal of Sociology
Has been issued since 2015.
ISSN: 2409-6288
Vol. 1, Is. 1, pp. 19-26, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/rjs.2015.1.19
www.ejournal32.com
UDC 316
Defining the Levels of the Audience's Media Competence
and Critical Thinking in Sociological Surveys
Anastasia Levitskaya
Taganrog Management and Economics Institute, Russian Federation
PhD, Associate Professor
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Abstract
The author of the article agrees that sociological researches of the levels of media
literacy/competence of different groups of citizens are very timely today. However such researches
require a significant shift of emphasis: the most important indicator should be the audience's
ability to analyze and evaluate media messages and media's role in society (including a media text's
analysis); only afterwards such skills as creation and communication of own media production and
skills to use media technology should follow. The article attempts to illustrate that otherwise the
findings of sociological surveys on media competence will display a common flaw - the overestimation of user's skills. The author emphasizes that media literacy does not benefit from its
reduction as a technical matter.
Keywords: media education; media literacy; media criticism; media competence; analytical
thinking; sociological surveys.
Introduction
In 2009 the results of a large scale sociological survey addressing the levels of media literacy
development in different states of the European Union were published [Celot, 2009]. According to
its findings, the countries of EU were divided into 3 groups:
- EU countries manifesting a heightened level of media competence: Austria, the UK,
Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Finland, France, Sweden;
- EU countries with a median level of media education and media literacy of people: Belgium,
Hungary, Germany, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Lithuania, Malta, Portugal, Slovenia, the Czech Republic,
Estonia;
- EU countries with a limited/basic degree of media competence of people: Bulgaria, Greece,
Cyprus, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia [Celot, 2009, p.69].
In 2011 a similar European survey was conducted, according to which EU countries were also
grouped into 3 clusters:
- EU countries with a high level of media literacy and media education: Austria, the UK,
Germany, Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Finland, France, Sweden;
- EU countries with a medium level of media education and media literacy of people:
Belgium, Hungary, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Lithuania, Malta, Portugal, Slovenia, Cyprus, the Czech
Republic;
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Russian Journal of Sociology, 2015, Vol. (1), Is. 1
- EU countries with a low level of media education and media literacy of people: Bulgaria,
Greece, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Estonia [Testing…, 2011, p. 38].
Materials and methods
Comparison of these groups/clusters shows that on the whole there has not been many
changes in differentiation of EU countries according to the development levels of media education
and media literacy over 3 years: Germany only managed to join the group of the most advanced in
media education countries. Cyprus and Slovakia went up from the third group into the second, and
Estonia, on the contrary, lowered its position and moved down to the third group.
Thus, Great Britain in both sociological surveys (2009 and 2011) along with France,
Netherlands, Austria and some Nordic countries was included into the group of the most advanced
in the sphere of media education EU countries. It is interesting that comparing and contrasting the
development of media education in Great Britain and Russia, one can draw the conclusions about
some similarities in current processes. Undoubtedly, media education in the UK has been
developing more actively, national educational curricular include media literacy aspects (as a rule,
in subjects like English, Citizenship, Social Studies, Arts, Health) [Bazalgette, 2010]. However, as
in modern Russia, on the whole, media education in the UK is still largely dependent on the
interest and enthusiasm of individual teachers, with the inevitable result of the inhomogeneous
and different level of quality. Moreover, only a small minority of teachers are reasonably aware of
media education, during which the cultural experience, critical methods of analysis, creative
abilities of pupils are being developed due to the integrated approach embedded in the curriculum
[Bazalgette, 2010].
Moreover, the initiative of the organization Ofcom, created in 2003 and aimed at regulating
electronic media including telecommunications and Internet, quite differs from the cultural studies
approach to media education, implemented by the educational department of the British Film
Institute (BFI). Ofcom interprets media literacy very broadly, encouraging media industry to get
interested in media education in new ways; it does useful researches ranging from people's access
to media technologies to people's trust in media. However as a regulatory body, Ofcom unavoidably
relies on the protection of people against the alleged negative effects of media, as well as on the
development of media literacy in terms of basic technical skills (for instance, how to block spam,
etc.). Taking into consideration that Ofcom belongs to the British Department of Culture, Media
and Sport (DCMS), it does not have any significant impact on the actual educational policy
[Bazalgette, 2010].
Ofcom argues that media literacy "enables people to have the skills, knowledge and
understanding to make full use of the opportunities presented by both traditional and new
communications services. Media literacy also helps people to manage content and
communications, and protect themselves and their families from the potential risks associated with
using these services". It defines media literacy as "the ability to use, understand and create media
and communications in a variety of context" [http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/market-dataresearch/other/media-literacy/]. This definition has been widely spread in Britain. Since Ofcom
primarily acts as an economic regulator, a regulator of the market, rather than a content regulator,
in this context, "it would be possible to interpret media literacy as a familiar neo-liberal strategy.
In a deregulated, market-driven economy, the argument goes, people need to be responsible for
their own behaviour as consumers. Rather than looking to the government to protect them from
the negative aspects of market forces, they need to learn to protect themselves. What does it matter
if Rupert Murdoch owns the media, if we are all wise and critical consumers? And so media literacy
becomes part of a strategy of creating well-behaved, self-regulating “citizen-consumers” (to use
Ofcom’s term): it reflects a shift from public regulation to individual self-regulation that we can see
in many other areas of modern social policy. Of course, this comes packaged as a democratic move
– a move away from protectionism and towards empowerment. But it is also an individualising
move: it seems to be based on a view of media literacy as a personal attribute, rather than as a
social practice. Indeed, it could be seen to place a burden on individuals that they might not
necessarily be disposed or able to cope with. And while it gives people responsibilities, it does not
also extend their rights: it positions them as consumers rather than as citizens. It has become the
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Russian Journal of Sociology, 2015, Vol. (1), Is. 1
duty of all good consumers – and, when it comes to children, of all good parents —to regulate their
own media uses" [Buckingham, 2009, p. 16-17].
The situation with Ofcom is very similar to the Russian 2013 case with "Roskomnadzor"
(http://eng.rkn.gov.ru/), the regulatory body that has no influence of the system of education.
In 2010, the Federal Law No. 436-FZ On Protecting Children from Information Harmful to Their
Health and Development came into effect and Federal Service for Supervision of Communications,
Information Technology, and Mass Media prepared the Framework of Information Security of
Children, where in Chapter 20 there is a "Strategy, Aims, Objectives, and Methods of Information
Literacy of Children and Teenagers" [Vartanova, Matvejeva, Sobkin, Soldatova, Sharikov et all,
2013]. Firstly, this Framework, likewise the Ofcom activity, is mainly aimed at the protection of the
underage audience from harmful media impact. Secondly, it does not affect the real educational
process in Russia.
The same line of development is characteristic of Zircon, a Moscow research group
specializing in sociological and marketing researches and consulting (http://www.zircon.ru
/en/about/). The purpose of its study "Monitoring of media literacy level of the population of
Russia" (for The Ministry of communications and mass communications of the RF, 2009-2013)
[Zircon, 2013] was to examine primarily the skills and abilities of using the media by the audience.
The surveys of 1600 respondents were conducted annually. Findings from a national research
project conducted by Zircon reveal the following:
- level of skills to use information sources;
- skills to use media gadgets, Internet, and frequency of use (defined by the territory and
age);
- citizens' access to computers and Internet;
- access rate to traditional media vs. new media;
- types of attitudes of the people towards the information flow, its critical perception, and
verification;
- people's activities when disclosing false information (grouped by gender, age, level of
education, and location);
- types of assessment judgments about media flow [Zircon, 2013].
The large-scale survey studies report that from 2009 to 2013 1600 Russian respondents
increased their use of mobile telephone communication dramatically (from 85% in 2009 to 93% in
2013), computers (from 49% in 2009 to 71% in 2013), Internet (from 37% in 2009 to 69% in 2013),
the television consumption stayed at about the same level (99%-100%), as well as the use of own
book library (53%-54%), MP3 players (27%-26%) and video cameras (22%-26%), in contrast, the
number of radio consumers decreased (from 61% in 2009 to 41% in 2013) [Zircon, 2013].
In this sense, Zircon's research proves that in spite of the active growth of contacts with
Internet, its television and mobile communication that remain the leading media in Russia. Nearly
every day according to Zircon data, 95% of respondents use a mobile telephone, over 80% of people
daily watch television, and 72-73% go on the Internet. Whilst 43% listened to the radio in 2013
daily, and still fewer people read press – only 17% in 2013 read newspapers and 10% read
magazines [Zircon, 2013]. Do these numbers say anything about the level of media literacy of the
people? In our view, no. On the whole, the high level of media consumption alone is not directly
linked to the high level of media competence [Potter, 2014; Tyner, 2009, etc.].
Same oblique relationship to media competence is demonstrated by the findings of Zircon
about the differentiation of media consumption according to one's location, age, education and
gender. Evidently, media consumption is higher in big cities than in smaller towns and villages
(although television remains the medium most liked by small towns/village residents and the
amount of television exposure in the villages is bigger compared to other media). Young people,
especially men, contact with new media more often than elderly people, and so on. Moreover, the
frequent contacts with media may actually mean that a considerable part of respondents is only
hooked on a particular reality show or tabloid websites.
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Russian Journal of Sociology, 2015, Vol. (1), Is. 1
Media activity, defined by Zircon as "a person's activity of creation of information artifacts
and their dissemination (creating and maintaining own webpages, posting texts, photographs, etc.,
sending information to media (press, radio, TV)", comes closer to the identification of the media
competence level [Zircon, 2013]. Zircon's research suggests that 47,3% of population have the low
level of media activity, 29,4% have the medium level and 23,3% only have the high one [Zircon,
2013]. However one should not forget that such media activeness alone can not only be positively
but also negatively charged, even anti humanistic. So it would be wrong to make a judgment of a
person's high level of media competence solely based on his/her media activity index.
It seems that a person's attitude to the media flow can say more about his/her level of media
competence. Zircon's research of 2013 shows that only 29% of respondents confessed that it is
difficult for them to find their way in the information flow. However 40% are sure that such
navigation is no problem for them, and 26% of people add that not only do they easily operate in
the media world, but also do not see any problem in a huge amount of available media information
[Zircon, 2013]. But can it be true? Psychologists [Rubinstein, 1973; Leontiev, 2002, p. 380; Potter,
2012] have long been aware of the effect of an inflated self-concept of one's skills, knowledge and
abilities; but the verification of respondents' real skills in media field was not included into the
research by Zircon.
In reference with the key indicators of media competence, the results of Zircon's research
related to the audience's skills of critical/analytical thinking are more interesting. Thus, in 2013
58% of respondents admit that while watching TV, listening to radio, reading newspapers and
magazines they often have a feeling of being deceived or misled, that is given false, unverified
information, being imposed some views on. Whilst the respondents trust Internet as a source of
information more (42% in 2013) than TV programs (only 15% in 2013), press (11%) or the radio
(6%) [Zircon, 2013]. On the whole, the sum total of the audience that is critical about media texts is
58%. This correlates significantly with the identified by Zircon, data of the previous part of the
survey, when 66% of people argue that they easily manage information flow [Zircon, 2013].
It is worth mentioning the answers to three thesеs that respondents needed to evaluate.
Thus, the thesis "media should bear responsibility for low-quality information just as a
manufacturer is responsible for the low-quality product" in 2013 was supported by 86% of
respondents. The theses "I usually know where (from what source) I can get the information
I need" and "media should only tell facts, and it is up to a person to derive their meaning" were
approved by 76% of people [Zircon, 2013].
The research findings demonstrate that 74% of respondents in 2013 pointed out that
different media repeat the same information, at the same time, 70% of people were sure that
information messages from different sources often contradicted each other. Still 52% mentioned
that they often compared information with other sources in order to verify it. Moreover, 41% of
respondents answered that while evaluating the information they tried to find out whose interests a
media agency served. But over one third of respondents (38%) admitted that they are used to
believing media messages. On the whole only 19% of respondents revealed a basic level of
evaluation skills, while 38% are in the middle, and 43% have highly developed evaluation skills
[Zircon, 2013].
The comprehensive index of media literacy was calculated by Zircon by combining three
indices: 1) the use of media devices activity index (partial index A), 2) index of self evaluation of
skills to operate the information (partial index B), and 3) index of one's media activity (partial
index C). Within the framework of a sociological survey, Zircon adopted the following estimation of
the level of media literacy/competence: a media literate person is the one who demonstrates a high
level of use of media gadgets (A), a high level of self evaluation of skills to operate the information
(B), and a high or a medium level of one's media activity (C). 14,5% of all the respondents in the
data set of the research conducted by Zircon met these criteria [Zircon, 2013].
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Russian Journal of Sociology, 2015, Vol. (1), Is. 1
Nevertheless, in our opinion, the technique of estimation of the integrated level of media
competence of the audience proposed by Zircon, contains a methodological error, because by
summing up the results of the sociological survey some key indices of media literacy were not
considered. As we have noted above, a high level of media gadgets' use (A) in most cases does not
testify for the similarly high level of analytical assessment of the information, of a media text, and a
wide range of relations between a person and media sphere. The direct link between the high level
of media literacy and a high level of self-evaluation of user's skills (B) looks quite vague, too. A high
level of one's media activities, certainly, has to do with the level of media literacy much more than
the level of media consumption. However it cannot be considered as the priority one in the ranking
of markers of media literacy/media competence.
Broadly, one can agree that "these four components - access, analysis, evaluation and content
creation - together constitute a skills-based approach to media literacy. Each component supports
the others as part of a non-linear, dynamic learning process: learning to create content helps one to
analyze that produced professionally by others; skills in analysis and evaluation open the doors to
new uses of the internet, expanding access, and so forth" [Livingstone, 2004, p. 5].
Yet, to my mind, the ranking order (and therefore, the percent of its index volume) of the
markers of any sociological research claiming to determine the levels of media literacy, should be
the following:
1) level of the analytical evaluation of information, a media text, a wide range of interrelations
with media sphere by a respondent;
2) level of one's media activity of a respondent;
3) level of activeness of using media gadgets;
4) level of self-evaluation of a respondent of one's skills to operate the information (although
this marker could be omitted due to the possibility of inadequately elevated self-evaluation).
Consequently, if the level of analytical evaluation of media messages had been the main
marker in the Zircon survey, then "the comprehensive index of media literacy" of the people would
have been different. It would have much more depended on the fact that in 2013 the survey
revealed that 38% of respondents had a medium level of evaluation skills when working with mass
media, and 43% - the high one.
It should be noted that the level of analytical evaluation of media messages was detected only
indirectly by Zircon. The direct evidence of this marker of media literacy/media competence could
be received by and by working in focus groups and by respondents' actually completing some
analytical assignments, related to media, and later assessed by experts.
Our opinion about the priority of the level of analytical evaluation of information in
sociological researches is shared by other media educators, including those who produced the
survey in European Union in 2011. The first place in the ranking of media literacy core markers was
given to critical understanding of information that is presented by different media sources and
skills in critically evaluating the credibility of information, comparison of information across
sources with skills in managing privacy and protecting self from unwanted messages, content
creation in various media forms following up [Testing…, 2011, p. 6-7]. The critical understanding of
media contents can be found at the top of the pyramid of main criteria of media literacy in the EU
research in 2009, as well [Celot, 2009, p. 8].
The importance of analytical evaluation of media information is stressed by Pérez Tornero
and T. Varis. They insist that the development of analytical thinking in media education can be
regarded as the way to use information for analysis and assessment, creation of new concepts,
ideas, arguments and hypothesis. Critical thinking makes instruments for understanding the
environment and its patterns develop. Taking into consideration that the huge part of information
process is realized via media technologies, the development of media literacy should be aimed at
stimulating critical thinking [Pérez Tornero, Varis, 2010, p. 79].
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The ranking of indexes (according to their significance) in All-Russian sociological research
headed by G. Soldatova is constructed more convincingly, compared to Zircon research. Soldatova's
research was aimed at distinguishing the levels of digital competence of adolescents and their
parents [Soldatova et al., 2013]. We should say that the authors of the research define "digital
competence" as the one "based on continuing mastering the competencies (system of
corresponding knowledge, skills, motivation and responsibilities), the ability of a person to choose
and use information and communication technologies in various spheres of life (work with content,
communications, use) confidently, efficiently, critically and safely; and his/her willingness to such
activities" [Soldatova, 2013, p. 4].
This research of 2013 used a stratified sample of 1203 teenagers aged 12 to 17 and
1209 parents living in 58 towns from 45 regions of all 8 federal districts of Russia with the
population of 100 thousand people and more [Soldatova, 2013, p. 4]. Setting up a questionnaire,
the authors distinguished "four spheres of life that to a large extent reveal great opportunities and
new risks of Internet space. These are the information (content) environment (creation, search,
selection, critical evaluation of the content), communication sphere (creation, development,
sustaining relationship, identity, reputation, self representation), consumption sphere (use of
Internet as consumers - orders, services, shopping, etc.) and technological sphere (use of computer
hardware and software, furthermore, technical safety)" [Soldatova, 2013, p. 16]. We think it is only
fair that the analytical and evaluation activity of a person is placed first and foremost.
As one would expect, the sociological research headed by G.Soldatova shows that Russian
teens surpass their parents in frequency of Internet use: 89% of teens use it daily vs. 53% of parents
(moreover, 17% of parents do not use Internet at all). Yet, five types of teenage users were
distinguished: "education oriented" (29%), "communicators" (25%), "web readers" (22%),
"gamers" (17%), "universal users" (7%) " [Soldatova, 2013, p. 5-7].
As it's known, "Information Technology" is an obligatory subject in Russian schools, that is
why it is this subject that should develop pupils' "digital literacy" in the first place. The large group
of parents that took part in the survey by Soldatova also reported that schools should inform their
kids about Internet threats (42%), teach safe surfing the Net (38%), and teach to use modern
information and communication technologies efficiently (39%). Moreover, one in five parents
would like to be informed about Internet security and safety rules on the Internet during school
parent meetings" [Soldatova, 2013, p. 11].
However the sociological survey guided by G. Soldatova demonstrates that "teenagers
evaluate school teachers' help low: only 40% of schoolchildren are fully or partially satisfied with
the knowledge about using Internet that they got at school. While 44% of teenagers think that the
school does not provide any useful knowledge in this field. Every tenth teenager believes that
he/she knows more about the Internet than a teacher does. One in ten teens gets the information
about safe Internet use at school" [Soldatova, 2013, p. 10]. Therefore, based on the findings of this
research it can be concluded that IT school lessons achieve their objectives poorly and ineffectively.
On the whole, Soldatova's research shows that on average the level of digital literacy of
Russian teenagers as well as their parents is about one third of the possible rate (31% by parents,
and 34% by teens). The questions that were answered negatively both by parents and children (i.e.
that they don't know how to do something, can't do this, don't want to learn it, don't lay emphasis
on it, etc.) twice more outnumber the positive answers (meaning that they feel competent in doing
something) [Soldatova, 2013, p. 6].
Nevertheless, if compared to the media literacy survey done by Zircon in the same year of
2013, there the number of media literate respondents was half – 14,5% [Zircon, 2013].
This discrepancy may be explained by the fact that firstly, the researchers had different criteria of
media literacy and digital competence, and secondly, half of Soldatova's respondents were
teenagers who in many ways surpass adults in media use skills.
24
Russian Journal of Sociology, 2015, Vol. (1), Is. 1
Conclusions
Summing up, determining the media literacy/media competence levels of various groups of
people is an important and well-timed task, however, it is not an easy task. It requires a significant
shift of emphasis: the indices of the audiences' skills to analyze and evaluate media messages and
their role in society should come first, and only then such skills as creation and communication of
self media production, and skills to use media gadgets should follow. Otherwise the description of
the research findings on the topic of media competence will reveal a common drawback – the
predominance of the importance of user's skills.
Acknowledgement
This article is written within the framework of a study supported by the grant of the Russian
Science Foundation (RSF). Project № 14-18-00014 "Synthesis of media education and media
criticism in the preparation of future teachers", performed at Taganrog Management and
Economics Institute.
References
1. Bazalgette, C. (2010) Media Education in the UK. London, 2010.
2. Buckingham, D. (2009). The future of media literacy in the digital age: some challenges
for policy and practice // Verniers, P. (ed.) (2009). Media literacy in Europe: controversies,
challenges and perspectives. Bruxelles: EuroMeduc, p.13-24.
3. Celot, P. at all (eds.) (2009). Study on Assessment Criteria for Media Literacy Levels.
Brussels: EAVI, 139 p.
4. Leontiev, D.A. (2002). I - the ultimate authority in the person // Personality psychology
in the works of local psychologists. St-Petersburg: Peter.
5. Livingstone, S. (2004). Media Literacy and the Challenge of New Information and
Communication Technologies. The Communication Review, N 7, pp. 3–14.
6. Pérez Tornero, J.M. and Varis, T. (2010). Media Literacy and new Humanism. Moscow:
UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education, 136 p.
7. Potter, W. J. (2012). Media effects. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 377 p.
8. Potter, W.J. (2014). Media Literacy. L.A.: Sage, 2014, 452 p.
9. Rubinstein, S.L. (1973). Man and World: Problems of General Psychology. Moscow.
10. Soldatova, G.U. at all. (2013). Digital competence of adolescents and parents. The
results of nationwide research. Moscow: Foundation for Internet Development, 2013. 144 p.
11. Testing and Refining. Criteria to Assess Media Literacy Levels in Europe. Bruselles:
European Commission, 2011, 236 p.
12. Tyner, K (2009). Audiences, Intertextuality, and New Media Literacy. IJLM. Vol. 1, N 2,
pp. 25-31.
13. Vartanova, EL, Matveeva, L.V., Sobkin, V.S., Soldatova, G.U., Sharikov, A.V. at all.
(2013). Strategy, goals, objectives and methods of information education of children and
adolescents // Information Security Concept children. Moscow: Roscomnadzor, 2013. 108 p.
14. Zircon, A research group. (2013). Current status and prospects of literacy of the
population of the Russian Federation on the basis of national monitoring of media conduct
(2009-2013). Moscow: Zircon. http: //www.zircon.ru/publications/sotsiologiya-smi-i-massovykhkommunikatsiy/
УДК 316
Уровни медиакомпетентности аудитории
в зеркале социологических опросов
Анастасия Левицкая
Таганрог институт управления и экономики, Российская Федерация
кандидат педагогических наук, доцент
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
25
Russian Journal of Sociology, 2015, Vol. (1), Is. 1
Аннотация. Автор статьи считает, что социологические исследования уровней
медиаграмотности / медиакомпетентности различных групп граждан весьма актуальны.
Однако такие исследования требуют значительного смещения акцентов: самыми важными
показателями должны быть умения аудитории анализировать и оценивать медийные
сообщения и роль медиа в обществе; только после этого могут следовать показатели
медиакомпетентности, связанные с умениями создания и распространения собственных
медиатекстов, с практическим использованием медиатехники. В противном случае
результаты социологических опросов, выявляющих уровень медиакомпетентности, будут
страдать общим недостатком – доминированием компетенций, связанных с
(медиа)пользовательскими навыками.
Ключевые слова: образование медиа; медиаобразование; медиаграмотность;
медиакритика; медиакомпетентность; аналитическое мышление; социологические опросы.
26
Communication Today, 2016, Vol. 7, No. 2
IS MEDIA LITERACY STILL
ONE OF THE PRIORITIES
FOR POLICY MAKERS?
Prof. David Buckingham, FBA
Emeritus Professor of Communication and Media Studies
Loughborough University
Leicestershire
LE11 3TU
United Kingdom
d.buckingham@lboro.ac.uk
David Buckingham is a scholar, writer and consultant specialising in young people, media and education. He
is an Emeritus Professor at Loughborough University (UK) and a Visiting Professor at Sussex University (UK)
and at the Norwegian Centre for Child Research. He was for many years a Professor of Education at the Institute of Education, London University, where he was the founder and director of the Centre for the Study of
Children, Youth and Media; and subsequently a Professor of Media and Communications at Loughborough
University. He is a leading internationally recognised expert on children’s and young people’s interactions
with electronic media, and on media literacy education. He has directed more than 25 externally-funded
research projects on these issues, and been a consultant for bodies such as UNESCO, the United Nations,
UNICEF, the European Commission, Ofcom (the UK media regulator), and the UK Government.
Prof. Dr. Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog State Pedagogical Institute
Iniciativnaya, 48
Taganrog, Rostovskaya oblast, 347936
Russian Federation
tgpi@mail.ru
Alexander Fedorov is Deputy Director for Science of Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute at the Rostov State
University of Economics, Russia, and honourable president of Russian Association for Film and Media Education. He is also a member of the Russian Academy of Film Arts and Science, the Russian Union of Filmmakers,
CIFEJ and FIPRECI. Professor Fedorov is the author of 20 books and more than 400 articles in media studies
and media literacy journals. He has been a Guest Professor and research fellow in the Norway Association for
Media Education (Oslo), the Central European University (Budapest), Kassel University (Germany), Maison
des sciences de l’homme (Paris), the Kennan Institute, (Washington D.C.), Humboldt University (Berlin),
Mainz University and Frankfurt University (Germany).
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Interview
Interview with David BUCKINGHAM and Alexander FEDOROV
ABSTRACT:
The interviews focus on the key question whether media literacy is still in the spotlight of contemporary society. The past decades has seen rapid development of professional and academic interest in the field of media
literacy. The theoretical and practical issues that have dominated the field for many years have already drawn
attention to the importance of this concept for the individual and for the society. In fact, the introduction
of media education in schools and other areas of public life is still being confronted with many challenges.
Moreover, the wide range of related problems is becoming less in the centre stage of policy making – at the
European and non-European level alike. The interviews address questions about the priorities of educational
policy, which should not be focused only on the topics that can directly contribute to economic growth and job
creation. Particularly today, at the times of global conflicts and societal as well as cultural transformations,
it is very important to develop the critical thinking of citizens – of course, in relation to the media and their
society-wide actions and agendas.
KEY WORDS:
critical thinking, digital age, media education, media education policy, media literacy
Norbert Vrabec (N. V.): Professor Buckingham, Professor Fedorov, you’re both leading experts in the media
literacy, theory and practice of media education as well as media education policy. How do you see the future
of media literacy and education in the digital age?
David Buckingham: Good question. If I think back to when I was first involved with media education, I can remember using very basic technology. When children in school were ‘making’ media, they were literally cutting
pieces of paper with scissors and sticking them onto other pieces of paper. And I can remember the beginnings
of video but the video was impossible to edit back then. You needed to go somewhere special, bribe a technician
to allow you to edit it. It was a real problem. If you think about it now, I have a phone in my pocket, you have a
phone here, and we can make a movie, edit a movie and do whatever we want. It’s an amazing difference! It’s
a unique opportunity.
Another thing is that what we think of as media has changed. People of our generation, we think it’s
television, movies, newspapers... But actually nowadays, it is far more about digital media; and these media are
working in a different way. If you think about Facebook as a medium, and Twitter, they are not just media, they
are media platforms, but they work in very different ways. Economically, in terms of representation, in terms of
how producers get engaged with the audience, they are very different. And we have to grasp that, engage with
Communication Today
that. We have to develop new theories, questions. All of it is very important, very exciting, very challenging. At
the same time, what does education do in response to these technological changes? In my opinion, schools and
universities have been very quick to use technology. There has been a ‘big push’, partly from the government,
but particularly from the commercial companies: for example, Apple has pushed really hard to get their products into schools. We have big companies that see education as a really significant market. So, we are being
pushed and in media education we have to be really careful about this, because many people think that technology is just a very simple and straight-forward benefit. There is a problem with the functional use of technology
rather than the critical, and that is the real challenge for us, particularly at school level.
I am old enough to remember the first computers coming to schools as a strange, new thing; but now in
every class they have several computers. And I think we need to engage with this but to ask critical questions.
So there is a mixture of positive things and the dangers that people who teach media in schools really need to
address.
Alexander Fedorov: I think that the future of media literacy education has certain positive perspectives. But
of course, we have some negative factors too. For example, some of my university students lose their ability
to read long texts. For example, my students have the possibility of a quick click on a link on Facebook or
the possibility of using mobile phones, the opportunity to use the video camera and Twitter, because these
digital communication forms are very fasts and texts are short. But when I ask them about, for example, lexical
or other test, it is very difficult to reach interesting and competent answers. It is very difficult to make them
analyse a complex media text, e.g. a film by Quentin Tarantino or Federico Fellini, because it is very hard for
them to ‘read’ through such a long sophisticated message. We can try to find a balance in between a short visual
picture and more inside, deeper, topical texts.
Of course, Russia is – in certain ways – culturally different from the Great Britain and other countries,
because Russia has on the one hand a long tradition of broadsheets and on the other hand a strong tradition
of longing for power; the pressure on and of the media is substantial. However, when I read now the western
papers like The New York Times or The Times or Le Figaro, I see that many western journalists think that Russian media always cannot offer any faithful, objective facts. But this is not true because, of course we have many
problems and main channels, main papers are under the government control, of course, but we have absolutely
independent and freelance news texts now, texts with clearly critical position against Russian power, against
president Putin; for example, in some privately-held newspapers or in the Internet area. This is very different
from the Soviet Union because the power of the Soviet Union controlled everything. But not now: the new
position of the new media like the Internet gives Russian people thorough views on all events. I think it is a very
good position for the development of critical thinking, because when we have many different national sources,
we become cautious about holding any position, any opinion. And we try to teach our students to have their
own position, an independent position against the ordinary propaganda.
N. V.: Do you think that media literacy is still one of the priorities for policy makers at the European level? Or
the current status is that the focus of European policy is gradually shifting to other priorities? Such as digital
literacy, skills in programming, technical competence, and so on.
David Buckingham: Certainly in the UK, but also in Europe, these things are changing. And I think that media
literacy is no longer a priority. Some ten years ago, this was a topic many people were speaking about. When media literacy appeared on the policy landscape, it wasn’t very clearly defined: it was fairly big and broad and for that
reason educators, like me, saw it as a big opportunity. Yet the policy became confused, narrower, and much more
focused on technology. It became no longer a matter of media literacy but a pure matter of technological literacy,
technological competence – learning how to turn on the computer, to use the browser, and so on. And in the
process, media literacy became a very much reduced idea, a matter of the ability to operate within the digital field.
Also, when we first started to talk about media literacy, it wasn’t only ‘digital’; but since that time the Internet and
the challenges of the Internet have really become the most important things. Internet competence is very important, of course, but knowing how to use the Internet is not the same as media literacy, it is much broader than that.
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Interview
Then, in 2010, we had a change of government and media literacy was finished as a policy issue. I mean
people occasionally talk about it, but as a policy priority, it is really finished. The timescale in Europe was
different: somewhere around 2006 – 2008, The European Commission was publishing documents about the
topic, but since that time it has shifted and much of the impetus has really evaporated. So people are now
talking about digital competence, although they have also started to speak more about film, European film.
There’s a kind of European protectionism there, certain voices encouraging people not to go and watch Hollywood movies. Yet on the other hand there are other media, television, computer games, and so on, that have
been around for a long time already, but are not perceived as respectable enough. I find it very hard to be optimistic on the things that are happening on the European level. Again, I see it as an opportunity but I think that
there is no political push behind it.
Alexander Fedorov: When we have a look at Russia, Russian media literacy is, in many cases, based on the
ethical and aesthetical value of information shared. When you speak about media education in a broader sense,
it is not very ‘comfortable’ for many Russian educators. We rather speak about a more comfortable notion of
information literacy; media may give us a certain sense of feeling uncomfortable, media literacy seems to be
unknown, but information literacy is okay. There exists a certain Russian journal in Moscow that dedicates its
space to information literacy education. Russian Ministry of Education perceive media education as something
additional, something extra, not as a compulsory thing. On the other hand, on the university level, the extent of
media literacy is greater nowadays. But on the high school level, however, the range and scope are very small.
In Russia, high school education is more conformist, more traditional. It is really hard for the teachers to incorporate the media literacy into high school education.
N. V.: Media Literacy is a set of skills or a specific form of competency. An important part of these skills and
competencies is critical thinking. Do you believe that the leaders at the European level or in Russia are eager
to develop critical thinking skills among citizens? In several European countries, we observe an increase in the
popularity of alternative, radical political movements and political parties that propose significant systemic
changes in the current neo-liberal policies of European countries. Do you think the rise in popularity of these
parties and movements, which is also associated with increasing scepticism towards mainstream media, could
be the result of previous and existing educational activities in the field of media literacy and encouraging active
citizenship and participation in civil society?
David Buckingham: Well, it is possible. I think that the government would say, ‘Yes, we value critical thinking’, but do they really want to develop critical thinking? If people develop critical thinking, life is very uncomfortable for the government. Yes, on the one hand there are these challenging social movements but on
the other hand there is a rising authoritarianism, a rising form of right-wing populism in politics. So I think we
have to be very careful about where politics and media go.
Critical thinking is a very positive, constructive thing: in order to be able to imagine how things could
be different, you have to be critical. But criticism actually may become a kind of cynicism. So we can all sit with
the arms behind our backs and say, ‘Politicians are all corrupt. I don’t trust anybody, I don’t trust the media’,
and then we actually become apathetic and we justify doing nothing. What’s more, this cynicism may simply
justify the authoritarian political and media establishment. It can actually go in many directions.
For example, in the UK there is a lot of buzz now about the radicalisation of young people. Some young
people are going to join the fighting in Syria. And the government actually say that media play a certain part in
this radicalisation. In fact, when young people look at what is happening in Syria, then they look at the mainstream media and they compare this with what they see online, they might well think the movements are being
misinterpreted; they become very critical of the media. And they go to fight for ISIS. This is the story anyway.
The point of this example is that distrust in mainstream media is not always leading people towards politically
correct directions. Likewise, if we look at conspiracy media and those conspiracy web sites, they really distrust
the mainstream media. They claim that the mainstream media simply tell lies about everything. We are told lies
about 9/11, and about Princess Diana... Whatever. There is a lot of criticism towards the mainstream media
Communication Today
but it is not necessarily going in good directions. We have to be careful about what kind of criticism we are
looking for, and what does criticism mean. Because criticism, cynicism and paranoia are not the same things.
Alexander Fedorov: Well, I completely agree with Professor Buckingham. We need media criticism and media
competence, but not cynicism or conspiracies. We may use Professor Len Masterman’s approach towards the
Internet, because the main question Masterman addresses is, ‘Who is the owner of the media agency? Who has
the interest in certain information’s medialisation?’. This is a very good methodology of judging the mainstream
media, the main TV channels, radio stations, Internet web sites (information texts). Unfortunately, now Russia
faces very difficult political problems in relation towards the other European countries, so the political level of
media is a very important part of media judgment. But of course, we need another methodology for the art house
media texts. Well, it is very important to develop media competence of personality. So, of course, we need to develop critical thinking and media competency in all people from the young people at high schools to older people.
N. V.: Media education acts at the interface of different influences and interests. Direct or indirect impact on media literacy is always related to an educational policy on a national or European level, market-driven economy,
taking into account the requirements of political correctness, the interests of the media industry and so on. Do
you recognise appropriate strategies and methodological approaches that would enable media literacy to face
the increasingly complex world and society?
David Buckingham: Well, I don’t know. My experience has been that in the UK we have developed a certain
conceptual framework for media education. I think that some things may need to be added to that framework and
some may need to be changed. But the overall conceptual approach is correct – and it can also be adapted to address the latest digital media. As I have said during the conference, we live in what might appear to be communicative chaos. On one level, we are ready to face the chaos, but what we need is critical tools that can help us to make
sense of all that. I think that media education provides us with those critical tools. In the UK, there are people
who would say, ‘You are old-fashioned, we can’t judge this new age of media with old-fashioned critical concepts’.
The question is: Do we want to get rid of these concepts? My argument is that we need to keep thinking and challenging ourselves, but actually we do have a framework that helps us to understand the changing media situation.
Alexander Fedorov: It is a very good question. I think, however, that we do not have any universal methodology of media education now. We have and we actually need different competitors with different approaches in
methodology (Len Masterman, Umberto Eco, etc.). Now I am a member of the team working on the methodology of the international approach that aims to create an international multi-language media literacy tutorial;
now we are working on 10 language variants of this framework panel. I am a member of the team for the Russian language variant of this online media literacy tutorial. We try to create the panel language framework for
the beginnings of media education in high schools, now. Not yet for the universities. This panel links cultural,
synergic, and critical thinking approach.
David Buckingham: I agree. Sure, we have the key conceptual questions that we have to keep on asking, but
the approach needs to evolve. It needs to take into account particular circumstances on the national level, on
the ethnic level... The approach you need to develop towards political questions in Russia would be very difficult from the one in the US, or in the UK, or in South Africa. The different approaches need to be local, but at
the same time there needs to be a continuous international dialogue.
N. V.: Media education is a cross-disciplinary field that draws on knowledge from multiple disciplines such
as media studies, sociology, psychology, political science and beyond. This means that it is a relatively complex and sophisticated educational field that requires specific initial education of teachers, as well as lifelong
learning. In some European countries, however, these kinds of teacher education and training are relatively
low spread. This is one of the reasons of lack of teachers capable of teaching media courses. What do you think
would help to improve this adverse situation that prevails in Slovakia, but also in other countries?
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Interview
David Buckingham: It is very difficult to be positive about these questions. What has happened in teacher
education in the UK is that universities have a smaller and smaller part to play, largely because the government
distrusts the universities. In the last 30 years the government has promoted the impression that the teachers
are getting these strange ideas from ‘crazy’ people like me, ‘dangerous’ people, the teachers at universities
who teach them all these crazy things that are terribly impractical. So the government decided to squeeze the
universities and push the universities out of teacher education. So I think you are absolutely right.
Becoming a media education teacher is a really long process, and it’s hard to get good training. Most
media and communication students, and I am sure it is the case here too, want to get a job in media, or in Public
Relations, or wherever. Even so, some of them will want to go into teaching or will work in the public sector.
They don’t see it necessary to work for a commercial company. In the UK, media studies as a subject in universities is significantly increasing. For example, a friend of my son did media studies at university and he managed
to find a school teaching media studies, he got training and he is now moving forward as a specialised media
studies teacher. But he’s got most of the knowledge from his first degree. I think that there will be more and
more media studies graduates and I hope that some of them will find their way into teaching in schools.
Alexander Fedorov: I believe that the teacher training is very important. I think it is very important for Russia, too. If we don’t have enough media teacher education, then we don’t have media teachers educated enough.
Of course, there are certain media education teacher trainings in Russia, including one at my university, but
speaking in numbers it is not enough for Russia. I can say by guess we have 5 teacher training courses (in Moscow, Yekaterinburg, etc.) but it is simply not enough for a country this big. Moreover, we don’t have enough
media education teacher licences, too.
David Buckingham: I think it is a question of teachers’ status and the general perception of the profession. In
Finland, for example, all the teachers have to have a Master’s degree and teaching is a high-status profession. In
Britain, I have to say that I think that teachers have been de-professionalized. Politicians have no respect for the
idea that the teachers should learn about educational theory. The government often seems to regard teaching
as an unprofessional job. It has the idea that the teachers just ‘deliver’ the curriculum like the postman delivers
the post, or the milkman delivers the milk. This is how teachers are supposed to ‘deliver’ knowledge. This is a
viewpoint that undermines the status of teaching: it sees teaching as having a functional role. As a result, more
and more teachers in the UK are leaving the profession. They get training and after 3 years or so, almost half of
them have left their profession – which, apart from anything else, is a big waste of money. I think we have a bit
of a crisis in the teaching profession. So it is not only the problem of media education teachers, it is a bigger
problem with the teaching profession and teacher training in general.
N. V.: Today’s children and young people are now growing up with a wide range of new media tools and applications. Do you consider that education policy and curriculum content are able to flexibly respond to these
dynamic changes in media and social environment?
David Buckingham: In relation to media, in the UK, I would say that generally, education has always had a
problem with popular culture. It has always had a significant problem in recognising the diversity of children’s
experience outside school. I think that the argument for the media education is part of a bigger argument. Education really needs to acknowledge the children’s world outside the classroom. There is a certain expectation
that children will come into school and they will leave everything at the doorstep. That they come into school
as blank slates and just then the teachers deliver them the knowledge. As long as education continues to see it
in this way, while it fails to recognise what children do outside school, it will always fail to address bigger social
changes.
There also is a very strong conservative direction in education policy that goes back a very long way.
There needs to be space for the modern, technologically-aware curriculum at school. But certainly many policy makers still have the idea that the knowledge is just delivered as it is to children, that teachers’ role is to
transmit the whole body of knowledge from the past. However, the world is changing all the time, so surely the
Communication Today
question should be: how do schools prepare children for the future? We need to learn from the past, we need
children to have access to the knowledge from the past. Children need to know about Chekhov, too... But they
also need to develop the kinds of critical thinking that will help them to respond to the changing world. The
world the children will grow up in is not the world that their teachers grew up in. I think this is a very big question. It really needs a change in educators’ thinking: how do they prepare children for the future, if we do not
really know what the future is going to be like?
Alexander Fedorov: I think it would be good for Russia if media literacy and education were present at every
level of institutionalised education. This way of media education integration means elevation of media competence of teachers and students. We have a very much centralised educational system in Russia, not like in
Germany, for example, or in the USA; we have it really centralised. The aim shall be, step by step, once the media educators are more educated, to integrate the media education into ordinary subjects like literature, etc.
N. V.: In addition to the school, media organisations could also play an important role in the development of
critical thinking. However, the primary goal of media organisations is not media education, but rather fulfilment of commercial interests. Do you believe that critically thinking audience is in the interest of media organisations? Or do they prefer an ‘ indoctrinated’ viewer, listener or reader who is a satisfied consumer of media
content, and therefore an easily influenced target of marketing strategies and advertising?
David Buckingham: I think we all have a right to choose to watch anything we like, including soap opera. The
question is whether the soap operas and the entertainment are simply patronizing and repetitive or whether
they are thoughtful and engaging. At the moment we have a great controversy going on in Britain in regards
to one of our radio soap operas, to do with a storyline about domestic abuse, psychological abuse. It generated
a big public debate about whether you can deal with such issues in soap operas. It is not a simple issue to talk
about; it is actually complicated – from the formal and fictional point of view. I think that we all have a right to
a diverse media ‘diet’, but I also think that we have a right to demand that things will be dealt with in a complex
way. I think that we deserve entertainment, but good quality entertainment. And that is what a media literate
person would be demanding.
Alexander Fedorov: I mean, what is the good quality entertainment... I guess that most soap operas or film
trash are not a good quality entertainment. But I agree that a more demanding audience would want more
quality soap operas, too. Of course.
This interview was given at the international conference Megatrends and Media that took place
on 19th – 20th April 2016 at the Smolenice Castle.
Prepared by Norbert Vrabec
David Buckingham: I can give you a certain utopian answer, which would be that it should be in the interest of
media industries to have an educated audience, because such an audience would be a demanding audience for
good quality media and that would be a productive challenge for media industries. So yes, I think it should be in
the media industry’s best interest to do that. A more cynical answer would be to say that in the media industry
there are people who say, ‘Yes, media literacy is very good’, but in fact what they do to enhance the general public’s media literacy is really very limited. Actually they are not very happy about people asking critical questions
about what they do. Even the BBC. I mean, you would expect the BBC as a public interest broadcaster, to have
a view of media literacy as an important dimension of participation in the public sphere. However when you
look at what they do in relation to media literacy, it is quite limited. The media industries ought to have an interest in the general public being media literate, even though I am a bit sceptical if this is really what they want.
Alexander Fedorov: Yes, I once again agree with Professor Buckingham. We have many media agencies and
organisations in Russia and when their representatives speak about media competence, they always support
it; however, when it comes to action, they say that this is not their problem, but it is the task of the Ministry
of Education, though. I think that this is a pretty cynical answer from the media organisations because their
employees choose to produce their programmes. They, in fact, don’t want to have media competent audiences.
Because who media competent would want to see, for example, soap operas? Nobody really does, but we have
many soap operas on TV because their production does not cost too much money. It is also necessary to point
out that many cinema distributors in Russia are Americans, but not all of them. We have a considerably big film
market segment related to domestically produced movies, movies with their own topics and cultural frameworks that compete on the [mainstream] cinema market, but most of these movies are still based on entertaining narratives, not of high quality. It is something rather American, only slightly adjusted to correspond with
the Russian nature. It would be challenging for Russian media producers to have demanding people as their
audience.
David Buckingham: I probably do not agree fully on this point. I actually don’t think that a media literate
viewer would not demand soap operas. I think that a media literate person would demand better quality soap
operas and also better entertainment. I really don’t think that a media literate person only watches serious
news and documentaries.
Alexander Fedorov: Maybe people want them, maybe they don’t.
106
Interview
Communication Today
European Researcher, 2015, Vol.(95), Is. 6
Copyright © 2015 by Academic Publishing House Researcher
Published in the Russian Federation
European Researcher
Has been issued since 2010.
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 95, Is. 6, pp. 442-450, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/er.2015.95.442
www.erjournal.ru
Pedagogical Sciences
Педагогические науки
UDC 37
Critical Analysis of Media Violence Text on the Media Education Lessons
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russia, branch of Rostov State University of Economics
Prof. Dr. (Pedagogy)
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Abstract
The media violence is the important problem for education. Based on of Len Masterman‟s
media education theory of critical thinking and the methods of Umbeto Eco, the author of this
article selected the following significant items for the analysis of media texts: author's ideology;
socio-cultural, market and political environment, the process of creating a media text, audience
perceptions, structure and narrative techniques. This approach is quite corresponds to the method
of media texts analysis, building on media literacy education aspects such as media agencies,
media / media text categories, media technologies, media languages, media representations and
media audiences, because all these concepts are directly related to the ideological, socio-cultural
and structural aspects.
Keywords: media violence, screen violence, film, media, analysis, media text, media literacy
education, media studies, media culture, students, Balabanov.
Introduction
The media violence is the important problem for education. As an example for this kind of
critical analysis I select Alexei Balabanov‟s film Cargo 200 (2007), which will allow us to address
the actual problem of media violence and its impact on the audience. The story of Cargo 200:
Soviet province in 1984, the policeman maniac kidnaps the daughter of local Secretary of the
Communist Party and arranges bloody show with corpses and violence...
Materials and methods
Materials for this article: the media literacy education and media studies literature, periodical
press, the media text with the violence content: Alexei Balabanov‟s film Cargo 200 (2007),
Methods: based on of Len Masterman‟s media education theory of critical thinking
(Masterman, 2005) and following the methods of Umbeto Eco (Eco, 2005, p. 209), I select the
following significant items for the analysis of media texts: author's ideology; socio-cultural, market
and political environment, the process of creating a media text, audience perceptions, structure
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and narrative techniques. I think this approach is quite corresponds to the method of media texts
analysis (Bazalgette, 1995), building on media literacy education aspects such as media agencies,
media / media text categories, media technologies, media languages, media representations and
media audiences, because all these concepts are directly related to the ideological, socio-cultural
and structural aspects.
Discussion
It is known that some scholars have pointed out inconsistencies in the approaches to the
problem of media violence in the circle of psychologists, politicians, teachers and parents, as
complaining about the flow of aggressive character of the entertainment industry, they forget to ask
why, in fact, there is a huge market of literature, films, cartoons, computer / video games, toys with
the theme of violence? Politicians and others who discussed the topic of media violence have
focused only on the product, ignoring its perception by the public. Psychologists, too, ignored the
appeal of violence in the entertainment field, with a focus on its effects (Goldstein, 1998a;
Goldstein, 1998b, p. 1).
Recently have been a lot of discussion about the relationship between media violence and
aggressive behavior of minors. Studies have confirmed that a permanent, frequent viewing
aestheticized and “ordinary” violence that affects the attitude of children on their emotional
bitterness, and sometimes – on their own aggressive behavior. The bitterness, indifference to
human suffering, which cause media in children - it is a slow, hidden process (Cantor, 2000, p. 69).
Meanwhile, media violence is increasingly penetrating into Russian society. In spite of all the
efforts of individual teachers-enthusiasts, media literacy education in schools, colleges and
universities is poorly developed.
Long-term studies of J. Cantor detail classified seven possible reasons for the appeal of
violence for the audience (especially - a minor):
1) the desire to experience the excitement (a media violence raises, enhances the emotional
excitement. There is evidence that watching scenes of violence or threats of violence will
significantly increase empathy, increases the heart rate and the pressure, even in adults.
The impact of media violence on the level of emotion was reflected in experiments in during which
measures heart rate and skin temperature (Cantor, 1998, p.96-98);
2) the desire to experience the virtual aggression (the effect of empathy): many media
recipients like virtually participate in hostile actions. For example, in one study, "48% of students
said they always sympathize with the victim, and 45% said they always empathize "bad guy". 39%
of students admit that they like to watch people fight on the screen, hurt each other, etc. These data
suggest that the fascination with media texts with a realistic portrayal of violence is directly related
to the process of obtaining pleasure from the contemplation of these scenes, uncommon to identify
with the aggressor, not the victim or positive character (Cantor, 1998, p.98-99); According to my
research, a sense of aggressiveness in connection with the viewing screen violence experienced
8.4% and a sense of exasperation - 7.8% of the 450 students surveyed;
3) disregard of restrictions (the effect of forbidden fruit): parents often limit the access of
children to media violence, causing episodes of this kind are to a certain part of minors more
desirable;
4) an attempt to see violence and aggression reflecting their own experiences. In this sense,
aggressive people love to watch the program, showing their characteristic behavior. Studies show
that people, who in real life are aggressive, opt for more aggressive programs (Cantor, 1998, p. 102103). This conclusion is supported by K. Tarasov‟s studies (Tarasov, 2002, p.154-155);
5) to study the criminal world (cognition role of violence in society and habitats of the
audience); people for whom violence is an integral part of their social circle, are more interested in
violence on the screen (Cantor, 1998, p.104);
6) complacency (the effect of apprehension): contact with media texts, containing scenes of
violence, sometimes helping people to escape from their own fears of life and real problems, as, for
example, a typical plot of the television series ends with the triumph of order and justice (Cantor,
1998, p. 105-106);
7) the effect of gender (the role of violence in the gender component of socialization).
The children's audience has a gender difference in the perception of violence. When boys and girls
are watching the same TV show, the first may be more prone to "effect of aggression" and
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identification with the typical aggressive male character, whereas girls are increasingly suffering
from fear, because identifying with the typical female character-victim (Slaby, 2002, p.316).
My study was clearly stated that the male students among the active fans of screen violence twice as
much as the female. Among the respondents (450 students from 7 to 17 years) boys were 21.0% of
fans violence on the screen and girls – only 12.4%. These findings are confirmed by other Russian
researchers (Sobkin, Glukhova, 2001, p.2; Tarasov, 2002, p. 153-154).
But in addition, the scenes of violence / aggression in media texts "psychologically prepare
the person to intense emotional situations; allow to show in a symbolic form their physical activity
and the ability to act in times of crisis, to carry out psychological self-regulation at the time of
confusion"(Petrus, 2000).
It is clear that all of these factors in varying degrees, attracted the audience's attention to the
Cargo 200, regardless of its artistic value (in relation to which the opinions of professional and
mass audience as rigidly divided, and not on the principle of "professionals against amateurs").
Results
Author's ideology in the social and cultural context (the dominant concept are: media
agency, media representation, media audiences)
The ideological message of Alexei Balabanov, the writer-director of the film Cargo 200, is
clear: "It's just a movie about 1984, as I remember it, as I imagine it and see. I wanted to make a
film about the hard end of the Soviet Union - that I did it"(quoted from the source: Nekrasov,
2007). And this film has many fans. For example, the writer, journalist, broadcaster and film critic
and winner of many awards Dmitry Bykov wrote that it is "an outstanding film: perhaps most
important movie of the year"(Bykov, 2007). Another film critic – Alena Solntseva echoes: "there
are many associations: and our Russian incredible tolerance for evil, to the scum who live
peacefully alongside; and a surprising indifference to the surrounding landscape; and a strange
attachment to metaphysical disputes against the backdrop of indifference to loved ones"(1984:
critics session, 2007). Even more conceptual generalizations comes from Maria Kuvshinova:
"Balabanov‟s film is a hard and honest response to all that is happening and will happen in our
country, and in general - in the world under heaven"(1984: critics session, 2007).
It would seem that we are dealing with a consolidated opinion of professionals, art historians,
who, opening the "underground corridors metaphors", found in Balabanov‟s media text the
philosophical depth and a powerful ideological, nearly "Orwellian" message to humanity.
But equally authoritative group of professionals (Kitchin, 2007; Kudryavtsev, 2007;
Mathiesen, 2007; Pavluchik, 2007) analyzes Cargo 200 from the opposite point of view, arguing,
for example, that "the whole picture of life depicted, ridiculous in terms of elementary credibility,
easy to fit into tight directorial concept, the essence of which - to show the agony, insanity of the
Soviet system, like decaying corpses thereby (ingenuous metaphor) that are rotting in the
apartment rapist-cop... This is hand made horror film, infused with social "dill", horror and sexual
violence ... Characters from Cargo 200 (ie, the population of the country in miniature) - a
gathering of some freaks, degenerates, alcoholics, and criminal elements, profoundly indifferent to
all people in the world"(Pavluchik, 2007).
Valery Kitchin‟s conclusion even tougher: "Then why is this story needed Balabanov for his
version of "1984"? And it's simple: he wants to be George Orwell. The year 1984 was chosen with a
clear allusion. But his talent is lean, his tasteful is bad, his fantasy is insignificant" (Kitchin, 2007).
In short, on the one hand the film of A. Balabanov treated as an extreme (and even
messianic) ideological message, and on the other – as the primitive "horror", bad taste and
professional level or almost parodic extravaganza "trash".
In this regard, good media literacy education way - to offer methodical approach, which
essentially helps ideological analysis of media text. Students must know the basic techniques of
manipulative influence of media on the audience (many of which, in my point of view, significantly
visible in Cargo 200):
• orchestration - the psychological pressure in the form of constant repetition of certain facts,
regardless of the truth;
• selection - the selection of certain trends: for example, only positive or negative, distortion,
exaggeration (understatement) of these trends;
• embellishment of facts;
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• sticking labels (eg, guilty, insulting, etc.);
• transfer - the transfer of any qualities (positive, negative) to another event (or person);
• evidence - a reference (not necessarily correct) to authorities in order to justify an action, or
that slogan;
• folksy game, including, for example, the most simplified form of information presentation.
On this basis I use the following methodological procedures for the analysis of media texts in
the classroom:
• sifting of information (for example, for media texts claiming documentary students can
select true and false, make the purification of the information from the rouge and shortcuts, etc.);
• removing information from the halo of typical, authority;
• critical analysis of the objectives and interests of agency / media text authors.
Market conditions that have contributed to the plan, the process of creating a media text,
audience’s perception (the dominant aspects: media agency, category media / media texts, media
technology, audience).
The question arises: why Alexei Balabanov decided to settle with the Soviet regime in 2007,
while other Russian authors made about 20 years earlier (don‟t forget Alexander Solzhenitsyn, who
wrote and published The Gulag Archipelago with real risk to his life in the 1960s)?
Maybe one answer is simple: the beginning of the XXI century open more possibilities for
trash treatment of serious social and ideological issues. Most likely, the authors of Cargo 200
previously relied on polar interpretations of their work, because the atmosphere of scandal,
confrontation in the debate about the degree of plausibility, the reality and the shock of naturalism
largely helps promote the product in the media market in a modern socio-cultural context.
Of course, Cargo 200 was marginalized in ordinary Russian cinema halls: "this film collected
only 300 thousand dollars for 11 days" (Matizen, 2007). More or less notable international festivals
disdained to take Cargo 200 in the competition. However, Cargo 200 has the success in media,
intended for individual viewing (video, DVD, computer discs, files). And this demand is
substantially fueled "branded" advertising for Cargo 200 ("See the shocking film from cult director
of Brother and Brother-2!) and contradictory reactions from journalists, critics and the public
(thanks to Internet sites, advanced part of the mass audience is almost instantly responds to any
more or less significant event in politics, economy and culture).
But do not ignore the commercial potential of media violence, which has always been a great
place in Balabanov‟s media texts. And then, I think, K. Tarasov is right: "As part of the modern film
industry, focused on extracting the maximum profit, the depiction of violence is perhaps the most
cost-effective elements of the film. Creating a serious and at the same time fascinating media
product, affecting important concern to many questions in relation to the creative task is very
complex, requiring much time and effort. The saturations of the film fights, gunfights, chases let
hide a weak story and characters, the lack of any meaningful themes, etc. and attract the viewer's
attention"(Tarasov, 2003, p.123).
Considering that age limit is not adhered the practical sale of DVD in Russia, I can assume
that a large part of Cargo 200‟s audience was minor audience, because media violence is attractive
area for teenagers.
Based on the analysis of the results of the research and study of the works of Russian and
foreign scientists, I developed the following typology of audience perception of media violence:
1) active, targeted positive perception of media violence on the level of identification with the
environment, the plot and / or severe / aggressive media text characters;
2) passive (no explicit relationship) perception of media violence at the level of the partial
identification with the environment, the plot and / or severe / aggressive media text characters;
3) the active, purposeful negative perception of media violence on the level of identification
with the environment, the plot and / or victims of violent / aggressive media text characters;
4) active, purposeful negative perception of screen violence at opposition positions / actions
violent / aggressive media text characters and / or the position of the creators of media text.
Turning to the citations of the articles of professional media critics and ordinary viewers
comments about Cargo 200 it is easy to see a typology of perception of media violence (the desire
to experience the excitement / arousal, empathy, fear, a premonition of a happy ending, the effect
of "forbidden fruit" etc.). The more common and often underestimated are two of them - the fear
and indifference to scenes of violence (Kunkel, Wilson, and others, 1998, p. 155-156).
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My research experience (Fedorov, 2000; 2001; 2004; 2007) also showed that most of these
reasons are often seen in children's audience. The feeling of fear in relation to the display of
violence is characteristic of 15.3% of pupils. However, the situation in the 7-8-year-olds pupils area
is much higher - 20.0%. The feelings of indifference, apathy, caused scenes of media violence,
admitted one in ten of those interviewed minors.
The American research team following the television preferences of minors in the group for
22 years. As a result, it was found that viewing violence on television is the factor by which to
predict violent or aggressive behavior later in life, and it surpasses even such common factors, such
as the behavior of parents, poverty (Cannon, 1995, p. 19).
I share the view of J. Goldstein, that on appeal of violence affects not only the specific
situation in which the audience, but also society as a whole (Goldstein, 1998a, p. 221).
In this context, in my view, modern social and cultural situation in Russia has extreme
tolerance for radical media violence. The creators of Cargo 200, having considered the market
situation, have decided that domestic audience "is ripe" for their "radical concept" at a time when,
despite the camouflage declaration, Russian media removed all the old taboos on the degree of
naturalism in the portrayal of violence.
So, there are media violence‟s main reasons to appeal to the audience: entertainment,
recreation, compensation, the desire to experience the excitement / fear; the desire to experience
the virtual aggression (the effect of empathy); identification with aggressive characters or
character-victim (the effect of identification), the desire of ignoring restrictions (the effect of
"forbidden fruit); attempt to see violence / aggression reflecting their own experience; studies
surrounding the criminal world (cognition role of violence in society and in the habitat of the
audience); the effect of complacency, ie the effect of foreboding happy ending, and the realization
that "this nightmare does not happen to me"; the effect of gender, etc.).
All this fully corresponds with the basic theory of "media effects" that describe the following
mechanisms of action of audiovisual works, containing scenes of violence:
- manipulation with sense of fear (for example, promoting a sense of fear of aggression and
violence);
- training audiences violent / aggressive actions and their subsequent commission in real life
(violence as a valid way to solve any problems);
- stimulation, agitation aggressive, imitative instincts of the audience, its appetite in relation
to scenes of violence (especially in relation to the audience with mental disorders);
- "grafting" the audience‟s feelings of the indifference to the victims of violence, decrease the
sensitivity in relation to violence in real life;
- "cathartic", a virtual and safe way for others aggressive emotions that do not lead to
negative consequences in real life.
Undoubtedly, the authors of Cargo 200 can be any number disown the fact that they
deliberately counted the impact of this kind of rides media violence, but, as you know, the end
result is not necessarily associated with the deliberate intent of the authors. Consciously or
unconsciously, prudently and intuitively... The result is important, in this case, a media text, the
main attraction of which was the "radical" and naturalistic shown violence in its various guises.
The structure and narrative techniques in the media text (the dominant aspects are: media
/ media texts category, "media technology, media language, media representation)
In my opinion, Cargo 200 is built on the simple oppositions:
1) a ruthless maniac and his helpless victim (see folkloric roots of the tale of Little Red Riding
Hood and the Gray Wolf);
2) the indifferent State and its "citizens-cogs", which it sends to die in the war, or doomed to
a miserable stagnation in appalling living conditions;
3) naive heroine (Red Riding Hood) and cunning maniac (Grey Wolf);
4) plans (plans of the daughter of the big boss - Little Red Riding Hood, plans of the maniac Grey Wolf, the plans of Professor-atheist) and the final results, opposite of these plans.
However, this kind of oversimplification typing has the supporters (Swinarenko, 2007;
Gladilschikov, 2007, and others).
I can probably agree that the Сargo-200 stylized under "late Soviet folk horror stories",
based on which "determined here and all the rest: the schematic characters overabundance
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unexamined fable turns a simple bust erased images, demonstrative hopelessness is happening"
(Mantsov, 2007).
However, it is difficult to agree with the enthusiasm about the "quality" images of violence in
the film about the "real" life: "we finally get is not glamorous Hollywood toy, but a tape in which
the reliability, blood and sweat even more than in real life. This brilliant the corpse paratrooper
who lies in bed with the bride. Which is a real high-Mighty horror! ... Who would have dared to
keep the dead man for so long in the frame, with all its sickening details?"(Swinarenko, 2007).
Student audiences can offer more specifically to analyze the expression of genre stereotypes
in Balabanov‟s film with additional questions. And it seems that this kind of analysis - an important
component of the development of critical thinking and media competence in the audience.
Questions for critical (ideological, philosophical, semiotic, identification, ethical,
autobiographical, iconographic, aesthetic, cultural, hermeneutic and so on.) analysis (BFI, 1990;
Buckingham, 2003, pp.54-60; Semali, 2000; Silverblatt, 2001, pp.42-43; Silverblatt, 2014; Berger,
2005; Usov, 1989; Fedorov, 2004, p.43-51; Fedorov, 2006, p.175-228; Fedorov, 2007; Potter,
2014, and others.)
Media agencies:
Can the media messages contribute to the promotion of militarism and / or violence?
Who is the author of a media text?
What is the main purpose of the ideological media texts? To what extent achieved this goal?
What is the reaction of the audience expect its creators?
Can you identify the moral values that are held by the authors of a media text?
What kind of event media agency / authors seek to reflect this work in the first place, which
seek to eliminate?
What, in your opinion, the assumptions creators of media text about the audience?
How would you assess the target audience of the media text?
Can the media characters depend on the thematic / genre / political, etc. focus specific media
agencies? If so, how?
What is the ideology of these characters express?
Media / media text categories:
What is the difference between the fiction and documentary media texts?
Can you name the genre, which are the most common characters with aggressive behavior,
immoral acts?
What types of media texts and genres promote greater identification with media characters?
What are the stereotypical scenes, plot conventions characteristic of the thriller and horror
genres?
Is there a predictable formula of the genre? As understanding of this formula helps your
perception of a particular media text?
What are the stereotypical scenes, conventions storylines specific to the genre / the specific
media text?
Can you articulate the ties to stereotypes stereotypical genres / themes related to media
violence?
As a visual codes and conventions are manifested in different types of media texts (for
example, in the genres of thriller and horror)?
Is there a difference in approach to the use of color and light in the media texts of different
types and genres (for example, in the genres of thriller and drama)?
Media technologies:
How different media technologies used in the development of plots of the same figure of
media culture (for example, in the work of the author, the specific media text which is analyzed at
the moment)?
Are the results in the media text stereotype technological solutions?
Does the stereotypical media technologies by genre media text?
Media languages:
Is there a media text in the visual symbols, signs? If so, what?
What about the facial expressions and gestures of characters associated with the genres of
thriller and horror?
Media representations:
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Think about the various social problems, such as crime, violence, racism, etc. How the media
can exacerbate these problems or, on the contrary, contribute to their resolution?
Is there a media text in this particular world view, ideology, philosophy, political values?
What are the political, ideological, philosophical, social trends are reflected in the media text
(for example, the problem of deviant behavior, sexism, conformity, anxiety, stereotyped thinking,
conflict of generations, arrogance, snobbery, loneliness, etc.)?
Does the media text hidden subtexts, false information?
What are the political, social and cultural sentiments are reflected in the views and actions of
the characters of the media text?
Is there any scenes of violence in the media text? If so, what is the difference between the
image of violence of other famous media texts?
Are the creators of media text, to portray negative characters as the embodiment of evil?
Media audiences:
Are there any media messages aimed at the manipulation of the audience? If so, in what
media texts is specifically manifested?
What is the meaning of ethics in the media culture? Does the media texts in moral
evaluation? If so, how to define the criteria of morality?
Can the media texts to promote racial, class, ethnic, national or religious enmity and hatred?
Can you think of media texts that you do not want to show the children aged 7-10 years? Why
is that?
To what level of audience appeal moral authors of this media text?
Why did the audience takes some stereotypical media representations as true and reject
others as false?
For what reasons the audience can choose the media text?
How does the audience interprets, evaluates the ideological orientation of the media text?
What is the typology of perception and evaluation of media texts the audience?
What are the reasons for the success of mass (mass lack of success) of a particular media text
at a mass audience?
What is the role of gender, social class, age and ethnic origin in the media perception of the
audience (including in relation to a particular media texts)?
What abilities, skills a person needs to qualify to analyze media texts?
Conclusions
Balabanov‟s media text with hard media violence has the clear connection with the
traditional structure of the plot, or horror thriller stereotypes:
The structure of the story thriller genre stereotypes
- Characters: civilians and maniac;
- A significant change in the lives of the characters: a maniac commits a series of murders;
- A problem: the violation of the law, the peaceful life of each character under threat;
- Find a solution: the positive character or cop pursuit of a maniac;
- Solution / return to a stable life: destruction / arrest the maniac, the return to ordinary life.
The structure of the story of horror genre
- Characters: civilians and monster;
- significant change in the lives of the characters: the monster attacks civilian people;
- A problem: the violation of peace life;
- Search for solutions: the struggle of civilians (or nominated from among the brave hero)
with a monster;
- Solution / return to a stable life: the destruction of the monster, the restoration of peaceful
life
And the basis of analysis of this text with media violence, in my opinion, can be based on a
variety of creative tasks associated with the key concepts of media literacy education (media
agencies, media categories, media language, media technologies, media representations, media
audiences, etc.).
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УДК 37
Критический анализ медиатекста, содержащего сцены насилия,
на медиаобразовательных занятиях
Александр Федоров
Таганрогский институт имени А.П. Чехова, филиал Ростовского государственного
университета экономики, Российская Федерация
Доктор педагогических наук, профессор
E-почта: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Аннотация. Медианное насилие – важная проблема для образования. Основываясь
на теории медиаобразования как способа развития критического мышления (Л. Мастерман)
и аналитических методахв У. Эко, автор статьи анализирует следующие существенные
элементы для анализа медиатекстов: авторская идеология; социально-культурная,
рыночная и политическая среда, процесс создания медиатекста, восприятие медиатекста
аудиторией, структура и повествовательные приемы. Этот подход вполне соответствует
методу анализа медиатекстов, принятому в медиаобразовании – с использованием таких
аспектов, как медиаагентство, категории медиа, медиатехнологии, язык медиа,
медиарепрезентация, медийная аудитории, потому что все эти понятия имеют
непосредственное отношение к идеологическим, социально-культурным и структурным
аспектам.
Ключевые слова: медийное насилие, экранное насилие, кино, медиа, анализ,
медиатекст, медиаграмотность, изучение медиа, медиакультура, студенты, Балабанов.
450
Russian Journal of Political Studies, 2016, Vol. (3), Is. 1
Copyright © 2016 by Academic Publishing House Researcher
Published in the Russian Federation
Russian Journal of Political Studies
Has been issued since 2015.
ISSN: 2410-910X
E-ISSN: 2413-7537
Vol. 3, Is. 1, pp. 4-8, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/rjps.2016.3.4
www.ejournal31.com
Articles and Statements
UDC 327
Political Engagement: Hermeneutical Analysis of Soviet Films about Yaroslav Galan
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute,
branch of Rostov State University of Economics, Russian Federation
Doctor of pedagogical sciences, professor
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Abstract
This article gives the way for hermeneutic analysis of cultural context - the study of the process of
interpretation of media texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the views of the agency / author
on the media text. The hermeneutical analysis suggests media text comprehension through comparison
with historical, cultural tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media
images in historical and cultural context by combining historical, hermeneutical analysis of the
structural, plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic / visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media text
characters. Example of this hermeneutic analysis of cultural context is analysis the media texts about
the life of famous publicist Yaroslav Galan (1902-1949). An analysis of this kind of media texts, in our
opinion, is particularly important for media literacy education of future historians, culture and art
historians, sociologists, linguists, psychologists and educators.
Keywords: hermeneutical analysis, Soviet, USSR, Ukraine, film, film studies, media texts,
media literacy, media education, information literacy.
Introduction
In our previous works (Fedorov, 2008; 2011), I have repeatedly appealed to the technology
hermeneutical analysis of media texts (Eco, 1976; 1998; 2005; Silverblatt, 2001, p.80-81).
This time I take as an example for this analysis the media texts about the life of famous publicist
Yaroslav Galan (1902-1949). An analysis of this kind of media texts, in our opinion, is particularly
important for media literacy education of future historians, culture and art historians, sociologists,
linguists, psychologists and educators.
Materials and methods
The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and Soviet films about the
Ukrainian famous publicist Yaroslav Galan (Bantichev, 2009; Markova, 1974). I used also the
method of hermeneutic analysis of the cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001).
This method connected with the key concepts of media literacy education (media agencies, media
categories, media language, media technologies, media representations, media audiences etc.).
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Russian Journal of Political Studies, 2016, Vol. (3), Is. 1
Discussion
It should be noted that there are two main versions of the murder of Y. Galan - officiallySoviet, reflected in the book Yaroslav Galan (Belyayev, Elkin, 1971) and in the film of V. Isakov
Until the last minute (1973), and a post-Soviet, alleging that the obstinate journalist, was not only
against the Ukrainian nationalists, the Nazis, the Unitarian and Catholic churches, but also against
of many negative, from his point of view, the phenomena of Soviet rule. And he had fallen at the
hands of agents of the MGB (Bantishev, 2009).
Perhaps serious historical study, based on declassified archives, ever would clarify the real
life story of Y. Galan. For us it is important to another - as the politically engaged Soviet cinema
used the fate of the well-known publicist for propaganda purposes.
Results
Technology of hermeneutical analysis of Soviet fiction films about the life of well-known
political journalist Yaroslav Galan (1902-1949)
The scene, historical, cultural, political, ideological context
Historical Context
a) The times of media texts: 1946-1949, USSR (Western Ukraine), Germany;
b) Film of L. Lukov It should not be forgotten (1954) was made and released in a short period
of post-Stalinist "dual power" of G.M. Malenkov and N.S. Khrushchev, and the film of V. Isakov
Until the last minute (1973) was filmed already at its peak during the reign of Leonid Brezhnev;
c) The films of L. Lukov and V. Isakov created on the story of the last period of the life of the
famous Ukrainian publicist with pro-communist political orientation - Yaroslav Galan, who was
killed October 24, 1949 in Lviv. Of course, film of L. Lukov was "hot pursuit", with a strong
propaganda against Ukrainian nationalism and western influence. The delivered twenty years later
V. Isakov’s film revelatory emphasis was largely shifted toward condemnation of the Uniate
Church, of course, while maintaining antinationalist and anti-Western trends;
d) The political situation in Western Ukraine in the first half of the 1950s was not so acutely
confrontational, as in the 1940s, but is still quite tense. So the film of L. Lukov It should not be
forgotten, trying to interpret the most current events. This screenplay was built very freely with
respect to the real fate of Yaroslav Galan (suffice it to say that in the L. Lukov’s interpretation
writer successfully escaped death in the final), so the main character is named an assumed name Alexander Garmash. The film of V.Isakov Until the last minute, the same character (derived under
a different name - Jaroslav Gaidai) already killed by Ukrainian nationalists, however, and here the
filmmakers do not undertake to assert that their media text accurately reflects real events 19461949 years.
The ideological, political context
I can see clearly traced ideological message in the media texts about Yaroslav Galan.
These films aimed at convincing the audience that:
- A happy life of the Ukrainian people can only be a part of the Soviet Union and only in the
context of the communist doctrine;
- The fight against Ukrainian nationalism in all its forms is justified and necessary;
- Ukrainian nationalists of the 1940s, is closely associated with the Unitarian Church, with
the support from Nazis, and then with the support from Western countries carried out mass terror
against its opponents and the civilian population as a whole (though anti-Church line clearly
manifested only in the film of V. Isakov);
- You need to be vigilant, as well disguised agents of Western intelligence services could act
with the Ukrainian nationalists, which are necessary to expose and / or destroyed.
In general, the ideological and political context of world depicted in the media texts about the
life of Y. Galan, is as follows:
The ideology of the media texts’ world:
- for positive characters: communist ideology in its Stalinist / Leninist interpretation;
- for negative characters: nationalist, religion, bourgeois ideology.
The media texts’ hierarchy of values according to this worldview:
- for positive characters: the fight against nationalism - the Communist Party - the people the hatred of the enemy - the family.
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Russian Journal of Political Studies, 2016, Vol. (3), Is. 1
- for negative characters: nationalism - the terror - cruelty to enemies neglect –
to subordinates.
The values of the media texts:
- for positive characters: Communist values (for all actions of a media text).
- for negative characters: the nationalist, bourgeois, religious values.
Cultural Context
Obviously, the media texts about the life of Y. Galan strongly supports the popular Soviet
myth that Ukraine can exist "correctly" only as part of the communist regime of the USSR, and
"Loving Moscow is to love humanity" (a characteristic phrase of the protagonist of the film).
Genre modification: drama (also interspersed elements of detective: the exposure of agents
of Western intelligence agencies).
Dramatic stereotype: the nationalists are trying to destroy the peaceful and happy life of the
people of Western Ukraine (L. Lukov’s film begins with this kind of holiday pictures: the scene with
cheerful folk festival on the streets of Lviv), the nationalists terrorize, intimidate the civilian
population. Writer and publicist fights with the nationalists, exposing them in their articles. In the
first film, he is still alive, in the second - is dying. But most importantly, according to the authors of
media texts is not it, but that the overall victory over nationalism, bourgeois and religious values is
inevitable, "the life of Galan ended, but this life live and struggle for justice, peace and brotherhood
among peoples his passionate pamphlets, his plays, his ideas" (Markova, 1974).
Methods of representation of reality (iconography) - furnishings, household items, etc.
Typical iconographic codes in Soviet fiction films about the life of Y. Galan:
- residence-enemy character is shown in two versions: the luxury life of representatives of the
Uniate Church and the relatively modest living conditions of the "forest brothers" and their
accomplices. As for the main enemies in the movie It should not be forgotten, one of them is the
owner of second-hand bookshop, and another hiding under the guise of a Galan’s family friend...
- residence Soviet character modest but well made. The protagonist does not live in a
communal apartment: he has own flat.
The typology of the characters (their values, ideas, ethics, clothes, physique, vocabulary,
facial expressions, gestures)
Male characters (character Age: 20-70 years).
The appearance, clothes, physique: the positive characters are dressed modestly (especially the villagers), and negative characters is clearly richer; Athletic characters - both positive and
negative - varies widely and depends on the context of a particular film. Negative characters first
(especially if they are masked) may look intelligent, but in the end (face distorted grimace) reveal
their negative essence.
Education: university level (the protagonist, his wife, colleagues, many of the camp hostile to
the hero), incomplete higher education (students), secondary and primary.
Social status, profession: the social position of the positive and negative characters depends
on their professional status.
Marital status characters: the main character is happily married, and the rest are positive
and negative characters are mostly single, or the status is not punctuated.
Personality traits, values, behavior, methods of resolving conflicts.
Commitment, emotional activity, loyalty, optimism, courage (the main character), hostility,
cunning, cruelty, purposefulness (negative figures). The main character has a pretentious
vocabulary. Negative figures (nationalists, enemy agents) shows as the evil and cruel fanatics,
however, they can use a positive masks. Positive character peculiar to communist values, negative nationalist bourgeois, religious values. The actions of the characters are dictated by the
development of the plot of a media text. The positive characters demonstrate their best qualities in
the fight against nationalism. The actions of the negative characters have the close connections
with the cruelty and ruthlessness.
In the L. Lukov’s film there is also the doubter character - a student. At first he (under the
influence of the enemies of communist regime) has passionate nationalist ideas and composing
hymns for free Ukraine. And in the media text’s end, this student became an active supporter of the
main character, and write new verses glorifying the indestructible union of the Ukrainian and
Russian peoples.
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Russian Journal of Political Studies, 2016, Vol. (3), Is. 1
Female characters (character Age: 20-70 years).
The appearance, clothes, physique: positive characters usually have to average build, dressed
in street clothes. Negative characters are richly dressed, but physiognomically filed repulsive.
Education: higher, secondary and primary.
Social status, profession: the social situation of positive female characters is the same; the
social position of the negative characters differentiated.
Marital status: dominated by married women.
Character, behavior, methods of resolving conflicts: activity, loyalty, optimism, courage,
commitment (positive characters), hostility, cunning, cruelty, meanness (negative figures). Positive
character peculiar to communist values, negative – to nationalist, bourgeois, religious values. The
actions of the characters are dictated by the development of the plot of a media text. The movie
Until the last minute shows an ambiguous character of rural teacher, which initially sympathized
with nationalist ideas, but then disappointed in them.
A significant change in the plot by the media and lives of the characters, problems
encountered: the positive character is faced with the machinations of the enemies who do not want
the publication of his revelatory pamphlets.
A problem, finding a solution to the problem: the only way to solve the problems - an
uncompromising struggle against the enemies of the Soviet power (the nationalists). The solution:
the exposure, arrest, destruction of enemies.
Conclusion
We realized Hermeneutic Analysis of Cultural Context - the study of the process of
interpretation of media texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the views of the agency /
author on the media text. And we mean that the hermeneutical analysis suggests media text
comprehension through comparison with historical, cultural tradition and reality; penetration of
its logic; through comparison of media images in historical and cultural context by combining
historical, hermeneutical analysis of the structural, plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic / visual,
media stereotypes and analysis of media text characters.
References:
1. Bantishev, O.F. (2009). Yaroslav Galan: Open any secrets KGB archives about his
murder? // Golos Ukrainy. 2009. № 201 (4701). 24.10.2009. http://www.golos.com.ua/
Article.aspx?id=150535
2. Belyaev, V.A., Elkin, A. (1971). Yaroslav Galan. Moscow: Young Guard.
3. Eco, U. (1976). A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut - London: Praeger, 449 p.
4. Eco, U. (1998). Lack of structure. Introduction to semiology. St. Petersburg: Petropolis,
432 p.
5. Eco, U. (2005). The role of the reader. Research on the semiotics of the text. St.
Petersburg: Symposium, 502 p.
6. Fedorov, A.V. (2008). Analysis of the cultural mythology of media texts in the classroom
at the student audience // Innovations in education. 2008. № 4, pp.60-80.
7. Fedorov, A.V. (2011). Structural analysis of media text: stereotypes of the Soviet cinema’
war image and V. Vinogradov’s film "Eastern Corridor" (1966) // Questions of Cultural Studies.
2011. № 6, pp.110-116.
8. Markova, F. (1974). "Until the last minute" // Sputnik of moviegoers. 1974. № 3.
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Russian Journal of Political Studies, 2016, Vol. (3), Is. 1
УДК 327
Политическая ангажированность: герменевтический анализ
советских фильмов о Ярославе Галане
Александр Федоров
Таганрогский институт имени А.П. Чехова,
филиал Ростовского государственного университета экономики, Российская Федерация
Доктор педагогических наук, профессор
E-почта: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Аннотация. В этой статье дается пример герменевтического анализа культурного
контекста – исследование процесса интерпретации медиатекста, культурных и исторических
факторов, влияющих на вид на агентство / автора медиатекста. Герменевтический анализ
предусматривает понимание медиатекста в контексте исторической, культурной традиции и
реальности; проникновение в логику медиатекста путем сравнения медийных имиджей
в историческом и культурном поле, сочетая исторический, герменевтический, структурный,
этический, идеологический, иконографический, семиотический анализ. В данном случае это
делается на примере герменевтического анализа культурного контекста медиатекстов
о жизни известного публициста Ярослава Галана (1902–1949). Анализ такого рода
медиатекстов особенно важен для развития медиакомпетентности будущих историков,
культурологов, искусствоведов, социологов, лингвистов, психологов и педагогов.
Ключевые слова: герменевтический анализ, советский, СССР, Украина, фильм,
медиатекст, медиаграмотность, медиаобразование, информационная грамотность.
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European Researcher. Series A, 2016, Vol.(111), Is. 10
Copyright © 2016 by Academic Publishing House Researcher
Published in the Russian Federation
European Researcher
Has been issued since 2010.
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 111, Is. 10, pp. 524-535, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/er.2016.111.524
www.erjournal.ru
UDC 37
Movies: the Audience Favorites
Alexander Fedorov а
а Rostov
State University of Economics, Russian Federation
Dr. (Education), Professor
E-mail: 1954alex@mail.ru
Abstract
Modern screen art over its success to the use of folklore, myth, synthesis of the natural and
supernatural, and a consistent orientation toward the most popular plot schemes.
Their metaphorical appeal is not to the rational but to the emotional, through identification with
the magic power of heroes and standardization of ideas, situations, characters and so on in
compensation for dreams not realized in life, there are illusions – happy endings. In movies,
TV shows, and music videos' rhythmic organization, viewers' feelings are influenced as much by the
order of changing shots as by the content of productions.
On the basis of the foregoing, it can be concluded that the media texts of popular culture
obliged to a variety of factors for its success. These include: reliance on folklore and mythological
sources, constancy metaphors, focus on consistent implementation of the most persistent plot
schemes, the synthesis of the natural and the supernatural, the appeal not to rational and
emotional, through the identification of (imaginary transformation in of active characters merge
with the atmosphere, the aura of works), “magic power” of heroes, standardization (replication,
unification, adaptation) ideas, situations, characters, etc., mosaic, seriality, the compensation
(of the cherished illusion, but not come true desires), the happy ending, the use of such rhythmic
organization movies, TV shows, clips, where the feeling of the audience with the content of the
frame affects the order of their shift; intuitive guessing subconscious audience interests, etc.
Keywords: hermeneutical analysis, Soviet, USSR, Russia, screen, audience, film, film
studies.
1. Introduction
Russian cinema today is, like Russia itself chaotic, unpredictable and full of contrasts. No one
can tell if the country will become an equal among equals on the world's professional stages by the
beginning of the 21st century, casting off its poor role as a supplicant to Western artistic leaders.
Anyone who knows even a little history is aware that Russia was virtually outside European
civilization for 75 years of XX century. The Communist regime firmly controlled all spheres of life
for a sixth of the planet's citizens. In spite of totalitarian pressure, however, Russian culture
managed to survive. The best books of Mikhail Bulgakov and Anna Ahmatova, the symphonies of
Dmitry Shostakovich and Alexander Prokofiev, the films of Andrei Tarkovsky and Vassily Shukshin
were created in the years of the most rigid censorship.
Despite bans, prisons and gulags, the artists leaned to speak to their readers and spectators in
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European Researcher. Series A, 2016, Vol.(111), Is. 10
some sort of language of initiates. Music, without clearly defined plot, made it much easier to do
this. Writers, directors and actors were forced to talk about many things in hints and symbols,
taking advantage of legends, fairy tales and parables.
Russian authorities of the 1960s through the 1980s officially supported the publication and
distribution of classical literature – the works of Lev Tolstoy, Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai Gogol,
Ivan Turgenev, Anton Chekhov, etc. The best film directors knew this, and were aware of weakened
censorial control applied, at times, to screen adaptations. Consequently, the period saw The Nest of
Noble Family (1968) based on Turgenev novel and Uncle Vanya (1971) based on Chekhov's play,
directed by Andrei Konchalovsky.
There were also Station's Employee (1972, using Pushkin's prose) directed by Sergey
Soloviev, Dead Souls (1984, from the Gogol novel) directed by Mikhail Schweitzer, and others.
Nikita Mikhalkov, making films based on Chekhov (Unfinished Piece for Mechanical Piano, 1976)
and Ivan Goncharov (Several Days in the Life of Oblomov, 1980), succeeded in telling more about
the situation in Russia – and the national character – than the majority of his colleagues whose
pictures dealt with the country's modern life. Oblomov embodies the paradoxes of mysterious
Russian soul: intelligence, talent and an innate sense of beauty go poignantly hand in hand with
passivity, laziness, sleepy inaction and abstract dreaming...
The Russian cinematic fairy tale also has old traditions, founded by Alexander Row
(The Frosty Fire, Water and Cooper Trumpets, Morozko, etc.) and Alexander Ptushko (The Stone
Flower, Sadko). Until recently, however, fantasy films had to submit to two unwritten rules: all
except a few were made for a children's audience, and the action had to take place in ancient times,
in a faraway kingdom. The first rule dictated an understandable style for the fairy tale, with vivid,
clear pictures and vocabulary, and villains looking not very fearful but on the contrary, usually,
funny and harmless. The second rule was very seldom infringed, because magicians, witches,
demons and other fairy characters – according to “highly placed” thought – could be perceived as
an embodiment of the authors' mysticism intruding on a modern background. In these cases, when
magic and witchery were admitted into our days (as in The Snowy Fairy Tale by E. Shengelaya and
A. Saharov), unintended associations and parallels appeared.
In the word, the production of films similar to The Omen by Richard Donner and The Shining
by Stanley Kubrick for the Russian screen couldn't be even imagined until 1980-s. Now the
situation has turned 180 degrees. Russian screen are full of foreign and indigenous horror films
and fearsome tales that chill the blood. Vampires, demons, witches and others evil spirits have
become frequent guests on video and cinema circuits from Moscow to the very frontiers...
Remarkable Russian actors – Oleg Dal (1941-1981), Vladimir Vissotsky (1938-1980), Anatoly
Solonitsin (1934-1982), Vladislaw Dvorzecki (1937-1978), Nikolai Grinko (1920-1989), Alexander
Kaidanovsky (1946-1995) – very often played heroes who stood beyond the usual circle of life on
the screen of the 1960-s and 1970-s. The Fairy Ivans, fools and intelligent outsiders of Oleg Dal.
The hot-tempered, contentious, furious romantics of Vissotsky. The inspired, always doubtful or
cynical, devastated heroes of Solonitsin (Andrei Tarkovsky's favorite actor)... These were in
opposition to the artificial characters distilled in the retort of Socialist Realism.
Censorship was ruthless to the filmmakers. Important scenes, phrases and frames were cut
out of many movies. Yet Tarkovsky's Andrei Rublev (1966), despite all the alterations, extolled
Russian culture and closely connected with the Orthodox faith, while Elem Klimov's The Parting
(1981) remained an angry accusation of the political system of the time, aspiring to destroy this
same culture and religion.
After the widespread destruction of temples and churches in the 1920-s and 1930-s, Russian
culture became a peculiar national religion; as the only source of spirituality, it allowed people who
could not stand slavery to maintain a dream of Beauty during the hardest years.
Indisputably, politics had a highly negative influence on the development of Russian culture
and education, but the classical legacy of art helped people to survive. Every new truthful book or
film of the masters was perceived throughout the country as a desirable breath of cool wind.
I remember how the books of Alexander Solzhenitsyn were handed around, how the films of
Marlen Hutsiev or Gregory Chuhrai, in the 1960s, were discussed till voices became hoarse. And
what events for Russian viewers in the 1970s were screenings of masterpieces by Federico Fellini
(Amarcord, Orchestra Rehearsal)!
Another paradox of Russian life is that all people hoped for and aspired to the “light future”,
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yet their ranks included dissenters who were Slavophiles, craving a return to the Russia of 1913,
and dissenters of Western orientation who wanted a rapprochement with America, while the
majority of the so-called “common people” faithfully waited for a near-Socialist paradise of wellbeing and, in the name of this, were ready to tolerate “temporary” hardships. Today a lot of Russian
politicians try to find some “middle way” between capitalism and socialism where, to trust the
premises of fashionable leaders, harmony will reign. In the political, economical currents some
Russian filmmakers thoroughly lost their bearings, becoming victims of the whirlpools, submerged
stones and shallows. Having got rid of censorship and having been given carte blanche in freedom
of thought, they began to throw onto the screen what they apparently believed were commercial
and brave statements, but which in fact were monotonous, non-competitive films. The freedom
didn't evoke the expected abundance of masterpieces, because bitter truth alone isn't enough for
the creation of a work of art. Talent is also needed, and it is everywhere in deficit.
Some Russian cineastes, finding it harder and harder to work in the Motherland in a
condition of permanent economic crisis, are gathering under Western’s roofs. It is rather logical:
Russian filmmakers hope that West will become a gate to the world screen for them; at home
indigenous movies are being forced out by American production everywhere. Only the most
entertaining Russian films manage to survive the competition in such conditions, but they, as
usual, copy U.S. pictures and don't hold any special interest as art. Undoubtedly, such work in the
West requires a certain attention to the producers' wishes and an orientation toward middle-ofthe-road European and American viewer's tastes. Well, don't judge and you will not be judged...
The words of Russian great writer Gogol about the Bird-troika – Russia – therefore turned
out to be really prophetic: “Russia, where are you rushing to? Give the answer. No answer”.
2. Material and methods
The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and films. The methods of
theoretical research: classification, comparison, analogy, induction and deduction, abstraction and
concretization, theoretical analysis and synthesis; and methods of empirical research: collecting
information related to the research subjects. Effectiveness of such methods has been proven as the
Western (R. Taylor, D. Youngblood, A. Lawton et al.), And Russian (N. Zorkaya, E. Ivanyan,
A. Kolesnikova, M. Turovskaya) researchers. I used also the method of hermeneutic analysis of the
cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Potter, Thai, 2016; Silverblatt, 2001, 2016). This method
connected with the key concepts of media literacy education (media agencies, media categories,
media language, media technologies, media representations, media audiences etc.)
3. Discussion
Modern screen art over its success to the use of folklore, myth, synthesis of the natural and
supernatural, and a consistent orientation toward the most popular plot schemes. Their
metaphorical appeal is not to the rational but to the emotional, through identification with the
magic power of heroes and standardization of ideas, situations, characters and so on in
compensation for dreams not realized in life, there are illusions – happy endings. In movies,
TV shows, and music videos' rhythmic organization, viewers' feelings are influenced as much by the
order of changing shots as by the content of productions.
American critic Richard Corliss noted that for the creators of many Hollywood movies plot is
a thing of past, and these movies are more thrilling than satisfying. Their main impact on most of
the youthful public lies in the expect special effects making spectators gasp in surprise or freeze
with fright. This dynamic cinema, according to Corliss, put higher demands on viewers, because
we have to follow every frame of a shot waiting for the trick (Corliss, 1990). These features of mass
culture reveal themselves in some favorite movies of the Russian audience. They are clear
embodiments of the above-mentioned phenomenon of mass success tendencies.
The action in these films moves form one short episode to another (in order not to be boring
to viewers) with sensational informativeness: event take place at various exotic locations in a cruel
world of pirate’s drug dealers, Mafia men, racketeers and prostitutes. Psychological pressure is
active – throughout the stories the idea that sly enemies (inner and external) are scheming is
repeated over and over. Now something mean is planned, now somebody is robbed; now positive
heroes are attacked...
The main hero of these movies is an almost magical, fairy-tale character. Cute, strong and
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smart, he comes out of al supernatural situations safe and sound (an excellent motif for
identification and compensation). Many episodes’ touch human instincts and emotions (such as
fear). There's even continuity, as each story supposes an endless number of sequels. In spite of an
absence of technical shine and the presence of numerous mistakes of taste or sense, the common
components of these motives are rather professionally presented: fights, chases, shootings, pretty
women, alarming music, strong feelings, a minimum of dialogue, a maximum of movement, and
other attributes of action films. Other favorites of Russian public are made with similar attitudes
and qualities...
Much more firmly than in cinema, these features of mass culture show themselves on
Russian TV. Ideally, television should be various, unobtrusive, rich in visual information, and
pluralistic without dull teaching and officiousness. Only lately has Russian TV started developing
aesthetics for its entertainment packages, rejecting the different demands of the public. There are
some intellectual and game shows – even some mass-culture programming – made on professional
level. But the border between artistic and inartistic is often erased in a tendency toward
documentary, one-day value, “open” formats that reproduce something in its process of becoming
an event. This peculiarity of mass communication is an obstacle in determining the aesthetic
distance. For examples, platitudinous music videos are show all the time on Russian TV; if a viewer
didn't have taste preferences; this could penetrate deep enough into his mind to unconsciously
determine them...
The authors of some research accused popular culture creators that they have used improper
methods of psychological pressure (constant repetition of the facts, regardless of the truth),
distortion of facts and trends, selection of the negative features in the image of political opponents,
“sticking labels”, “rouge guidance”, “playing folksy”, a reference to the authorities in order to justify
a lie, etc. But mass media text creators always been as 1) honest professionals who build their own
stories based on humanistic values, 2) persons who prone to political conformism, and
3) momentary conjuncture artisans.
In fact, media texts relating to the mass (popular) culture, have success is not due to the fact
that they supposedly targeted only at people with low aesthetic taste, subject to psychological
pressure, easy to believing the lie, etc, but because their authors are responsible for real, worthy of
respect and study the needs of the audience, including – information, compensatory, hedonistic,
recreational, moral, etc.
The emergence of the “industrial society with absolute inevitability leads to the formation of a
special type of culture – the culture of commercial, mass, ... satisfying on the basis of modern
technologies a fundamental human need for harmonization of the psychic life of the people”
(Razlogov, 1991, p.10). At the same time, mass culture, inconceivable without the media, it is a
natural component of modern culture as a whole, to which belongs the majority of all works of art
created in the world. It can be considered as an effective way of involving the masses of viewers,
listeners and readers in a variety of cultural processes as a phenomenon born of the latest
technology (first of all – communication), the global integration and globalization (the destruction
of local communities, and the erosion of regional and national borders, and so on).
This definition of mass (popular) culture, in my view, logically fits into the context of the
functioning of the media – the systematic dissemination of information (via the media, print,
television, radio, film, sound / video, Internet) among the numerically large, dispersed audiences
for approval spiritual values and providing ideological, economic or organizational impact on the
estimates, opinions and behavior of the people.
V. Propp (Propp, 1976), N. Zorkaya (Zorkaya, 1981), M. Turovskaya (Turovskaya, 1979),
O. Nechay (Nechay, 1993) and M. Yampolsky (Yampolsky, 1987) have shown convincingly that the
total successful works of mass culture requires the calculation of their creators in the folk style of
aesthetic perception, and “archetypes of fairy tales and legends, and their associated archetypes of
folk perceptions, meeting, give the effect of the integral mass success favorites” (Zorkaya, 1981,
p.116).
Indeed, the success of the audience is very closely linked with the mythological layer of the
product. “Strong” genres” – thriller, science fiction, western – always based on the “strong” myths”
(Yampolsky, 1987, p. 41). Unusual relationship, but the “real” events – one of the fundamental
archetypes (based on underlying psychological structures that affect the conscious and
subconscious) fairy tales, legends, – is very important for many popular media texts. O. Nechay, in
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my opinion, very correctly noted the important feature of mass (popular) culture – the adaptation
of the forms of folklore in society. That is, if the author's text ideal emerges through reality (in the
center of the plot – the hero-personality), socio-critical text gives a character taken from the life
around (common man), the mass culture are ideal norms in the real environment (Nechay, 1993,
pp. 11-13).
However, the biggest influence on the audience has a TV mass culture, focused on the
creation of large multi-month (or even perennial!) series of programs and serials. There are
“systemically important properties of serial: 1) the duration of the narrative, 2) intermittent him,
3) special story organizations often-series requires a specific identity of their structure and
replication of individual blocks, 4) availability through characters, regular characters (or groups of
such heroes)” (Zorkaya, 1981, p.59). Plus, these specific properties of TV-show organization as
frequency, headings, software, dosing, translational (providing increased sociability).
In addition, the creators of media texts of popular culture take into account emotional tone of
perception. The monotony plot situations often lead the audience to the suspension from contact
with the media text. That's why professionals arise change episodes, causing shock and soothing
reaction, but certainly a happy ending, giving a positive detente. In other words, we can divide of
many popular media texts – easily and painlessly – into blocks (often interchangeable). And these
blocks were linked clearly thought-out mechanism “emotional extremes” – the alternation of
positive and negative emotions caused by the public.
It is worth noting that in many cases, the creators of the mass media texts consciously
simplify, trivialize their life untouched by the material, apparently hoping to bring that part of the
youth audience, which is now enthusiastically develops computer games, built on those or other
actions of the virtual violence. And this, no doubt, has its own logic, because even N. Berdyaev
quite rightly wrote that “the masses not attached to the goods and cultural values, and culture is
difficult for mass audience in the noble sense of the word, but the technique a relatively easy for
them” (Berdyaev, 1990, p. 229).
At the same time, relying on folklore, entertainment, seriality and professionalism of the
authors is not sufficient for the success of a large-scale media text of mass culture, as well as the
popularity depends on the hypnotic, sensual impact. Instead of primitive devices to the tastes of the
masses, professionals guessed “secret subconscious interest in crowd” at the level of “irrational
heroism and intuitive illumination” (Bogomolov, 1989, p. 11).
The same subjects, getting to the ordinary artisan or, for example, to S. Spielberg,
transforming, collect a variety of audiences on the scale. Masters of popular media culture perfectly
use the effect of “layer cake”: the creation of the works for multi-level perceptions, calculated on the
perception of people of various age, intelligence and taste. There are a kind of semi-stylization,
semi-parody interspersed with semi-really with countless allusions to the classic films of past years,
direct quotations, with references to folklore and mythology, etc.
For example, for some viewers the text of Spielberg’s Indiana Jones will be tantamount to the
vision of the classic The Thief of Bagdad. And for the others, more sophisticated in the media
culture – fascinating and ironic journey into the realm of folklore and fairy-tale archetypes,
cinematic associations, unobtrusive parody. The film Frantic might well be perceived as an
ordinary thriller about the disappearance of the wife of an American scientist, who came to the
Paris medical conference, but can be perceived as a kind of rethinking and mischievously stylized
heritage rich tradition of the detective genre, noire thrillers and gangster sagas – from A. Hitchcock
to the present day, and even – as a veiled autobiography, directed by Roman Polanski ...
Thus, one of the distinctive features of the present socio-cultural situation in (addition to the
standardization and harmonization) is the adaptation of a popular media culture specific art house
language. Video clips are the good example for perception characteristic of mass audience. It would
seem that there was a paradoxical situation: music video very often used the opening of the avantgarde media – whimsical, kaleidoscopic, ragged assembly, complex associative, solarization, the
transformation of volumes, shapes, colors and light, flashbacks, rapids, and others special effects.
But the audience for them (as opposed to an audience of elite masterpieces and the avant-garde) is
very big, mass.
In my opinion, this is not controversial. For example, the youth audience can perceive of
post-modern standards, allusions and associations just in a short duration of the clip, because a
quick change of plans installation, resilient, dynamic audiovisual rhythm is acceptable even for the
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most inexperienced in the language of the media person. And this is also effect of pluralistic
popular media culture, designed to meet the differentiated audience requests.
The therapeutic effect, the phenomenon of compensation is also important for the success of
mass media texts. Of course, personality often wants to get away the emotion from the film, which
he/she did not have enough in life. And it is absolutely natural. And Sigmund Freud wrote that
“culture must mobilize all its forces to put a limit aggressive primary urges to humans and slow
down their displays by creating the necessary psychological reactions” (Freud, 1990, p. 29).
However, some researchers doubt this compensatory function of mass culture. For example,
American scientists studied the effects of the behavior of young viewers, depending on the
availability of movies viewed in violent episodes, the levels of aggressiveness were measured for
7 days, the analysis of which led researchers to the conclusion that the negative impact of these
tapes (Parke, et al. 1977, pp. 148-153).
But, in my view, another sociological concept looks more convincing: there is no direct
cause-and-effect relationship between movies and crime, although we can see a great impact in
terms of stimulating aggressive tendencies faced by people with unstable or mental disorders, with
a weak intelligence.
4. Results
It is interesting to see how audience preferences changing with respect to one of the most
common media texts – films. Remember how those or other works of different levels and genres
estimated ten, twenty, thirty years ago, some of them became the favorites of the public. I take the
long-term results of the survey of the popular cinema magazine Soviet Screen. I will compare the
most active audience preferences (readers of Soviet Screen) with the average public tastes (boxoffice).
At the same time, of course, I must bear in mind the conditional nature of these figures.
Unfortunately, the Russian society in the 1950s -1980s did not open: distortions were characterized
not only reports on the crops of grain and cotton, but also sociological studies, and sociology of
science itself was in the grip of strong ideological dogmatism. It often happened that the tickets
sold, for example, on the French criminal parody Fantomas took place in official documents under
the guise of income from Soviet cinema... But, of course, the excellent box-office of Russian comedy
Brilliant Hand (1969) and action Pirates of the Twentieth Century (1980) it is impossible to
question.
The differences between viewers opinions’ profiles of different decades are substantial. In the
late fifties and sixties, the Soviet audience chooses (in the Soviet Screen’s survey) the best films of
the year is mainly notable works of art (The Fate of Man (1959) by S. Bondarchuk, Serioja (1960)
by G. Daneliya & I. Talankin, Clean Sky (1961) By G. Chuhray, Nine Days in One Year (1962) by
M. Romm, Hamlet (1964) by G. Kozintsev, We'll Live till Monday (1968) by S. Rostotsky).
I am convinced that such a choice audience besides the artistic quality of the films, not least
due to the time uplifting, arose in the era of the “thaw” mass faith young audiences in a final and
irrevocable overcoming past “errors” and “mistakes” in the progressive construction of a “bright
the future”. Although this historical and cultural period was contradictory and inconsistent, film
critics of those years basically gave viewers loyal artistic landmarks, maintaining significant works
of art that in some way reflected in the audience likes and dislikes.
“Thaw” seemed to disclose the true talent of limitless possibilities. Very expanded film
production: 102 films in 1958 instead of 10-12 in the early 1950's. Mikhail Kalatozov (1903-1973),
Sergey Urusevsky (1908-1974), Mikhail Romm (1901-1971) found its second wind in their
cinematic careers. Bright, impressive director debuts of Gregory Chuhray (1921-2001), Marlen
Hutsiev, Georgy Danelia: movies of these debutants received prizes at festivals, the audience and
the press were discussed about. In the early 1960s confidently declared themselves Andrei
Tarkovsky (1932-1986), Vasily Shukshin (1929-1974), Sergei Parajanov (1924-1990), Elem Klimov
(1933-2003), Larisa Shepitko (1938-1979), Andrei Konchalovsky, Mikhail Kalik and Mikhail
Bogin...
But at the same time, the film of Marlen Hutsiev I Am Twenty was banned for several years.
The young characters of this film honestly tried, but naive and romantic, to understand the history,
the present and themselves… The ambiguity of those years there has been, perhaps, all those who
he wrote of “the era of Khrushchev“.
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Instead, the idea predominated loyalty to the leader began to cultivate the idea of collectivity
as in "lower", and the "higher" spheres of life. Joyous scenes of factory and amicable collective
teams, school classes, families strong, conquerors of virgin lands, workers of district committees
and regional committees flooded the "average" movies late 1950s – early 1960s. Instead, almost
completely extinct historical-biographical genre, like mushrooms after rain multiplied lyrical
comedy, detective, drama and melodrama, thoroughly revived forgotten by the time.
Thrown from the rostrum of the slogan "Our children will live under communism!" implicitly
or directly defined the ideological orientation of many films. Of course, the authors of these
pictures trying to avoid the extremes of the previous years – the apparent distortion of facts,
outright lies, etc. But still in the course of "sticking labels", "guidance rouge", and "vulgar games"…
One of the ideas dominated considerable number of films that time was intended to assure
the audience that in order to "catch up and overtake" remains only one last effort, the existing
minor flaws can be corrected as soon as possible "healthy team." Cinema conveyor 1960s
(especially their first half), followed by its predecessor the 1930's and 1940's was infused with
propaganda exalted ideals of universal enthusiasm, determined struggle, cheerful and quick to
overcome any difficulties and obstacles. The enemy, however, was different: instead of "enemies of
the people", pests and spyware sixties film heroes fought mainly from the harsh environment,
easily removable disadvantages in everyday life. It was not easy to imagine the entertainment
picture, devoid of this ideological "stuffing"...
As in previous decades, to mass culture in the late 1950's - early 1960's was characterized by
political confrontation, clearly noticeable even in such seemingly exotic picture as Amphibian Man
(1962), the authors of which, along with the spectacular underwater camera did not forget about
the criticism of the "cruel laws of bourgeois society."
With the advent of Leonid Brezhnev began a gradual pullback to the "thaw" position. A solid
"shelf" of banned talented films (Electricity Homeland by L. Shepitko, Angel by A. Smirnov,
The Commissioner by A. Askoldov, Andrei Rublev by A. Tarkovsky, Assya's Happiness by
A. Konchalovsky) formed by the end of the 1960's. Kremlin campaign of "pacification" of the
Czechoslovak democracy (1968-1969) followed by a tightening of censorship and a new blow to the
"unreliable" intellectuals. Such famous filmmakers as H. Gabay, M. Kalik, M. Bogin emigrated from
Russia... Perhaps, 1968 year became a kind abroad, leaving behind the hope for reform, set back in
fear of the "Prague Spring". This was the beginning of a powerful offensive of the conservative
forces in all directions.
In fact, a film needed a society that is slowly but surely went on extensive way to the sociopolitical and cultural crisis? Cinema of problems of "moral anxiety"? Cinema, satirically presents
abominations life? Enough joking... Of course, Soviet cinema of 1970s needed a very different
model of "manual", obedient superiors movie, ready for all the most reckless call "from above"
obsequious to take the salute. Cinematograph of 1970s, how it was understood by the then leaders,
desperately needed the film coming out of the servile principle of "What would you like?"
By that time, promise on building by 1980 the material and technical base of communism
were recognized voluntarist. Stopped in mind an explicit "limes" exaggerated slogans calling in a
few years to overtake America in all major economic indicators. Prospects were pushed into the
indefinite future. By the end of the 1970s it came down to the "winged" thesis everywhere are
reminded that the economy of "mature socialism" must be economical...
But it would be wrong to say that Soviet popular culture of 1970d - first half of the 1980s
entirely consisted of conformist films. A. Tarkovsky, V. Abdrashitov, E. Klimov and some others try
to say their independent words in cinema art.
But as in previous years, Soviet mass culture flourishes in a historic theme. Total ideological
trend towards straightening sharp corners, transforming the story into an endless series of
victories, used well-proven in the past reception "figure of silence" (or, in other words, "selection",
the selection of only winning a propaganda term trends). At that time, there were so-called "closed
zone", which was not accepted even mention. For example, many real historical figures are
automatically excluded from the film-plots. A similar fate was with problems associated with mass
repression during collectivization, 1930s-1940s, etc. The attempt to understand the story without
retouching, openly and honestly (Test on the Road by A. German, The Commissioner by
A. Askoldov) met while in the dense bureaucratic-reinsurance bayonets.
In a strong documentary Star of Vavilov (1985) by S. Dyachenko A. Borsyuk the first time in
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Russian cinema lifted the veil of silence surrounding the vicious activities of Academician Lysenko
and his supporters dearly cost the country's agriculture. Alas, all the previous years, the movie
carefully avoiding the subject, producing iridescent films on how the personal initiative of energetic
young business man executives breaks down any barriers (A man in his place, 1973; With joy and
courage, 1974).
The curious metamorphosis there have been on the Russian screen and in the interpretation
of the theme of Stalinism. The anti-stalinist film by Gregory Chuhraja Clean Sky (1961) won the
main prize of the Moscow Film Festival and earned success with the audience, but... in 1970s has
been securely hidden on the shelf - away from cinemas and television screens. Since the mid of
1960s any mention of the bloody crimes of Stalinism practically disappeared in the Soviet cinema.
The image of Stalin from film to film became more and more impressive and solidity, which
eventually led to Victory (1985) by E. Matveev and Battle for Moscow (1985) by Y. Ozerov.
Almost until Gorbachev's perestroika some film directors seeking to reflect the story without
gloss front, objectively and truthfully, it was necessary to build many of their works on line hints
and allegories, and even in parabola form. A classic example of the historical and political
overtones – the wonderful film My Friend Ivan Lapshin (1981) by A. German, which tells the
dramatic time of 1930s.
But the most bitter truth, as we know, is much more expensive than a sweet lie. Trouble
Russian historical cinema previous decades was that instead of talking about what had happened,
he was all the time trying to dream on what could happen in an ideal circumstances, issuing these
dogmatic fantasy for reality.
So, although the ordinary mass culture film implies (and usually does) rather significant box
office success, it does not pretend to be mandatory laurels rolling leader. Moreover, I will take the
liberty to say that there is even a non-cash mass culture - an inevitable consequence of the
desperate lack of professionalism and creative authors of insolvency.
At first glance, there is a clear contradiction here: how is it - mass culture and without a mass
audience? But in practice, everything is easier: opus, originally conceived as a mass culture,
actually turns helplessly as dull and boring, that suffers a financial collapse. In the West, this also
occurs quite often...
Of course, it would have been very naive view of the relationship "media - audience" in a
unilateral way: the audience tried to view of Andrei Tarkovsky and Alexei German, but Ministry of
Cinematography gave the way for popular culture only. For example, the concentration of the
audience senses to love experiences had a kind of therapeutic sense, allowed to transfer to the
authorities that permitted the channel all the negative emotions that have accumulated in real life
(especially the female half of the audience).
But do they themselves did not have the audience craving for this kind of vivid, emotional
spectacle?
The fact of the matter is that we need sometimes for strong emotional shocks - whether on a
detective or love story. However, it is believed that the mass success of the messages and the
success of true preferences - things sometimes different. Millions can read, listen to some media
text, but the positive appreciation of these media text is another thing. Or, on the contrary, the
opinion of a specialized readers may not be the benchmark for the overall situation, since not all
people read newspapers and have such a steady commitment to culture, to fill out forms and send
them to the editor.
This is partly true. For example, the film chronicles the lead in the questionnaire does not
mean the same championship in the Russian box office, where the first place firmly hold the film
entertainment plan. And it is natural, because the profile of the best films of the year meet, as a
rule, the most active viewers.
However, the total rental statistics confirm the randomness of readers ratings of Soviet
Screen. Almost all (with few exceptions) the leaders of the Russian screen of 1960s - 1980s in some
manner entered the top twenty according to the survey of the magazine. Thus, the Pirates of the
Twentieth Century (1980) by B. Durov, become a truly champion (86.7 million spectators for the
first year), took to the eleventh place in a magazine profile. Melodrama Moscow Does Not Believe
in Tears (1980) by V. Menshov, which has sold over 84 million tickets, - in the first place. Comedy
of L. Gaidai Prisoner of the Caucasus (1967) and The Diamond Hand (1969), collected on
76 million fans turned out in the seventh and eighth places. A dozen leaders were operetta
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Wedding in Malinovka (1967) by A. Tutyshkin (74 million viewers and eighth place in the
magazine's readers), Crew (1979) by A. Mitty (71 million) and Shield and Sword (1968) of V. Basov
(68 million), got the second place in a poll of readers. The same can be said about the Headless
Horseman (1976) by V. Vaynshtok (68 million viewers), The Dawns Here Are Quiet (1972) by
S. Rostotsky and Amphibian Man (1962) by V. Chebotarev and G. Kazanski (65 million viewers).
In general, the results of the total rental entertaining movies since the late 1960s, more and
more often become leaders. And in all these years, the most popular genres has always been
comedy Gentlemen of Fortune (1972) by A. Sery (65 millions), Ivan Vasilyevich Changes
Occupation (1973) (60 millions) by L. Gaidai, Afonya (1975) by G. Daneliya (62 millions), Office
romance (1976) by E. Ryazanov (60 millions); adventure, detectives, Crown of the Russian Empire
(1974) by E. Keosayan, Tavern on Pyatnitskaya (1976) by A. Faintzimmer (54 millions), Petrovka
38 (1980) by V. Grigorev (53 millions). Ten Little Indians (1988) by S. Govoruhin (33 millinons);
melodrama Stepmom (1973) by O. Bondarev (59 millions), Queen of the Gypsies (1976) by
E. Lotjanu (64 millinons), Guys (1982) by I. Babich (38 millions), etc.
As a result, it can be concluded that the Soviet Screen’s viewers-readers’ preferences
sufficiently representative reflect the tastes of the general audience. And in terms of genre, "cash"
and "personal" leaders are very similar: since the late 1960's to 1980's the comedy, action
adventure and melodrama dominated regardless of the change of years.
However, there are significant differences. Among the box-office favorites the films of high
artistic level were very rare, but we can see a lot of original works of art in the list of the prizewinners of Soviet Screen.
Here is interesting evolution of personal preferences of the public. In the 1960's in the top ten
of Soviet Screen includes such outstanding works as Welcome, or No unauthorized entry is
prohibited (1964) by E. Klimov, The Road (1954) by F. Fellini and Ashes and Diamonds (1957) by
A. Wajda...
Since the beginning of the 1970 tastes of the audience, of course, began to change in a
different way - in the first place in Soviet Screen’s film winners are increasingly mediocre
artistically tape (Stepmother, Young wife, Guys and others.). Serious cinema (The Beginning by
G. Panfilov, The Red Tent by M. Kalatozov, Monologue by I. Auerbach, Red Kalina by V. Shukshin,
Romeo and Juliet by F. Dzeffirelli, They Shoot Horses, Don't They? by S. Pollack) takes the lead
much less.
My twenty years of experience in Youth film club and a special course on media culture in
several universities, suggests that, at least since the mid 1970s, the preferences of young viewers
were just close to leaders of Soviet Screen: Irony of Destiny (1976), Office Romance (1978),
Railway Station for Two (1983), A Cruel Romance (1984) by E. Ryazanov, Young Wife (1979) by
L. Menaker, Moscow Does not believe in tears (1980) by V. Menshov, You cannot dream... (1981)
By I. Frez...
By the way, the success of movie of I. Frez is explained by the fact that for decades the
Russian films on the so-called youth theme almost always had considerable success with audiences,
but with them, and there were all sorts of metamorphoses. Alas, in some pictures about young
people (Minors, This is What We Do Not Pass, Found Guilty, My Anfisa and others) did not even
attempt to approach the analytic drama of M. Osepyan Three Days of Victor Chernyshev (1968).
The second half of the 1980's - early 1990's drastically changed the theme of the youth
cinema. If the well-known film by J. Raizman And if this is love? (1962) affirmed the right of
students to friendship and love, not overshadowed by petty-bourgeois gossip, then in the late
1970's - early 1980's this right was already the undisputed (At the end of the world, Draw, School
Waltz, You cannot dream...). It was about the diversity, the complexity of thought and feeling
young, their contradictory relationship with each other, to adults, to the first independent steps,
victories and defeats. And finally, the "perestroika" and Little Vera (1988) by V. Pichul became the
first sign in a series of subsequent films defending the right to freedom of young sexual relations.
But, as they say, not a single sex: in a shot in the second half of the 1980 Outsiders by
S. Bodrov openly spoke of society's fault for crippled lives of young characters, you feel useless
freeloaders. Faced with spiritual callousness and bureaucratic world of adults, children from the
provincial amateur ensemble willy-nilly trying to adapt to the world, and paid him the same
indifference...
Breaking the barriers of censorship provoked a stormy tide exposing and convictions of films
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on youth theme, Russian cinema has tried to catch up. The story of those years (Arsonists, Accident
- daughter of cop, etc.) were transferred from the latrine in the cooler, from dilapidated barn – in
the darkness of the cellar. Violence, drug addiction... Scene motives of the famous Stuffed (1983) by
R. Bykov also been put on stream and perfected, as they say, "one hundred percent". Schoolexposing the subject enlarged picture Blackmailer, Temptation, Publish, Dolly, etc.
The appearance of this kind of new conjuncture in the films about youth, in my opinion, was
quite natural: the filmmakers who have received long-awaited opportunity to speak openly about
their everyday concerns, hastened to shout, throw on the screen all that bothered them for years.
Alas, in most cases it was a superficial journalism, made up of collections of similar scenes, moving
from one film to another, which negates the critical pathos declared straightforward ideas.
As a result, in the mid 1990s came the inevitable tide of youth film wave.
About two dozen "youth" films annually came out on Russian screens in 1989-1991. And in
1992 - even thirty. But since 1993 a gradual decline occurred.
Among these films met sometimes worthy of the work of talented artists (Dyuba-dyuba by
A. Hwan, Love by V. Todorovski, Nastya and Heads and Tails by G. Danelia), but overall, I think,
found the desire to reorient youth topic in the direction of pure entertainment, you know,
unfortunately, not at the level of Robert Zemeckis (Back to the future), or Claude Pinoteau (Boom),
and in the spirit of kitsch.
When the Russian political and economic system of the 1970s - 1980s tried to mask the
numerous cancers demagogic talk and promises, it caused a massive rejection, especially among
young people. The mood of frustration, passive, often not fully aware of the silent protest of young
looking output. And found his passion in the "no" rock music, entertainment films, immerse the
viewer in a fabulous and fascinating world with active, purposeful, suffering and finds happiness
heroes...
If on the screen and appear problematic movies, they often found themselves in a situation
"least favored" as in the box office. As a result, the following happened: the critic has lost the
confidence of the reading Film viewers. And, choosing between dull, ponderous "custom-made"
films and entertainment, even a low level, the audience inevitably inclined to the latter.
What movies have received the lowest scores of spectators? In the 1970s worst were called
films, in fact, very weak (Last Days of Pompeii (1973), Hello. River (1979). Boring and bad work is
not saved by the rolling and the questionnaire the failure of even a spectacular and entertaining
genre...
From 1980 to 1985 Soviet Screen did not dare to publish a "black list" of audience dislikes.
This break, in my opinion, is not accidental. At the turn of the 1970s - 1980s most sharply
delineated cinema crisis and the rental system. During the seven seals were data on circulation
patterns and their assigned categories of quality, extremely sparingly published sensations...
Then in the top ten of the magazine editorialized profiles settled tape-burning, more than
superficially reflect the real political and historical events (Event of 36-80 Square, Victory, etc.).
And if each new series about the adventures of the beautiful Angelique gathered about forty
million viewers, it became a real box-office champion "soap" Mexican melodrama Yesenia (1971),
attended by about a hundred million viewers for the first year of the demonstration. She is ahead of
even such acclaimed champions as Pirates of the Twentieth Century and Disco Dancer.
Of course, typical of popular culture phenomenon of compensation - a natural result of the
viewer's contact with art make up the missing human feelings and emotions. This popular movie
differentiated and is designed for people with different tastes. Sometimes the impact of the next
blockbuster based on the professionalism of the director, the actors, the operator, composer, artist,
able to create a bright, attractive shape sight. Or so, at first glance, paradoxical option: the film is
bad and has been forgotten, and the music is so good to him that continues to be performed and
the public likes.
However, the general trend of viewing thrust to mass culture, no doubt, and remained at the
turn of the twenty-first century. Just out of cinema audience moved to the home screen.
5. Conclusion
So, on the basis of the foregoing, it can be concluded that the media texts of popular culture
obliged to a variety of factors for its success. These include: reliance on folklore and mythological
sources, constancy metaphors, focus on consistent implementation of the most persistent plot
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schemes, the synthesis of the natural and the supernatural, the appeal not to rational and
emotional, through the identification of (imaginary transformation in of active characters merge
with the atmosphere, the aura of works), “magic power” of heroes, standardization (replication,
unification, adaptation) ideas, situations, characters, etc., mosaic, seriality, the compensation
(of the cherished illusion, but not come true desires), the happy ending, the use of such rhythmic
organization movies, TV shows, clips, where the feeling of the audience with the content of the
frame affects the order of their shift; intuitive guessing subconscious audience interests, etc.
232.
References
1. Berdyaev, N.A. (1990). The destiny of man in the modern world. New World. № 1, 207-
2. Bogomolov, Y.A. (1989). Movies on every day... Literary Gazette. № 24, 11.
3. Corliss, R. (1990). Dina-movies attacking. Video-Ace Express. N 1, 8.
4. Eco, U. (1976). A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
5. Freud, S. (1990). Dissatisfaction of culture. Cinema Art. № 12, 18-31.
6. Nechay, O.F. (1993). Film education in the context of literature. Specialist. № 5, 11-13.
7. Parke, R.D., Berkowitz, L., Leyens, J.P., West, S.J., Sebastian, P.J. (1977). Some Effects
of Violent and Nonviolent Movies on the Behavior of Juvenile Delinquents. Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology. N.Y. Academia Press, № 10, 148-153.
8. Potter, W.J., Thai, C. (2016). Conceptual Challenges in Designing Measures for Media
Literacy Studies. // International Journal of Media and Information Literacy, 2016, Vol. (1), Is. 1,
pp. 27-42.
9. Propp, V.Y. (1976). Folklore and Reality. Moscow: Art, 51-63.
10. Razlogov, K.E. (1991). Paradoxes of commercialization. Screen and Stage. № 9, 10.
11. Sherkovin, Y.A. (1973). Psychological problems of mass communications. Moscow:
Thought.
12. Shestakov, V.P. (1988). Mythology of XX Century. Moscow: Art.
13. Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut – London: Praeger, 449 p.
14. Silverblatt, A. (2016). Reflections on Information Literacy. International Journal of
Media and Information Literacy, 2016, Vol. (1), Is. 1, pp. 54-71.
15. Turovskaya, M.I. (1979). Why does the viewer go to the movies. Genres of Movie.
Moscow: Art, 319 p.
16. Usov, Y.N. (1993). Basics of screen culture. Moscow: New School.
17. Usov, Y.N. (1995). In the world of screen arts. Moscow: SVR-Argus.
18. Yampolsky, M. (1987). Polemic notes about the aesthetics of the mass of the film.
Transcript of the meeting of the "round table" of film critics. Moscow, 31-44.
19. Zorkaya, N.M. (1981). Unique and Replicate. Moscow: Art.
УДК 37
Кинематограф: фавориты аудитории
Aлександр Федоров а
а Ростовский
государственный экономический университет, Российская Федерация
ул. Инициативная, 48, Таганрог, Ростовская область, 347936
Доктор педагогических наук, профессор
E-mail: 1954alex@mail.ru
Аннотация. Cовременное искусство экрана над своим успехом обязано
использованию фольклора, мифологии, синтезу естественного и сверхъестественного и
последовательной ориентации на наиболее популярные сюжетные схемы, обращением не
только к рациональному, но и к эмоциональному (в том числе – посредством
идентификации с волшебной силой героев), стандартизации идей, ситуаций, характеров и
т.д.; а в качестве компенсации не реализованных в жизни желаний, возможно, иллюзорный,
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European Researcher. Series A, 2016, Vol.(111), Is. 10
но счастливый конец. В фильмах, телевизионных шоу и музыкальных видео ритмическая
организация зрительских чувств находятся под влиянием быстрой смены событий.
На основании вышеизложенного, можно сделать вывод, что медиатекстам массовой культуры
свойственны разнообразные факторы успеха. К ним относятся: зависимость от фольклора и
мифологических источников, постоянство метафор, наиболее устойчивых сюжетных схем,
синтез естественного и сверхъестественного, призыв, скорее, не к рациональному, а к
эмоциональному, через идентификацию, магическую силу героев, стандартизацию
(тиражирование, унификацию, адаптацию) идей, ситуаций, персонажей и т.д., мозаику,
серийность, компенсацию, счастливый конец; использование такой ритмической
организации фильмов, телевизионных шоу, клипы, где на чувства аудитории влияет порядок
смены кадров; интуитивное угадывание подсознательных интересов аудитории и т.д.
Ключевые слова: исследование, герменевтический анализ, советские, СССР, России,
экран, зрители, фильм, аудитория.
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Copyright © 2016 by Academic Publishing House Researcher
Published in the Russian Federation
International Journal of Media and Information Literacy
Has been issued since 2016.
E-ISSN: 2500-1051
Vol. 1, Is. (2), pp. 75–107, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/ijmil.2016.2.75
www.ejournal46.com
Western Cinema in the Mirror of the Soviet Film Criticism *
Alexander Fedorov a , *
a
Rostov State University of Economics, Russian Federation
Abstract
Film criticism was prestigious job in the USSR. At that time there was no Internet and critic
can be published only on paper. And this was due to: 1) a professional status of the author (in this
case it had to be, as a rule, a graduate film critic, art historian, journalist, or have higher education
in the humanitarian field); 2) with a rigid selection and censorship of texts and themes.
The author analyzes how western cinema was reflected in the mirror of the Soviet critics (for
example, thematic books’ collection of Myths and Reality: 1966-1989). This, in particular,
problems of ideological struggle, and the political censorship in the socio-cultural context of the
1960s–1980s and on how Soviet critics, specializing in foreign films, to respond to these factors.
The author concludes that were characteristic of the official Soviet cinema studies, facing the
material foreign movie: 1) sympathetic support "progressive western filmmakers", 2) sharp
criticism of "bourgeois tendencies and perversions", 3) criticism of bourgeois society.
The eleventh edition of the collection Myths and Reality showed, finally, that the Soviet film
studies of the late 1980s was ready for deprived ideological bias in analysis of foreign cinema. This
line was continued in the post-Soviet years, no longer in the Myths and Reality, but on the pages of
scientific journals Film Criticism Notes and Cinema Art, in the film encyclopedia devoted to the
western screen, in numerous monographs, the authors of which have become and authors of Myths
and Reality.
Keywords: film criticism, USSR, USA, France, Italy, cinema, movie, cold war.
1. Introduction
Status of Soviet critics who wrote about the western movies
Film criticism was prestigious job in the USSR. At that time there was no Internet and critic
can be published only on paper. And this was due to: 1) a professional status of the author (in this
case it had to be, as a rule, a graduate film critic, art historian, journalist, or have higher education
in the humanitarian field); 2) with a rigid selection and censorship of texts and themes.
But if even all journalists (including from regional newspapers) could write (and willingly
wrote) about the western movies on the Soviet screen, only the selected Russian film critics could
write about western films not purchased for the Soviet film distribution. Here criteria are much
stricter because before the era of video (i.e., almost to 1980) only very few Soviet film critics could
watch USA or French films not purchased for the Soviet film distribution, for example, at foreign
film festivals. And these were those few Soviet film critics who belonged to a particular elite caste:
Corresponding author
E-mail addresses: mediashkola@rambler.ru (A. Fedorov)
*
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government film officials, as a rule, members of the Communist Party, "morally and ideologically
stable persons."
From this point of view is very significant architectural structure of Soviet film critics, for
nearly a quarter of a century (1966 to 1989) to publish their articles in the special subject books’
collection about western movie called Myths and Realities (11 issues: 1966; 1971; 1972; 1974; 1976;
1978; 1981; 1983; 1985; 1988; 1989).
2. Materials and methods
The main materials were: the books, articles of Russian film critics about Western cinema.
The methods of theoretical research: classification, comparison, analogy, induction and deduction,
abstraction and concretization, theoretical analysis and synthesis; methods of empirical research:
collecting information related to the research subjects.
The effectiveness of such methods has been proven as the Western (R. Taylor,
D. Youngblood, A. Lawton et al.), and Russian (N. Zorkaya, A. Kolesnikova, M. Turovskaya)
researchers. I used also the method of hermeneutic analysis of the cultural context of media texts
(Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001).
3. Discussion
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 1 (1966, put in a set in October 1965)
The first issue of Myths and Reality collection has been put in a set in October 1965 (already
in power times of L. Brezhnev). The appearance of this collection seems to have been the result of
not only the regular sharpening confrontation between the USSR and the West (the Cuban missile
crisis, the Vietnam War), and the current regulations of the Communist Party Central Committee
"On measures to improve the management of the development of artistic cinema" (July 1962) and
"Immediate Tasks of party's ideological work" (June 1963). It was clearly stated that "the party will
continue to wage an uncompromising struggle against any ideological vacillation, preaching
peaceful coexistence of ideologies, anti-formalist trickery, dullness and craftsmanship in art, for the
Party and the People's Soviet art - the art of socialist realism" (Immediate..., 1963).
Table 1. Main political events in the world (1961-1965 years), important for the development of
relations between the USSR and the West, including cinema
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
USSR sent a note of protest related to the anti-Castro landing in Cuba: April, 8.
USSR successfully launched the world's first spacecraft with a man on board: April,
12.
The construction of the Berlin Wall, August, 13.
XXII Congress of the Soviet Communist Party: October, 17-31.
Resolution of the Communist Party Central Committee "On measures to improve
the management of the development of artistic cinema": July, 19.
Cuban Missile Crisis ended with evacuation of Soviet missiles from Cuba in
exchange for a US promise to abandon its occupation: Oct.-Nov.
Treaty between the USSR and the USA on the establishment of a "hot" telephone
line between Moscow and Washington: June, 20.
Resolution of the Plenum of the Communist Party Central Committee "Immediate
Tasks in Party's ideological work": June.
USSR temporarily (1963-1968) weakened jamming broadcasts Voice of America,
BBC and Deutsche Welle in Russia.
The murder of US President John F. Kennedy in Dallas: November, 24.
US entry into the war in Vietnam: August, 2.
N. Khrushchev lost of power at the plenum of the Communist Party Central
Committee. L. Brezhnev elected (on the same plenum) the first secretary of the
Soviet Communist Party: October, 14.
Soviet Union in the framework of a confrontation with the United States put North
Vietnam Missiles: April, 5.
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The first issue of Myths and Reality was a response to the appeals of the Communist Party
for "uncompromising fight against any ideological vacillation, preaching peaceful coexistence of
ideologies" and "corrupting influence of the bourgeois cinema". The article by the then first deputy
chairman of USSR State Committee for Cinematography V. Baskakov had the eloquent title "Battle
of ideas". The text of this article gives many quotations from the works of Western film critics and
directors, but without reference to the source. And further (already without any quotes) he quite
radically stated that "bourgeois theorists put equal signs between cowardice and heroism, between
truth and falsehood, between revolutionary activity and philistinism, between nobility and
baseness. No one can prove the absoluteness of moral criteria: everything is relative, everything is
conditional, all unstable and shaky, they claim, denying, in essence, humanism art. Many films are
made in accordance with the views of these theorists. ... We can see an interesting cinematic
solutions, achieve virtuosity in the shooting, the depth and subtlety of acting performance. But the
search itself, the purpose of it, the true content of the film is very far from the serious social and
purely human problems that exist in everyday life, in reality. ... It's a shame that the great potential
of artists aimed primarily at autopsy and investigation of the strange particulars of human
anomalies and psychological abysses, not social and moral conflicts of the society in which the
characters live. ... That's the idea of running these movies: "Every evil brings a new evil, and in vain
to deal with it." "Human nature is flawed, is low-lying and is incurable." "Progress and civilization
bring people only suffering. Any public act of senseless" (Baskakov, 1966: 17-18).
Accused Western cinema on the "theoretical level", V. Baskakov have tried to confirm the
analysis of his reflections on examples of movies such masters as M. Antonioni, I. Bergman,
J.-L. Godard, C. Chabrol, A. Varda. And here he has not stinted on the critical charge: "Antonioni
fails to understand phenomena and social contradictions of life, which he is likely to see.
Fragmentation of vital relationships, rigorous analysis and gravitas in the depiction of small,
minor, and maintenance of an important, significant: that is, perhaps, more characteristic for the
entire work of this talented director" (Baskakov, 1966: 21). "Carefully, with cruel naturalistic
pressure Bergman depicts sex scenes, and seeking to link with the overall mood of the film:
everything is bad in this life, all the ugly, and above all the ugly and disgusting man himself, his
nature. Bergman uses the whole arsenal of graphic tools of cinema, which he owns, for purposes
not great. To illustrate the idea of leading the modern decadence of baseness, vulgarity and
insignificance of human nature, this is hardly needed such a thin and highly professional
agents"(Baskakov, 1966: 25).
Reserved praised Umbrellas of Cherbourg by Jacques Demy, Married Life by André Cayatte,
Tom Jones by Tony Richardson, Room at the Top by Jack Clayton, films of Stanley Kramer
(Baskakov, 1966: 9-11, 29), Baskakov found the Western countries, where it was possible to detect
not only the bourgeois but also a progressive movie: "The progressive Italian art still lives and
develops, although some of the artists who put movies about Italian people living in the
surroundings of the boycott of progressive art in an atmosphere of hype about "economic miracle"
has moved to the rails of bourgeois cinematography (with its pseudo-historical movies, dramas and
contemporary sex films). The most fundamental artists associated with the life and struggle of the
people, continue to strengthen the tradition of realistic cinema. Best picture "old men": Zavatinni
and De Sica, Visconti and De Santis, Castellani and Rossellini, Germi and Comencini; young
directors: Rosi and Loy are vivid evidence. ... And if the pictures of decadent directors raised by
bourgeois criticism on a pedestal as the prophets and new roads in art, permeates the thought of
the futility of any action, any manifestation of activity, the futility of the struggle for the happiness
of man, the beating pulse of life in the films of progressive directors and in some cases, the pulse of
the struggle for a better future of man and society" (Baskakov, 1966: 5-6).
This reliance on the "progressive cinema in Italy" let V. Baskakov do quite standard for the
Soviet press of that time concluded that "the development of world cinema still more clearly
confirms the decisive role for the prospects for its art of socialist as well as art of the artists of the
capitalist countries, who cast their lot with the most advanced ideas of the century, involved in the
struggle for social transformation of the world, believe in the person who let another do not always
consistently and consciously, but claim the ideals of peace and humanity and denounce the
morality of a society based on oppression and suppression of human" (Baskakov, 1966: 31).
Being on the Soviet cinema’s top leadership, V. Baskakov, undeniably brilliant oriented in the
ideological conjuncture of time. His article can probably be regarded as a reference for
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understanding the official Soviet cinema studies, facing the material foreign cinema: 1) sharp
criticism of "bourgeois tendencies and perversions", 2) sympathetic support "progressive western
filmmakers," that is, those in whose work can be it was observed that the criticism of bourgeois
society, which does not contain at the same time anti-Soviet, naturalism, sex and "formalist
trickery."
In a similar vein, an article written of the Secretary of the Board of the Soviet Union of
Cinematographers A. Karaganov, who condemning western movies with scenes of violence and sex
(Karaganov, 1966: 32-33), criticizing the complexity of shapes and pessimism Last year at
Marienbad by Alain Robbe-Grillet and Alain Resnais (Karaganov, 1966: 46-47), supporting Italian
Neorealism (Karaganov, 1966: 49) and Stanley Kramer movies On the Beach and Judgment at
Nuremberg (Karaganov, 1966: 70-72).
Here are concrete examples of the ideological position of A. Karaganov: "In contrast to the
neo-realists Antonioni withdraws person from the historical flow of the real social environment.
Movies of Antonioni (Scream, Adventure, Night, Eclipse) made expertly, this is the product of a
strong and soulful talent. But their life is narrowed to study the content of the soul from the
disunion of human society. Fellini ... is more social in Dolce Vita and Nights of Cabiria”
(Karaganov, 1966: 50, 60).
A similar opinion is held the other author of the first issue of Myths and Reality philosopher E. Weizman (1918-1977). Accusing bourgeois cinema in repelling harmful ideas of
existentialism, Freudianism and surrealism, he argued that "the myth of the miserable human
nature obscured reality" (Weitzman, 1966: 88).
A recognized expert in the field of French cinema A. Braginsky very strongly presented to
Soviet readers the results of the French "new wave" cinema, exposing a particularly severe criticism
movies of J.-L. Godard and C. Chabrol. So, in the paragraph dedicated to Cousins, stated that
"ambiguity, inaccuracy of the author's position, manifested in this Chabrol’s film" is general
characteristic of the directors of "new wave" (Braginsky, 1966: 129) and "sadism and cruelty which
allegedly wants to condemn Chabrol, the truth of life, which he allegedly looking through subjects
of his movies, it turns against Chabrol. ... Chabrol’s "true" private observation becomes a lie due to
lack of a clear attitude towards life. The pseudo-philosophers and anarchic attitude replaced the
credibility of the individual parts and the initial position"(Braginsky, 1966: 130).
Since thousands of Soviet readers of the book Myths and Reality, as a rule, had no chance to
see the movies of "new wave", many of them were probably quite easy to convince that "characters
of Godard’s film are only obedient puppets in the hands of its creator. They are infected with the
same nihilism and anarchism, as their creator, and “new wave” is in a severe ideological crisis
network" (Braginsky, 1966: 131, 133)
R. Sobolev wrote about the fashionable in the West cinéma vérité movement more critical.
Based on the analysis of the films "fascist and cynic Gualtiero Jacopetti", he argued that it was
cinéma vérité is a mask for liars, as a sort of sabotage against realism under the guise of
realism"(Sobolev, 1966: 143).
Against the backdrop of all these revelations and accusations of bourgeois cinema article of
V. Nedelin entirely dedicated to the analysis of "complex and contradictory" Fellini 8 ½ looked
serious and contrast (Nedelin, 1966: 205-226).
In the era of socialism, there are not only approved the scheme of ideological approaches to
Western cinema as a whole, but also to write finals relevant books and articles. The degree of
ideological accusations of Western film production can be arbitrarily high, but the ending was sure
to contain at least a paragraph optimistic pathos reminds the reader of the "progressive trends in
world cinema": "Hopefully, the democratic traditions of the French cinematography will prevail,
and we will see films in which the young masters of French cinema truly reflect the lives, hopes,
anxieties, dreams of the people" (Braginsky, 1966: 133). "A progressive cinema bourgeois has a
vivid example of service to high humanistic ideals, the realistic traditions and needs of our time"
(Parsadanov, 1966: 124).
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 2 (1971, put in a set in September 1970)
Between the output of the first and second editions of Myths and Reality collection took five
long years. During this time many important political events have been in the world (the war in
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Vietnam and the Middle East, May Revolution in France, the suppression of the "Prague Spring",
the landing Americans on the moon and so forth.).
Table 2. Key political events in the world of 1966-1970, important for the development of relations
between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had relevance to the cinema
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
France's withdrawal from NATO's military organization: February, 21.
XXIII Congress of the Soviet Communist Party: March, 29 – April, 8.
French President Charles de Gaulle's visit to the USSR: June, 20 - July, 1.
Start of the "cultural revolution" (1966-1976) in China: August, 8.
War in the Middle East, the Soviet Union break diplomatic relations with Israel: July, 5-10.
Soviet Communist Party Central Committee Resolution "On measures for further
development of the social sciences and enhance their role in the building of communism":
August, 14.
Mass unrest in France (the reason: the dismissal of the director of the Paris
Cinematheque): May.
Renewed Soviet jamming broadcasts Voice of America and other Western radio stations in
USSR: August, 20.
Begin of the Soviet invasion in Czechoslovakia, August, 21.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On increasing the
responsibility of the heads of the press, radio and television, film, culture and art
institutions for the ideological and political level of the published materials and
repertoire": January, 7.
The armed conflict between the Soviet Union and China on the Sino-Soviet border: March.
The landing of American astronauts on the moon: July, 20.
Start of the Soviet-American talks on limiting strategic nuclear weapons: November, 17.
Solemnly-pathetic celebration of the 100th anniversary of the birth of V. Lenin, April, 22.
The signing of the Treaties of the USSR and Germany, Germany and Poland on the
recognition of post-war borders in Europe, August.
Distribution of the Vietnam War on the territory of Cambodia.
Dissident A. Solzhenitsyn was awarding of the Nobel Prize for Literature.
As for the movie, here a significant impact on the development of Soviet critics had a Soviet
Communist Party Central Committee Resolution "On measures for further development of the
social sciences and enhance their role in the building of communism" (1967, August, 14).
However, I believe that Czechoslovakia’s events of 1968-1969 were the most serious impacts
on the situation in the cinema and film studies in the Soviet Union. The attempt of democratization
of social life, the abolition of censorship taken by the Czechoslovak leadership in 1968,
representing a serious danger to the ideological foundations of the Soviet Union and established
strict canons of "socialist realism", in particular.
Of course, the introduction of Soviet troops (or rather, the Warsaw Pact troops) on the
territory of Czechoslovakia and its subsequent "Brezhnevization" socialism seems to be stabilized
in this small country. However, the ideological leadership of the USSR was well aware that "Prague
Spring" is a kind of "thaw", passed in this spring, which with great difficulty managed to freeze.
That is why the events of the "Prague Spring" brought an end to the flow of thaw in the USSR: the
censorship has become even more severe, and the fight against "bourgeois ideology" has become
even more intensively.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee (1969, January, 7)
"On increasing the responsibility of the heads of the press, radio and television, film, culture and
art institutions for the ideological and political level of the published materials and repertoire" was
another step of censorship. If figuratively keep this resolution in one sentence, you get something
like this: "Now none of the bourgeois mouse does not slip past the implacable Soviet censorship."
A movie where "embellished orders in the modern capitalist world, idealized capitalist way of life
preached by the bourgeois idea of class peace" (Resolution..., 1969) have been entirely banned in
the Soviet Union. Interestingly enough, this embellishment was not just the direct promotion of the
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"bourgeois lifestyle", but any artistic liberties, including experiments with cinematic form (see
more info: Fedorov, 2012), nudity or coarse mot. The Resolution wrote also about the activities of
"wrong" Soviet artists who "depart from the class criteria in assessing and highlighting the complex
social and political problems, facts and events, and sometimes become carriers of the views that are
alien to the ideology of socialist society" (Resolution..., 1969). The Resolution says that it is
necessary "more acute, with the class and party positions to oppose all manifestations of bourgeois
ideology to actively and efficiently promote communist ideals, the advantages of socialism, the
Soviet way of life, deeply analyze and expose the different kind of petty and revisionist currents."
(Resolution..., 1969).
So, the ideological leaders of Soviet cinema decided that the second issue of Myths and
reality must have more harsh criticism of the bourgeois cinema, and the active support of the
foreign progressive films must be in opposition.
The article of V. Baskakov in this case can be considered as the answer for the Resolution.
He argued that "true art does not compromise with decadence, does not avoid direct and clear
judgments about the phenomena of reality, does not go away from the problems of its people living
in the mystical world of signs, premonitions and associations. ... And if the picture directorsdecadents raised by bourgeois criticism on the podium as models and examples of "innovation",
filled with doubts in favor of any action, any manifestation of activity and preach the futility of the
struggle for the happiness of man, the beating pulse of life in the films of progressive directors and in
some cases, the pulse of the struggle for a better future of man and society" (Baskakov, 1971: 9-10).
And V. Baskakov gave the examples of "socially clear positions" in the western movies: social
drama Battle of Algiers by G. Pontecorvo and Sitting Right by V. Dzurlini (Baskakov, 1971: 29-31).
However, despite the support of a progressive cinema (i.e, close to the Socialist Realism), the
main content of the article was, of course, passages criticizing the bourgeois cinema. First,
V. Baskakov sincerely regretted that "the whole picture of European Screen has transformed in
recent years. Films, which put the real social problems, it becomes smaller. But there were an
abundance of pseudo-realistic movies: they present the appearance of life surroundings, ... but
authentic truth is not in these films" (Baskakov, 1971: 6).
Then film critic gave more specific examples, and even the theoretical generalizations.
Thus he rightly pointed out that "the on-screen world occurred a phenomenon that can be
simplistically called diffusion: the interpenetration of different stylistic techniques, thematic and
ideological and philosophical currents. Diffusion phenomenon takes many different shades:
modernist techniques of cinema penetrate the style of entertainment, the so-called commercial
cinema" (Baskakov, 1971: 17-18).
But then he unleashes his anger on the western masters of the first row, accusing them of
compromises for the sake of the needs and interests of the bourgeois public (Baskakov, 1971: 18).
The analysis of L. Buñuel, P.-P. Pasolini, F. Fellini, M. Antonioni films was the illustration for this
thesis (Baskakov, 1971: 18-28).
V. Baskakov sought to convince readers that "capitalism rots, the whole system is built on lies
and oppression, and the artist, with his microscope, the lens of which fall into a stirring ciliates, it
seems that mankind is rotting" (Baskakov, 1971: 16).
As always V. Baskakov strongly criticized J.-L. Godard, one of the most politicized Western
directors of those years: "In a society that draws Godard, no classes, no social contradictions. There
is a mad world, consisting of patients, distraught individuals. ... This is impressive picture of
deformities, abnormalities bourgeois world, but Godard as crazy gunner, shooting in all directions,
without looking into the essence of phenomena that affect his bullet" (Baskakov, 1971: 12-13).
Of course, many Western authors were accused in "ideological sabotage": "Unique
phenomenon of cinema politicization can be observed along with the boom of sex... It is true that
many of these films are made from the standpoint of the bourgeois. ... Many of the so-called
"political" films contain direct or indirect criticism of socialism from the "right" and sometimes
from the "left" (Baskakov, 1971: 8). For official Soviet film criticism the communist foundations is
the worst in the Western political cinema (for example, Confessions by Costa-Gavras).
G. Kapralov accused M. Antonioni, R. Bresson, M. Bellocchio and S. Samperi in the absence
of social analysis: Blow Up "Antonioni consistently asocial. But precisely because of its asocial it
turns into an image of a certain universal absurdity of human existence in general, reflected a
certain mystification of a comprehensive law on which supposedly lives a modern world"
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(Kapralov, 1971: 44). G. Kapralov accused of ambiguity and the loss of the social significance of the
drama Fists in the Pocket by M. Bellocchio and Thank You, Aunt by S. Samperi (Kapralov, 1971: 5156), and further noted with regret of I. Bergman "complexity of the construction of Persona,
deliberate obscurity, encoding its language" (Kapralov, 1971: 68).
G. Kapralov arguing, without any citation of primary sources, that "the invasion of
schizophrenic characters has a consequence of the objective conditions of life of the modern
bourgeois world, where, according to medical statistics, almost every second or third suffers from a
serious mental disorder" (Kapralov, 1971: 55).
Another well-known Soviet film critic – G. Bohemsky wrote more rigid definitions about
many Italian movies: sadism and pathology (Bohemsky, 1971: 87-90). And therefore "the urgent
task of Marxist criticism is to repulse this wave of Italian screen: pathological cruelty, sadism,
penetration of commercial cinema in the "ideology" (Bohemsky, 1971: 91).
Of course, along the way G. Bohemsky did not forget to praise the "progressive Italian
cinema", for example, Battle of Algiers by G. Pontecorvo Sitting Right by V. Dzurlini and Martyrs
of the Earth by V. Orsini (Bohemsky, 1971: 82). However, the main thesis of his article was the
statement that "the most obvious new trends in Italian cinema are polarization: striking a sharp
division in the frankly commercial, primitive and thoughtless film production, designed for the
most undemanding audience, and on the other hand - the so-called "biased" or "recruited", cinema,
i.e. films that serve certain ideas that carry a certain charge and now have a predominantly political
overtones" (Bohemsky, 1971: 71).
After articles of film critics generals the book Myths and Reality gave the place for the article
of another film critic (and co-author of M. Turovskaya and M. Romm in the documentary script
"Ordinary Fascism") Y. Khanutin (1929-1978). Responding to V. Baskakov and G. Kapralov,
Y. Khanutin boldly expressed his opinion about the "asocial Swedish cinema": "Yes, it records more
often than analyze, yes, its artists just do not see the positive social decision-making, as well as
their characters; a criticism limited in scope, does not rise to the radical revolutionary conclusions.
But this criticism, this revelation is the truth" (Khanutin, 1971: 149).
The article of film critic V. Turitsyn also was without Soviet ideological stereotypes. This is
very positively analysis of the works of British director T. Richardson (Turitsyn, 1971: 175-198).
But really very stranger in this book (as a kingdom of "celebration of the ideological
struggle") was the text of I. Janushevskaya and V. Demin called "Formula adventure"
(Janushevskaya, Demin, 1971: 199-228), mainly devoted to French actor Alain Delon. This was
brilliantly written article which is palpable vivid imagery style of one of the most prominent soviet
film critic Victor Demin (1937-1993). No words about “Resolutions” and “Ideology”... That is why
there is nothing surprising in the fact that this Demin’s publication was only one in the all 11 issues
of Myths and Reality...
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 3 (1972, put in a set in February 1972)
The third issue was released about a year after the second. However, during that time, there
were two important events for the Soviet Union in the political life: the XXIV Congress of the Soviet
Communist Party and the Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee
"On Literary Criticism", directly related to the film criticism.
Table 3. The main political events of 1971-1972 years in the world that are important for the
development of relations between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had
relevance to the cinema
1971
1972
105 Soviet diplomats accused of spying in United Kingdom.
XXIV Congress of the Soviet Communist Party March, 30 – April, 9.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On Literary Criticism":
January, 21.
The Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On Literary Criticism"
(1972) stated that "the level of the criticism is not fully meets the requirements, which are
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determined by the increasing role of artistic culture in communist construction. ... Criticism debt it
is depth analysis of the phenomenon, trends and patterns of contemporary art process in every
possible way promote the strengthening of Leninist principles of nationality and party
membership, to fight for the highest ideological and art levels of Soviet art, consistently oppose
bourgeois ideologies" (Resolution ..., 1972).
Even the appearance of such Resolution indirectly talked about the fact that the effects of
previous Resolutions of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee, relating to culture and
ideology, were not recognized by the authorities fully effective. It took more time to indicate the
professional critics (including film critics), they are still not sufficiently follow the "party line"
strictly criticized inadequate cinema "decadent West."
Well, the Communist party said: "You must!" And Soviet film criticism official leaders said:
"Yes, We will do!" Most texts of the third issue of Myths and Reality were about the ideological
struggles with Western cinema. No texts V. Demin and Y. Khanutin in the book. The main authors
were the film critics, proven in the ideological battles.
A. Karaganov claimed with directness of ideological front soldier that "now there literature and
press is not a single policy, a single front of the ideological struggle: American bourgeois cinema
directly serving the foreign policy and the US propaganda department. ... Hollywood is working on a
well-defined theses of anti-Soviet propaganda: President by Lee Thompson, Topaz by A. Hitchcock,
The Kremlin Letter by J. Huston. The "characteristic of modern art of the American bourgeoisie is
commercially fair and salon-use entertainment cruelty motives" (Karaganov, 1972: 6-7, 15).
A. Karaganov made it clear that not everything is so simple even authorized to the Moscow
Film Festival fiction movie 2001: A Space Odyssey: "Kubrick created a work fancifully combines
features of Hollywood commercial thriller and philosophical works, in which the criticism of
bourgeois reality becomes decadent character" (Karaganov, 1972: 21). In my opinion, this
Karaganov’s phrase gave a clear answer to the puzzled questions of some naive viewers do not
understand why the film adaptation of the novel of A. Clarke never reached the Soviet screens...
However, A. Karaganov did not forget to praise the "progressive realistic films": They Shoot
Horses, Don’t They? by S. Pollack and The Liberation of L.B. Jones by W. Wyler (Karaganov, 1972: 7).
A. Karaganov went from the American movie to the French cinema. First, according to the
established in the Soviet elite film studies tradition, he sharply reminded that "schismatic position,
throwing Godard from one position to another, the substitution of revolutionary consciousness
conglomerate anarchist, Maoist and Trotskyist ideas lead to the devaluation of the opposition to
the bourgeois system, which proclaims Godard, to the emasculation of the revolutionary arguments
about "proletarian cinema" (Karaganov, 1972: 25). And then Karaganov moved on to a much more
dangerous trend of open and consistent anti-communism, which became the core of the famous
film Confession (1970) by Costa Gavras, because it "helps bourgeois slander communism. It should
be added that Yves Montand and Simone Signoret play the main role in the Confession. But they
recently come to the Moscow film festivals with words of friendship and love for the Soviet Union,
and now carefully trampling their past statements" (Karaganov, 1972: 30).
Moreover, when Moscow publishing house "Rainbow" released in 1984 a translation of the
book French Cinema. Fifth Republic (1958-1978) by J.-P. Jancolas, which contained an impressive
volume of the filmography of famous French film directors (1950s - 1970s), the names of Yves
Montand and Simone Signoret were simply blacked out of the lists of films, where they played (as a
rule, the main roles). It is clear that the Confession was not in the filmography also.
A. Karaganov made far-reaching conclusions that the "bourgeois propaganda in every way
diminishes the accomplishments and inflates shortcomings in practical builders of socialism: the
tends are to deprive the workers of hope and faith, to make their growing disillusionment with the
bourgeois lifestyle disappointing total, turn it into a disbelief in the position drooping hands"
(Karaganov, 1972: 29). And the "sexual revolution" of the bourgeoisie is the result of their aspirations
and attempts to "underclass" the consciousness of the working people, to devalue human"
(Karaganov, 1972: 27), the "mass culture in the hands of bourgeois often, very often turns out to be a
dangerous and dark force. It shapes man model bourgeois philistine: it makes being spiritless,
obedient slave of capital" (Karaganov, 1972: 4).
V. Baskakov wrote: "The silver screen has opposing forces and trends. The best films of the
socialist countries, marked a vital truth, a high and effective humanism, product of progressive artists
of the capitalist West, scourging capitalism ugliness and full of sympathy for the working people,
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their needs, and aspirations of the young cinematography of developing countries confront a wide
and muddy stream of poison bourgeois film production... With regard to the Western
cinematography would be more correct to speak not of "commercial" and "non-commercial" cinema,
but about the different types of the same bourgeois cinematography" (Baskakov, 1972: 75, 81).
As A. Karaganov, V. Baskakov devoted several paragraphs of his article to the anti-Soviet
subject, arguing that the "anti-Soviet films produced more than before. ... It should be noted here
that influential directors and actors of the bourgeois cinema trapped in the anti-Soviet orbit, ... the
films with reactionary, anti-communist content" (Baskakov, 1972: 76-77).
Next V. Baskakov in his typical manner wrote that "the departure of many artists of the
bourgeois world of the urgent problems of public life, the subordination of the political and
commercial interests of the propertied classes have not been to the Western Film Arts in vain:
Western cinema began to turn away from the mass audience" (Baskakov, 1972: 78).
And here the desired explicitly passed for real: the causes of falling box-office in the West in
1970s, of course, were different: not "waste of many artists of the bourgeois world from the
pressing social problems of life" and their commercialization, but the rapid development of multichannel color television and the entertainment industry generally have reduced cinema attendance.
A high films’ box-office in the USSR in 1960s – 1970s was caused by precisely the relative
underdevelopment of both entertainment, and television (the maximum number of Soviet
television channels in 1970s was three, and Western films were shown there extremely rare).
And that shortage of fun directs the flow of Soviet viewers in cinemas. As soon as the second half of
the 1980s, video has come to the USSR, and expanded opportunities for recreation, cinema
attendance began to fall...
V. Baskakov turned to his usual business: he accused eminent foreign cinema masters
(Fellini, Pasolini, Bergman, etc.) of "biologism" and detachment from social problems: "Seeing in
the surrounding life moral ugliness, vulgarity, hypocrisy, senseless cruelty, but without being able
to see the social roots of all evil, they begin to ascribe to vices inherent in bourgeois society, the
biological nature of man, thus declaring them unavoidable, eternal. ... Of course, Bergman's work
reflects some real processes occurring in the modern bourgeois world. But his cinematic gaze
turned to the man of estrangement, break away from the world in which he lives. Vicious,
unconscious, strange becomes the main and for this director with a great artistic potentialities.
A similar fate befell many other figures of the western movie, began his artistic life with severe,
progressive films, but found themselves captive to bourgeois ideas" (Baskakov, 1972: 82, 84).
V. Baskakov was unhappy with the interpretation of anti-Nazi themes proposed in the films
The Damned by L. Visconti and The Conformist by B. Bertolucci as "brutality and arbitrariness of
Nazi leaders, or submission to the ordinary person of the state machine are supplied in terms of
research subconscious complexes, overwhelmed by individuals belonging to a particular situation.
It is often a pretext for actions and deeds (murder, betrayal, blackmail) are traumatized,
homosexuality, schizophrenia, masochism. There is a substitution of concepts and objects. There is
a consistent care from attempts to stigmatize Fascism past and present as a degradation product of
the capitalist system" (Baskakov, 1972: 88).
Yes, Western filmmakers used the "personal and physiological factors" in social and political
processes, and as a rule, the official Soviet cinema critics considered it a negative factor. Although,
again, not always. For example, the sarcastic Italian detective Investigation of a Citizen Above
Suspicion not only received a positive assessment from V. Baskakov, but also came out (albeit in a
cropped version) on the Soviet screens. Although, if desired, Investigation... could be accused of
"substitution of concepts", as the main hero of the film inherent in schizophrenia, and masochism,
and "sexual licentiousness".
The line between permissible and impermissible was with nuances in the Soviet screens.
For example (particularly in relation to the Italian filmmakers) Soviet censorship considered the
authors' affiliation with the Communist Party, their attitude toward the Soviet Union, critical
thinking about the state system of Western countries, etc. Thus, the lead actor in the movie
Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion Volonte was a member of the Communist Party of Italy,
he had anti-bourgeois attitudes, etc. And Soviet censorship encouraged many of his films for
distribution on Soviet screens.
Praising the "progressive works by Italian filmmakers" (Investigation of a Citizen Above
Suspicion, Metello, People Against) V. Baskakov in search of "progress" appealed to the American
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cinema, noting that "the movie Arthur Penn (The Chase, Bonnie and Clyde) and John Schlesinger
(Midnight Cowboy) not very deep, but still quite clearly reflected the crisis of the social system that
spawned the cult of violence, mass crime, militant racism, arbitrariness of the authorities and the
indifference of the inhabitants" (Baskakov, 1972: 92-93, 95).
In the end of his article V. Baskakov came to triumphantly optimistic conclusions, worthy to
be a part of any Resolution of the Communist Party Central Committee: "The crisis, which is going
through western cinema is ultimately a crisis of bourgeois ideology, evidence of its bankruptcy,
failure to nurture the development of a genuine, realistic art, the art great truth of life. ... Class
battles are in all continents. All the more clearly reveals the historical doom of capitalism with its
inevitable companions: the exploitation of workers, national oppression, wars of conquest. Every
people can see the clear perspective of the social and spiritual renewal of the world, which will
bring a victory of communism" (Baskakov, 1972: 102, 108).
The article of G. Kapralov was concentrated around "progressive tendencies" of the Western
screen. He sincerely praised films Sacco and Vanzetti and God with Us by G. Montaldo, Keymada
by G. Pontecorvo (1919-2006), People Against by F. Rosie (1922-2015), Recognition of police
Commissioner to the prosecutor of the republic by D. Damiani (1922-2013), Investigation of a
Citizen Above Suspicion by E. Petri (1929-1982), Joe Hill by B. Widerberg, Bless the Beasts &
Children by S. Kramer (1913-2001), Little Big Man by A. Penn (1922-2010) (Kapralov, 1972: 174200): "If not all the films, which were discussed above, can be attributed to the elements of socialist
culture, they are all, of course, are the elements of a democratic culture" (Kapralov, 1972: 201).
The final of Kapralov’s article was no less pathetic than that Baskakov’s conclusion:
"In recent years, the progressive democratic cinema from capitalist countries intensified, gained
new strength, expanded its front, resolutely denounces dilapidated bourgeois myths and everything
closer to the truth that in this age: all roads lead to communism" (Kapralov, 1972: 201).
Yes, A. Karaganov, V. Baskakov and G. Kapralov were masters of ideological fight! Their
articles were perhaps the best practical implementations of the urgent recommendations of the
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On Literary Criticism".
That is why the article of E. Gromov (1931-2005) seems to be less ideological. On the one
hand, he wrote that "the Western screens leads and dominates the cinema of mass culture, the
upper floors which fill pseudo philosophical speculative movies. The aesthetics of these films has a
corrupting effect on both mind wide audience, and, alas, bourgeois cinema crisis continues
unabated on the work of other great artists" (Gromov, 1972: 74). "Godard’s characters can talk on
any topic, to listen to all sorts of philosophical speech, but in reality they are interested in the life of
one thing: at the maximum or minimum comfort sex with a pathology or not. Religious, Marxist,
Maoist, Gaullist ideas are just phantoms allusions for Godard" (Gromov, 1972: 37).
But on the other hand, "even audience, the highly educated, intelligent, but brought up in the
spirit of classical art traditions, has difficulties for deeply understand the aesthetics of Antonioni
because of his inner secret, the mediation complex philosophical categories and concepts"
(Gromov, 1972: 46). "Zabriskie Point is a fundamental phenomenon in the work of Michelangelo
Antonioni. This film has a sharp social character; in their aesthetics he focused not on a narrow
elite, but the masses audience: the language of on-screen images of Antonioni has now become
more clear, simple and accessible… Along with Satyricon by F. Fellini, Zabriskie Point is the
biggest film internally significant for Western cinematography late 1960's - early 1970’s" (Gromov,
1972: 52).
On the one hand, E. Gromov habitually claimed that "Hitchcock, as well as other authors
pseudo psychoanalytic films, simplifies and vulgarized Freud" (Gromov, 1972: 62), and "Tarzan
movies, Fantômas, even James Bond, are drug although strong action" (Gromov, 1972: 63).
But on the other hand, he soundly reminded that "we have often written about the cult of
violence, which is preached bourgeois cinema, primarily American. This cult is evident. However, it
is not always expressed in roughly a straight line. Moreover, practically difficult, if not impossible,
to name a relatively significant film, which openly called for burning, torture, kill. The directors do
not forget to punish the criminals and condemn their evil deeds, even in those gangster movies
where blood flows like a river and almost every frame shot or cut" (Gromov, 1972: 64).
The rest of the books’ articles "fought with a bad bourgeois ideology" with "local sections of
the front." G. Bohemsky, for example, thinking about the Italian commercial cinema, arguing that
"if we analyze the Italian cinema production for the past year or two, you see that the 90 % are just
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pictures of mass consumption... Neorealism expelled the falsity, vulgarity, rhetoric, banal ready
samples and phrases from Italian cinema for some time, but in less than ten years, bourgeois
cinema took revenge on the screen" (Bohemsky, 1972: 108-111). G. Bohemsky sharply criticized the
erotic genre, the movies "about rogues and thugs" and "homegrown westerns". At the same time
readers receive a warning: "Italian Westerns are dangerous for the audience. ... because cruelty and
violence ... In addition to the inhumanity also obvious taint of racism and plenty of naturalistic
detail" (Bohemsky, 1972: 114-122).
O. Teneyshvili wrote about French cinema, unsubstantiated arguing that "sexuality and
pathology prevails in recent films Chabrol and Truffaut" (Teneyshvili, 1972: 146), and that Second
Wind by J.-P. Melville is "a magnificent example of excellence, aimed at the end just to satisfy the
most questionable instincts and tastes" (Teneyshvili, 1972: 151). O. Teneyshvili also scolded film
Rider on the Rain by R. Clément: "It is clear that this is a product not only free from bad
influences, but also deliberately inhumane or degrading" (Teneyshvili, 1972: 152).
Thus, instead of analyzing the flow of ordinary French commercial cinema, O. Teneyshvili
somehow chose the main target of his critical arrows the talented works of French screen classics...
J. Markulan (1920-1978) criticized another famous French film director - Claude Lelouch.
In the second half of 1960s C. Lelouch, director of melodrama Man and Woman, crowned Palme
d'Or at Cannes and Oscar, was known as the undisputed favorite of the Soviet audience and film
critics. But the Soviet press began to reconsider their attitude to Lelouch in 1970s. And J. Markulan
hurried to convince the Soviet readers that the Man and Woman "is not a work of art, but the
mechanism: a cunning, clever, well made up as an art form. This is a typical product of modern
bourgeois mass culture, with its extensive system of moral speculation, the ideological effects of
emotional stimulus. ... Creativity of Claude Lelouch, especially the on-screen trilogy, is a dangerous
phenomenon, because it contains not only the aesthetic demagoguery, but also simplified,
conformist view of life. It is an art reduced to the commerce" (Markulan, 1972: 218, 233).
Thank God, Claude Lelouch not able to read these angry lines...
Only V. Dmitriev (1940-2013) and V. Mikhalkovich (1937-2006) wrote their article on B.
Bardot early career without any heavy critical artillery (Dmitriev, Mikhalkovich 1972: 234-249).
The book, of course, included a very friendly articles about progressive cinema from
"developing countries": Africa (Chertok, 1972: 278-299), India (Sobolev, 1972: 300-324) and Latin
America (Melamed, 1972: 325-342)...
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 4 (1974, put in a set in February 1973)
The next issue of Myths and Reality was published in 1974: during this time there was a
significant improvement in relations between the USSR and the United States, gave rise to the socalled "discharge" that lasted until the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, and the Resolutions of the
Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On the Literary Criticism" (01.21.1972) and “On
measures for further development of Soviet cinema" (08.02.1972).
Communist Party once again reminds that "cinema is expected to actively contribute to the
formation in the broadest masses of the Marxist-Leninist ideology, the education of people in the
spirit of selfless dedication of our multinational socialist motherland, the Soviet patriotism and
socialist internationalism, the approval of the Communist moral principles, uncompromising
attitude to bourgeois ideology and morality, petty-bourgeois remnants, everything that hinders our
progress" (Resolution... On measures..., 1972).
Of course, the Soviet film studies was obliged to respond to these two Resolutions. And the
complete removal of images (frames from foreign films) from the books Myths and Reality № 4
(1974) and № 5 (1976) was the simplest and most intuitive reaction to them.
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Table 4. Key political events 1972 in the world, important for the development of relations
between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had relevance to the cinema
1972
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On Literary Criticism":
January, 21.
US President R. Nixon's visit to the USSR. An agreement between the USSR and the
United States on the limitation of anti-missile defense and joint space program "Soyuz" "Apollo": May, 22-30.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On measures for further
development of Soviet cinema": August, 2.
The trade agreement between the USSR and the US: October, 18.
The fact that Soviet readers are no longer able to see not only "harmful" Western movies, but
even photos of them was (of course, from the point of view of increased censorship), is
commendable, but it was necessary to show also more "uncompromising attitude" to the bourgeois
screen. That is why (sincere or not) V. Baskakov decided to condemn Federico Fellini. According to
V. Baskakov, Fellini “deprives viewers of any hope for the possibility of any radical decisions"
(Baskakov, 1974: 113).
Further, he certainly kept for the "progressive balance" and gave the compliments to the films
Sacco and Vanzetti, Keymada, Recognition of police Commissioner to the prosecutor of the
republic (Baskakov, 1974: 115-118), since "these films are openly opposed not only commercial
cinema, mass bourgeois culture. They oppose decadence, for offering a very different conception of
man: the man is not a grain of sand in the whirl of life, not being possessed by a subconscious
complexes; man is social, it can and must fight for their future, for the future of
mankind"(Baskakov, 1974: 115).
And then followed the stereotypes V. Baskakov wrote the article’s final: "The facts say that
the progressive tendencies will inevitably strengthen the cinema world... and many talented artists
who are still looking for a way out of the spiritual the crisis finally freed from the captivity of the
reactionary bourgeois ideas... And in this new proof of the inexhaustible strength and energy
realism" (Baskakov, 1974: 118).
However, I would like to draw readers' attention that the pathos of this final was not so
bravura and super optimistic as in the book in 1972. In any case, "the prospect of social and
spiritual renewal of the world, which will bring him a victory of communism", apparently lost the
clarity for V. Baskakov, and he decided not to mention it...
But G. Kapralov was more ideologically strong (Kapralov, 1974: 188). Deeply confident that
"a truly progressive democratic filmmakers oppose anarchic, Gauchists and snobbery intellectual
modernism" (Kapralov, 1974: 206), Kapralov praised the political drama The Mattei Affair by
F. Rosie, however, adding that "the class nature of the activities of Mattei remains as it braces for
the film, and the fore its alleged common humanistic character" (Kapralov, 1974: 187).
But he obviously did not like bitingly satirical A Clockwork Orange by S. Kubrick. According
to the critic, "the author of this film exposes satirically modern bourgeois civilization, its manners,
morals, and at the same time leaning helplessly before her passing lunging against the whole of
humanity" (Kapralov, 1974: 200).
The article of E. Kartseva (1928-2002) also was in the concept of "ideological struggle":
"Many researchers wrote about mass culture as preaches complex ideological and moral values
inherent townsfolk... Workers, the poor, ethnic minorities and other "unpleasant" man of social
groups there is almost does not happen, and if they appear, in the roles of negative characters. ...
Mass culture also produces ideological and artistic stereotypes dulls spoils the taste, it eliminates
human experiences. All this taken together does not contribute to the development of bourgeois
society as the human personality" (Kartseva, 1974: 81, 99). However, E. Kartseva while rightly
emphasized that popular culture often serves as a guide not only to "low-brow art crafts, but
original works of art" (Kartseva, 1974: 72).
Another Soviet film critic of those years – V. Golovanov – also contributed to the fight against
"the corrupting influence of the West": "A massive invasion of pornography in the modern bourgeois
cinema is not accidental. Sex has become a social special effects tool” (Golovanov, 1974: 32).
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G. Bohemsky, analyzing the political cinema of Italy, surprisingly entered into an explicit
discussion with V. Baskakov and G. Kapralov. He gave the positive opinion about "progressive films"
(Sacco and Vanzetti, Recognition of the Police Commissioner to the prosecutor of the Republic,
People Against, Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion), and praised Zabriskie Point by M.
Antonioni and even (!) The Conformist by B. Bertolucci (Bohemsky, 1974: 254-270).
G. Bohemsky analyzed a bright bouquet of Italian political films, and came to the brisk
conclusion that "new political films are evidence that luxuriantly overgrown weeds commercial
cinema could not drown out the germination of those seeds that were once thrown to the ground of
the Italian cinematography Neorealism ... In place of the passive character of neo-realist films, where
the rebel ... brooked quite natural defeat, gradually comes the active character linked with the
masses, more or less conscious fighter who wants to build a new, just society" (Bohemsky, 1974: 270).
Film critic S. Chertok (1931-2006) also wrote with great sympathy to all progressive French
films with a strong social issues and characters of working professions (Time to Live, Beau masque,
Elise, or Real Life).
Interesting, that R. Sobolev avoided the sharp ideological overrun. For example, he wrote
about D. Hoffmann that his screen image is "character of middle America", and this is perhaps the
most simple explanation for his acting successes" (Sobolev, 1974: 56). R. Sobolev wrote about Jane
Fonda: "I want to say only one thing: she became one of the greatest actresses of the American
Psychological movie after the film They Shoot Horses, Don’t They?" (Sobolev, 1974: 69). And about
Faye Dunaway: "She is the actress; perhaps one of the most outstanding actresses of the Hollywood
history" (Sobolev, 1974: 64).
Apparently, this article of R. Sobolev became evident official Soviet cinema criticism reaction
to "detente" between USA and USSR.
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 5 (1976, put in set in December 1975)
The fifth book of Myths and Reality was released in 1976. The political "detente" between the
West and the Soviet Union is still going on. Moreover, in August 1975, the Soviet Union, along with
35 other countries, signed Helsinki Agreements. However, the ideological front has not been
canceled (this is evidenced, for example, Alexander Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov is widely
supported by West).
Table 5. Major political events in 1973 - 1975 years in the world that are important for the
development of relations between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had
relevance to the cinema
1973
1974
1975
Armed revolt in Chile. Chilean President Salvador Allende was killed. General
A. Pinochet came to power in Chile: September.
The war in the Middle East: October.
Increase in world oil prices.
Paris edition house published the first volume of the anti-Soviet / anti-communist book
of A. Solzhenitsyn - The Gulag Archipelago: December.
A. Solzhenitsyn expelled from the USSR: February, 13.
US President Richard Nixon's visit to the USSR. He signed an agreement on the
limitation of underground nuclear tests: July, 3.
The impeachment of US president Richard Nixon: August, 8.
The visit of new US President Ford in the USSR: November, 23-24.
USSR renounced trade agreement with the United States in protest against the
statements of the American Congress about Jewish emigration: January, 15.
The end of the Vietnam War: April, 30.
USSR, together with 35 countries signed the Helsinki Final Act of the Conference on
Security and Cooperation in Europe: August, 1.
USSR again stop jamming Western radio stations (except for Radio Liberty): this is a
result of the signing of the Helsinki Final Act.
The joint Soviet-American space flight: July.
Academician A. Sakharov was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize: October, 9.
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So the elite of the Soviet cinema criticism, although with undoubted into account the
"detente", continued the ideological fight.
G. Kapralov scolded for pessimism and gloom punctuated by show of aggression and violence
in Leo the Lasts, Deliverance, Zardoz by J. Boorman and Straw Dogs by S. Peckinpah (Kapralov,
1976: 9-16). Once again he reproached the author of the drama Cries and Whispers I. Bergman
because he "does not come from the social characteristics, but from the biological or psychological
essence of person" (Kapralov, 1976: 22).
But the most difficult critical Kapralov’s hit reserved for the sensational melodrama
The Night Porter by L. Cavani. He accused Cavani of consideration “the history of the Nazi
criminals murderers and their sacrifices in the light of "erotic impulses" and "research hangmansacrificial systems"(Kapralov, 1976: 28).
G. Kapralov traditionally praised for a "democratic and progressive social orientation" movies
(We loved Each Other, The Mattei Affair, Giordano Bruno, Beau masque) (Kapralov, 1976: 30-32)
and passed to the final pathos: "Social film is increasingly attracting the attention of leading
Western cinema artists today. It is expanding and its viewership. Historical optimism that
distinguishes these works, finds its support in the actual development of the world revolutionary
process, unbeatable driving forward the progressive forces of the world" (Kapralov, 1976: 32).
V. Baskakov was in full agreement with the categorical opinion of G. Kapralov about The
Night Porter: "The philosophical message of this film avoids the very essence of the concept of
fascism, because the phenomenon of social class and it turns into a psychological phenomenon"
(Baskakov, 1976: 89).
V. Baskakov criticized The Exorcist by William Friedkin for mysticism (Baskakov, 1976: 7071). He insisted that in The Godfather by F.F. Coppola "intricately intertwined different streams:
the naturalistic image of cruelty and violence, and poetic image for mafia and at the same criticism
of a society based on corruption and blackmail" (Baskakov, 1976: 82).
But V. Baskakov praised another film of F.F. Coppola – Conversation. He implicitly
acknowledged "progressive phenomenon of American Art. ... Films like Conversation, is now being
done in Hollywood are not so many, but they are: The Last Detail, with his relentless criticism of
militarism, and Alice Does not Live Here Anymore, realistically showing the life of the American
province" (Baskakov, 1976: 82-83).
Not only The Night Porter by L. Cavani, but the Last Tango in Paris by B. Bertolucci was at
the center of film critics’ discussions. This explains why A. Karaganov has given a special place in
his article for Bertolucci’s movie. He believed that "by the author's intention, Last Tango in Paris is
a fight & rebellious film, designed to ensure that shock the bourgeois audience, expose bourgeois
morality, to show that the putrefaction of capitalist society and its immorality manifested primarily
in the rot and immorality of human generated by this society. But the actual content of the film, so
to speak, "texture" screen action can not withstand such a load of ideological and philosophical.
It comes down to showing the sexual life of the hero and heroine. The sex scenes are
extraordinarily detailed, show the variety of techniques, some of them are playful, while others are
just disgusting, and everything is very naturalistic. In the film there is a certain thrill of sex,
frankness, which is characteristic of pornographic films bourgeois "commercial cinema"
(Karaganov, 1976: 51).
It is clear that such "ideological machinations" had necessarily to oppose something
"progressive." And here again the titles of "progressive" foreign films: Sacco and Vanzetti,
Recognition of the Police Commissioner to the prosecutor of the Republic, People Against,
Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion, The Mattei Affair, Tverico-Torino, We want the
colonels (Karaganov, 1976: 42-48).
Moreover, the earlier some Soviet film critics scolded of film The Working Class Goes to
Heaven, but A. Karaganov found positive significance in this film, noting that there is a "dramatic
tension, the sharpness, is the image and narrative motifs, very succinct in its life content and social
meaning. This film has a lot of truth, and the Italian working life is shown in real difficulties,
unvarnished" (Karaganov, 1976: 40).
And therefore the end of this article was quite logical: "The progressive cinema in Italy is
gaining momentum, despite the harassment by the authorities... And a very important part of this
process is the development of modern neo-realism tradition” (Karaganov, 1976: 66).
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A. Braginsky’s article about French political cinema was built by a similar scheme. It was
again anti-Godard: "He has deeply flawed tactics of struggle against the bourgeoisie, the criticism
of the Communist Party, the General Confederation of Labour... The political chatter and juggling
"Marxist-Leninist" phraseology is only the cover" (Braginsky, 1976: 96). After that A. Braginsky
highlighted the “realistic progressiveness” of movies The most tender confessions, Crime in the
name of order, Assassination, Elise, or Real Life, Time to live, Beau masque (Braginsky, 1976: 101,
111-112).
G. Bohemsky built his article in a similar spirit: "Despite the fact that the Italian screen is still
more sweeping avalanche of vulgar and empty shows constituting 90 % of the Italian film
production, another films have the general shift to the left in the political and cultural life of the
country" (Bohemsky, 1976: 151). These findings were supported by favorable analysis of films Sacco
and Vanzetti, Metello, Tverico-Torino, Short Breaks, Bread and Chocolate (Bohemsky, 1976: 114,
133, 139-150).
“Metello is a broad canvas of national life the beginning of our century, which bears many
specific features of the Italian. This film, like the novel, lyrical, permeated with the spirit of a kind
of populism, the naive and sentimental" (Bohemsky, 1976: 133). "Most important of all Italian films
about workers is the film Sacco and Vanzetti by Giuliano Montaldo. Firstly, it is one of the few
films in the world from the history about the international labor movement; Secondly (and this is
important), this film is deeply internationalist in spirit, with real image of the worker leader,
conscious revolutionary. Sacco and Vanzetti are the characters, which has long experienced a need
for progressive Italian cinema" (Bohemsky, 1976: 144).
I. Belenky, once again returning to the critical analysis of S. Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange
and violence topic (Belenky, 1976: 186). And O. Surkova did not give a glowing assessment of
I. Bergman: "That is why his best films, no matter how they were burdened by lack of faith in the
person and the hyper individualism... Of course, this opposition to mass culture is not productive
because, although on a different level altogether, Bergman’s cinema also suppresses the desire in
people to see something approaching its real problems, something which helps to understand and
overcome the structure of the consumer society" (Surkova, 1976: 168).
V. Mikhalkovich’s academic text What is a thriller? was very different to all articles of the
fifth edition of the book Myths and Reality. A thoughtful film critic, contrary to stamps wellestablished in the Soviet film criticism, argued that "if the director or the writer uses the thriller is
not just, and not exclusively to shake the nerves or to promote to the masses next bourgeois myth,
and for conscious suggestion socially meaningful thought, this genre can be (and is in some cases) a
progressive phenomenon" (Mikhalkovich, 1976: 214).
‘Myths and Reality”: Issue 6 (1978, put in a set in March 1978)
Table 6. Major political events in 1976 – 1977 years in the world that are important for the
development of relations between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had
relevance to the cinema
1976
1977
XXV Congress of the Soviet Communist Party: February, 24 – March, 5.
The USSR and the United States signed a treaty banning underground nuclear
explosions for peaceful purposes capacity of over 150 kilotons: May, 28.
Opening of the Belgrade Conference to monitor the implementation of decisions of the
Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe: October, 4.
Any special Resolutions of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee about the cinema
and (film) criticism did not go over the past between the fifth and sixth editions of collection of
Myths and Reality. The detente process continue in the international arena, however, the
ideological confrontation, of course, has not been canceled. Therefore, V. Nesterov & A. Kamshalov
quite reasonably wrote: "Western films dedicated to European battles, silenced the heroic struggle
of the Soviet Army. It seems that Europe was liberated only by American and British troops"
(Kamshalov, Nesterov, 1978: 7).
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Berated the previous decade, F. Fellini unexpectedly received good evaluation from V. Nesterov
& A. Kamshalovs: Amarcord was included in the list of "progressive democracy" films, like Sacco and
Vanzetti, The Mattei Affair, Murder of Matteotti (Kamshalov, Nesterov, 1978: 16-17).
But R. Yurenev, alas, could not see the talent and irony of Woody Allen, and (in my opinion,
unjustly) accused parody comedy Love and Death in all conceivable sins: "It was unbearable to hear
patriotic music by Prokofiev for Alexander Nevsky superimposed on pornographic scenes. And in
some scenes ... I can see not just anti-Russian, but also anti-Soviet notes" (Yurenev, 1978: 35).
He also sharply criticized the film Marriage by Claude Lelouch, "which seemed a mockery of
criticism by the French anti-Nazi resistance movement” (Yurenev, 1978: 41).
G. Bohemsky was very critical to the current Western cinematic process (for example, Italy).
In particular, he talked about the wrong political orientation of Paolo and Vittorio Taviani:
"Ambivalence Taviani brothers' film, in particular its results leftist and ideological impasse".
Alonsanfan "is back to the vagueness of the general philosophical position of generously gifted film
directors" (Bohemsky, 1978: 88). But we must pay tribute to Bohemsky’s film studies instinct: he
noticed that "It exists the danger of mystification spectators in the Italian cinema, when some
movies do not help to understand the political issues, but falsifying it and misinformed under the
guise of political cinema" (Bohemsky, 1978: 69).
V. Shestakov wrote rather not film studies, but sociological article about Hollywood.
He praised such outstanding films as Three Days of the Condor, The Way We Were, Network, The
Last Detail, Shampoo, Day of the Locust, Alice does not live here anymore, Taxi Driver, Badlands,
MASH, The Long Goodbye, Thieves Like Us, Nashville, Conversation (Shestakov, 1978: 104, 110111, 115-121). In particular, V. Shestakov rightly pointed out that Taxi Driver is "sad and tragic film
about violence in America and on the consequences that has left in the life and psychology of the
Americans during the Vietnam War" (Shestakov, 1978: 116).
It is clear that the article by V. Shestakov could not be composed of only one positive opinion
about American cinema. Therefore, he noted that "modern Hollywood movies attempting to adapt
and use, mainly for commercial purposes, a number of ideas borrowed from fashionable currents
of Western philosophy. A particularly Freudianism has a strong influence on American cinema"
(Shestakov, 1978: 105), and the "New Hollywood" is nothing more than a common term, a kind of
metaphor, does not reflect reality, as the ideological nature and social role of Hollywood are still
the same: regardless of the changes occurring in it Hollywood, as before, is a phenomenon of
bourgeois culture" (Shestakov, 1978: 132).
V. Kolodyazhnaya (1911-2003) wrote more tightly about American cinema, focusing on
themes of occultism. After analyzing the Rosemary's Baby by R. Polanski and Exorcist by
W. Friedkin, she concluded that "the devil was never shown on the screen in such a formidable and
powerful. Current trends is a special phenomenon, reflecting the growing interest in the occult and
turned inside out religion – to Satanism" (Kolodyazhnaya, 1978: 172).
G. Kapralov, in keeping the spirit of the "detente", refused inherent passages previously
optimistic about the inevitable collapse of the bourgeois system and a soon triumph of communist
ideas. But a detailed analysis of the Jaws by S. Spielberg became occasion for a conclusion that "it
is reasonable to assert once again that the film itself without the whole system more impact on the
Western audience ... might not be such a total resounding" (Kapralov, 1978: 51).
The rest of the collection of articles dedicated to the works of great masters of Western
screen: Volonte (1933-1994) (E. Victorova wrote about this actor-communist in a very positive way)
and P.-P. Pasolini (1922-1975).
V. Baskakov wrote about the famous film director, screenwriter and writer P.-P. Pasolini
(who was killed November 1, 1975): “The Italian cinema has lost a great artist, whose work is
inconsistent reflect and burning rejection of the bourgeois way of life, bourgeois morality, and the
search for alternatives to this bourgeois... Pasolini was an analyst, accuser, and at the same time a
victim of bourgeois consciousness" (Baskakov, 1978: 152).
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 7 (1981, put in a set in August 1980)
International events 1979-1980, preceding the birth of the seventh edition of Myths and
Reality collection were turbulent: the “detente” died after the intervention of Soviet troops in
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Afghanistan, the confrontation between the USSR and the West back to cold war peak. And then
the fire of the Polish anti-Communist rebellion movement "Solidarity"...
Table 7. Key political events 1978 - 1980 in the world that are important for the development of
relations between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had relevance to the cinema
1978
1979
1980
The coup d'etat in 1978 in Afghanistan, supported by the Soviet Union: April, 17.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On further improve the
ideological and political education work": April, 26.
Conclusion of the agreement between the USSR and the USA on the Limitation of
Strategic Offensive Arms: June, 18.
The second coup d'etat in Afghanistan, again supported by the Soviet Union:
September, 16.
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the beginning of the Afghan war - December.
In response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, the United States suspended the
ratification of the Strategic Arms Reduction. USA declared a boycott of the Olympic
Games in Moscow and an embargo on the Soviet Union in modern technologies and
grains: January, 4.
Academician Sakharov was exiled to Gorky. He was deprived of the title three times
Hero of Socialist Labor, and Stalin (1953) & Lenin (1956) Awards: January, 22.
The Olympic Games in Moscow: July, 19 – August, 3.
USSR resumed jamming Russian language broadcasts "Voice of America" and other
Western radio stations in the Soviet Union: August, 20-21.
"Solidarity" movement in Poland was gaining strength.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On further improve the
ideological and political education work" (April, 1979) was before the start of a new phase of the
"cold war". As in similar documents of previous years, Resolution was emphasized that "imperialist
propaganda ... continuously conducts a fierce attack on the minds of the Soviet people, it is
committed to using the most sophisticated techniques and advanced technical means to poison the
minds of their slander Soviet reality, denigrate socialism, embellish imperialism and its predatory,
inhuman policies and practices. All set in motion: perverted information and biased coverage of the
facts, silence, half-truths and lies just shameless. Therefore, one of the most important tasks of
ideological education and outreach is to help the Soviet people to recognize the utter falsity of the
defamatory propaganda, in a clear, specific and convincing manner to expose its devious methods,
to give people the ground truth about the world's first country of victorious socialism. This should
always be remembered that the weakening of attention to the coverage of the actual problems, lack
of efficiency, the questions left unanswered, the only benefit our class enemy" (Resolution ..., 1979).
K. Razlogov’s article "New Conservatism and Cinema of the West in this context was a
natural reaction to the worsening of the "cold war": "In 70s years ... came the era of "CounterReformation", ... "counter-culture." This ideological trend - new conservatism - was a product of
the ideological and political crisis of capitalism. ... "New conservatism" to some extent paved the
way for the deployment of another anti-communist and anti-Soviet companies and return the
forces of imperialism to a policy of “cold war”. ... It was the result of the desire of the bourgeois
ideologists turn back the course of history, to set new obstacles in the way of socialism, the national
liberation movement, the workers' struggle for their rights in the capitalist countries. But the positive
developments in the international arena, the struggle for peace, social progress and freedom of the
peoples continue to define the forward movement of history" (Razlogov, 1981: 41-42).
K. Razlogov argued that "the problem of violence is certainly one of the most pressing in the
bourgeois world. In contrast to the typical trend of the previous period to identify the social roots of
crime, "new conservatism" considers crime as an anomaly of inferiority of individuals or of human
nature in general" (Razlogov, 1981: 49-50). As an example, K. Razlogov used the film Death Wish
(Razlogov, 1981: 55). However, the article final was more optimistic: Julia, The China Syndrome,
"as well as a number of other films, shows the constancy of democratic tradition in the US film
industry, successfully resisting the "new conservative wave" (Razlogov, 1981: 61).
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M. Shaternikova in search of positive developments in the American cinema, wrote that "a
certain part of the Afro-American filmmakers chose a path of truth and realism, all the way to a
deeper and more accurate picture of life, suffering and hopes of its people" (Shaterinikova, 1981: 161).
G. Kapralov wrote that the number of Western films (Sacco and Vanzetti, Recognition of the
Police Commissioner to the prosecutor of the republic, Investigation of a Citizen Above Suspicion,
Zabriskie Point, Keymada, Little Big Man, They Shoot Horses, Don’t They?, Easy Rider and
others) criticized the wars of conquest, colonial expansion and extermination of Native Americans,
the persecution of trade unionists, racist intolerance, anti-labor policy lies justice, and police
terror" (Kapralov, 1981: 25). But G. Kapralov also had not optimistic positions for the future:
"It can be expected that the coming years will give a new rise and further development of this
critical combat cinema. However, the collapse of a ‘lefts’ illusions of 1968 led to the spread among
the intelligentsia of the decadent moods, and even in the United States to strengthen the
conservative or, as they call them, the "new" conservative tendencies. This affected the cinema.
His political activity, though, and continued for some time to be quite high, soon began to wane"
(Kapralov, 1981: 25).
G. Kapralov was convinced that Hollywood began to appear such "vicious anti-Soviet" films
as The Deer Hunter, whose "imaginative, emotional structure ... expresses extreme dislike to
Vietnamese" (Kapralov, 1981: 37). Moreover, The Deer Hunter, "not only slandered the heroic
people of Vietnam, but also trying to revive the very same illusions about US exceptionalism"
(Kapralov, 1981: 40).
As always, G. Kapralov did not forget to criticize the European screen masters. He wrote
About Casanova that "undoubtedly the critical charge of the film can not hide the fact that the new
work of Fellini bears the imprint of painful fatigue, some psychological collapse, whose vice
spectacle of decay, rotting and disgusting and the same time has a certain charisma" (Kapralov,
1981: 9). The films Bye Bye Monkey by M. Ferreri and Truck by M. Duras were rated more strictly:
"the characters of Ferreri’s film have flesh and blood, while the characters of Duras’s are the
phantoms" (Kapralov, 1981: 19).
Two articles were devoted to French cinema. The leading Soviet specialist in the field of
French cinematography – A. Braginsky, began his article with the condemnation of sexual and
porn cinema revolution (Braginsky, 1981: 180-183). And after that he made a more detailed critical
analysis of films by C. Lelouch, C. Zidi, J. Derey, J. Jaeckin, F. Labro, A. Verneuil, A. Corneau
(Braginsky, 1981: 183-191). Some Braginsky’s opinions manifestly unreasonable: "Zidi is a reliable
bulwark of commercial cinema "digestive-wing" ... "Zidizm" as a specific phenomenon is a direct
threat to French cinema comedy, reducing its level, its credibility" (Braginsky, 1981: 186).
A. Braginsky retain to his strict attitude about F. Truffaut and C. Chabrol: "Truffaut’s recently
films, unwittingly reflect the mood of the French artistic intelligentsia, more precisely, the part that
often looks back and rarely looks forward" (Braginsky, 1981: 193); "Chabrol’s films ... deeply
pessimistic, with efforts to disclose only the dark side of the human soul" (Braginsky, 1981: 193-194).
The article was written by N. Dyachenko in a similar vein. She criticized for the wrong
political stance The Chinese in Paris by J. Yann, Nada by C. Chabrol, Lacombe Lucien by L. Malle,
Good and Evil by C. Lelouch. For example, the film Good and Evil was accused of mixing "actions
of the Resistance fighters and collaborators, traitors and honest people" (Dyachenko, 1981: 69).
The finals of both articles were, however, optimistic. A. Braginsky praised for the acute social
films of A. Cayatte, I. Boisset, B. Tavernier (Braginsky, 1981: 195-199). He was confident that "the
dialectic of social development is relentless. The future of French cinema, where are taken into
account the interests of the nation and the people, for those filmmakers who put their art at the
service of the people" (Braginsky, 1981: 203). N. Dyachenko’s conclusions was a little less
pretentious: "We can watch in the French cinema the phenomenon of commercialization,
speculative use of political themes. At the same time, we can see the cinema, expressing a critical
attitude toward capitalist reality, an attempt to expose the bourgeois apparatus of power"
(Dyachenko, 1981: 68).
G. Bohemsky dedicated his article to political detectives and thrillers. He reviewed the films
of D. Damiani, E. Petri, F. Rosi in a positive context, pointing out that "the very notion of "political
film" should be considered differentiated. On the one hand, it means the really progressive trend in
bourgeois cinema today; on the other hand - political film is only used as a disguise for fight against
the Lefts" (Bohemsky, 1981: 115).
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G. Krasnova’s article of about German cinema was in the “detente” key. She very friendly
analyzed the movies of Fassbinder, Schlöndorff and Herzog. Article’s conclusion was also major:
"Youth cinema in West Germany had known dark days, periods of frustration, depression and
decline. However, recent works of these filmmakers give reason to hope that the "young cinema"
will continue to be the main bulwark of progressive cinematography"(Krasnova, 1981: 114).
R. Sobolev’s paper Cinema and Comics got entertainment mission in this film studies
collection. And ardent fans of comics culture certainly can not agree with the abrupt withdrawal of
a film critic that "comics are the production not for the man with intelligence, but a baby" (Sobolev,
1981: 178).
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 8 (1983, put in a set in September 1982)
Events 1981-1982 years preceding the publication of the eighth book Myths and Reality in
general (despite the economic cooperation between the USSR and the Federal Republic of
Germany and France, connected with gas supply) developed at the height of the "cold war."
Table 8. The main political events of 1981–1982 period in the world that are important for the
development of relations between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had
relevance to the cinema
1981
1982
XXVI Congress of the Soviet Communist Party: February, 23 – March, 3.
Cancel the US embargo on grain shipments to the Soviet Union: April, 24.
Start of neutron weapons production in the United States.
The signing of the contract between the USSR and the Federal Republic of Germany to
supply Siberian gas to West Germany: November, 20.
The introduction of martial law in Poland: December, 13.
Statement by US President Ronald Reagan against the USSR interference in the affairs
of Poland, new sanctions against the USSR: December, 29.
Signing of the contract between the USSR and France to supply Siberian gas: January,
23.
British-Argentine armed conflict in the Falklands: March-April.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On the creative
connections literary magazines with the practice of communist construction": July, 30.
So it is not surprising that the last year of the L. Brezhnev power was marked by the release of
the Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On the creative connections
literary magazines with the practice of communist construction” (1982). In it, in particular, stated
that "appear on the pages of magazines of literary history and literary-critical works, the authors of
which ... show ideological confusion, inability to consider social phenomena historically, with a
clear class positions" (Resolution ..., 1982).
I do not think that this criticism directly was to the author's collections of Myths and Reality
(although the lack of "clear class positions" can be detected, if desired, for example, in the "free"
articles of V. Demin and Y. Khanutin). But the conclusions were made: ideologically outdated
"detente" approaches were rejected. And V. Baskakov wrote: "Anti-humanism of bourgeois culture
and art, and an attack on humanity, leading and the right and left: all these shows the urgent need
to create a united front of real Marxist humanism" (Baskakov, 1983: 36-37).
Such a flow of "real humanism" V. Baskakov attributed movie Man on his Knees by
D. Damiani, Christ stopped at Eboli and Three Brothers by F. Rosi, Seven Days in January by
H.A. Bardem (Baskakov, 1983: 12-19). Moreover, he claimed: "Movies Christ stopped at Eboli and
Three Brothers proves a mighty force and the prospects of social art, exploring issues of national
life, the arts great truth and mighty power of realism" (Baskakov, 1983: 17).
G. Kapralov echoed of V. Baskakov, assuring his readers that "we cannot see in the frames of
bourgeois consciousness the road in the real future" (Kapralov, 1983: 64).
G. Kapralov analyzed such outstanding films as Leap into the Void, Terrace, Please Asylum,
My American Uncle, All That Jazz, City of Women and regretted that the main motive of most of
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them is "fatigue, bewilderment, frustration, despair" (Kapralov, 1983: 38). G. Kapralov saw in the
City of Women "traditionally bourgeois approach ... and again, with a noticeable shade of
biologism, which in this case takes the form of sexual complexes and phantasmagoria" (Kapralov,
1983: 54). He had mixed feelings about All That Jazz: “On the one hand, the director makes admire
Gideon’s irrepressible, violent fantasy, feel it as a strong, powerful creative personality. And on the
other hand - the creative act is reduced to a simple physiological origin" (Kapralov, 1983: 63).
E. Victorova wrote that "Ferreri is not so much as a critic of modern bourgeois vices of
civilization, but as a man who does not bear responsibility for the fate of the world. He does not
believe in the possibility of change, in the possibility of a better, more just order of society"
(Victorova, 1983: 167).
The same film criticism melody towards Western cinema sounded in the E. Kartseva’s article,
which stated that "the 1970s are characterized by not only the continuity of anti-bourgeois ideals
and values of 1960s, but also strengthening of conservative sentiment. ... And myths
manufacturers, sensing the growing discontent, seeking to convince people mythological, not based
on the analysis of the social interpretation of the events. The growing politicization of social
consciousness leads to the politicization of the mythology" (Kartseva, 1983: 86). In this context, she
scolded American films Rocky, Telephone and praised China Syndrome, Three Days of the Condor
and Network (Kartseva, 1983: 90-101).
Film critic L. Melville, noting that "actually increased role of women in bourgeois society is in
sharp contradiction with the various forms of discrimination and oppression of Western woman"
(Melville, 1983: 136), suggested that "feminism is (on the screen and in the life of the modern
West) a phenomenon very difficult, ambiguous. ... Tomorrow we will see what will happen to this
remarkable phenomenon of Western political and cultural life. One thing is clear: the prospects for
it are associated with the opening of a socialist alternative, with the rejection of the excesses of the
feminist ideology and appeal to a realistic understanding of women's issues. Meeting with the
political and cultural experience of real socialism can play a crucial role" (Melville, 1983: 159).
As we can see now, the first part of this thesis (about the complexity and ambiguity film
feminism) it was correct, which can not be said about "socialist alternative"...
M. Shaternikova, as film critic fighter for the rights of the American working class, pleased
the movie Norma Rae by M. Ritt because this film returned to the US shield forgotten "character –
a man of labor, collectivist, in the fight against defending themselves and others their human
rights. It proves its viability progressive tradition of cinematography USA. ... The true meaning of
the word "humanism" return the honest artist, who expresses in his work the aspirations of the
working class, who takes his side in the fight. These artists were in the American movie ever.
They will come with each new generation" (Shaternikova, 1983: 134).
One article is entirely dedicated to the Spanish cinema (for the first time in Myths and
Reality): O. Reisen rightly praised End Time and Seven Days in January, National Gun and Trout
(Reisen, 1983: 186-192), although she noted that C. Saura cinema has "some confusion of images.
Mixing fantasy, dreams and reality, endless flipped in time and space, repetition, associative
montage are methods by which he reproduces a stream of consciousness" (Reisen, 1983: 195).
"Myths and Reality": Issue 9 (1985, put in a set in May 1984)
World events that occurred between the release of the publication of the eighth and the ninth
series, Myths and Reality were stormy. L. Brezhnev’s death did not impact on the degree of boiling
the "cold war." Moreover, with the advent of the Y. Andropov (1914-1984) attention to the issues of
ideological struggle only intensified. Y. Andropov’s death and the equally short power of
K. Chernenko (1911-1985) not made the significant changes in the situation.
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Table 9. The main political events of 1982–1984 years in the world that are important for the
development of relations between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had
relevance to the cinema
1982
1983
1984
Death of L. Brezhnev: November, 10
The coming of short power of Yuri Andropov (1914-1984).
US lifting of sanctions imposed against the Soviet Union in connection with the events
in Poland: November, 13.
France expelling 47 Soviet diplomats accused of spying: April, 5.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "Topical issues of
ideological and mass political work of the Party": June.
German Chancellor H. Kohl visited Soviet Union: July 4-6.
Soviet Union shot down a South Korean civilian aircraft: September, 1.
Y. Andropov made a statement directed against the deployment of missiles "Persching2" in Europe, and lifted a moratorium on the deployment of medium-range nuclear
missiles: November, 24.
The opening of the Stockholm Conference on Disarmament in Europe: January, 17.
The death of Y. Andropov. K. Chernenko's rise to the short power: February, 9.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On measures to further
improve the ideological and artistic quality of films and strengthen the material and
technical basis of cinematography": April, 19.
Statement by the Soviet Union to boycott the Olympic Games in Los Angeles: May, 8.
Y. Andropov, speaking at the plenary session of the Soviet communist Party Central
Committee (dedicated to topical issues of ideological and mass political work), stressed that "there
is a struggle for the hearts and minds of billions of people on the planet. And the future depends
largely on the outcome of this ideological struggle. This explains how it is vital to be able to
communicate in a simple and convincing manner the truth about socialist society, its advantages,
its peaceful politics to the broad masses of the people all over the world. Equally important skill: to
expose the false, subversive imperialist propaganda" (Andropov, 1983).
The resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "Topical issues of
ideological and mass political work of the Party" (1983) signaled that, in the opinion of the Soviet
leadership, the previous decisions of a similar nature have been found to be ineffective in the new
"cold war" acute outbreak between the USSR and the West.
This is also evidenced by the Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee
"On measures to further improve the ideological and artistic quality of films and strengthen the
material and technical basis of cinematography" (1984). In 1983-1984 the Soviet press and the
official film critics increasingly began to use the word "counter-propaganda".
Flag bearer of ideological struggle with bourgeois cinema V. Baskakov answered for political
party calls in the article Screen Aggression (Baskakov, 1985: 3-26). He expressed his indignation at
the fact that the West "seeks to instill an audience of millions of television movies and cult of
violence, cruelty, sophisticated sensuality. The strategic direction setting of this screen aggression
is an effort to impress the mass consciousness of irresponsibility for the fate of humanity and a
sense of apathy in the face of actions of the imperialist circles. Publishers, writers, film makers and
television, using a variety of, often masking agents, readers and viewers impose the cult of force,
romanticizing of cruelty, perverse amorality. Militant anti-humanism has become the heart of the
vast majority of films produced by the capitalist movie monopoly from US and several European
countries" (Baskakov, 1985: 18).
As always this kind of theses supported striking examples: from the movies The Night Porter
and Skin by L. Cavani, Nicholas and Alexandra by F. Schaffner, The Deer Hunter by M. Cimino,
Fire Fox by C. Eastwood (Baskakov, 1985: 20-24). He said the most negative about S. Peckinpah’s
film Cross of Iron, "openly celebrating the Wehrmacht. In the center of the plot is charming,
"humane" and fearless Nazi" (Baskakov, 1985: 22).
However, contrary to all previous negativity, V. Baskakov found the strength to make a
radically positive conclusion: "Anti-communism and anti-Sovietism on the screen are feverish,
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hysterical and hopeless attempts to slow down the steady process of development of the
revolutionary forces, oppose the realization of the masses (including the intelligentsia) the futility
of the capitalist system" (Baskakov, 1985: 23).
The article of G. Kapralov has been sustained around the same spirit. He accused for the
promotion of violence and the anti-Soviet many movies: Class of 1984 by M. Lester, Conan the
Barbarian by J. Milius, The Deer Hunter by M. Cimino, Fire Fox by C. Eastwood, Superman by
R. Donner (Kapralov, 1985: 30-44) and made a sad conclusion that Western cinema has "the desire
for psychological and ideological influence to the masses audience, showing the madness, crime
and wildest violence" (Kapralov, 1985: 44).
L. Melville, noting that "the bourgeois media, deciding under obvious pressure from the
Reagan administration to divert the attention of the Western public from the real causes of the
rampant terrorism, unleashed an anti-Soviet group about the "involvement" of the Soviet Union to
"international terrorism" (Melville, 1985: 70).
The young (at that time) film critic A. Plakhov warning readers that "the movie and television
can ... go on about the most primitive tastes cultivated reactionary ideas, amorality, sow harmful
illusions and destroy the person, as it often happens in practice bourgeois mass communications"
(Plakhov, 1985: 135). Turning to the analysis of German cinema, G. Krasnova expressed something
similar to the recommendations for the "progressive German filmmakers": "The struggle against
the Hollywood expansion should be done from the standpoint of humanity, acute social criticism.
Otherwise it loses its high ideological and artistic meaning and the place of the American
commercial cinema takes more conformist, more miserable products West cultural industries"
(Krasnova, 1985: 180).
G. Bohemsky’s article was also in the sad tone. He wrote about Italian mass culture cinema
("red-light movie", horrors and comedies) and gave angry passage: Caligula is a typical product of
"supranational" commercial cinema, "mass culture" in a consumer society. The film is inextricably
merged unheard of cruelty and unbridled sex" (Bohemsky, 1985: 92). However, as film critic noted,
"the impression that the recession, stagnation, the crisis in Italian cinema in general, are universal,
would be incorrect. ... Let a few, but bright and bold works strongly suggest that as the
commercialization of Italian cinema and the mood of despair and escapism covered not all"
(Bohemsky, 1985: 111).
E. Kartseva (Kartseva, 1985: 46-66) and K. Razlogov (Razlogov 1985: 181-202) wrote in a
neutral and academic manner. E. Kartseva, for example, is quite appreciated Cabaret by B. Fosse,
Julia by F. Zinnemann, Parallax by A. Pakula, and Domino Principle by S. Kramer (Kartseva,
1985: 50-65).
T. Tsarapkina quite in the spirit of the recent "detente" gave a very positive assessment of the
development of cinema in Canada, because "unlike the dream world the Canadian screen appeared
the real life, sometimes full of drama, despair, inhabited by people who are generally unhappy that
rarely overcome depressing their circumstances, but find the strength to defy destiny" (Tsarapkina,
1985: 229).
A. Braginsky’s article about French cinema was also quite low-key tone. Analyzing films of
B. Blier, A. Téchiné, K. Miller and other directors, Braginsky (Braginsky, 1985: 137-156) came to
the conclusion that "the general Western crisis (ideological, economic) is reflected in the current
film industry all the major capitalist countries. French filmmakers find him in these circumstances,
turn the power wheel, to change the course of events to remember the glorious tradition - time will
tell..." (Braginsky, 1985: 160).
Well, time really showed, and A. Braginsky in the 1990s has published a series of remarkable
books about the masters of French cinema, where already was not "ideologically" lines...
"Myths and Reality": Issue 10 (1988, put in a set in November 1987)
The tenth edition of the book Myths and Reality was put into the set and went out of print in
a very substantially changed the world and intra situation. The coming to power of M. Gorbachev
in 1985 and soon declaration of new Soviet policy of "perestroika and glasnost", the subsequent
rapid warming of relations between the USSR and the West, led to a significant revision of the
existing over decades of "ideological struggle."
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Table 10. The main political events of 1984–1987 years in the world that are important for the
development of relations between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had
relevance to the cinema
1984
1985
1986
1987
The visit to the Soviet Union of French President F. Mitterrand: June, 21-23.
USSR expressed protest against the American military program "Star Wars": June,
29.
M. Gorbachev visited the UK and met with UK Prime Minister M. Techer: December,
15-21.
The death of K. Chernenko, M. Gorbachev's rise to power: March.
The resumption of negotiations on arms limitation in Geneva: March, 12.
Meeting of M. Gorbachev and R. Reagan in Geneva: November, 19-21.
XXVII Congress of the Soviet Communist Party: February, 25 – March, 6.
The accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant: April-May.
Film director E. Klimov elected the leader of the Union of Cinematographers: May.
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On the shortcomings
in the practice of the acquisition or rental of foreign films": 4 June.
Three-fold drop in world oil prices (from 29 to 10 dollars per barrel), increased
sharply the economic crisis in the USSR: June.
M. Gorbachev began of "perestroika" in the Soviet Union: June.
Visit to the USSR of French President F. Mitterrand: July, 7-10.
Meeting of M. Gorbachev and R. Reagan in Reykjavik: October, 11-12.
Opening of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in Vienna:
November, 4.
Return of Academician A. Sakharov from exile to Moscow: December.
M. Thatcher's visit to the USSR: March, 28 - April, 1.
Cancel Soviet jamming of most Western radio stations on its territory: May, 23.
German amateur pilot M. Rust committed illegal flight from Hamburg (via Helsinki)
to Moscow (with landing almost on Red Square): May, 27.
Low world oil prices, contributing to a further decline of the Soviet economy and the
living standards of its population.
The analysis of the content of the tenth issue of Myths and Reality collection (1988) shows
that the Soviet film criticism was the example of the ideological inertia: the texts were without real
responds to the radical changes occurring in the world and in the USSR...
Here are just some of the final conclusions from the articles of leading Soviet film critics in
the tenth edition of the collection:
- "Illusory nature of attempts to restore justice in the framework of an antagonistic society...
They do not open before the audience really revolutionary perspective of overthrowing the system
of exploitation: the historical mission of the proletariat" (Razlogov, 1988: 93)
- "Different incarnation of the bourgeois intellectual consciousness, dwelling in a state of
deep internal crisis. Ways out of it are outside of this consciousness: they are actively participating
in the actual social processes on the side of democratic forces of progress" (Melville, 1988: 38).
The article of L. Mamatova (Mamatova, 1988: 94-121) and N. Savitsky (Savitsky, 1988: 122142) are quite traditional for the Soviet cinema studies 1970s – 1980s reviews of the films festivals
1983. But the mere fact that the collection, released in print in 1988, included articles written in
1983, spoke not only about the slowness of the publishing house "Art", but also the sheer inertia of
the Soviet official film criticism.
So do not be surprised that the rest of the article at this tenth collection of ideological pathos
is not so very different from the ninth collection.
V. Baskakov habitually abused anti-Soviet Hollywood films Fire Fox, Red Dawn, Gorky Park
and others (Baskakov, 1988: 7-9). He was also very unhappy with the fact that L. Cavani in the The
Berlin Affair connected in a complex knot "pathology, sexy and outrageous policies, even signs of
anti-fascist topic" (Baskakov, 1988: 16).
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G. Bohemsky regretted that Italian political cinema "failed the test, fell under the blows of the
crisis" (Bohemsky, 1988: 61), and L. Cavani’s Skin, “might have sounded condemnation of the war,
but has become a series of scary rides; show the horrors of war became an end in itself" (Bohemsky,
1988: 67).
N. Dyachenko once again reminded that "the notorious commercial boom of French cinema
and its current focus on traditional forms of cinema show deal a blow to the progressive, socialcritical towards cinema. The most actively operating force of the national film industry remains
entertaining pseudo-realistic cinema, which is trying to attract viewers to take subjects and topical
phenomena of social and political life" (Dyachenko, 1988: 145).
Analyzing the movie Moon, Twentieth Century, The Conformist by B. Bertolucci and The
Damned by L. Visconti, A. Plakhov (Plakhov, 1988: 162-168) melancholy stated that Freudianism
captures even artists in general realistic warehouse (Plakhov, 1988: 168).
Referring to the plot of the film A. Verneuil Thousand billion dollars, K. Razlogov quite in the
spirit of "stagnation era" claimed that "in this and other similar films, there is no word about the
class forces do oppose the bourgeoisie, and ... life and struggle of the proletariat" (Razlogov, 1988:
85). But here's another Razlogov’s phrase, unless, of course, for greater generality and universality
remove from it the word "imperialism" and "bourgeois", in my opinion, is still very relevant:
"No doubt, the independence of the media under imperialism is illusory and relative, and this is
also evidenced by cinema screens. ... Magic irrational belief in "free speech", daily and hourly
refuted the practice of the bourgeois media, is especially weighty support a unilateral interpretation
of events" (Razlogov, 1988: 82).
And only E. Kartseva’s article about American cinema looked quite "perestroika stream."
She wrote that S. Lumet's Serpico, "demanded by their creators a huge civic courage. To its credit, it
should be noted: in this highly realistic narrative they allowed themselves to any action to diversify
fights or chases, usually inherent police movie, no hitting in the obvious melodrama" (Kartseva,
1988: 46). French Connection by W. Friedkin was ranked as "semi-documentary story told by the
director with a great sense of humor, and the dynamics of the art", although it "skillfully avoided or
veil the fundamental shortcomings of the work of the American police," (Kartseva, 1988: 53).
‘Myths and Reality’: Issue 11 (1989, put in set in December 1988)
The eleventh book Myths and Reality, which was released in print in 1989, alas, was the last.
Perestroika reached its peak, the Soviet Union and the West's relations continued to improve, and low
world oil prices continue to quenched the Soviet economy, which inevitably resulted in a drop in the
standard of living of the population and the desire of the most active part of it to emigrate to the West...
Table 11. The main political events of 1987 - 1988 in the world that are important for the
development of relations between the USSR and the West. Events in the USSR, which had
relevance to the cinema
1987
1988
Mikhail Gorbachev's visit to Washington. Signing the agreement on the elimination
of intermediate-range nuclear missiles: December, 1-10.
Western world announces M. Gorbachev “Man of the Year”.
Low world oil prices, contributing to a further decline of the Soviet economy and the
living standards of its population.
Start of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan: May, 15.
Meeting M. Gorbachev and R. Reagan in Moscow: May, 29 – June, 2.
German Chancellor H. Kohl visited to the USSR: November, 25-26.
Cancel Soviet jamming of radio station "Free Europe" on its territory: November, 30.
M. Gorbachev visited New York (United Nations). His statement on the reduction of
the Soviet armed forces and the beginning of the withdrawal of Soviet troops from
Eastern Europe. December, 6-8.
Low world oil prices, contributing to a further decline of the Soviet economy and the
living standards of the population and the desire of the most active part of it to
emigrate to the West.
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Only now, in the year of preparation of last issue of the collection Myths and Reality
(December 1988) the Soviet elite film critics decided to join perestroika trends.
G. Kapralov rightly scolded the low artistic qualities and cold war ideology of American
Adventure Rambo 2, Fire Fox, Red Dawn, Invasion U.S.A. (Kapralov, 1989: 4-14) admitted that
"already after this article was written, from the Soviet country sounded a bold voice, proclaimed the
new thinking. And no matter how difficult it is the development of modern social and political
situation, encouraging occur, sometimes almost fantastic changes in the world. The sense of the
new reality take on not only the president but also entire nations. As with all democratic forces, US
filmmakers, and other capitalist countries destroy "karma" of false images and encourage people to
take action in defense of human rights in a peaceful future for the preservation of peace in the
unique planet called Earth" (Kapralov, 1989: 27).
Saving the World in a situation of "new thinking" was the key topic of the L. Melville’s article.
She wrote that "the images of scary and "unthinkable" that threatens humanity, appears in
different ways on modern screens. But more often than not here sound sincere concern for the fate
of the world" (Melville, 1989: 46).
Solid analysis of film history without ideological pinch contained in the articles by L. Alova
(Alova, 1989: 110-129), E. Gromov (Gromov, 1989: 130-147), N. Nusinova (Nusinova, 1989: 263282) and E. Kartseva.
E. Kartseva reasonably recalling that "American cinema has many faces ... Throughout the
history of its development appeared and continue to appear ... great critical works using Hollywood
topic for serious reflection" (Kartseva, 1989: 65). G. Krasnova wrote in a similar vein about the
female subject in American cinema (Krasnov, 1989: 86). The article of G. Bohemsky was also away
from exposing pathos: "The creative treatment of the classics, to the great literature and its
national traditions gives Italian cinema the new forces, reveals yet unused opportunities"
(Bohemsky, 1989: 262). A. Braginsky correctly observed that in the French films "on the one hand
there are entertainment. On the other - the cinema of thought and heart, which meets great
difficulties" (Braginsky, 1989: 108).
Thus N. Sawicki, in my opinion, is absolutely true reminded readers that "commercial
cinema" is generally not a synonym for film production of the lower class and the epithet of
"entertainment" is not an exhaustive description of the picture, and stereotypes definitions such as
"entertaining commercial movie" are a substantially zero information" (Savitsky, 1989: 148-149).
A. Plakhov made a deep analysis of L. Visconti art, noting that "the mythological beginning,
increases in the work of Visconti ... and sometimes comes into very conflicting relationship with the
realistic direction of his art, reaches its climax in The Damned, and in this film the history of
interaction and the myth is the most productive. Later mythology continues to function in the
structure of Visconti’s movies, identifying some of their formal features. However, the nature of the
life of the material, and a method of treatment of late Visconti suggest above all the profound and
all strengthens the sense of history" (Plakhov, 1989: 213).
Contrary to previous reproaches addressed to Federico Fellini, printed in Myths and Reality,
E. Victorova wrote that "today it is so important for us and for Fellini, that this artist is still true to
himself: true humanistic pathos of his work, his transforming power that can change a lot in our
complex than ever the world" (Victorova, 1989: 233).
Myths and Reality finally drew attention to the relatively new phenomenon for the time:
video. M. Yampolsky wrote: "The main feature of this new media can be considered unstable,
unformed bodies, tending to constant change and renewal. For artists who are concerned with the
fate of the world, it would be an unforgivable mistake to stand aside, arrogantly ignoring the
complex processes taking place in this area. Stop video development is impossible. That's why you
should take an active part in the unfolding struggle for its destiny" (Yampolsky, 1989: 187).
4. Results
So, 125 articles (an average of 11 articles in each of the 11 books) published in Myths and
Reality from 1966 to 1989. The authors of these texts (in most cases) were film critics relating to
the above-mentioned elite category:
1. Prof. Dr. Vladimir Baskakov (1921-1999) was a member of the Communist party. In 19631973 he held the post of first deputy chairman of the Soviet State Committee for Cinematography,
and in the years 1973-1987 he was the director of the Research Institute for History and Theory of
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Cinema. This high status enabled V.E. Baskakov regularly travel to the largest film festivals in the
world. His articles published in Myths and Reality, became the basis of his books: Dispute
Continues (1968), Cinema and Time (1974), The struggle of ideas in world cinema (1974),
The contradictory screen (1980), In the rhythm of time (1983), Aggressive screen of the West
(1986).
2. Dr. Georgy Bohemsky (1920-1995) was a member of the Communist party. He was in the
staff of Institute of History and Theory of Cinema. His articles published in Myths and Reality,
became the basis of his book Cinema of Italy today (1977).
3. Dr. Georgy Kapralov (1921-2010) was a member of the Communist party. He held the
prestigious post of deputy head of Department of Literature and Art in the main Soviet newspaper
Pravda. As the correspondent of Pravda, he also regularly visited the major international film
festivals. In addition, G. Kapralov from 1962 to 1986 headed the Moscow section of the film critics
of the Soviet Union of Cinematographers, and he held the post of vice-president International
Federation of Film Critics (FIPRESCI) in 1967-1974. From 1976 to 1979 he was the anchorman of
the popular soviet TV show Cinema Panorama. His articles published in Myths and Reality,
became the basis of his books: The game with the devil and the dawn at the appointed hour
(1975), The Man and the Myth. The evolution of the hero of the Western movie (1984), Western
cinema: supermen and People (1987). He was editor of the books’ collection Myths and Reality
from the first to the fifth edition (1966-1976).
4. Dr. Romil Sobolev (1926-1991) was a member of the Communist party. His articles
published in Myths and Reality, became the basis of his books: The West. Cinema and Youth
(1971), Hollywood. 60s (1975).
5. Alexander Braginsky (1920-2016) was a member of the Communist party. His articles
published in Myths and Reality, partly formed the basis of his series of books about the French
cinema. He was the laureate of the Prize of Russian Film Critics Guild (for a series of books about
the masters of French cinema) (1999).
6. Dr. Elena Kartseva (1928-2002) was a member of the Communist party. She worked in the
State Film Fund, the Institute of Philosophy. From 1979 to 2002, he was a research fellow and head
of Department of Research Institute for History and Theory of Cinema. Her articles published in
Myths and Reality, became the basis of her books: Popular culture in the United States and the
problem of identity (1974), The ideological and aesthetic foundations of bourgeois 'mass culture'
(1976), Kitsch, or celebration vulgarity (1977), Hollywood: contrast 70s (1987).
7. Dr. Ludmila Melville (born in 1948) was a member of the Communist party. She worked at
the Institute of cinematography. Her articles published in the books Myths and Reality, became
the basis of her monograph Cinema and the aesthetics of destruction (1984).
8. Dr. Marianna Shaternikova (born in 1934) was a member of the Communist party.
She worked at the Institute of Art History, Research Institute for History and Theory of Cinema
and the Institute of Cinematography. Her articles published in Myths and Reality, became the
basis of her monograph Blue Collar on US screens (Working man in American cinema) (1985).
She was the editor of Myths and Reality from 5 to 11 issues (1976-1989). M. Shaternikova
emigrated to the United States in 1990, a year after the publication of the last book Myths and
Reality.
9. Elena Victorova worked at the Research Institute for History and Theory of Cinema.
Her articles published in Myths and Reality, became the basis of her book Gian Maria Volonte.
Love and Fury (1990).
10. Prof. Dr. Alexander Karaganov (1915-2007) was a member of the Communist party.
From 1965 to 1986 he was secretary of the Soviet Union of Cinematographers. He was the professor
at the Academy of Social Sciences. His articles published in the books Myths and Reality, became
the basis of his monograph Cinematography in the struggle of ideas (1974).
11. Dr. Garena Krasnova (born in 1945) worked at the Research Institute for History and
Theory of Cinema. Her articles published in Myths and Reality, became the basis of her
monograph German Cinema (1987).
12. Dr. Andrei Plakhov (born 1950) was a member of the Communist party. He was a
journalist in Pravda newspaper in the years 1977-1988. His articles published in Myths and
Reality, partly included in his book The struggle of ideas in modern Western cinema (1984) and
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International Journal of Media and Information Literacy, 2016, Vol. 1, Is. (2)
Northwest screen: the destruction of the personality. Characters and concepts of Western art
(1985).
13. Prof. Dr. Kirill Razlogov (born in 1946) was a member of the Communist party. From
1969 to 1976 he worked in the State Film Fund. From 1977 to 1988 he was the adviser to the
Chairman of State Committee for Soviet Cinematography. Since 1972 he taught at the Higher
Courses for Scriptwriters and directors, from 1988 - in the film studies faculty of Institute of
Cinematography. His articles published in the books Myths and Reality, partly included in his
book The conveyor of dreams and psychological war: the cinema and the social and political
struggle in the West, 1970s-1980s (1986).
14. Dr. Nikolay Savitsky (born in 1939) was a member of the Communist party. He worked as
a head of department in the journal Cinema Art.
Initially, some foreign film critics (K.T. Toeplitz, E. Plazewski, A. Werner, et al.), mostly from
socialist countries, published from the first to the fourth Myths and Reality books’ collection. But
since the fifth edition (1976) publication of the articles of foreign authors stopped once and for all.
Apparently, the Soviet censors decided to completely protect readers from foreign opinions...
Table 12. The main authors of thematic books’ collection
‘Myths and Reality’ (1966-1989)
№
Names of film critics,
most often published
in books’ collection
Myths and Reality
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
V. Baskakov
G. Bohemsky
G. Kapralov
R. Sobolev
A. Braginsky
E. Kartseva
L. Melville
M. Shaternikova
E. Victorova
A. Karaganov
G. Krasnova
A. Plakhov
K. Razlogov
N. Savitsky
The number of
articles published
by these film critics
in books’ collection
Myths and Reality
9
9
9
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
The number of
articles published
by these film critics
in books’ collection
Myths and Reality
(%)
7,2
7,2
7,2
4,8
4,0
4,0
3,2
3,2
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4
Frequency of
presence of articles of
these film critics in
each of the books
Myths and Reality
(%)
81,8
81,8
81,8
54,5
45,4
45,4
45,4
45,4
27,3
27,3
27,3
27,3
27,3
27,3
Circulation and photos in ‘Myths and Reality’ collection
In the Soviet era of the books’ deficit even film critics’ books had large circulations:
a collection of Myths and Reality was launched in 1966 with a circulation of 10 thousand copies.
From 1971 to 1974 printed edition of this collection had 30 thousand, and from 1976 to 1988 –
25 thousand copies. Copies of the last book, released in 1989, had 28 thousand.
The illustrations (they were mainly shots from foreign films in black and white) did the
articles more interesting for readers. The first issue of the collection, which had the full name of
Myths and reality: the bourgeois cinema today (1966) had 47 photos, 11 (23.4 %) of them was with
the frivolous for the Soviet-Puritan times scenes (kisses, half-dressed women) from films Seduced
and Abandoned, Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, Divorce Italian, Dolce vita, Tom Jones, Rocco
and his brothers, Night. Plus two frames (4.2 %), depicting scenes of violence (Hands over the
City, Rocco and his Brothers).
However, such freedom is apparently not passed censorship and vigilant citizens (including
the top of the Communist party apparatus). The editor of the collection G. Kapralov could not
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International Journal of Media and Information Literacy, 2016, Vol. 1, Is. (2)
ignore the directives contained in the resolution of the Communist Party Central Committee
"On measures for further development of the social sciences and enhance their role in the building
of communism" (14.08.1967) and "On increasing the responsibility of the heads of the press, radio
and television, film, culture and art institutions for the ideological and political level of the
published materials and repertoire" (07.01.1969), as well as the struggle of the USSR leadership
with liberalism of "Prague spring".
Hence it is clear that in the second issue of Myths and reality: the bourgeois cinema today
(1971) had 38 pictures, and frivolous (kisses, half-dressed heroine) photos could be considered
already only 6 (15.8 %): from the films Blow up, Thank you, Auntie, Oh, damn watermelon!,
Masculine, feminine, Belle de Jour and Satyricon. Three photos (7.9 %) were the illustrations of
footage from the film depicting scenes of violence (Salvatore Giuliano, Bonnie and Clyde,
Weekend).
In this five-year interval between the release of the first and the second issue of the collection
eloquently that the respective governing authorities felt the need to clear doubts about the release
of such publications, telling Soviet readers about the bourgeois films, not purchased to showcase in
the USSR.
It seems that everything has been taken into account: the level of frivolous illustrations in
1971 was significantly reduced in 1971. But strict tone Resolution of the Communist Party Central
Committee "On Literary Criticism" (21.01.1972), calling for even greater vigilance in relation to the
capitalist West, led to a radical change in the situation illustrated in further editions of collection:
in the issue 3 (1972) was only 19 pictures (with zero of frivolous pictures and only one frame
(5.3 %) depicting scenes of violence (Weekend). And the issues 4 (1974) and 5 (1976) have been
printed without any illustrations...
In the third edition of the collection was another significant change: the word "bourgeois"
was replaced with "foreign". This is explained by the fact that it is now part of the collection were
included articles about cinema of "developing countries" (in Africa, Asia and Latin America), of
course, not revelatory, but sympathetically and approving. This name has remained unchanged
until the end of completion in 1989.
M. Shaternikova became co-editor of G. Kapralov in 1976. And since 1978 she edited Myths
and Reality until his last, 11th edition. She re-emerged the illustrations. But everything was under
control: up to the beginning of perestroika (1985) was not any pictures a frivolous frame, and each
of the 9, 10 and 11 issues had only a couple of such illustrations (The Taming of the Shrew,
Saxophone, The Marriage of Maria Braun, Love in Germany, The Name is Carmen, An
Unmarried woman). Photos, which contain scenes of violence, distributed as follows: in the sixth
issue were four of them, i.e. 6.2 % (Taxi Driver, Chinatown, Investigation of a Citizen Above
Suspicion, Oedipus Rex). In the seventh – only one, that is, 1.7% (Investigator Nicknamed Sheriff),
in the eighth - three, i.e. 5.4 % (Canoe, Get out of Here, Telephone), in the ninth – five, 9.8 %
(Zombie Horror, The King of Comedy, Investigator Nicknamed Sheriff, Nosferatu the Vampire,
Knife in the Head), in the tenth – three, 3.9% (Gandhi, Dirty Harry, Gunfire), in the eleventh zero.
Table 13. Distribution of illustrations with frivolous content and scenes of violence in thematic
collection of ‘Myths and Reality’ (1966-1989)
Collection’s Year of
issue
issue
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1966
1971
1972
1974
1976
1978
1981
1983
Number of photos in
the issue (total)
47
38
19
0
0
64
60
55
102
Number of photos
with frivolous
content (%)
23,4
15,8
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
Number of photos
with scenes of
violence (%)
4,2
7,9
5,3
0,0
0,0
6,2
1,7
5,4
International Journal of Media and Information Literacy, 2016, Vol. 1, Is. (2)
9
10
11
1985
1988
1989
51
76
59
3,9
2,6
3,4
9,8
3,9
0,0
5. Conclusion
Problems of ideological struggle, and the political censorship in the socio-cultural context of
the 1960s - 1980s were reflected of Soviet critics, specializing in foreign films, in the many factors
context. The main characteristic of the official Soviet cinema studies, facing the material foreign
movie: 1) sympathetic support "progressive western filmmakers", 2) sharp criticism of "bourgeois
tendencies and perversions", 3) criticism of bourgeois society.
The eleventh edition of the collection Myths and Reality showed, finally, that the Soviet film
studies of the late 1980s was ready for deprived ideological bias in analysis of foreign cinema.
This line was continued in the post-Soviet years, no longer in the Myths and Reality, but on the
pages of scientific journals Film Criticism Notes and Cinema Art, in the film encyclopedia devoted
to the western screen, in numerous monographs, the authors of which have become and authors of
Myths and Reality (A. Braginsky, E. Kartseva, A. Plakhov, K. Razlogov, and other well-known
Russian film critics).
6. Acknowledgements
Article was written as part of research with the financial support of the grant of the Russian
Scientific Foundation. Project № 14-18-00014 «Synthesis of media education and media criticism
in the process of preparing future teachers," performed at the Taganrog Institute of Management
and Economics.
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107
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
Media Culture
Polish cinema in the mirror of the Soviet and Russian film critics
Prof. Dr. Alexander Fedorov,
Rostov State University of Economics, Russia
E-mail: 1954alex@mail.ru
Abstract. The peak of the Soviet Union interest to Polish cinema took place in the 1960s. And this is
understandable: in the first place, unlike the situation in the 1920s - 1930s, the friendship and cooperation between
USSR and Poland actively supported at the state level in 1960s; secondly, the so-called "Polish Film School" was
very famous in Europe for those years (the second half of the 1950s to mid-1960s), thirdly, Polish films had a
significant share on the Soviet screens.
This explains why dozens of articles and five books about the Polish films have been published in 1960s.
The emergence Polish films of the "moral anxiety" led not only to a decrease in the share of Polish films on the
Soviet screens, but also to a decrease in the publications of Soviet critics about Polish cinema 1970s.
The collapse of the Soviet Union almost immediately resulted in the liquidation of the existing system box
office. Russian film / video screens were filled with American film production. The Russian cinemas 1990s had no
place not only for Polish films, but also for the Russian cinema. Polish films have failed to win a place on Russian
screens in the XXI century... As a result, not so many fans see Polish films in the Poland cinema weeks, on satellite
television or the Internet.
Keywords: film critic, film studies, film history, film, cinema, movie, Poland, USSR, Russia.
* This study carried out with the grant support of the Russian Scientific Fund (project №14-18-00014) in Taganrog
Institute of Management and Economics. Project Title: "Synthesis of media education and media criticism in the
process of preparation of future teachers."
Introduction.
The peak of the Soviet Union interest to Polish cinema took place in the
1960s. And this is understandable: in the first place, unlike the situation in the
1920s - 1930s, the friendship and cooperation between USSR and Poland actively
supported at the state level in 1960s; secondly, the so-called "Polish Film School"
was very famous in Europe for those years (the second half of the 1950s to mid1960s), thirdly, Polish films had a significant share on the Soviet screens.
This explains why dozens of articles and five books about the Polish films
[Chernenko, 1965; Markulan, 1967; Rubanova, 1966; Sobolev, 1965; 1967] have
been published in 1960s. The emergence Polish films of the "moral anxiety" led
not only to a decrease in the share of Polish films on the Soviet screens, but also to
a decrease in the publications of Soviet critics about Polish cinema 1970s. For
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
example, I. Rubanova’s books about documentary filmmaking in Poland, well
known Polish actor Zbigniew Cybulski (1927-1967) and film director Andrzej
Wajda (1926-2016) never reached the readers due to impediments censorship [see
about this: Rubanova, 2015]. The situation worsened in connection with the
attempt of the Polish "Solidarity" movement to oppose the communist regime: the
many Polish filmmakers (including A. Wajda) became unstated corollary to the
Soviet press until perestroika times ...
The short revival wave came in the end of 1980s is the beginning of the
1990s. It was a time when the Soviet press free from censorship. But ... the
collapse of the Soviet Union almost immediately resulted in the liquidation of the
existing system box office. Russian film / video screens were filled with American
film production. The Russian cinemas 1990s had no place not only for Polish
films, but also for the Russian cinema. Polish films have failed to win a place on
Russian screens in the XXI century... As a result, not so many fans see Polish
films in the Poland cinema weeks, on satellite television or the Internet.
R. Sobolev (1926-1991) and M. Chernenko (1931-2004) died, and Russian
critics began to write about the Polish cinema less and less, although today there is
a Russian film critics-polonists (including T. Eliseeva, O. Rahaeva, I. Rubanova,
and D. Viren).
What was possible and what was impossible?
I. Rubanova, one of the best connoisseurs of Polish cinema, said with
knowledge of the matter that Poland after 1956 was "territory allowed freedom...
Censorship regulated films content very tightly, including specific topics (e.g., the
relationship with the Great East Neighbor, as the current and historical), but
poetics, stylistic decisions of Polish movies were given at the discretion of the
artists" [Rubanova, 2000, 2015]. D. Viren [Viren, 2015, p.10] agrees with I.
Rubanova. Moreover, D. Viren says (and I agree with him) that "Poland, in terms
of censorship, was perhaps the most liberal (as that word is applicable in this
context) the country (among socialist states – A.F.) for artists, and not only the
filmmakers" [Viren, 2013, p. 98].
However, O. Rahaeva writes in this regard that the Polish authorities until
1956 "quite sharply reacted to the absence of the Soviet characters in the movies:
the film Forbidden Songs (Zakazane piosenki, 1946) was adopted only after the
amendments (including the show the leading role of the Soviet soldiers in Warsaw
liberation). Wanda Jakubowska wanted to avoid censorship accusations of incorrect
interpretation of the events in the film The Last Stage (Ostatni etap, 1947), and at
once two Russian characters were in a concentration camp among the others
protagonists. Another example is the movie Unconquered City (Miasto
nieujarzmione, 1950), which, after long vicissitudes of the scenario, the attempts of
Soviet soldiers establish contact with the insurgents in Warsaw 1944 were added to
the plot. Sometimes the personal involvement of the Soviet comrades was the
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
correct ideological guarantee: Marshal Rokossowski was the consultant of the film
Soldier of Victory (Żołnierz zwycięstwa, 1953)" [Rahaeva, 2012, p. 227].
De-Stalinization and Khrushchev’s Thaw have led to significant changes:
"Polish cinema proved exceptionally creative semi-freedom conditions. Artificial
framework imposed from above always leads to complication of the noble form,
and the state censorship provides a complex shape connotation for hungering
audience"[Gorelov, 2011]. In particular, this "semi-freedom" is well illustrated by
I. Rubanova about how Poland censorship made preventive measures in relation to
Ashes and Diamonds (Popiół i diament, 1958): this film "released on the screens,
but showing abroad banned. However, the then head of the cinematography Jerzy
Lewinski, proud of the fact that Polish cinema has managed to create such an
excellent film under his strict and flexible guidance, secretly brought it to the
Venice festival... And the film began to march through the screens of the world
and is now considered an ornament centennial history of world cinema"
[Rubanova, 2000].
Features of Soviet cinematic censorship were different: both in movies and
in film studies could not be:
- to have an alternative to official interpretation of the Polish-Russian-Soviet
relations (for example, the Soviet-Polish war of 1920, the Second World War
1939-1945, the entire post-war period, including, of course, assess the "Solidarity"
movement);
- a positive attitude to formal experimentation in the field of cinematic
language and form;
- positive use of erotic, religious and mystical topics;
- favorably assess the creativity of Polish filmmakers who have emigrated to
the West (or later: filmmakers who supported the "Solidarity").
USSR had such prohibitions until the beginning of "perestroika", but
although at 1960s-1970s some Soviet film critics could barely get around (for
example, they could write something positive about the mystical film Lokis by
Janusz Majewski).
Fearing revisionism...
R. Yurenev’s (1912-2002) article with the characteristic title The influence
of revisionism in the Polish cinema [Yurenev, 1959] was perhaps the first
prominent Soviet film studies work about Polish cinema. In spite of the supposed
onset the political "thaw", R. Yurenev clearly manifested rigid ideological
tendencies of the Stalinist era. He wrote about the key Polish films of the second
half of 1950s and generally rendered them very strict sentence. For example, he
rebuked Andrzej Wajda - the director of the most famous works of "Polish film
school Ashes and Diamonds (Popiół i diament, 1958) – and then asked
rhetorically, ideologically question: "Does Wajda read Lenin's article on party
literature in which a conquering force proved that, trying to get out of the class
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
struggle, the artist inevitably sinking into a swamp of reaction?" [Yurenev, 1959, p.
97].
R. Yurenev was slightly warmer to A. Wajda's war drama Canal (Kanał,
1957), because "young director made many of episodes talented, sincere and
strong". But the film critic remarked "deliberateness, the influence of
expressionism, painful attention to the suffering, to the horrors of slow deaths"
[Yurenev, 1959, p.96].
R. Yurenev was very strict to ironic film Eroica (1957) by Andrzej Munk.
Standing at that time on the solid positions of socialist realism, film critic stated:
""For me, one thing is clear: a deliberate, conscious anti-heroism in this film
objectively leads to slander of the Warsaw Uprising..."[Yurenev, 1959, p.94].
Turning to the analysis of contemporary issues in the Polish cinema, R.
Yurenev was no less strict and vigilant, treating The Eighth Day of the Week (Ósmy
dzien tygodnia, 1958) as "a film slanderously drawing Polish youth and Polish
modernity. ... Communist Aleksander Ford, the recognized leader of the Polish
cinematography, who created a series of strong and truthful films, embarked on the
path of revisionism, naturally, albeit against his will, was used as a weapon in the
struggle against their socialist homeland" [Yurenev, 1959, p.102].
R. Yurenev gave a poor rating for A. Munk’s film Man on the tracks
(Człowiek na torze, 1956), where the "international singing scene was just
insulting" [Yurenev, 1959, p. 92] and for the drama The Loop (Pętla, 1957) by
Wojciech Has where "modern Poland is the infinitely gloomy, sad and hopeless"
[Yurenev, 1959, p. 100].
Thus, R. Yurenev’s article, in fact, was a real verdict of the best movies of
"Polish film school." And who knows, perhaps it is this publication and this
particular opinion formed the basis for the adoption of "censorship conclusions",
and Eroica, The Loop and The Eighth Day of the Week were not admitted to the
Soviet screens at all, and Ashes and Diamonds although it came out, but after a
long delay.
And I must say that the R. Yurenev was not alone in these charges. Wellknown Soviet film critic J. Markulan (1920-1978) put it more crudely: Polish
"Black Series" marked, in fact, an appeal to the aesthetics of naturalism"
[Markulan 1967, p. 206].
Other prominent Soviet film critics spoke about Polish films of the second
half of 1950s in a somewhat milder version, but equally ideologically loaded: "As
is often the case in the dispute about the false and dogmatism of the past years,
some filmmakers went to the other extreme - began to reflect only the negative
side of life, and their films gave a distorted view of reality. No coincidence that
many movies of that time were called "black"... Polish cinema in the late 1950s has
experienced some influence of Western aesthetic concepts. We can find a number
of films with motifs decadent philosophies, pessimistic view of life and human
solitude"[Sobolev, 1967, pp. 17, 28].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
"Many Polish features films of the second half of the 1950s were
determined by direct response to the schematic and smoothing the contradictions
inherent in many movies of the previous period. In the heat of polemic film
masters are now concentrated attention on the negative aspects of reality. ... The
tragic hopelessness and death were the main dominant in the representation of war
and occupation. It should also be noted that there have been several films in which
a new reality in this period was to blacken. This is explained by the fact that at
some time in the theory and practice of Polish cinema was to penetrate the effect of
the reaction of the bourgeois cinema ... grim, one-sided view of the world, lack of
faith in man... However, the defenders of the "black series" assured that this is the
atmosphere of hopelessness it encourages the viewer to active combat, but it's not
true. ... In some feature films this kind of influence could be seen then part of the
bourgeois cinema fashionable existentialist themes: miscommunication, the
individual's helplessness before the absurdity of life, etc. ... This topic was specific:
the content of the "Polish film school" was a hopeless story, the tragic fate of Poles
during the war and occupation, or depicted in exaggerated form the shortcomings
of contemporary Polish reality" [Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, pp. 26, 45, 47].
It follows from the above quotations, the main targets of Soviet criticism of
Polish films of the second half of the 1950s were "pessimistic", "hopeless,"
"darkness," "non-class approach", "slander," "libel", "revisionism", "exposure to
Western influence" and other factors, perceived as extremely negative from the
standpoint of socialistic realism. And I must say that official Soviet film critics
accused in such sins and some of films created in the Soviet Union or with the
participation of the USSR (Eastern Corridor by V. Vinogradov, The Red and the
White by M. Jancso, et al.).
Andrzej Wajda as the central figure of Soviet and Russian Studies of Polish
Films
Undoubtedly, some Soviet critics, who have devoted a considerable part of
their works to the Polish film (I. Rubanova, M. Chernenko et al.), tried to protect
Andrzej Wajda and his colleagues from the rough attacks. However, they were
forced to act very carefully - within the framework of what is permitted by the
censor.
In particular, they supported the official Soviet version of the alignment of
political forces in the Poland 1939-1945 and the first post-war years:
"The falsity of the bourgeois order and official ideology, actively engrafted
sanation masters of Poland discovered with the brutal certainty in 1939... Later,
when it became impossible to count on the defeat of the Soviet Army, Armia
Krajowa degenerated into armed gangs"[Rubanova, 1966, pp. 8-9].
"The political program put forward by the Armia Krajowa was determined in
the early thirties, the slogan of "two enemies": Germany and the Soviet Union. In
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
fact, this slogan meant a focus on German Nazism against the Soviet Union"
[Chernenko, 1965a].
"The war, heroism, duty and patriotism - these topics have become dominant
in the Polish cinema. And most powerfully embodied in Ashes and Diamonds. This
film tells on the tragedy of Polish young men, deceived reactionary underground,
turning weapons against the Polish Communists and Soviet soldiers, their senseless
deaths"[Chernenko, 1965b]. "The reactionary leadership of the Armia Krajowa,
Polish government in exile in London sent hundreds of thousands of young men to
a senseless death "[Chernenko, 1965a].
"Not without reason, "Ashes and Diamonds" is the highest achievement of
Polish cinematography, the most complete expression of the Polish Film School.
This talented product with extraordinary artistic power and integrity disclosed the
basic conflict of so-called "Polish drama": doom, sacrifice in the name of false
ideals of witnesses. ... The reason for the success was in the fact that the relentless
and sincere Wajda’s film said the first time the truth about those that had caused
the death of these young character from Armia Krajowa, this film opened the antipopular nature of the Polish government in exile, was selling the interests of
Poland, made a deal with the Nazis and provoking fratricidal struggle" [Markulan,
1967, pp. 80, 91-92].
"Actor (Zbigniew Cybulski – A.F.) tried to translate the emotional
biography of the generation to which he belongs, and of which he, with
extraordinary clarity and completeness played in his best film - Ashes and
Diamonds. ... The actor plays both guilty and innocent of his hero. This character is
guilty, because it missed the story, because he was blind and deaf to it. But he is
innocent, because using patriotic feeling, he had been deceived and betrayed by the
bourgeois leaders of the movement" [Rubanova, 1965, pp. 136, 140].
In search of analogies, understandable and acceptable to the Soviet regime,
M. Chernenko and V. Kolodyazhnaya tried to lean on the novel And Quiet Flows
the Don by M. Sholokhov: "Maciek Chelmicki tragedy very close to the fate of
Gregory Melekhov. Let the different circumstances of time and place, and different
biographies of the characters, but they are united by the guilt in front of his people,
which can only redeem death" [Chernenko, 1964].
"Maciek confused as Gregory Melikhov, turned out to be a victim of
circumstances and people around him, vaguely feel their mistake and paid for it
with life. However, Maciek is national Polish hero type, ready to do adventurous
things without thinking about their practicality and their ideological meaning"
[Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p.34].
R. Sobolev arose the same analogy: "The tragedy of death Maciek is the
same obvious truth that he dies deceived and confused, although his true place is in
the ranks of the builders of the new Poland. If we look for parallels, then the same
tragic fate of Gregory Melikhov" [Sobolev, 1967, pp. 40, 43].
Disagreeing with their conservative opponents, the author of a monograph
on the military theme in the Polish Film I. Rubanova rightly wrote that "Ashes and
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
Diamonds is the film is not only a political one. Its content is broader than just the
specific analysis of the political situation. And this situation, and its interpretation
away from history. ... And Ashes and Diamonds is historic film in the same extent
that the modern" [Rubanova, 1966, p.112].
In the post-Soviet 1990s, M. Chernenko returned to the analysis of the most
famous film by Andrzej Wajda: "Ashes and Diamonds immediately became a part
of our cinematic culture in the late 1950s - early 1960s, and probably we cannot
find a Soviet film director who would not see this movie in State Film Fund. And
today many years later, we can see Ashes and Diamonds’ quotations in many of
Soviet and Russian films… We remember this wonderful plastic, the general
atmosphere of the film, a striking mixture of sadness and hopelessness, despair and
joy of biological life, inexorable historical destiny and chance of human choices..."
[Chernenko, 1992].
T. Eliseeva appreciated Ashes and Diamonds with modern look, free of
censorship "The main character, a brave young Pole, ready to sacrifice themselves
"for the cause", who fought during the Nazi occupation for the liberation of his
country, is faced with the fact that his homeland liberated people an alien ideology.
Maciek belonged to the army, which was fighting for other Poland, ... He wants to
live in the best Poland, and it's his right"[Eliseeva, 2009, p. 99].
As mentioned above, the Canal by A. Wajda generally been met Soviet
criticism positively [Rubanova, 1966, pp. 89-99]. For example, it was noted that
this work is "about people who were doomed from the first frame of the film, and
the film did not cheat, he warned about it at once, in the credits, people who have
lost everything except the human dignity that could not win and we knew it, but
went to their death, because death was the only that he belonged in life that they
can choose on their own, on my own. And they made this choice in the name of
freedom, in the name of independence, in the name of the victory of those who
survive" [Chernenko, 1974].
Soviet film critics paid attention to the figurative language of this
outstanding work: Soviet film critics paid attention to the figurative language of
this outstanding work: "Canal is tough and courageous film. Many scenes are
solved here with the ascetic rigor, their strength - in the expression. There is no
trace of admiration... Light, noise, mobility nervous camera, density and sharpness
of darkness light accents, dissection of our attention, ... creation of emotional
intensity of our feelings, a sense of extraordinary poetic power of the climate
pattern. Screen image gives us not only the state of mind of the people of the
doomed unit, but also as it materializes stuffy smelly canals, instability of each step
on the slippery rocks, and infinite despair of this tragic labyrinth" [Markulan, 1967,
pp. 77-78].
V. Kolodyazhnaya rightly wrote that Canal’s acting was very low-key and
subtle in expression brought to the extreme feelings. Plastic mode of action,
documentary and sharp accuracy. Laconic and unusual expression of composition,
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
angles, beams of light aimed into the darkness, emphasized the tragedy of action,
always reliable and often metaphorical" [Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p.33].
However, this positive assessment of Canal was sometimes with a spoon of
ideological tar: "The Warsaw Uprising was adventurous action government in
exile, which had the aim to return the power of the bourgeois-landlord circles"
[Sobolev, 1967, p. 31]. Although the Canal and Ashes and Diamonds were
delivered with talent, but "both films did not contain deep philosophical
understanding of history, they have given more emotional reflection of the tragic
fate of ordinary soldiers of Armia Krajowa. Political, economic and social aspects
of the processes were without the object of analysis. Wajda touched these problems
in passing" [Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p. 37].
Bright, emotional Lotna was met with a Soviet film studies even more
critical: this Wajda’s film was accused of formalism [Markulan 1967, pp. 102110]. And even such a fan of A. Wajda, like M. Chernenko, wrote that "referring to
Eisenstein, Wajda repeat the mistakes of this master, and, realizing this, he rushed
to other side – to Luis Bunuel, saturating the film with bloody and violent images
that lie on the edge of surreal nightmares. ... As a result, the movie was
supercharged autonomous characters, stylistically fragmented, difficult to
understand. [Chernenko, 1965a].
M. Chernenko not spared and Wajda’s film on a contemporary topic,
arguing that the "characters of Innocent Sorcerers (Niewinni Czarodzieje, 1960)
are antipodes trilogy heroes. It is significant that Wajda in his first film about the
present refers to characters that lie on the periphery of reality. It's clear. Wajda not
comprehended artistically main problems of modern time, he was afraid to be false
in the main. The falsity in the periphery it seemed less risky. For the first time
Wajda afraid of risk. And inevitably loses. The character of Innocent Sorcerers for
internal disorder, shutting among snobbish attitudes, could not be a hero of truly
dramatic conflict" [Chernenko, 1965a].
But Soviet film criticism has positive reaction to the confessional Wajsa’s
film Everything for Sale (Wszystko na sprzedaż, 1968): "Wajda, the most romantic
Polish director, seemingly, forever doomed to search and find just the tragedy and
defeat in the last of his people, even Wajda shoots in the late sixties the amazing
self-criticism, ironically to himself film Everything for Sale, which exposes the
ruthless revision of everything that was done to them for fifteen years in the movie,
which brought worldwide fame: and he himself and the Polish
cinema"[Chernenko, 1974]. Everything for Sale "became a film not only about
Cybulski, but became a film about the cost of human individuality, gives himself
to others, profess to people and for the people" [Chernenko, 1970].
And I agree with M. Chernenko: it is difficult for the artist "to overcome
itself (success, style, drama, mental stereotypes)" To do this, Andrzej Wajda "had
to turn himself inside out, to endure the death of Cybulski, to experience it as their
own, to "pushed" by the tragic death of the co-author of his masterpiece, ... to
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
make a ruthless assessment of own temperament and intelligence, a brutal revision
of ethics and aesthetics, emotional and artistic services" [Chernenko, 1971].
In this context, elegiac The Birch Wood (Brzezina, 1970) was perceived by
the Soviet film studies as a kind of respite wizard: "The Birch Wood completely
lost everything that made the strength and nerve of Wajda’s movies: fierce, noncancellable ownership painful problems of human history, its neuralgic points and
nodes"[Chernenko, 1972]. "Private family history becomes for him a new occasion
for reflection on the inseparable, inevitable, the absolute connection between man
and his country" [Rubanova, 1972, p. 151].
It is worth noting that Landscape after battle (Krajobraz po bitwie, 1970)
received also positively opinions from the Soviet film critics [Kolodyazhnaya,
1974, pp. 51-55; Chernenko, 1971; 1972 1978].
Of course, Soviet censorship was hostile to the anti-stalinist social drama
Man of Marble (Człowiek z marmuru, 1976) by A. Wajda, but soviet film critics
could to write about the movies of Andrzej Wajda until the era of "Solidarity". For
example, a large-scale drama Promised Land (Ziemia obiecana,1974) by A. Wajda
received a wide positive response in the Soviet press [Chernenko, 1977;
Rubanova, 1977, p. 176].
But Andrzej Wajda actively supported the "Solidarity" movement, and the
Soviet journal Cinema Art published an editorial under the characteristic title
Andrzej Wajda: what's next? [Surkov, 1981]. And soon the name of Wajda was
struck off for several years of the Soviet press.
I. Rubanova very precisely wrote about: "Andrzej Wajda was deleted away
from the Soviet screen, it was forbidden to use his printed name of last ten years.
And these events gave the myths. Two versions of the legend was most widely
used: a popular and official. The first is that the creator of Ashes and Diamonds is
poet of the generation historical tragedy... Version two: he is a demagogue,
instigator, opportunistic, having exchanged his poetic talent at a flat politicking
(see anonymous article Andrzej Wajda: What Next?, placed – alas, alas - in the
pages of Cinema Art, 1981, n 10!)" [Rubanova, 1989, p.155].
Film critic S. Lavrentiev reminded of further developments: "The USSR had the
revolution in cinema. Incendiary bold speech pronounced and the forbidden films one
by one came out on the screens. The very dense reactionaries realized that Buñuel and
Bergman, Coppola and Foreman were great masters. The debate about erotica on
the screen already inflamed... But Wajda’s question is not even raised for
discussion. Wajda was guarded as the last besieged fortress... Many of his fans
refused to believe in what he set foot on Moscow earth and November, 1, on the
eve of the Master arrived" [Lavrenov, 1989]. But Wajda came, spoke in the debate,
gave an interview. Thus began his return...
However, the films of the late Wajda called opposition not only from the
Soviet officialdom. Even in the XXI century there are Russian critics who believe
that "Wajda’s speculative use stories from the recent tragic Polish past (Korczak
and Katyń) were doomed to failure"[Kirillov, 2011]. As you can see from the
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
above text, M. Kirilov speaks sharply, categorically, however, not backing up (to
my opinion) at least some convincing arguments...
D. Gorelov write more radically: "All Polish directors dived into the
proletarian environment in the period of "Solidarity", and it was a massive betrayal
of the idea of Polish cinema. ... Wajda, who is filming about the impact
construction and shipyard, there are muddy prostitution matter, for people's power
to do it, or against it" [Gorelov, 2011].
But maybe it is worth to listen to S. Lavrentiev: "After all, what is a Man of
Marble? Equally masterful as it film research of detailed mechanism of infernal
machine actions to transform the human person in the "cog". The more valuable
that the object of diabolical experiments presented here as a worker" [Lavrentiev,
1989]. ... Mirrored the situation Man of Marble, Man of Iron told that at the present
stage of development of society a person can to resist the diabolical mechanism,
but also to survive in this struggle. People here believe that the direction of history
may depend on their actions. ... No major and minor characters, famous historical
figures and unknown citizens. Everything is important. At any moment the balance
of power may change... Maybe I'm wrong, but the creation of such a film-image
seems to me a manifestation of the highest skill of directing"[Lavrentiev, 1989].
Of course, after the "rehabilitation" of Wajda's film Soviet/Russian critics
began to reflect without any censorship restrictions: "What does the Man of
Marble? ... This film the opened space for the activities of Wajda’s younger
colleagues, and Man of Iron exhausted motives, character, style of "cinema of
moral anxiety". Refusal of pathos, metaphorical peaks from multiple layers and
multiple meanings of cinematic image, the rate on its direct sound direct
manifestation of reality, which itself raised to the reality of the rank of historical..."
[Rubanova 1989, pp. 158-159, 163].
M. Chernenko succinctly expressed the significance of the great Polish
director for the Soviet audience: Wajda was alive, inflexible, intractable ...
indication that somewhere very near, almost in the same conditions in the same
suffocating atmosphere, there is the art of cinema, which is not simply engaged in
a dialogue on an equal footing with the surrounding reality, as elusive as the
opportunity to dream our filmmakers, but this reality imposes its own language, his
manner of speaking, its own system of values. In other words, this is a dialogue
with the past and present, with national myths and illusions, with lies and slander
as a way of thought and life. And wins a victory, though not always those who
seek to directly, but always making the next required, the next step is to target the
ultimate and only to the freedom of every human person, because without it, as it is
known, cannot be freedom for all the other"[Chernenko, 2001].
Russian film studies (and I think rightly) highlights the Katyń (2007) from
all of post-Soviet Wajda's films: "One way or another, but we can admit that the
87-year-old patriarch of Polish cinema is the only one in the world cinema master
who feels true the scale of the tragedy and has the gift to convey it to the audience"
[Rubanova 2013].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
Thus, despite all the inconsistencies, Andrzej Wajda has been and remains a
major Polish Cinema figure for the Russian film criticism.
Wanda Jakubowska: Critical Consensus
Soviet film critic did not have any disagreements about movies of Wanda
Jakubowska (1907-1998). W. Jakubowska was a member of the Communist Party,
a former prisoner of Nazi concentration camp. Her drama The Last Stage (Ostatni
etap, 1947) about the horrors of Auschwitz. Soviet film critics evaluated this film
immediately and permanently positive [Sobolev, 1967, pp.10-11; Markulan, 1967,
pp. 25-38; Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, pp. 6-7].
And while the rest of Jakubowska’s films was without special films criticism
interest, The Last Stage began in the Soviet Union as a benchmark of the Polish
anti-Nazi film: "Jakubowska has the purpose: to show how people sneaking hope,
retained the ability to fight through violence and abuse. Chronicle cannot afford to
show the will of the people, their ability to resist non-decreasing. It could only
make a feature film" [Rubanova 1966, p. 63].
Aleksander Ford: with a fair wind to the West ...
The situation with the work of another famous Polish director - Aleksander
Ford (1908-1980) - was much more difficult. While he was a communist and was
shooting Boundary Street (Ulica Graniczna, 1948), Soviet film critics praised him
[Markulan, 1967, pp. 38-49]. On the other hand, A. Ford significantly tarnished its
reputation in the eyes of official Soviet film criticism with "revisionist" film The
Eighth Day of the Week (Ósmy dzien tygodnia, 1958). However, R. Yurenev’s
article containing harsh accusations against this film, has been published in highly
specialized publications [Yurenev, 1959, p. 102] and, consequently, was available
mainly to specialists. And most importantly: the next Ford’s work - a large-scale
color historical epic Crusaders (Krzyżacy, 1960) he returned to acceptable Soviet
context.
This explains why J. Markulan, not even including the Eighth Day of the
Week in her book Cinema of Poland, but noted with satisfaction that "at a time
when there were anti-heroism trends was in the Polish art, Ford made the movie,
frankly extols the heroism as an eternal category, enduring the most powerful"
[Markulan, 1967, p.49].
Even a polemical sharp war drama First Day of Freedom (Pierwszy dzien
wolnosci, 1964) by A. Ford received almost ecstatically evaluation: "Finally, one
more victory. More than once we heard the voice of the end of the Polish school of
full inflation of military themes. But A. Ford makes the film First Day of Freedom
and turns the course of debate. Even ardent opponents recognize not only the
legitimacy of recourse to "waste" the topic, but also an extraordinary freshness and
modernity solutions military theme. Furthermore, even ardent opponents recognize
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
the philosophical and aesthetic kinship latest of this movie with the best creations
of the Polish Film School" [Markulan 1967, p. 49].
R. Sobolev wrote about First Day of Freedom also in the positive context,
noting the brilliant play of the Polish star Beata Tyszkiewicz: "Watch Beata game
it is enjoy what you always get when meeting with genuine art" [Sobolev, 1966, p.
168].
But... J. Markulan and R. Sobolev published their opinions until 1969, when
Aleksander Ford decided to emigrate to the West. But after 1969, according to the
censorship tradition, Soviet film critics almost did not mention about A. Ford...
The discussion about the work of Andrzej Munk
Andrzej Munk (1921-1961) died in a car accident in early 1960s, so, unlike
Aleksander Ford, he was persona grata for Soviet censorship. although, of course,
the official Soviet criticism had the negative attitude to many of his films
[Yurenev, 1959, p. 94].
But R. Sobolev, for example, liking all the movies of A. Munch [Sobolev,
1967]. M. Chernenko reacted positively to the Bad Luck (Zezowate szczęście,
1959): "Polish filmmakers are able to look at the tragic past of the other eye,
ruthless, not only the enemy, but also to their own weaknesses, absurdities,
disadvantages" [Chernenko, 1974]. Soviet film critics wrote very positive and
about last Munk’s film The Passenger (Pasazerka, 1963) [Rubanova, 1966, pp.
165-178; Kolodyazhnaya, 1974].
The polemical A. Munk’s film Eroica was the main point of contention in
the Soviet film studies about Polish movies:
"Eroica is built in the image of the war and the not typical events and
characters, or rather paradoxes on heroism" [Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p. 39]. "Eroica
has not protest, not struggle, there is only a religious fanatic faith in a miracle, a
legend, a myth, as the only deliverance" [Markulan 1967, p. 119]. I. Rubanova
noted that the main miscalculation of the authors of the film "is not to rethink the
historical realities. It is a complex phenomenon that history consciously them only
in part, without taking into account connections and weaves disparate laws"
[Rubanova 1966, p. 119].
And here is the opinion of the Russian film criticism of the post-Soviet era:
"Munk raises questions that many times were set in the history of Poland: how to
survive in captivity, how to cope with the humiliation, how to keep hope alive. ...
And although Munk’s film if the voice against mythologizing the heroism, it is not
directed against the very heroism" [Eliseeva, 2009, p.25].
Wojciech Has: disappeared from sight...
Soviet film criticism as a whole negatively [Yurenev, 1959, p. 100] met W.
Has’ grim drama Loop (Pętla, 1957), critics indicated relations to the so-called
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
"black series" of Polish cinema: "deeply flawed movie", "aggressive nihilism"
[Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p.27]. A positive attitude to the Loop [Rubanova, 1966, pp.
146-148] seemed discordant in this background. However, the yield on Soviet
screens W. Has’ films How to be loved (Jak być kochaną, 1962) and The
Manuscript Found in Saragossa (Rekopis znaleziony w Saragossie, 1964) did his
work in the USSR is quite legitimate, therefore, Soviet film critics could write
about this director with open sympathy.
Tragicomedy How to be loved was rated by the Soviet film studies
particularly warm [Rubanova, 1966, pp. 148-151]. M. Chernenko wrote about this
sad and ironic film like this: "If I were a historian, I would have to say that
Zbigniew Cybulski played his role in this film as distinct parody of his role in
Ashes and Diamonds. And the whole drama did not hide his parody in relation to
the "Polish Film School". But then, after seeing the film, I remained a striking
actress Barbara Krafftówna, poignant story of her heroine, sacrificed himself for
the sake of love, she led survive in spite of all disappointments" [Chernenko,
1974].
A film critic J. Markulan summarized film director’s artistic signature: "W.
Has, perhaps, the most difficult director of Polish cinema. Not so easy at times to
get through to the essence of his creatures, to understand the hidden meaning.
Sometimes it seems that he mystifies the audience and issues of ambiguity, if not
empty, then something is very elementary. And then comes the suspicion that he
was just having fun form, with virtuoso dexterity builds stunning designs of
cinematic construction materials. But it is difficult, sometimes impossible to
understand what will be the structure. Consistently, a human stubbornness,
knowing the truth, it creates a bizarre world, a little similar to the one in which we
live and inhabit his people too strange, manic obsessed with one passion (no idea,
namely passion). His characters are always put in the position of exclusive, most
often they are isolated from the environment, they are deprived of the case and feel
minimal communication with the public. W. Has’ camera is like a microscope, a
magnifying observation object to epic proportions, as if it is moving away from
everything that does not belong to the lens" [Markulan, 1967, p. 208].
However, after the release of the Doll (Lalka, 1968), his subsequent works
have disappeared from sight Soviet critics. The reason for this is well noted by D.
Viren: "Surreal imagery grew from film to film in the works of Wojciech Jerzy
Has" [Viren, 2015, p. 16], which was absolutely unacceptable to the Soviet
censorship of the 1970s - the first half of 1980s. Only in post-Soviet times, after
W. Has (1925-2000) death, T. Eliseeva published the first in the Russian film
criticism review about Has’ surrealistic masterpiece - Sanatorium under the
Hourglass (Sanatorium pod Klepsydrą, 1973): "It's a beautiful, elegant and
picturesque ribbon, the protagonist of which is nostalgia for the departing time,
outgoing and a vanished culture of the eastern regions of Poland, where it was
already a strong Jewish element, but as a presentiment of impending terror era
concentration camp crematoria..."[Eliseeva 2009, p. 123].
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Jerzy Kawalerowicz (initially) the darling of the Soviet Box Office
In the Soviet films box office of the 1960s, Jerzy Kawalerowicz (1922-2007)
occupied a special place: almost all of his work, set them up to 1966, were
successfully shown in the USSR. Colored historical drama Pharaoh (Faraon,
1965) had the particular success with Soviet audiences.
However, not all Soviet critics treated with reverence to the films E.
Kawalerowicz. So J. Markulan claimed that "Train (Pociag, 1959) just a wonderful
sketch. Poverty cannot be overcome by anything dramatic, and all the director’s
Herculean efforts broke on the script of emptiness, his sketchy and sometimes
banal" [Markulan 1967, p. 195].
A. Sokolskaya wrote about Mother Joanna of the Angels (Matka Joanna od
Aniołów, 1961) that this "film is without a doubt, is opposed to religious world.
But it is not just about religion. It is all about the lack of freedom, of prohibitions,
gravitating over man. About thirst of action, which is stronger than fear, on the
nature of activity. One of the Polish critics called it a product of the modern Faust.
About Faust, who is the devil and God in him." [Sokolskaya, 1965, p. 65].
J. Markulan supported Sokolskaya’s opinion: "Ideological and aesthetic
searching of Kawalerowicz led to the creation of monumental philosophical
Mother Joanna of the Angels. In this complex film Kawalerowicz remained
faithful to its basic principles: here there is "hunger feeling" that put their
characters into a frenzy and rebellion, and here the richness and complexity of
psychology expressed in terms of the actor, through the plastic, the music: the
harmony of all the language components" [Markulan, 1967, p. 196].
Mother Joanna of the Angels is perhaps the case that the views of the Soviet
and post-Soviet critics almost coincided. So, T. Eliseeva argues that there is "love
and faith have faced in conflict. Kawalerowicz primarily concerned with the
eternal problem of human freedom borders, the problem of human nature to the
relationship undertaken voluntarily or imposed from outside prohibitions. There
are the universal problems. Duration also conditionally ... that can happen anytime,
anywhere. ... Picture is perfect, mature reflection on the conflict of faith and love,
the nature of man, look at the madness and demonic as an attempt to revolt against
the hypocrisy of the world"[Eliseeva, 2009, p. 71].
Since 1966, only one new film by Jerzy Kawalerowicz was in the Soviet
screens. The reason for this can probably be found in the fact that "Kawalerowicz
has a feature: each of his new film like cross out everything that has been achieved
in the previous year. He is always on the lookout, because his every film can be
called experimental"[Sobolev, 1967, p. 15].
And if his experiments of the 1950s - the first half of 1960s were allowed to
for the Soviet censors, the postmodernist Game (Gra, 1968) and Maddalena (ItalyYugoslavia, 1970) already does not fit into the aesthetics socialistic realism. Soviet
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
censorship considered The Death of the President (Śmierć prezydenta, 1977) and
Austeria (1982) too politicized.
Soviet censors did not forbid for Soviet film critics write something about
E. Kawalerowicz, but his films after 1966was almost unknown in the USSR...
Tadeusz Konwicki: outside the Soviet screens
None of the six movies of famous Polish writer, screenwriter and film
director T. Konwicki (1926-2015) did not in the Soviet Screens. However, oddly
enough, soviet film critics quite lively and in a positive context, were discussed
about the first three of his films [see, for example: Markulan 1967, pp. 230-234].
The directorial debut of T. Konwicki - The Last Day of Summer (Ostatni
dzien lata, 1957) had the special interest for Soviet film criticism. I. Rubanova
wrote that "melancholy atmosphere of isolation, almost cosmic emptiness recreated
in the film with great skill. The authors ascertain the alienation of characters, but
they do not seek to explain it. And for this explanation they refer to the past"
[Rubanova 1966, p. 137]. I agree: this is "one of the most poetic and lyrical works
of Polish cinema, but it is perhaps also the saddest movie, in which the topic of
loneliness sounded hopeless, hysterically" [Markulan 1967, p. 223].
V. Kolodyazhnaya clarified the cause of the Soviet film critics’ interest to
films of T. Konwicki 1950s – 1960s: "Konwicki pioneered new content and new
means of movie expression, he reflect the complex intimate, lyrical world of man,
the spiritual life of those areas that were previously considered belonging to only
one literature." [Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p. 63].
V. Kolodyazhnaya’s article was published in 1974 when T. Konwicki has
directed his chief, shrill confessional film How far from here, how close (Jak
daleko stąd, jak blisko, 1971). However, V. Kolodyazhnaya preferred not even to
mention the film. Similarly done and L. Muratov [Muratov, 1976], the author of
the work of Gustaw Holoubek, did not mention How far from here, how close too,
though this actor played a key role in this film. The reason for this, as is the case
with E. Kawalerowicz’s films Game and Maddalena, was also the aesthetic as
"central pattern of the director." How far from here, how close "are fully consistent
with the canons of surrealism: her action is based on the intersection of the past
and present, dreams and memories, dreams and waking" [Viren, 2015, p. 17].
As a result, T. Konwicki’s films of 1970s – 1980s was a phantom, not only
for the Soviet public, but also for Soviet film criticism...
Jerzy Skolimowski: from criticism to taboo
No work of film director Jerzy Skolimowski was not in the Soviet screens.
However, before his emigration to the West, which occurred in the late 1960s,
Soviet critics eagerly wrote about his movies.
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J. Markulan acknowledged that "Skolimowski is certainly a talented director.
Rysopis is the film with amazing sincerity and accuracy of direction. ... Although
Walkover appeared raid affectation, a sort of coquetry. ... A lot of vulnerabilities
exist in Skolimowski’s objectivism, in his view of character, as it were from the
outside and, above all, the rejection of any kind of conclusions" [Markulan 1967,
p. 235]. R. Sobolev was more positive: "The sophisticated viewer may notice that
... Skolimowski style - it's something stunning, unusual. Of course, his style has
been prepared with all those quests of the past decade, what happens in the movie.
Of course, Skolimowski has absorbed the experience of Polish filmmakers, and the
French "new wave", opening Godard and Antonioni, instructive failures "verite"
and more [Sobolev, 1967, p. 98].
E. Skolimowski’s departure to the West, of course, radically changed the
vector of critical statements of the Soviet critics. V. Kolodyazhnaya wrote that
Skolimowski "lack of faith in spiritual values, including in the spiritual values of a
socialist society", she asserted that "Skolimowski’s characters live by Western
existentialist schemes, they are deeply alien to the contemporary Polish life.
Skolimowski ... trying to get in the position "outside observer", but there is no
doubt that the spiritual poverty of characters, the lack of contacts between them
and the tragic absurdity of life seem to him essential features of the universe"
[Kolodyazhnaya 1974, p. 77].
This film expert position in strict Soviet censorship is not surprising. More
surprising that this position finds support among some Russian film critics of the
XXI century. For example, M. Kirilov and now believes that "the films
representing in Poland the style of "new wave", filmed just two people: Roman
Polanski and Jerzy Skolimowski. Skolimowski’s movies were absolutely
cosmopolitan... His characters are taken out of the environment, they live by their
own laws, perpendicular to society. ... Skolimowski left "socialist paradise", which
he deeply despised, but as a director simply degraded, taking worthless and devoid
of fancy crafts" [Kirillov, 2011].
Roman Polanski: only one film
Debuting a series of short films, Roman Polanski has put in socialist Poland,
only one full-length film - Knife in the Water (Nóż w wodzie, 1962). As "the first
surrealist short film Two people with the cabinet (Dwaj ludzie z szafa, 1958), his
feature debut, Knife in the Water is psychodrama with sadomasochistic break, this
film differed sharply from the Polish film production in those years and were
perceived in Europe as a socio-romantic Slavic exoticism"[Plakhov, 1999, p. 31].
This allowed R. Polanski after his emigration very fast (since 1963) to adapt the
West ...
Hence, in general, it is clear why R. Sobolev negatively assessed the
nominated for "Oscar" Knife in the Water: "This is not an easy film: something is
undoubtedly truthful and analytic, and somewhat one-sided and narrow in thought.
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
Some people said this is a snobbish film. Maybe. However, first of all this film is
made with cold hands, a film director can be very talented, but apparently
indifferent to people's joys and sorrows. I have two indisputable conclusions after
viewing Knife in the Water: a) the author despises people and b) people are
contemptible"[Sobolev, 1967, pp. 88-89].
J. Markulan wrote about Knife in the Water in a similar vein: "All this can
be understood in two ways. Whether the filmmakers are protesting against "small
stabilization", ridiculed both sides of the middle class - a frank and disguised, or
seriously consider the inevitability and universality of philistine dishonesty. The
film looks like an elegant paradox, designed for amusement"[Markulan, 1967, p.
244]. V. Kolodyazhnaya echoed: "The main features of all the characters are
selfishness, petty vanity, lack of spirituality... People were depicted insignificant in
its nature and existence in general appeared as meaningless" [Kolodyazhnaya,
1974, pp. 76-77].
The verdict of the official Soviet cinema criticism was strict and merciless:
"there was nothing surprising in the fact that Roman Polanski and Jerzy
Skolimowski fled in the capitalist world. Here they began staging entertaining
movies preserving the old philosophical essence. Both directors depict crime
perverse biological nature of man and the tragic absurdity of the universe"
[Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p. 78].
But here it is worth noting that in the XXI century Russian film critic M.
Kirillov, in fact, remained faithful to the traditions of Soviet film criticism about
the Knife in the Water: "Roman Polanski, as it turned out, was basically a stranger
to whatever ideology. He was a skilled and talented impersonator, instantly adapts
for the style that was in vogue in this particular moment. ... Knife in the Water has
something common with Chabrol experiments, but the Polish director lacked the
Frenchman’s anger and sarcasm, he had only imitated the psychological thriller"
[Kirillov, 2011].
But I like T. Eliseeva’s view about Knife in the Water: Roman Polanski "is
not just opposed secured layman and a representative of the younger generation,
brought up in accordance with certain moral and social principles. He sarcastically
proved that these principles are worth nothing, generating only envy and greed.
Although the director has created a universal situation that exists outside of time,
are not connected with any country or with the era, human allusions were read and
learn easy"[Eliseeva, 2009, p. 82].
Krzysztof Zanussi and film of moral anxiety
Krzysztof Zanussi is one of the few bright examples of a positive
assessment of Polish cinema from both Soviet and post-Soviet times’ film critics.
V. Kolodyazhnaya consistently praised his works at the beginning of his career
[Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, pp. 79-83], noting that "Zanussi showed himself a moralist
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
in the noblest sense of the word: it stands for good, for a deep comprehension of
the meaning of life, for the ideals" [Kolodyazhnaya, 1974, p. 80].
M. Chernenko wrote about this outstanding master in a friendly manner,
noting, for example, that in the Hypothesis (Hipoteza, 1972), "we can see the open
ironic list of possible variants of human destiny, taken at the crossroads of Europe,
the fate of the beginning of this century" [Chernenko, 1978]. M. Chernenko
equally warm wrote about the Khaki (Barwy ochronne, 1976), one of the central
dramas of Polish moral anxiety cinema: "Rather austere, purely rationalistic moral
incidents, ... instead of "real European" cinema ... we can see a viper satirical film
with well-cut plot, unexpected sense of humor, an elegant dialogue. ... debate about
the immorality of the authorities, the hypocrisy and the arrogance of life owners, a
general demoralization of society..." [Chernenko, 1990].
In fact, Krzysztof Zanussi, the physicist and philosopher, is a "rational
Christian. His every utterance obviously religious and yet calibrated strict Western
rationalism. Rationalist Zanussi often proving to be an idealist. ... His films have
always talked about a special world. More precisely, the two worlds: the ordinary
life with her sometimes unusual problems, and the questions of life and death, truth
and freedom"[Rahaeva, 2007].
I totally agree with T. Eliseeva: "Zanussi thoroughly and dispassionately
translates into the language of the cinema the most fundamental and complex
problems of human existence, are essential for every human being: birth, life,
death, intellect, conscience, soul, faith. For this director the modern world is the
territory of moral conflicts and ethical dilemmas."[Eliseeva, 2002, p. 67].
In 1982, I wrote a rather voluminous article entitled Polish cinema 1970s:
"third generation" and the debut of the youth [Fedorov, 1982] and tried to offer
this text in the main Soviet cinema journals. I believe that censorship alarmed even
the first line of my article begins: "In the 1960s Polish cinema has lost some of its
leading artists of Polish Film School, and young film directors. Director Andrzej
Munk became the victim of a car accident in 1961. Zbigniew Cybulski, Polish
actor № 1, died under the wheels of the train in 1967.
Roman Polanski, "the child prodigy of the Polish screen", left to the West in
1963. Another young film director and actor Jerzy Skolimowski followed him
later, in 1968. One of the best Polish cameramen Jerzy Lipman and film director
Aleksander Ford, talented animators Jan Lenica and Walerian Borowczyk also
moved to the West...
Films of well known directors such as Wojciech Has, Jerzy Kawalerowicz,
Tadeusz Konwicki very rarely appeared on the Polish screens 1970s... It was
much less discussions around the new films of Ewa & Czesław Petelski, Stanisław
Lenartowicz, Stanisław Różewicz, Jan Rybkowski, and other film directors of the
older generation. Only Andrzej Wajda was very active in 1970s...
So, new Polish film directors came in 1970s, many of them were born after
the war, the "third Polish cinema" started" [Fedorov, 1982].
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Thus, the article was, as some people say, "out of time", and has been
successfully rejected...
Krzysztof Kieslowski: metamorphosis
Soviet film criticism first became interested in the work of Krzysztof
Kieslowski (1941-1996) after his satirical film Amateur (Amator, 1979) received
one of the main prizes of the Moscow Film Festival. Although a little earlier I.
Rubanova, trying to talk about his "moral anxiety" films in an acceptable for
Soviet censorship form. She wrote that Kieslowski "endowed with an acute artistic
vision, flexible mind of modern intellectual, allow little things to evaluate as part
of a greater whole and does not attract attention" [Rubanova, 1978, p. 257].
As later noted A. Plakhov, "Krzysztof Kieslowski’s international fame
began with the Grand Prix film for Amateur at the Moscow Festival 1979. The
prize was awarded because of the stupidity of Brezhnev's ideological censorship...
It was a sharp reflection of the former documentarian for the dual role of cameras
in general and in the socialist world of double standards, in particular" [Plakhov,
1999, p. 154].
The explanation of this softness of Soviet censorship can be found in E.
Bauman’s treatment entitled The Story of a Hobby. She wrote about the main
character from the Amateur: ''blows of fate rained on our simple-minded hero. And
all because he, perhaps even unconsciously, felt his new occupation as a vocation
in which he chose to be loyal only to his inner voice" [Bauman, 1981, p. 184].
After the Amateur Moscow triumph it was the time of "Solidarity", and the
names of the supporters of this protest movement was in vogue in the USSR only
in the "perestroika" era when "Kieslowski's triumph was the Decalogue (19881989)"[Plakhov, 1999, p. 154].
M. Chernenko wrote about Decalogue: "it is explosive aesthetic and ethical
cocktail explains another director's properties so that it is unique in world cinema:
thinking in cycles, a tendency to unusual, non-canonical epic mindset, the desire to
expand their artistic world beyond the classical subjects and
situations"[Chernenko, 1996]. For example, in Short Film About Killing (Krótki
film o zabijaniu, 1987) K. Kieslowski "opens not revenge, not punishment, but an
empty ritual and conceited, stubborn indisputable dogma consecrated by centuries,
but not sacred, because for the director, a man of Catholic morality, Catholic ethics
murder in the name of the law are as unnatural as murder is against the law, against
man and humanity"[Chernenko, 1990].
At one time (during of the Moscow Film Festival) I was able to not only
see, but also to talk with K. Kieslowski. And I totally agree with A. Plakhov:
"Kieslowski does not fit into the classification of André Bazin, who divides artists
to those who prefer reality, and those who believe in the image. He has no
contradiction between physics and metaphysics. Kieslowski as artist immersed in
the mystery of life, its horrors and its wonders. ... Kieslowski was one of the last
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
authors in a movie, who treated him not as an attraction or amusement, but as a
moral message. He has overcome the cultural barrier between East and West,
between Europe and America, between classic and contemporary cinema. He made
people end of the XX century listen to yourself"[Plakhov, 1999, pp. 155, 151].
Juliusz Machulski: the darling of the Soviet Screen
If Juliusz Machulski filmed their naughty comedy in 1970s, they will likely
never would have got to the Soviet screens. But ... J. Machulski’s erotic fiction
comedy Sexmission (Seksmisja, 1983), even in a censored version and with a much
more innocent title New Amazons triumph came in the Soviet Screens in the
perestroika times. Criminal retro comedies Va Banque (Vabank, 1981) and Va
Banque – 2 (Vabank-2, 1984) were the champions of the Soviet box office 1980s.
M. Chernenko aptly wrote that J. Machulski is not cinematic messiah, and
social analytic, "in other words, he perfectly knows exactly his place in the movie,
knows that this is the place is his own"[Chernenko, 1990].
Sexmission used "a wandering story about the kingdom of women, which are
transferred from the present day, laced with so many urgent political allusions and
associations" [Chernenko, 1990]. After the huge success of Vabank J. Machulski
made Vabank-2, with "casual elegance and professionalism directing, ... the ability
to build a magical adventure spectacle"[Chernenko, 1990].
Of course, the Vabank can be called "trifle" [Gorelov, 2011], however, this
definition is probably gets most of the films of light genres. But the Kingsajz
(1988) was the fantastic comedy with the clearly satirical components. This film
was a parody of "a very familiar world in which we see things as they are: card
system and the law on the prohibition of drinking alcohol in the workplace, as well
as time off; session of Parliament, investigating traces of sedition in the fairy tales
of the Brothers Grimm; ideological struggle against spreading liberalism, claiming
that there is... And if we would think that all this is too pessimistic, we will see the
local rebels under the banner of "Kingsize for everyone" [Chernenko, 1990].
Unfortunately, Kingsajz became the last J. Machulski’s movie has attracted
interest from Russian film critics. Well, maybe Squadron (Szwadron, 1992)
attracted some attention because it was "an attempt to look at the uprising of 1863
through the eyes of a Russian officer, who falls in love with a beautiful Polish
patriot, but being the enemy, cannot count on reciprocity. ... an echo of the old
Polish stereotype: Russian as passive slaves of the king; or is violent disruptors
comprising faceless, hostile Poles mass or individual conscientious people who,
however, did nothing to change the situation"[Rahaeva, 2012, p. 231].
About the "white spots" of Polish cinema
Many Polish films of the socialist period were almost out the analysis of the
Soviet criticism due to censorship and political reasons. That is why it is so
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
important that in our time the Russian film studies enters into scientific names of
Polish filmmakers such as Grzegorz Krulikevich. For example, D. Viren writes
about key episodes (the murder of an elderly couple, in which the killers rented an
apartment) of the his most famous movie Bang Bang (Na wylot, 1972): "Indeed,
on the one hand, we are dealing with a documentary, or rather, mockumentary
style, on the other hand, this episode is obvious pastiche of German expressionists’
movies, which is mainly manifested in sharp contrast illumination, as well as some
shots of the composition" [Viren, 2013, p.19]. And then - the shocking the director
position to the main characters (which, apparently, was the reason that Bang Bang
did not overcome the Soviet censorship): "the director tries to present this case
objectively, but at the same time it's hard not to feel: his sympathies clearly on the
side of the murderers (otherwise he probably would not even take on this topic)"
[Viren, 2013, pp. 21].
Extremely interesting D. Viren reflections about the deconstruction of
socialistic realist canon in the Polish cinema 1970s -1980s, when "there was a
parody direction ridiculed the characteristics of life under socialism" [Viren, 2013,
p. 98]: Cruise (Rejs, 1970) and Sorry, there is someone to beat? (Przepraszam, czy
tu biją?, 1976) by Marek Piwowski. For example, thinking of a satirical, pseudodetective nature of the film Sorry, there is someone to beat? D. Viren, in my
opinion, leads a very vivid example of how the "game genre is gradually giving
way to a place of social and psychological problems. At the fore as a result of out
the most "moral anxiety", for example, in the episode, when one of the main
characters - a policeman - utters the phrase: "Do not you understand there is no
common ethics for all." The problem is very actual today, is not it?" [Viren, 2013,
p. 98].
T. Eliseeva gives finally granted drama Interrogation (Przesluchanie, 1982)
by Ryszard Bugajski, noting that he "broke into his belt conventional taboos: he
created documented reliable, sinister and naturalistic picture of the functioning of
the security forces unit and moral methods of physical and psychological
destruction of people in the investigation time in Polish prisons in the late 1940s early 1950s" [Eliseeva, 2009, p. 37].
D. Gorelov very convincingly writes about the influence of the Polish
movies (even if they were a "white spot" for the ordinary Soviet spectators). For
example, Good-bye, see you tomorrow (Do widzenia, do jutra..., 1960) was not in
the Soviet screen, but this film show up for sure at Moscow Cinema Institute: the
quotes from this movie can be seen in Soviet films My Younger Brother (1962), I
Walking the Moscow Streets (1963), Not a Good Day (1966) [Gorelov, 2011].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
Russian-Polish relations in the Polish screen and in the mirror of the Russian film
criticism
It is clear that a strict code of censorship did not allow the Soviet film critics
go into a discussion of what the image of Russia and Russian created the Polish
screen. Research on this topic appeared only in post-Soviet times...
Attentive researcher O. Rahaeva convincingly wrote that the Polish cinema
of the 1960s as a whole had a trend of creating a positive image of Soviet /
Russian, especially in movies about the war: "The most representative of the
opening theme of the military fraternity was the film Where is General? (Gdzie jest
generał?, 1964, directed by Tadeusz Chmielewski) and serial Four tankers and
dog (Czterej pancerni i pies, 1966, directed by Konrad Nalecki). The film Where is
General? presents (for the first time in military contexts) the topic of the PolishRussian love" [Rahaeva 2012, p. 228] .
Of course, the Polish cinema trends to Russia and Russian has changed after
the collapse of the Soviet Union and the liberation of Poland from the Kremlin's
attitude. For example, O. Rahaeva believes that the film Ladies and the widows
(Panny i wdowy, 1991) by Janusz Zaorski follows that lines: "Russian dirty,
drunken, brutal and filled with one sole desire - to have polkas. ... Once again, in
1920, we see abuse of Mother-Polka" [Rahaeva, 2012, p. 230].
Post-Soviet political situation collapsed and the main socialist era ban
relating to screen reflection about the Soviet-Polish war of 1920. O. Razhaeva
notes that the stories about how "hordes of Bolsheviks threatened to a free Poland,
(The Gate of Europe / Wrota Europy, 1999, directed by Jerzy Wójcik, Horror in
Wesołych Bagniskach / Horror w Wesołych Bagniskach, 1996, directed by Andrzej
Baranski) ... the principle of enemies images is not moved away from the inter-war
canons: they are wild, violent, and even if individualized (officer in the The Gate
of Europe), are all signs of hostile masses" [Rahaeva, 2012, p .231]. In fairness, I
note that in the key Polish film on this subject - Battle of Warsaw, 1920 (Bitwa
warszawska, 2011) by Jerzy Hoffman - this scheme is not so straightforward.
Of course, new interpretations of the Polish-Russian relations in modern Polish
cinema could not avoid the tragic events of 1939 and the next ten to fifteen years
in the films Scurvy (Cynga, 1991, directed by Leszek Vosevich), Ladies and the
widows (Panny i wdowy, by Janusz Zaorski, 1991), The most important (Wszystko
co najważniejsze, 1992, Robert Glinski), Colonel Kwiatkowski (Pułkownik
Kwiatkowski, 1995, directed by Kazimierz Kutz). O. Rahaeva writes that "Soviet
soldiers on the Polish screen were all the same as in the 1920s and 1930s (perhaps
slightly less caricatured), but the officers are in their brutality more sophisticated
(Ladies and the widows, Scurvy)" [Rahaeva, 2012, p. 231].
Russian military subject was also presented in the Polish-Czech Operation
Danube (Operacja Dunaj, 2009), "where Soviet soldiers again look like the
Bolsheviks in film from 1920s. They are senseless cruel, wild and drunk. Although
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
the Poles are not too idealized... At the same time it turns out that Poles and Czechs
can perfectly agree, if they have a common enemy - Russian" [Rahaeva, 2012, p.
235].
O. Rahaeva clearly highlights the stereotypical Russian characters in Polish
cinema of the 1990s - early 2000s: "the natives of Russia are a wild people from
the wild country sinking in poverty; Russian are trying by hook or by crook to get
to Poland - a transit point on the way to the West - and here to solve their (mostly
dirty) business. The characters in the movie Debt (Dług, 1999, directed by
Krzysztof Krauze.) are smugglers, criminals, murderers, gangsters and mafia. ...
The prostitutes, pimps... In addition, the fate of Russian women in these films
usually depend almost entirely on the Poles (a kind of symbolic revenge for
historical grievances)" [Rahaeva 2012, p. 232]. In fact, the images of Russian
women are shown in Polish cinema 1990s - 2000s much softer and warmer than
images of men: Sauna (1992), VIP (1991), Daughters of happiness (Córy
szczęścia, Poland, Hungary, Germany, 1999), Love stories (Historie miłosne,
1997), Little Moscow (Mała Moskwa, 2008)...
Analyzing the films of the past 15 years, O. Rahaeva [Rahaeva 2012, p. 233234] notices that Polish cinema has a relatively new trend in Russian image - as the
brave and slightly mysterious characters: in the films On the edge of the world (Na
koniec świata, 1999), Master (Mistrz, 2005), Persona non grata (2005) and others.
Polish cinema: predictions for the future
Projections, as is well known, a thankless thing: they very often do not
come true. For example, V. Kolodyazhnaya wrote in 1974, that "all the best in
content and form was further developed in the Polish cinema of 1960s and early
1970s. ... A new fruitful stage began when the Polish cinema in general, freed from
ideological vacillation, by lack of faith in man, from the existential loneliness and
omnipotence of evil" [Kolodyazhnaya 1974, p. 47]. The "ideological vacillation"
of Polish filmmakers not only continued, but also resulted in the late 1970s to a
peak of "cinema of moral anxiety". Of course, this was a "fruitful stage" in the
development of Polish film art, but I'm afraid, is not the same as V.
Kolodyazhnaya had seen, standing on a clear socialistic position...
One of today's most well-known Russian film critics of the liberal wing – A.
Plakhov did not become a better predictor of the trends in the Polish cinema in
1988. He wrote (just three years before the collapse of the USSR) about the
generation of Polish direction, to declare itself in the period of "Solidarity": "Most
of them went into the cinema in the second half of the 1970s, shortly before the
Polish society has undergone an economic and political crisis. ... They have ...
tones of skepticism and pessimism. At the same time, now it is possible to assert
with confidence, they are for the most part did the ideological alliance with the
extremist forces who wanted to orient the country to the West. The so-called films
"under the sign of moral anxiety", which appeared in abundance on the Polish
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
screens of 1970s - 80s were not aimed at the denial of socialism as such, and in its
criticism really manifested distortions and deficiencies" [Plakhov, 1988, pp. 169170].
But the connoisseur of Polish cinema M. Chernenko wrote in 1989 more
accurate text: "Of course, forecasts are always uncertain, especially far from the
stability of the political and economic situation in Poland, but in the normal
evolutionary course of events, it can be easily assumed in future of cinema a sharp
turn to the events of recent history, in the pages of military and post-war life of the
people who were under the censorship ban. First of all, we can expect a cinematic
biography of "Solidarity" and the prehistory of this movement: from the workers'
protests in 1976 and further, deep into the decades - to the events on the Coast in
1970, to the knowledge of the tragedy in 1956, to civil war of 1944-1948 years and
massive repression... In any case, whatever the particular subject is likely to Polish
cinema in the coming years will again become a historic cinema, just as was the
historical cinema "Polish Film School" [Chernenko, 1989].
Russian film criticism and the Polish cinema: what next?
I counted about 60 works related to Polish cinema, published in the USSR
from 1959 to 1991 [Antonov, 1972; Bauman, 1981; Bereznitsky, 1971; Chernenko,
1964; 1965; 1967; 1968 1970; 1971; 1972 1974; 1975; 1976 1977; 1978; 1979;
1980; 1984; 1985; 1987; 1989; 1990; Chizhikov, 1966; Frolova, 1976;
Kolodyazhnaya, 1974; Lavrentiev, 1989; Markulan, 1967; 1968; Mikhalkovich,
1977; Molchanov, 1989; Muratov, 1973; 1976; 1978; Plakhov, 1988; Rubanova,
1965; 1966; 1972 1977; 1978; 1989; Rysakova, 1960; Sobolev, 1965; 1966; 1967;
1970; 1979; Sukhin, 1975; Yurenev, 1959, and others].
In the post-Soviet period (1992 to 2016) I found about forty publications
Russian film critics a Polish movie [Chernenko, 1992; 1996; 2000; 2001; 20012;
2005; Elisseva, 1996; 2002; 2007; 2009; Filimonov, 2008; Gorelov, 2011; Kirillov,
2011; Kudryavtsev, S., 1995; 2003; 2014; Palamarchuk, Zubritskaya, 2007;
Plakhov, 1999; Rahaeva, 2009; 2012; Rubanova, 2000; 2013; 2015; Viren, 2013;
2015; Zadorozhna, 2006, and others]. It seems to be a lot, but ... more than half of
them are small encyclopedic articles belonging to the pen of T. Eliseeva. More or
less mainstream press articles about Polish cinema came in the last quarter century
a very little...
Of course, I have been taken into account (in the Soviet and post-Soviet
period), mainly publication of film critics from Moscow. But if the socialist era
Soviet regional newspapers published many film reviews on the current screen
repertoire (including Polish films)... So, the list of modern Russian film critics,
specifically writing about Polish movie is very short: I. Rubanova, T. Eliseeva, D.
Viren, O. Rahaeva... Well, let's hope that is not a number, but the ability to...
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 2
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Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Media Culture
Soviet film critics about Soviet cinema:
from censorship to Gorbachev's perestroika
Prof. Dr. Alexander Fedorov,
Rostov State University of Economics, Russia
E-mail: 1954alex@mail.ru
Abstract
Moscow publishing house Art began to produce in mid-1960s annual book collection Screen, which was to
reflect the most important cinematic events in the USSR and the world. The first collection of this kind - Screen
1964 - was printed edition of 45,500 copies. The circulation of the next two collections were 30-35 thousand copies.
From 1968 to 1985 the Screens were annually with a circulation of 50 thousand copies. Screen 1987 circulation has
been increased to 75 thousand, but the rest of the collection issues have returned to the circulation of 50 thousand
copies. Each book is illustrated with black-and-white frames of the movies and photos masters of the screen.
Yearbooks Screen became a mirror of the Soviet criticism of the 1960s - 1980s, reflecting all ups and downs,
forced to default figures, ideological passages, thaw and perestroika hope... From the time of the fisrt to last annual
output has been a quarter century. Soviet film criticism changed significantly.
The main materials for this article was articles of Soviet film critics about Soviet cinema in Screen
yearbooks. The methods of theoretical research: classification, comparison, analogy, induction and deduction,
abstraction and concretization, theoretical analysis and synthesis; methods of empirical research: collecting
information related to the research subjects.
Keywords: film critic, film studies, Soviet, USSR, film, movies, cinema, censorship.
* Article was written as part of research with the financial support of the grant of the Russian Scientific Foundation
(RNF). Project № 14-18-00014 «Synthesis of media education and media criticism in the process of preparing future
teachers," performed at the Taganrog Institute of Management and Economics.
Introduction
Moscow publishing house Art began to produce in mid-1960s annual book
collection Screen, which was to reflect the most important cinematic events in the
USSR and the world. The first collection of this kind - Screen 1964 - was printed
edition of 45,500 copies. The circulation of the next two collections were 30-35
thousand copies. From 1968 to 1985 the Screens were annually with a circulation
of 50 thousand copies. Screen 1987 circulation has been increased to 75 thousand,
but the rest of the collection issues have returned to the circulation of 50 thousand
copies. Each book is illustrated with black-and-white frames of the movies and
photos masters of the screen.
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
However, based on the stated theme, our analysis is limited to only articles
about Soviet feature films (Such collection had 15-20 about). I have not analyzed:
1) interviews; 2) reports from film sets; 3) articles written not by film critics; 4)
articles about the documentary, animation and foreign films (how foreign cinema
was reflected in the mirror of the Soviet critics, please, see: Fedorov, 2016).
So, these Yearbooks published (from 1965 to 1990) over four hundred
articles on the Soviet cinema.
Materials and methods
The main materials for this article was articles of Soviet film critics about
Soviet cinema. The methods of theoretical research: classification, comparison,
analogy, induction and deduction, abstraction and concretization, theoretical
analysis and synthesis; methods of empirical research: collecting information
related to the research subjects. The effectiveness of such methods has been proven
as the Western (R. Taylor, D. Youngblood, A. Lawton et al.), and Russian (N.
Zorkaya, M. Turovskaya) researchers. I used also the method of hermeneutic
analysis of the cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001).
Discussion
Screen 1964 (published in 1965, put a set in April 1965)
The first issue of the yearbook’ collection - Screen 1964 - was distinctly
"thaw", although its materials, of course, influenced the guiding line of the Soviet
Communist Party Central Committee Resolutions: "On measures to improve the
management of the art of cinematography development" (1962), "Immediate Tasks
party's ideological work" (1963) and "On the "Mosfilm" (1964). The latter
document, for example, said that filmmakers should "produce movies that reveal
the Soviet way of thinking and acting, the Soviet way of life; recreate on screen
the story of the struggle of the Communist Party and the Soviet people for the
victory of socialism and communism in our country; produce films, exposing the
bourgeois way of life, to help the party in its struggle for the triumph of
communist ideology" [Resolution..., 1964].
However, Screen 1964 in general looked quite balanced despite all these
Resulutions: the materials of the Soviet cinema combined with a large, saturated
section of foreign films, festivals and stars, and even with the polemical articles.
For example, very noticeable at the time critics E. Surkov and M.
Kuznetsov were the authors of reviews about the film Chairman by Y. Nagibin and
A. Saltykov. Actor Mikhail Ulyanov very imressive played the role of Trubnikov the chairman of one of the post-war collective farms. And E. Surkov (1915-1988)
claimed that "those who conciders Trubnikov on the ideal of modern standards of
the collective farm manager, is unlikely to do the right thing. ... In order to
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
understand Trubnikov, we must not forget that he is a man, not some ideal
personification of some abstractly formulated virtues" [Surkov, 1965, p.36].
M. Kuznetsov (1914-1980) to argue with positive view of E. Surkov: "It is
very difficult to understand how such a talented writer as Y. Nagibin ... have lost
all sense of proportion, and gave himself entirely to the power of the illustrative
flow? And why is the young director Alexey Saltykov, whose work is very rough,
but sometimes shows a clear talent, too, succumbed to this?" [Kuznetsov, 1965, p.
42].
Here I must say that have not been yet untouchable Soviet "cinematic
generals" with untouchable "state significant topics" in the 1960s. Therefore, it was
possible (of course, within the ruling ideology) relatively freely express their
opinions. So E. Surkov, even positively assessed Chairman, noting that " the first
part of the film is especially good, solid and perfected, but the second part,
unfortunately, is not so equivalent. Especially towards the end of the film when the
director and screenwriter, wanting to show the changes that have occurred on the
farm, do it purely illustrative externally. ... I felt in the final episode of the film
even some complacency, as if the authors would have us believe then that all the
problems now resolved" [Surkov, 1965, pp. 38-39].
M. Semenov’s article about the film Space Alloy by the future “cinematic
general of era of stagnation” T. Levchuk (1912-1998) was very caustic and (rightly
so!) absolutely ruthless: "The appearance of the film was preceded by broadcast
advertising. It was emphasized that it is not a simple cinematographic, it is a plan
of how the hymn "glorious working class." But we can see instead the weak song,
even with fake notes. ... No real life, not living people. Instead, we meet with
mannequins” [Semenov, 1965, p. 66-67, 71].
Probably, the title The Regional Secretary of Communist Party would be a
strong anti-critical indulgence for any film, even the lowest professional level in
the 1970s - the first half of the 1980s. But at the beginning of the Brezhnev’s era,
"the party-ideological" title and topic has not been saved opportunistic opus by V.
Chebotarev (1921-2010) from the just verdict of V. Kardin (1921-2008). This critic
accused this film in the absence of the real life’s traces [Kardin, 1965, p. 69-72].
The yearbook scolded (and again - for good reason) and movies on the socalled historical-revolutionary theme. For example, K. Scherbakov ironically
remarked that films Mandate and In the Name of Revolution exploit the “moves
and situations, images and techniques of expression, which are now, repeating
many times, become empty, jaded, commonplace. ... I am far from being able to
accuse the authors of Mandate and In the Name of Revolution of plagiarism ... But
the lack of their own vision of art sometimes brings such bitter fruit, which does
not know and direct borrowing" [Shcherbakov, 1965, pp. 86-87].
It is curious that, thanks to the "thaw", the critic J. Warsawsky (1911-2000)
was still able to tell the yearbook the readers even that film I am 20 years has
undergone alterations and, therefore, did not immediately came out on the screen:
"I've seen all the options this film, and the early and final. What is the essence of
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
reshoots? ... Of course, as always with the alterations do not guard themselves
against losses, more or less offensive. Perhaps the most annoying is too cut scene
performances of poets at the Polytechnic Museum" [Warsawsky, 1965, p.45].
Analyzing this film of M. Khutsiev, film critic used fairly typical for the
1960s protective method: a reference to the faithfulness of goodies "light Leninist
ideals" [Warsawsky, 1965, p.50].
However, realizing that even this ideological link, perhaps, not at all will
make an impression, J. Warsawsky completed his article one more polemical
thesis: "You do not agree with me, dear reader? Let us not rush to conclusions,
let's see it again, make sure what impact it on our young cinema, on the minds of a
new generation of artists and audiences. This film has slow, but powerful steps"
[Warsawsky, 1965, p.52].
And J. Warsawsky, as time has shown, proved to be completely right: M.
Khutsiev’s talented film, in fact, turned out to be "long-playing", designed for
decades of thinking about the thaw era...
Bright and figuratively review was written by N. Zorkaya (1924-2006) about
the satirical comedy by E. Klimov Welcome, or No Trespassing. N. Zorkaya
reasonably argued that many of the "troubles come from dogmatism and lack of
talent, who are always together and prop each other, although apparently not
similar, although dogmatism important inflated, pretends to be a scientist... The
film Welcome, or No Trespassing is talented, cheerful and mischievous work of
like-minded artists. ... Professional hand, precise installation, master's sense of
material: it's all there in Klimov's film" [Zorkaya, 1965, pp. 52-55].
M. Kvasnetskaya (1925-2008) wrote a good review about Competition:
"This film is not only creative debut of young director B. Mansurov, and the
approval of his peculiar talent - clever and poetic" [Kvasnetskaya 1965, p.63]. And
I. Levshina (1932-2009) was convinced that Competition is not only deserves
accolades, but this film is so rich and complex, so difficult for the viewer's
perception that the conversation about him should go to some fundamental
questions. I saw in the Competition deeply national cinema" [Levshina, 1965, p.6061].
M. Kuznetsov wrote very warm and shrewdly article about the directorial
film debut of V.Shukshin This Guy Lives: "Not all perfect in this film, there is
something to reproach not only actors, but above all the author, even reproach, but
from all admiring heart. However, this uneven film has an amazing, rare integrity,
and in addition, V. Shukshin achieved victory in such a difficult area as the
problem of the hero. ... That's why this debut is not only successful itself, but
promises even more in the future. I think not mistaken to predict that we will
happy to meet V.Shukshin and on the pages of magazines and books, and in the
cinema" [Kuznetsov, 1965, p.137, 142].
The next section of the book dealt with the creative portraits of filmmakers.
For example, I. Solovyova wrote that "Innokenty Smoktunovsky’s play in
Hamlet leaves a wonderful feeling: it seems that the role is changing from time to
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
time, as it can not be changed in the movie, and as happens only in the theater"
[Solovieva, 1965, p. 99].
Perhaps the only discordant note in a very successful book, was the boring
article of D. Pisarevsky (1912-1990), the chief editor of Soviet Screen magazine,
who wrote that Vasilyev brothers’ Chapaev "is one of pictures-titans, in which
each new generation of viewers and artists draws spiritual riches and opens its
consonant with time. He became part of the lives of the people, a true companion
generations" [Pisarevsky, 1965, p.219].
Screen 1965 (published in 1966, put in a set in October 1966)
The well-known film critic M. Bleyman (1904-1973) published in 1970 the
article Archaists or innovators? [Bleyman, 1970], which served as a pretext for
Soviet film bosses defeat of Ukrainian poetic cinema. But Screen 1965 could still
to publish a positive article about the film S. Parajanov (1924-1990) Shadows of
Forgotten Ancestors. This masterpiece was evaluated as "explosion of many
canons, disturbing many hardened tastes and concepts. And so I want to believe
that this is not a coincidence, but a brilliant beginning of a new stage in the life of
Ukrainian cinema. ... Talent director Parajanov finally found their true value,
slipped to a truly artistic expression. It seems that reel of film will not sustain such
a frenzied pressure of the director/operator’ fantasy, but this is artistic revelationin.
... Director of Photography Y. Ilienko deserves the highest praise for the highest
measure accurate, ubiquitous, bottomless ingenuity. Union of director and
cameraman in this film is so indivisible that it is difficult to imagine a more
"ground-in" in modern cinema" [Drach, 1966, p. 29, 32].
A number of books’ articles was devoted to the poetic cinema. Critics
pointed out that in V. Derbenev’s Last Month of Autumn "reigns light lyrical
intonation and it is all full of poetry" [Ignatieva, 1966, p.52], and Girl and the
Echo has a different artistic purpose than preaching: be able to see the world grow
a purity and transparency of the soul, and then everything will open and you will
respond ... The film does not proclaim anything, but this is a miracle of
poetry"[Inovertseva, 1966, p.35]. And the article’s title about poetic parable M.
Kobakhidze The Wedding was, in fact, an exhaustive: Small Masterpiece
[Semenov, 1966, p.138-139].
This, of course, does not mean that the annual book automatically Screens
the poetic cinema of critics zone. For example, I. Rubanova rather sternly wrote
about the debut work of B. Grigoriev (1935-2012) and Y. Shvyrev (1932-2013)
First Snow and the Clean Ponds by A. Sakharov (1934-1999) [Rubanova 1966, p.
68].
And Z. Paperny (1919-1996) was not thrilled with the movie of A.
Manasarova (1925-1986) Twenty Years Later: “A good picture, a professional job.
Just an example of a purely "cinematic" movie, which says on its "brutal"
language, not only listening to the language of the writer" [Paperny, 1966, p.117].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
The polemic yearbook’s section included the debate about the comedy
genre. B. Medvedev (1920-1969) did not skimp on praise for the comedy of
K.Voinov (1918-1995) Bal'zaminov’s Marriage, admitting that his "dreampantomime conquered, drew courage director" [Medvedev, 1966, p. 95].
E. Kholodov (1915-1981) forcefully argued with him, regretting that "fine man
replaced by the movie theme of the little man" [Kholodov, 1966, p.97].
The satirical comedy 33 displeased Soviet cinema officials. But T.
Khloplyankina not afraid to speak out in defense of thes comedy: "This is a film
that is the first time in many years, does not hesitate to be a satire and does not
apologize for the fact that this is a satire. Negative characters in it much more than
positive… It is very sharp and angry film, but where and when satire've been
good? It is, finally, a film that boldly uses hyperbole, exaggeration, but where and
when the satire of rejected it?" [Khloplyankina, 1966, p.105].
She also highly appreciated the eccentric comedy of Leonid Gaidai (19231993) Operation ‘Y’: "Comedy seemed to be shook off the fatigue acquired during
the years sitting in a society uninteresting people. … It can revive old and show a
cascade of mind-blowing tricks, but it is oriented perfectly in modern interiors. It is
capable of equipping their goodies uncanny ease and ruthlessly confound negative,
but both of them did not seem to us conditional figures" [Khloplyankina 1966, p.
100].
Another well-known film critic G. Kremlev (1905-1975) was fully agree
with T. Khloplyankina: "In order to put the comedy, and even more so - the comic,
not enough to be a good director, you must have a special calling. But this is not
enough. It was necessary to have the quality of a religious fanatic, martyr. All these
qualities are happily combined in Leonid Gaidai" [Kremlev 1966, pp. 109-110].
V. Orlov devoted his article to comedies Give Me a Complaints Book and
Sleeping Lion, rightly arguing that "the everyday life presents new conflicts and
new clothes evil… But these comedies are still struggling with the cartoons in
gabardine raincoats" [Orlov 1966, p.114].
Articles of I. Lishchinsky and G. Kapralov (1921-2010) were about the film
by G. Kalatozov (1903-1973) and S. Urusevsky (1908-1974) I am Cuba. I.
Lishchinsky noted that "the camera in the hands of Urusevsky free and is animated.
She took from the operator of his impetuosity, his emotion, his impulse. The
viewer taken away immutable point of view of the observer. The camera leads him
along. Every second frame can enter something new and unexpected. The audience
watching the movie in the rhythm of the film. The audience must be active for the
movies of Kalatozov & Urusevsky" [Lishchinsky, 1966, p.80].
But the opinion of G. Kapralov was much more restrained: "I remember the
previous film of Mikhail Kalatozov and Sergey Urusevsky - Unsent Letter. The
criticism, polemics around the movie ultimately correct answer to the question why
such a remarkable direction with which we met in some episodes of this work, and
a brilliant cinematography, which marked virtually every frame, suddenly triggered
largely in vain: the film there was no real drama. And in the new Kalatozov &
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Urusevsky’ work we see the same error... It is very disappointing for me that I am
Cuba with all brilliant fireworks skill did not work in the artistic scale, which of it
was to be expected"[Kapralov, 1966, p.82, 84].
It seems that these two views are quite representative of the perception of I
am Cuba, not only for film critics but the ordinary audience: today this movie is
also controversial...
It is interesting today to read the discussion of the O. Efremov’s longforgotten drama Build Bridge. I. Levshina considered that "theater has come to the
cinema not for that, to show filmmakers how to make movies. The theater went to
the cinema to get a platform to express their beliefs, and brought with them a
culture of its theatrical thinking. With its artistic and civil credo, his method of
thinking, you can agree or disagree, but to ignore them you can not" [Levshina,
1966]. And this is more convincing opinion of B. Kardin: "I do not think that the
authors of the film Build Bridge consciously wanted to refurbish old plot... leaning
on life, they missed something in life" [лardin 1966, p.90].
The Screen 1965 published an interview with A. Tarkovsky (1932-1986) on
the set of Andrei Rublev. This film for several years has been put "on the shelf".
But this interview was possible in 1965...
Yaerbook published also the article about A. Konchalovsky's The First
Teacher. N. Lordkipanidze (1925-2014) wrote that it is "difficult due to the
complexity of the organic material. And sometimes deliberately hindered by virtue
of congestion symbolic imagery. ... It has all the luxuries debut, perseverance in
the "statement of self", coming from the fear of being trivial. But the film is serious
in the main. And it is indeed the new artist coming into the art" [Lordkipanidze
1966, p.137].
D. Pisarevsky’s assessment was basically positive about the drama Hello, It's
Me! By F. Dovlatyan (1927-1997): "Can be heard accusations of unreliability of
certain episodes. To some extent they are valid. But this is not important, because
the whole movie is a bold exploration of modern theme. It's real art. Truthful,
intelligent, emotional" [Pisarevsky, 1966, p.140].
And as usual, the Yearbook presents readers benevolent portraits of Russian
filmmakers: A. Volodin [Warsawsky, 1966, p.124-132], I. Lapikov [Zelenko,
1966, p. 56-58], V. Receptor [Kolesnikova, 1966, pp.144-145], and others.
Screen 1966-1967 (1967, put in a set in April 1967)
XXIII Congress of the Socien Communist Paty, held in March and April
1966, did not have a noticeable effect on the content of Screen 1966-1967: a time
when the yearbook will publish articles officious critics, interspersed with
quotations from the speeches at Communist party congresses, it was yet to come...
But an unprecedented event was in the life of Soviet critics in the late 1966:
forty of them were sent a questionnaire, which were asked to choose: the best
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Soviet film, director, cameraman, actress, actor in 1966 [Screen 1966-1967, pp. 1215].
Here is the list of these film critics: L. Anninsky, M. Augstkali, V.
Baskakov (1921-1999), T. Bachelis (1918-1999), L. Belova (1921-1986), M.
Bleyman (1904-1973), V. Bozhovich , I. Weissefeld (1909-2003), A. Vartanov, J.
Warsawsky (1911-2000), M. Zak (1929-2011), N. Zorkaya (1924-2006), N.
Ignatieva, A. Karaganov (1915 -2007), B. Kardin (1921-2008), G. Kapralov (19212010), N. Klado (1909-1990), N. Kovarsky (1904-1974), I. Kozenkranius, L.
Kopelev (1912-1997), I. Levshina (1932-2009), N. Lordkipanidze (1925-2014),
M. Maltsene (1924-2014), J. Markulan (1920-1978), A. Macheret (1896-1979), L.
Parfenov (1929-2004), D. Pisarevsky (1912-1990), L. Pogogeva (1913-1989), A.
Romitsyn, S. Rassadin (1935-2012), K. Rudnicky (1920-1988), I. Solovyova , D.
Teshabayev, K. Tsereteli, V. Shalunovsky (1918-1980), V. Shitova (1927-2002), I.
Schneiderman (1919-1991), S. Freilich (1920-2005), Y. Khanyutin (1929 -1978),
R. Yurenev (1912-2002).
For greater clarity, I counted the number of votes for each category and
identified by three films and filmmakers who have received the maximum number
of votes of forty critics in each category.
Table 1. Top films, directors, cameramen, actors and actresses in 1966,
according to critics of the Soviet *
Place in the
ranking
1
2
3
Place in the
ranking
1
2
3
Best film
Ordinary Fascism
Nobody Wanted to Die
The First Teacher
Best director
V. Žalakevičius
S. Yutkevich
A. Konchalovsky
Place in the
ranking
1
2
3
Best director of Photography
Place in the
ranking
1
2
3
Best actors
L. Paatashvili
J. Gricius
V. Derbenyov, D. Motorny
R. Bykov
I. Smoktunovsky
D. Banionis
The number of votes
of film critics
20
7
4
The number of votes
of film critics (%)
50,0
17,5
10,0
The number of votes
of film critics
9
9
8
The number of votes
of film critics (%)
22,5
22,5
20,0
The number of votes
of film critics
13
10
6
The number of votes
of film critics (%)
32,5
25,0
15,0
The number of votes
of film critics
14
11
8
The number of votes
of film critics (%)
35,0
27,5
20,0
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Place in the
ranking
1
2-3
Best actress
M. Bulgakova
N. Mordukova, I. Makarova,
L. Savelieva
The number of votes
of film critics
29
2
The number of votes
of film critics (%)
72,5
5,0
* some film critics as their favorites specify multiple movies and / or filmmakers.
Alas, this was only one interesting experiment without further
continuation… Apparently, someone "above" thought that the opinions of film
critics and film experts can very clearly be different from the preferences of the
authorities and the "choice of the masses"... And further questioning of Soviet film
critics were forbidden until the era of "perestroika", when in the second half of
1980 the newspaper Week dared to publish a table, where the leading film critics
exhibited "star" for movie current repertoire.
But the polemical Yearbook’s section still existed some years. And in the
Screen 1966-1967 film critics argued about the films Your Son and Brother by V.
Shukshin (1929-1974) and Long and Happy Life by G. Shpalikov (1937-1974).
L. Anninsky with his usual deep insight into film context wrote that
"cinema has revealed in the works of Shukshin deep moral theme running through
all that it does. Shukshin’s cinema has made clear to us the psychological and
stylistic opening pertaining to our general psychological condition" [Anninsky
1967, p. 102].
But this does not convince experienced polemicist N. Klado (1909-1990).
He cautiously admitted: "The world of the village depicted in this film, for me, is
terrible. After all, Vera is the brightest in the village. But she was silent. She can
not tell people. She did not want to hear" [Klado 1967, p.100].
I. Levshina’s article about the film Long and Happy Life was no less
controversial. This article began with a sudden sharp outburst against the very
popular lyrical comedy Walking the Streets of Moscow: "I do not like this film (by
director G. Danelia and screen writer G. Shpalikov. I do not like mainly due
Shpalikov, because of the fact that the playwright, making the demonstration of
his creative manner, and the film builds narcotic pagan sense of thoughtlessness as
the standard of happiness ... I feel closer to Shpalikov "Happy Life", because here
he grows up. He thinks in his manner, not giving a succinct breakdown. I support
the idea that the viewer is invited to think, and as often as possible" [Levshina
1967, p.111].
Well, film critic not only rejects the "cult" thaw masterpiece Walking the
Streets of Moscow, but also openly urged to think - filmmakers and the audience! I
suppose, such film critic passage is almost impossible in the Soviet press in the
1970s - the first half of 1980s...
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
J. Warsawsky argued I. Levshina, because he (as, indeed, many of the
Soviet viewers) frankly did not like “Antonioni’s style of Long and Happy Life:
"But if it's a comedy, why the screen is so boring? And because the ‘comedy of
errors’ occurred with the author. He did not understand that he wrote. And as a
director, introduced in the film boring gravitas. ... Imaginary poetic form are now
often penalized for shield contacts with the audience" [Warsawsky, 1967, p.110111].
M. Bleyman (1904-1973), in fact, completely joined Warsawsky’s opinion:
"Мery capable writer G. Shpalikov directed the film Long and Happy Life. This is
a story about how a person loses his happiness as he was afraid of it. This is a
simple story and simple, even an elementary idea. But he wore a surprisingly
meaningful form, in the form of an abstract, which lost for the living subjects of
our time, live data" [Bleyman 1967, p.168].
I. Lishchinsky actually continued Bleyman’s reasoning, choosing, however,
a different target - a film lyric Two by M. Bogin: "Simulation of modernity is not
the only function of cinema Art Nouveau. ... "Modern" style tasked to facilitate
people's lives, to heal the wounds. ... The drama is absorbed by the comfort of the
Riga cafes, light music and tasteful clothing" [Lishchinsky, 1967, p. 172].
Today Lishchinsky’s opinion seems the archaism of ‘socialist logic’: if a
love story has been shown not in a cozy European Riga, but somewhere in the
Russian provincial town, then, of course this story will be good...
Going from author cinema to cinema genre, the compilers of the Yearbook
once again turned to comedy. Here E. Bauman wrote that "movies with the duty
bureaucrats would not want to give his position on the screen. They immerse the
viewer in the atmosphere of his fictional life, they create their own, special world,
frozen in depressing immutability. And this artificially film comedies have bad
taste, vulgarity and feigned cheerfulness... Yes, stereotypes coming from the film
to film... They do not want to go and liberate places. And yet the breath of life
bursts into the comedy genre, destroying stamps, sweeping circuit. Proof of this is
talented, intelligent and funny comedy Adventures of a Dentist, 33, Beware of the
Car” [Bauman 1967, p.173, 175].
K. Shcherbakov wrote the article about the weaknesses of Soviet film
detectives. In particular, he correctly noted that Game Without a Draw, "has
foreign spies, which look too obviously foreigners and spies. Soviet colonel,
talking with his subordinates as if teaches classes at a school for disabled children.
... And execution of an innocent twist in the film is regarded as a moral failure,
which to treason at hand" [Shcherbakov, 1967, p.177].
At the same time, keeping in mind the relevant guidelines of Soviet Party
Resolutions, K. Shcherbakov not forget to link the arguments with ideological
struggle on the screen: "Of course, the tasks of Soviet detective and detective
bourgeois are fundamentally different. But why do we often put up with the fact
that the bourgeois detective better fulfills its objectives, than our, Soviet"
[Shcherbakov, 1967, p.176].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
In this regard, M. Bleyman thinking about stereotypes entertainment genres
highlighted "detectives in which incredibly insightful scouts can easily cope with
the incredibly clumsy spies, and comedy, in which the characters behave so
stupidly that is lost even a minimum standard of compliance to the real characters.
I will not list these movies. The fact that they are stereotypes, do not need to
explain. This can be seen with the naked eye. Stereotype helpful and offers turnkey
solutions, when the artist is not able to analyze the complex phenomenon of life.
Stereotype insinuating, he invades the work unnoticed, when the artist is not fully
aware of his purpose. Stereotype helpful and easily pretend to be art. ... But one
thing is clear: the basis of the stereotype is the laziness of the artist, the inability or
unwillingness to think about the vital phenomena that he describes and analyze"
[Bleyman 1967, pp.169-170]. N. Lordkipanidze (1925-2014): also wrote about
annoying clichés [Lordkipanidze 1967, c.181].
Many of the authors of the yearbook were unhappy and current adaptations
of Russian classics.
S. Rassadin (1935-2012) wriote with all critical rigor about comedy Uncle's
Dream by K.Voinov (1918-1995), because this is the simple vaudeville, but not
Dostoevsky’s world [Rassadin 1967, p.191].
And then the critic moved to, alas, then forbidden bitter satire Nasty
Anecdote by A. Alova (1923-1983) and V. Naumov: "The authors do not play with
the audience in the giveaway, their unexpected, inexhaustible, very talented means
of expression designed for learning. And the authors do not always take into
account the possibility of our perception. Even experienced. And we can not drink
the pure essence, and it would be desirable solution. Overloaded ... Film and
symbols are algebra art. This excessive algebraization pointedly, appealing to
reason rather than to the heart, leading to harsh rationalistic" [Rassadin, 1967,
p.192].
Analyzing The Tale of Tsar Saltan M. Dolinsky and S. Chertok noted with
regret that, "how far A. Ptushko’s film of tales by A. Pushkin. Pushkin’s
incompatible ease, swiftness of his verse, the perfect simplicity of shape, finally,
the logic of creative thinking are absolutely not suitable for heavy-handedness of
film design" [Dolinsky, Chertok, 1967, p. 208].
A. Dubrovin was very critical of the film adaptation of A Hero of Our Time
by S. Rostotsky (1922-2001): "This film there are shots under the naturalism and
‘modern’… As a result, the film disappeared Lermontov’s intelligence,
Lermontov’s pain, Lermontov’s depth" [Dubrovin 1967, p.203].
V. Ivanova (1937-2008) was dissatisfied with the screen adaptations of A.
Tolstoy’s Viper by V. Ivchenko (1912-1972) [Ivanova, 1967, p. 200]. Equally
negative she said about Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin by A. Ginzburg (19071972): "We saw an amazing meticulousness in his dull spectacle. ... Something
from A. Tolstoy's scathing sarcasm shone only in the final for a moment. Peeped
out and ... And in the hall light went on"[Ivanov, 1967, pp.199-200].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Unfortunately, V. Ivanova apparently did not notice the exquisite visual
solution of black and white of this film adaptation of Hyperboloid of Engineer
Garin (1965), made in the spirit of film noir: the play with light and shade line in
night scenes and contrasting extremes of black and white in the daytime scenes and
the use of wide-angle lens, unusual camera angles, etc. I believe that the director
A. Ginzburg, a former cameraman, deliberately put such a task before the talented
cameraman A. Rybin (1935-2016). The visual style of the film was also a
dynamic-nervous, the music is sometimes ironic. I think that the jury of the
International Festival of Fantasy Films in Trieste (1966) was primarily evaluated
these audiovisual solutions and originality and awarded the film A. Ginzburg main
prize...
G. Kapralov presented maybe the most positive article about current
adaptations of this time. Assessing the Daily Stars by I. Talankin, is based on the
diaries of O. Bergholz, G. Kapralov wrote: "I predict that the ratio of this film will
be contradictory. It has reticence and infringement of proportions. Comparison
with ‘open diary’ with the richness of his thought and association gives one more
reason for criticism. But I think the director, who is also the author of the script,
had a right to their reading of the book, its subject, and what he said, it is said with
piercing force" [Kapralov 1967, p.20].
Of course, analyzing the current repertoire, authors of Screen 1966-1967
could not get past the films lead the aforementioned film critics’ rating. Wings,
The First Teacher, Nobody Wanted to Die received a positive evaluations
[Warsawsky, 1967, p.24; Zinoviev, Markov, 1967, pp. 74-78; Pisarevsky, 1967,
pp. 66-68].
For example, J. Warsawsky, reflecting on the drama Wings, wrote: "Larisa
Shepitko came to an early mastery. Each frame of the film in its subordinate
thoughts, develops the idea. It reminds us that the art director is primarily a
thought..." [Warsawsky, 1967, p. 24].
Screen 1967-1968 (1968, put in a set in March 1968)
The Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On
measures for further development of the social sciences and enhance their role in
the building of communism" [Resolution..., 1967] full of standard phrases about
the need to "increase" and "strengthen"... But pathetic celebration of the 50th
anniversary of the 1917 revolution was the most important political event in the
USSR preceding the release of Screen 1967-1968.
Yearbook Screen 1967-1968 was put in a set in March 1968, i.e. a few
months before the August invasion of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia. But the
"Prague Spring" is already in full flourish democratic hopes... And these hopes, I
think, were the key to change the structure of the yearbook. Rigid administrative
arm discarded any film critics’ ratings, but gave way for ideologized materials.
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
For example, D. Pisarevsky stacked enthusiastic ode to the restored version
of the film October (1927): "No, this film is not old, not lost the explosive power
of this revolutionary art fiery epic! ... October sings the glory of victorious
working class people and Leninist party" [Pisarevsky, 1968, pp.19-20]. And then
D. Pisarevsky snobbish glorified "panorama of national heroism" in the "historical
and revolutionary" film Iron Stream by E. Dzigan (1998-1981) [Pisarevsky, 1968,
p. 23].
Jubilee Yearbook, of course, could not pass films about Lenin. V. Baskakov
highlighted the "talent embodied the image of the genius of the revolution"
[Baskakov, 1968, p.72] in the film Lenin in Poland by S. Yutkevich (1904-1985).
But in general, the compilers of the Yearbook still managed to keep film
studies level and published, for example, of two wonderful articles of L. Anninsky.
In his review of the film G. Poloka (1930-2014) "The Republic of SHKID"
L. Anninsky accurately wrote that "the theme of the film - Chekhov's hero, a man
of the XIX century, an intellectual and humanist, caught in a situation of Sodom
and Gomorrah. ... Old-fashioned competition, defenseless Culture with a young
and ingenuous naivete takes ruthless nature of mutual mystification "[Anninsky,
1968, p.55].
L. Anninsky wrote a significant article about M. Khutsiev’s masterpiece
July Rain. The critic asked a very sharp at the time the question: "M. Khutsiev
listen to the rhythm of the modern soul at the decisive moment of choice. The artist
talks about spiritual culture, trust, humanity. … In essence, Khutsiev continues
the meditation, which was first performed in the movie I am 20 years old. But
now with a little more alert. Why?" [Anninsky, 1968, p.34].
L. Anninsky, of course, could not to answer this question directly,
indicating director’s feeling of ‘thaw’s collapse, for censorship reasons. Therefore,
instead of a direct answer last sentence of Anninsky’s review was truly a model of
allegory [Anninsky, 1968, p. 34]...
S. Freilich (1920-2005) published a positive review about Your
Contemporary by Y. Raisman (1903-1994): "This film it is a real battle, opponents
do not play in the giveaway, there are broken destinies of people" [Freilich, 1968,
p. 14].
Yearbook continued support of poetic cinema. I. Lishchinsky wrote about
Umbrella by M. Kobakhidze that "the Georgian cinema is rich in young talent. In
this ensemble M. Kobakhidze has original voice and its own melody: mocking,
ironic, a little sad, but it is clearly distinguishable, and it is necessary to listen"
[Lishchinsky, 1968, p. 63]. N. Lordkipanidze generally supported the poetic debut
of E. Ishmuhamedov - Tenderness: "The picture is made with obvious, undisguised
focus on people susceptible - and mentally, and artistically. If this susceptibility is
not, you probably will be bored" [Lordkipanidze, 1968, p.61].
M. Bleyman’s article about an eccentric in a movie (Beware of the Car,
Operation ‘Y’," Prisoner of the Caucasus, 33) [Bleyman 1967, p. 80-82] looks
boring and banal today. But the article by Revich (1929-1997) on the fantasy genre
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
[Revich 1967, p. 82-86], in my opinion, has not lost a polemical fervor.
Box office champion and audience favorite, Amphibian Man by G. Kazansky
(1910-1983) and V. Chebotarev (1921-2010) was the first critic’s object for attack:
"What about a A. Belyaev’s novel? This is about tragedy of disillusionment in the
society of businessmen and shopkeepers. What are the ideas of the film? Political
kept to a depressing straightness, and the art became a melodramatic love triangle
and tasteless Ichthyander-Tarzan walks on the roofs" [Revich 1968, p.83].
Here it is the typical anti-genre approach of ideologically socialist
orientated critics, when Soviet criticism demanded a class-political conclusions
from exotic folk and fairy tales, mixed with the bright melodramatic stories. As D.
Gorelov correctly noted that Amphibian Man became "the first post-Stalin era
super-blockbuster. ... A competent producer could see that ocean of gold ... But
Chebotarev & Kazansky were in the wild, ugly, ruthless world of freedom, equality
and fraternity, where financial profit meant nothing... Critics scolded them for their
lightness and attraction... Soviet Screen Journal for the first time blatantly falsified
the results of the annual reader's opinions, giving primacy gray and long since dead
drama ..." [Gorelov, 2001].
V. Revich addressed all the same working class and political reproach to
Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin by A. Ginzburg: "the novels’s most powerful
scientific, and social aspect is the mechanics of bourgeois relations, speculation,
capitalist economy and morality. But the social side completely dropped out of the
detective movie" [Revich, 1968, p.83].
V. Revich buckled the theme of the ideological confrontation with the West
and in the article about the film Mysterious Wall because "the faith in the
possibility of contact between all sentient beings is opposed to the concept of
fashion in the West disunity people and spiritual isolation of man" [Revich 1968,
p.84].
Film critic A. Svobodin (1922-1999) positive appreciated the adaptation of
Leo Tolstoy's novel Anna Karenina directed by A. Zarkhi (1908-1997) [Svobodin,
1968, p.40].
The remaining number of pages of the yearbook, as always, took portraits of
filmmakers: N. Mikhalkov [Zinoviev, Markov, 1968, p. 64-66] O. Iosseliani
[Dolinsky, Chertok, 1968, p.41-45], S. Ursky, A. Batalov, P. Aleynikov, D.
Banionis, T. Doronina, R. Bykov [Levshina 1968, p. 76-79].
Screen 1968-1969 (1969, put in a set in February 1969)
A secret resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On
increasing the responsibility of the heads of the press, radio and television, film,
culture and art institutions for the ideological and political level of the published
materials and repertoire" [Resolution ..., 1969] was adopted in response to the
liberal events of the "Prague Spring": "Print workers, writers and artists must have
more acute class and party positions to oppose all manifestations of bourgeois
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
ideology, they must actively and efficiently promote communist ideals, the
advantages of socialism, the Soviet way of life, deeply analyze and expose the
different kind of petty-bourgeois and revisionist currents. Meanwhile, some
authors, and directors depart from the class criteria in assessing and highlighting
the complex social and political problems, facts and events, and sometimes become
carriers of the views that are alien to the ideology of socialist society. Attempts
have been made unilaterally, subjectively evaluate the important periods of the
history of the party and the state...
Some managers of publishing houses, press agencies, radio, television,
institutions of culture and art do not take appropriate measures to prevent the
publication of a false ideological works, do not work well with the authors, show
flexibility and political unscrupulousness in matters of publication ideologically
perverse material. ... The soviet Communist Party Central Committee considers it
necessary to stress the special responsibility of the heads of organizations and
departments and editorial teams for the ideological orientation" [Resolution…,
1969].
Yearbook Screen 1968-1969 was put into set in February 1969, a month
after this decision, and six months after the Soviet invasion in Czechoslovakia.
Therefore, the books’ compilers just had to take into account the current political
situation. However, they still managed broad panorama the most striking
phenomena of the national film industry.
The tighter censorship on the pages of the yearbook, of course, remain. For
example, in the section Close-up [Screen 1968-1969, pp. 91-93] were initially
placed reflections A. Konchalovsky about his film Asya’s Happiness. But then,
apparently due to pressure from "above" and shelf destiny of this movie, this text
have been replaced by an article about actress A. Demidova. The film Asya’s
Happiness initially [Screen 1968-1969, p. 110-115] was in the discussion chapter
Controversy, but later this material was sealed the black stars in the table of
contents [Screen 1968-1969, p. 317] and replaced by the discussion about the film
Running on Waves by P. Lyubimov (1938-2010).
It is clear there was no way to avoid ideological pathos in the yearbook. The
book once again reminded to readers that Mother by V. Pudovkin “brought to the
cinema powerful influence of socialist realism, merged the power of images
Gorky's prose with the realistic performance of the actors, the highest
achievements of film culture" [Pisarevsky 1969, p.19], and The Sixth of July is a
major new step in the development of the Leninist theme. ... This victory is all the
more important that the last time there were many films and performances, where
most topics in the result only untalented performance compromise. The Sixth of
July is not just a historical picture. It is living our present time. And today's
struggle for communism requires reflection attacks rr-revolutionary demagogues,
for the sake of playing phrases left the fate of nations" [Freilich, 1969, p.63].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
On the other hand, only a few months left before the super-officious
journals Communist and Ogoniok published sharply accusatory articles about The
Sixth of July by M. Shatrov (1932 - 2010), and J. Karasik (1923-2015)
The Sixth of July was clearly on the side of "socialism with a human face."
And the conservative Ogoniok wrote: "We are convinced that the film The Sixth of
July does not serve the education of viewers. … Historical truth is not on the side
of film's authors. … This film violated historical truth: the main focus is not on
Lenin’s activity, but on the Left Socialist-Revolutionary rebellion, and their leader
M. Spiridonova. We believe that the film The Sixth of July does not deserve Lenin
Prize" [Savinchenko, Shirokov, 1970, p.25]
But the Screen 1968-1969 supported not only The Sixth of July, but also a
much more daring movie No Path Through Fire by G. Panfilov unvarnished spoke
about civil war ruthlessly divided the nation into "red" and "white". This film "is a
strong, very strong, and most importantly - this film is very impressive"
[Rakhmanov, 1969, p.64].
T. Khloplyankina wrote on other notable film about civil background –
There Were Two Comrades (writers Y. Dunsky and V. Fried, director E. Karelin)
also very warmly. However the author did not say anything about a bitter essence
of this wonderful film, practically openly speaking against the fratricidal civil
war…
The analysis of films on "historical and revolutionary themes" (Mysterious
Monk, Emergency Order, The First Courier, Nikolay Bauman, The Seventh
Companion, There Were Two Comrades, The Sixth of July) in the article by A.
Vartanov [Vartanov, 1969, pp. 134-138] was given in traditional for this time style.
Screen 1968-1969 was able to afford to support again the Ukrainian poetic
cinema, this time - Evening on the eve Midsummer by Y. Ilienko (1936-2010):
"This is the scope of the director's fancy - fancy, inventive in each frame. … large,
generous, sophisticated. ... The strong temperament of the master, even involuntary
and unavoidable mistakes he has in many cases can be converted into victory,
turned into discoveries" [Drach, 1969, p.88].
Yearbook’s polemic section this time was devoted to films Women Power
by Y. Nagibin (1920-1994) and A. Saltykov (1934-1993), The Golden Calf by M.
Schweitzer (1920-2000), and (instead of Asya’s Happiness) Running on Waves by
P. Lyubimov.
After seeing Women Power, K. Shcherbakov come to the harsh conclusion:
"Given an order to tell about the hard fate of the female, to portray life as it is,
without fear of its cruel side, the authors, it seems to me, not imagined what
outcome they want to extract. And artistically unselected, unthought
conglomeration of naturalistic, difficult-to-eye episodes begins to avenge himself,
turns the moral unscrupulousness and deafness, leads to a distortion of what we are
accustomed to understand by the words "popular character" [Shcherbakov, 1969, p.
99].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
N. Ilyina argued with K. Shcherbakov, insisting that the artistic quality of
this film is quite high: "Naturalism? Some people say this about the film. … But if
you hold the primordial meaning of the word, referring to "naturalism" rough and
mechanical copying from nature, the work that is touching and shocking, can not
be called naturalistic. ... The film Women Power has advantages and
disadvantages. But one thing it is not - the indifference and lethargy" [Ilyina, 1969
pp. 103-104].
B. Galanov (1914-2000), of course, could not yet assume that the sad
comedy of M. Schweitzer The Golden Calf deservedly become a kind of Russian
"cult film" of our day, and, I think, did not understand the depth of this brilliant
movie. Therefore B. Galanov complained that (unlike the eponymous book of I. Ilf
and E. Petrov) "the laughter, if not completely disappeared, but turned slightly to
drama on the screen. And Ostap Bender himself as the face of a dramatic, gained
some importance. ... Whether or not whether to submit the rogue as a "great
strategist" intellectual, a man with the eternal sad eyes?" [Galanov 1969, p.105].
In this context, M. Dolinsky & S. Chertok gave clear and reasoned response
to B. Galanov: The Golden Calf presented "Bender outstanding, talented person
who is at odds with the times and have chosen this path, can be as just because of
this disorder. ... Crashing superior man. Is this funny? And M. Schweitzer rights,
which, by sacrificing some fun stakes, giving up many winning situations, created
the film, not only equipped with wit, but also imbued with sadness" [Dolinsky,
Chertok, 1969, p.109].
Literary critic V. Turbin (1927-1993) was unhappy with the adaptation of
A. Green’s novel Running on Waves. He insisted that "Green’s novel is easy, laidback, and the film is heavy, full of massive suggestiveness" [Turbin, 1969, pp.110111]. However Y. Khanyutin (1929-1978) was on the side of the authors of this
film: "Much of the script and the film was not so, as in Green’s novel, but, I think,
more interesting ... In short, a tragedy has already unfulfilled in the film has turned
out sharper than the happiness of searches that can still happen" [Khanyutin, 1969,
pp. 113-115].
M. Bleyman’s article also was dedicated to film adaptations. The film critic
thought that the "creative challenge for adaptation is to find stylistic originality
means to realize other art on the screen" [Bleyman, 1969, p. 147].
And A. Macheret (1996-1979), basically agreeing with M. Bleyman, came
to the conclusion that I. Pyrev managed to adequately approach to the novel The
Brothers Karamazov: "Pyrev’s personal creative features properties of artistic
talent found in the film adaptation of the great Dostoyevsky's most fertile, mate
them to the basis for its higher manifestations" [Macheret, 1969, p. 150].
I. Levshina wrote consistently negative review on the adaptation of the play
by E. Radzinsky 104 pages about love. She very convincingly argued that "artistic
and moral potential of the film Once Again About Love and remained at the level
of everyday history. The huge box-office success does not prevent this film
become for us an example of failure in art. ... The reasons for the failure of the
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
film are the complete absence of at least some independent thought, at least some
of the image, at least some of the director's attempts, cinematic reading of the play"
[Levshina, 1969, pp.148-149].
Specialist in the analysis of science fiction and adventure, V. Revich this
time published an article about the spy cinema: "The main complaint, which is
usually presented "detective" movies, is that the frantic pace of the action, the rapid
twists, in which captures the spirit of the audience, press down psychology,
characters, images. And if the hero can do to show individuality in such
conditions? I must admit that, perhaps, no other kind of film genre not put his
character in such a rigid framework. Most of the time he is in exceptional
psychological situation - on a knife edge. Of course, the story sharpness about the
man who all the time is under threat of death is very essential aspect of the film,
but the sharpness is worth nothing if we can not see the interesting character. ...
The human image creation on such a narrow space surround is always difficult
artistic task, and the list of failures is much higher than the premium sheet"
[Revich 1969, p.140].
V. Revich wrote in this context about extremely popular at that time
adventure war film Shield and Sword: "The authors often put their characters in a
situation clearly implausible. Hard to believe that Soviet aircraft could have easily
landed and take off in wartime Germany, and underground groups, in broad
daylight, could have grab the train and prison" [Revich, 1969, p.141].
As always, a large number of pages of the yearbook was dedicated to the
topic of contemporary cinema. And here it is possible to note a positive review N.
Lordkipanidze devoted to the analysis of one of the most acute social Soviet films Three Days of Victor Chernyshev (writer E. Grigoriev, director M. Osepyan). Of
course, this article is not touch to the serious social generalizations relating to
talented critical interpretation of the image “representative of the working class”.
N. Lordkipanidze dared only to write that "passivity is the main thing that will not
accept the authors in his character; passive attitude towards certain phenomena of
reality" [Lordkipanidze, 1969, p.85], but she did not go farther inland (most likely,
for censorship reasons)...
J. Warsawsky wrote his review of the school drama We'll Live Till Monday
(screenwriter G. Polonsky, director S. Rostotsky) in a similar spirit. The film
earned a warm assessment, but without any attention to all the possible sharp edges
of Soviet school problems...
L. Anninsky, I think, revealed the creative concept of Triangle by G. Malyan
(1925-1988) more deeply and convincingly, stressing that "the essence of the film
is not in the traditional life, but in the sense of the uniqueness of the life, its
irreplaceable uniqueness" [Anninsky, 1969, p.81].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Screen 1969-1970 (1970, put in a set in March 1970)
This Yearbook was released in the year a centenary "leader of world
proletariat" V.I. Lenin, therefore, the first forty pages of text were filled with a
collection of most tedious officious materials dedicated to this date.
But after that Yearbook returned to the usual format: deservedly praised
poetic melodrama Lovers by I. Ishmuhamedov [Kazakova, 1970, p.44] and sad
comedy Do not worry! by G. Danelia [Lipkov, 1970, p. 46-49]. In particular, A.
Lipkov (1936-2007) claimed with good reason that "it is the same Danelia, who
knows how to treat his characters with a smile, to forgive their weaknesses, admire
their merits, in short, who knows how to love their heroes and infect his love of the
audience. Properties of the artist's talent has always embodied that it creates. In the
film Do not worry! We can see the main feature of the authors: generosity"
[Lipkov, 1970, p.46].
Critics praised the film adaptation of novels of Chingiz Aitmatov (19282008). A. Zorky (1935-2006), analyzing the film Running Pacer by S. Urusevsky,
answered for this question: "How still relate to each other and the film and story of
Chingiz Aitmatov? So, as the lyric poem may be related to the social novel. A
lyrical poem written by the hand of a talented like-minded" [Zorky, 1970, p. 55].
A. Troshin (1942-2008) was very positive to the movie Jamila by M.
Poplavskaya (1924-2012): "Sincerity tone is one of the qualities of Aitmatov's
prose, which the film adaptation found in of cinematic equivalent" [Troshin, 1970,
p. 58].
D. Pisarevsky wrote good review about the best L. Gaidai (1923-1993)
comedy Diamond Hand: “genre fusion experiment was a success. Color and
widescreen movie is action and entertaining, funny and ironic. ... The film is fun,
mischievously, in a rapid pace with literally staggering cascades of plot surprises"
[Pisarevsky, 1970, p.58].
But Yearbook struck suddenly (as we recall, earlier Screen positively
evaluated of poetic genre) on the poetic parable Eastern Corridor by V.
Vinogradov (1933-2011). The article of T. Ivanova was not written specifically for
the Yearbook, but reprinted from the December issue of the magazine Soviet
Screen [Ivanova, 1969]. Therefore, T. Ivanova, in my opinion, was rhe first Soviet
film critic who wrote the harsh criticism about poetic parable cinema. However, I
do not think that T. Ivanova wrote an article under the direct influence of some
censorship "decisions" and "valuable suggestions". But cinema authority skillfully
used this article (as M. Bleyman’s article) for their own censorship’s purposes.
T. Ivanova claimed that the "difficulty", "incomprehensible" film language,
widely used, is the quality seemed to be self-valuable, "necessary" a sign of good
cinematic tone. And Eastern Corridor it seems almost standard in this regard. ...
From the very beginning of this film V. Vinogradov introduces the viewer to a
special circle in a special atmosphere. The authors make every effort not only
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
exacerbate, but also complicate the subject, action, conflict… Eastern Corridor is
one of those movies, after watching that there is a need to look into the abstract: to
understand the sequence of events, just to find out what's what. As if some simple
picture is cut into many pieces, large and small, carefully mixed, shaken and put a
new curlicue puzzle. This is the general compositional structure and is the same
solution, even a purely visual, every single episode. … The puzzle in the puzzle,
… the cruel mixture of naturalism and graphic sophistication prevails on the
screen. … This if abundance of cruel effects and extravagant entourage. This if
sophisticated operator skill. All taken together this is aestheticization naturalism.
But there is and the ethical aspect. It seems that people are acting in this film live
in a unique country and terrible world, swept away by their feelings, strung up,
crushed, they themselves hysterically and tragically exalted. And there comes a
time when pumped emotional temperature of the film begins to give birth to a
protest" [Ivanova, 1970, p. 93-94].
I think this piece of article strongly suggests that T. Ivanova did not
understand the essence of vivid imagery this outstanding film-parable. In my
opinion, cinemateque quotes (early motifs from films of A. Wajda and M. Jancso,
andthe Czech "new wave") organically entered in the film of V. Vinogradov. Plus
philosophical, religious and visual originality of this movie (more about Eastern
Corridor you can read in the articles: Gershezon, 2011, pp. 136-144; Fedorov,
2011, pp. 110-116)...
By the way, the negative reaction of the Soviet critics of Vinogradov’s film
and many famous movies of the Czech "New Wave" of the 1960s on the war topic
was very similar. For example, S. Komarov wrote about Diamonds of the Night
(1964) by Czech director J. Nemec: "Surreal world of Kafka is embodied with a
more impressive force. Operators J. Kucera and M. Ondrzhichek invested in this
work an important contribution. … This film won wide acclaim from critics of the
capitalist countries, and a number of awards at international festivals, but there
crush sober voice, expressing his surprise at the creation of the film in one of the
socialist countries" [Komarov, 1974, p. 62].
Against this background, it is surprising that the Eastern Corridor still came
out (albeit briefly) in the Soviet cinemas...
But back to T. Ivanova’s article. Having finished with the Eastern Corridor,
she moved to the poetic parables of Y. Ilienko (Evening on the eve of Ivan Kupala)
and T. Abuladze (Prayer): "The need to be understood, inherent in every person,
especially for an artist. … It is difficult to make "difficult" films. And Prayer and
Evening on the eve of Ivan Kupala preserve traces of the difficult art of searching
and overcoming. But one thing seems to have been abandoned by the authors
neglected: searches for clarity” [Ivanova, 1970, p.95].
Perhaps T. Ivanova’s article was one of the most polemical sharp in the
Screen yearbooks’ history. Other materials of Screen 1969-1970 were much more
ordinary...
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Screen 1970-1971 (1971, put in a set in February 1971)
In 1970, the USSR was celebrated not only the 100th anniversary of V.I.
Lenin, but also the 25th anniversary of victory over Nazi Germany. Hence it is
clear that this yearbook published many articles on the military film topic. For
example, V. Fomin did not stint on the praise for the remarkable film It was the
month of May by M. Khutsiev: "This film, organically combining in-depth with
the scale of the image is psychological, modest grounded narrative style with an
open and emotional pathos" [Fomin, 1971, p.27].
Several articles were devoted to the films about the Civil War. Here Y.
Warsawsky initially quite reasonably wrote that "the civil war is main topic a lot of
movies. But these films often written and directed as adventurous. Reds…
Whites… What decides the victory in such films? Who will outwit. Who shoots
better, faster rides on horseback. ... and then the dramatic events of the civil war
turned only amusing adventure" [Warsawsky, 1971, p.92].
But then the critic, alas, went on to openly communist propaganda: "Lenin
wrote on the festive energy revolution! ... There are new generations of viewers,
they should see a revolution on the screen and emotionally survive, like
commissars: wise, pure, honest, fai" [Warsawsky, 1971, p. 92].
A. Karaganov (1915-2007), a very influential at that time film critic, wrote
the article devoted to one of the most remarkable films about the civil war - Run by
A. Alov and V. Naumov. He stressed that "movie camera "sees" Russian
landscapes through the eyes not only of those who are fighting for a new life, but
also those who are in love with the old life, fighting for it" [Karaganov, 1971, p.
60].
But then (like J. Warsawsky) A. Karaganov followed by communist
ideologically passage: "In many of the current foreign films corruption of human
characters are portrayed as a process and as a state that expresses the total human
defeat, his eternal depravity, a fatal inability to live like human beings. But
dehumanization of man stands concretely and historically and socially in Run. The
characters are exposed deformation caused by violation of organic links with their
homeland, butchery against the people, the service for historically unrighteous
case" [Karaganov, 1971, p.62].
The yearbook positively evaluated and other famous film on the topic of
civil war - The adjutant of his excellency. V. Revich wrote about the innovative
approach of the authors to the image of the White Guard General: "Kovalevsky is
far from the popular image of "Whites". He is smart, intelligent, gentle and kind,
even to the extent possible for the military" [Revich 1971, p.104].
... Red spy Koltsov, intelligent and clever, at the White Guard General
Kovalevsky. The psychological duel between Koltsov and General Kovalevsky
also the smartest and intelligent... This situation was unusual story for the
audience, educated Chapayev, where Whites (or their sympathizers) was the cruel
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
enemies... Of course, The adjutant of his excellency (directed by E. Tashkov)
primarily attracted detective intrigue. But having a partner-opponent such as
General Kovalevsky, Koltsov, undoubtedly gaining extra points at a mass
audience. General was imposing, impressive, clever, ironic. I would say more,
Kovalevsky even then, at the end of 1960, aroused sympathy and empathy.
A. Lipkov also gave the positive opinion for another film about civil war The White Sun of the Desert by V. Motyl: "The history of real events - revolution,
civil war in Central Asia - represent only the background of the events, they left
behind the scenes, but the narrative and fiction triumphs of this film is good ironic
comedy” [Lipkov, 1971, p. 94].
As usual, the yearbook analyzed the most notable movies. For example, the
film Crime and Punishment by L. Kulidzhanov (1923-2002): "The director read F.
Dostoevsky’s novel seriously, quietly, carefully. ... Read without any attempts to
modernize the problems... This is a talented, serious and deep film. ... Maybe the
director and the actors let something controversial, but highly interesting"
[Pogozheva 1971, p.78, 83].
A. Lipkov was stressed the originality of King Lear by G. Kozintsev: "This
film is not trying to improve Shakespeare, retouch the world of his tragedy. The
director is faithful and does not fit into any canonical frameworks" [Lipkov, 1971,
p. 64].
Ther biographical drama Tchaikovsky received a more critical assessment,
although the film critic noted at the same time that "I. Talankin in the best scenes
of the film showed the taste and skill of the director" [Ryzhov, 1971, p. 90].
The Beginning by G. Panfilov earned the highest praise (and absolutely
deserved) between the films on contemporary topics: "Reading the press on The
Beginning, you see that 99 percent of it consists of admirable actor’s work I.
Chourikova. You may think that The Beginning it is just Churikova. But with all
our surprise the brilliant performance of this extraordinary actress, The Beginning
is primarily G. Panfilov" [Sobolev, 1971, p.72]. Y. Khanutin and A. Troshin also
wote about the mastery and talent of G. Panfilov and I. Churikova [Khanyutin,
1971, pp. 116-122; Troshin, 1971, pp. 75-77].
Another very acute at the time of 1960s was the crime drama Accused of
Murder by B. Volchek (1905-1974). And Yearbook published very impornent
conclusion: "This film is strongly convinces us that man, trampling the rights of
others, to humiliate him, not reveres his dignity, condemns himself to an animal
existence, deprives himself of the right to be called a man" [Ostrovsky, 1971,
p.87].
The detailed article of A. Vartanov was devoted to television language
[Vartanov, 1971, pp. 128-134].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Screen 1971-1972 (1972, put in a set in March 1972)
The most influential actions of these times were The XXIV Soviet
Communist Party Congress (1971) and the year of the 50th anniversary of the
USSR. And new censorship requirements in relation to the Soviet film and
literature press were in the new Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central
Committee On Literary Criticism (January 21, 1972), which was in unison with
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee "On increasing the
responsibility of the heads of the press, radio and television, film, culture and art
institutions for the ideological and political level of the published materials and
repertoire" [Resolution..., 1969].
This is the significal part of this new Resolution: "The state of the criticism
has not yet fully meet the requirements, which are determined by the increasing
role of artistic culture in communist construction. ... Soviet critics sometimes
published materials, which gives the wrong picture of the history of Soviet and
pre-revolutionary art... Criticism is still not active and consistent in approving
revolutionary, humanistic ideals of the art of socialist realism, in exposing the
reactionary nature of the bourgeois "mass culture" and decadent currents in dealing
with various kinds of non-Marxist views on literature and art, revisionist aesthetic
concepts. ... The duty of criticism is deeply analyze the phenomenon, trends and
patterns of contemporary artistic process, and to help strengthen the Leninist
principles of party and nation, to fight for a high ideological and aesthetic level in
Soviet art, consistently oppose bourgeois ideology. Literary and art criticism is
intended to contribute to the expansion of the ideological outlook of the artist and
the improvement of his skills. Building on the tradition of Marxist-Leninist
aesthetics, Soviet literary and art criticism must combine precision ideological
evaluations, depth social analysis aesthetically exacting, careful attitude to the
talent to be fruitful creative research"[Resolution ..., 1972].
Of course, the Yearbook could not ignore these guiding instructions.
However, the Screen 1971-1972 was set in March 1972, that is only a few months
after the publication On Literary Criticism and, therefore, essentially composed in
1971. Hence it is clear that a polemical column survived (although the last time in
the pre-perestroika era), and in the ratio of pages’ number allocated for materials
about the Soviet and foreign films, the latter percentage was "seditious" (but also
the last time) is overvalued (47% articles about foreign films vs. 44% articles about
soviet films).
However, crowded of propaganda and ideological cliches A. Karaganov’s
article under the eloquent title Responsibility of criticism was real respond to
Comminist Paty Resolution: "The good film critic review, actively and skillfully
conducting the Party's line, it may be an effective means not only aesthetic, but
also the political education of the working people, a powerful weapon of
ideological struggle; Party purposeful, smart, aesthetically soulful conversation
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
about the film helps a person to know better, deeper understanding of art, life,
politics, helps the formation of communist convictions, the education culture of
feelings and thoughts. ... Criticism is designed to consistently assert the Leninist
principles of party and nation, determining the direction of cinematography
socialist realism. … It is impossible not to see that our film critic has not yet risen
to the level of the tasks dictated by modernity. The press still often publish articles
about movies that lack of party principles, the class approach to the realities of art
and life, combat offensive spirit in the fight against a hostile ideology and its
influence. ... Our film critic insufficiently active in the fight against the ideological
and artistic marriage" [Karaganov, 1972, pp. 92-93].
Overall, however, the inertia of the publishing industry has affected the
Screen 1971-1972 positive content. Moreover, V. Fomin’s courageous article The
sublime and the earthly, in fact, opposed the official criticism hounding a poetic
parable and cinema. V. Fomin wrote: "Movies of Parajanov, Abuladze, Ilienko,
Mansurov in its stylistic decision defiantly opposed the the usual rate, polemically
rejected the authenticity of aesthetics. The expressive figurative form openly stands
out sharply at in these films with lush and sophisticated system of imagery, lyrical
and romantic actions" [Fomin, 1972, p.98].
Contrary to the Resolution's wishes "to support movies about the working
class", V. Revich, criticized the "working class" movies Night Shift, Anthracite,
Cool Horizon, remarking that "the filmmakers would be very easy live if the
seriousness of the plan could at least to some extent compensate for the weakness
of films" [Revich, 1972, pp. 85-86].
Film critics argued in the polemical section about the comedy 12 Chairs by
L. Gaidai and melodrama About Love by M. Bogin.
V. Shitova severely (and, I think, too harshly) summarized that "colorful
film directed by Leonid Gaidai is none other than the dummy's novel. That is to
say, a body without a soul. … And as a result of film 12 Chairs as a spectacle
sluggish, and sometimes simply boring" [Shitova, 1972, pp. 70-71]. But G.
Kozhukhova insisted that "Gaidai is the master of eccentric and entertaining
comedy" [Kozhukhova, 1972, p.73].
Speaking about the film About Love, T. Khloplyankina generally very
warmly reacted to this exquisitely lyrical works with latent intonation of "moral
anxiety": "May be this line expressed not as loud as it should be: the author does
not burst, no anger, no pain, but only a certain melancholy. That is why the film
has several monophonic melody, reminiscent of the sad motif consisting of a repeat
of the same musical phrase. But it is not false. … And, really, we need to listen to
this music..." [Khloplyankina, 1972, p.77].
But A. Zorky, in my opinion, was not able to penetrate into the fine M.
Bogin’s poetic watercolors: "Man in the elegant environment… It is still a symbol,
not transported in life" [Zorky, 1972, p.79].
An article E. Gromov (1931-2005) was devoted to personal aspect in
modern topic on the screen: The Beginning and Near the Lake "is touched a very
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
important topic, which is in the air. This is the theme of emotional wealth of
personality, intellectualism and rationalism in an age of rapid scientific and
technological progress" [Gromov, 1972, p.88]. But in the Young By N.
Moskalenko (1926-1974) is example of a "characters’ depersonalization. None of
them, not only is not a person, but not even it tends to become" [Gromov, 1972, p.
91].
Unfortunately, E. Gromov unable to appreciate the artistic level of Urban
Romance by P. Todorovsky (1925-2013): "The director P. Todorovsky and
screenwriter F. Mironer groped acute actual conflict situation. But, alas, the ore did
not turn into metal. Drama turned into a melodrama" [Gromov, 1972, p.89].
The section devoted to adaptations presents Carousel by M. Schweitzer,
Uncle Vanya by A. Konchalovsky and The Seagull by Y. Karasik.
A. Lipkov wrote that sad comedy Carousel built "easily and gracefully,
exactly freely addressing ironic stylisation, parody, cartoon extravaganza,
grotesque. But this rainbow heap husked comedy arsenal at the viewer from the
first frame appears and starts louder sound painfully poignant note" [Lipkov, 1972,
p. 37]. And then he the bright and vividly spoke about the film adaptation of the
play Uncle Vanya: "Konchalovsky reads Chekhov not only as a thin and quivering
lyricism, not as sad contemplative human ills, and certainly not as a chronicler.
Chekhov for his tragic artist, furious, desperate diseases tormented century. Heroes
of Uncle Vanya inflamed unquenchable thirst for love, complicity, big present
case" [Lipkov, 1972, p. 44]. The Seagull by Yuri Karasik was fairly valued much
lower [Borodin, 1972, p. 45-46].
Chief editor of Soviet Screen D. Pisarevsky shared with readers arguments
(and now not lost its relevance) about the results of the traditional competition in
which the readers of the magazine evaluated the films of the year: "Movement of
films and spectators to each other is a complex and dialectic process. And may
increase the aesthetic tastes of the audience, pulling backward to the advanced
level (and those, in turn, to a new, higher level), contributes to the real study of the
audience and the entire system of educational work with the mass audience. It will
be a school, and film club, and the mass cinema. But first and foremost, of course,
by the works of film art" [Pisarevsky, 1972, p.103].
The authors of the yearbook also wrote positive articles about the films
Attention, Turtle! [Levshina, 1972, pp. 36-38], The End of Ataman [Sulkin 1972,
pp. 28-32], We and Our Mountains [Vartanov, 1972, pp. 47-49].
Screen 1973-1974 (1975, put in a set in February 1974)
This Yearbook was the last compiler’s work of S. Chertok. Then the cinema
bosses apparently decided that his editorial policy to take a significant conflict with
the Resolution of Soviet Communist Pary Central Committee On Literary
Criticism (1972) and no longer corresponds to the current trend. Starting with the
Screen 1973-1974, the foreign section of the yearbooks was the decline in volumes
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
and articles on Western movie stars gradually gave way to the "stars" of the "third
world"…
Medvedev’s article Fifty-firstYear was full of the ideological fervor in the
spirit of Resolution: "When I remember the films 1973, I think that this year
started in the joyful and exciting days of our holiday: the golden jubilee of the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. New battle Kremlin chimes alerted the world
about the beginning of a new history of half a century of unprecedented
community of people, whose name - the Soviet people" [Medvedev, 1975, p.86].
Further there was a great quote from the report of L.I. Brezhnev On the 50th
Anniversary of the USSR. No one critic had not allowed himself to this kind of
quotes in the Screen Yearbooks...
But on the whole yearbook still trying to keep film studies brand.
For example, analyzing a film A Bad Good Man by I. Kheifits (1905-1995), A.
Lipkov wrote: "Chekhov saw the task of art is "to squeeze out of the slavery of
man - drop by drop." Kheifits’ film inspires the same hatred of slavery - to rid the
person of abstract ideas dogma, violence, physical and moral terror philistine
environment. Man, with all its weaknesses and imperfections, fortunately, it is still
not an ant, no termite, no beetle. He is a human. Bad or good, or even that more
difficult - the 'bad good', but man" [Lipkov, 1975, p. 26].
I. Levshina heartily praised adaptation of Mark Twain's novel Adventures of
Huckleberry Finn, set by G. Danelia titled Hopelessly Lost: "unexpectedly slow,
achingly sad – this film seems deliberately circumvents many of the adventures"
[Levshin, 1975, p.32].
V. Demin (1937-1993) favorably reacted to freestyle adaptation of the play
by Mikhail Bulgakov: the comedy Ivan Vasilievich changes his occupation by L.
Gaidai: "Today, our comedy can not boast a lot of luck... This alarming joke of L.
Gaidai is unconditional and remarkable success" [Demin, 1975, p.81].
The Yearbook also singled out the most important films on contemporary
topics: Happy Go Lucky by V.Shukshin and Monologue by I. Averbach.
V. Fomin wrote: "Shukshin still faithful to his character, he actively
empathizes... Shukshin enamored looks at his Ivan Rastorguev, admires them and
then quite ruthlessly punishes him for his obvious failures and weaknesses inherent
in the nature" [Fomin, 1975, p.30].
But R. Yurenev was more strict in relation to the film Monologue because
of Western influences: "The love of the people, attention to him, attention to the
most seemingly ordinary and insignificant everyday problems - the priceless
quality of the script E. Gabrilovich, well understood and generally successful
implementation by I. Averbach. ... In the scene of the meeting of the old
academician with ageless love of his youth I seen the influence of I. Bergman; in
boys trumpeter – F. Fellini…" [Yurenev, 1975, p. 21].
After paying tribute to the actor's talent of M. Ulyanov (1927-2007), L.
Pogozheva (1913-1989) wrote fairly restrained about his director's work The Last
Day, noting that "the plot of this film is not new and is not original, but it is
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
interesting to watch. I think this is mainly due to the presence on the screen M.
Ulyanov. His game is very well thought-out, very precise and absolutely reliable"
[Pogozheva, 1975, p. 23].
A similar verdict was about the film Hot Snow by G. Egiazarov (19161988) [Bocharov, 1975, p. 15]. In my opinion, extremely complementary reviews
have been published on the films Deep [Sulkin, 1975, pp. 35-38], Herkus Mantas
[Borodin, 1975, pp. 41-43], Melodies of Veriysky Quarter [Lordkipanidze, 1975,
pp. 44-47], And then I said: no... [Gerber, 1975, pp. 39-40].
The Yearbook has not forgotten about the action movies. V. Revich rightly
criticized feature weakness of detectives Shah Queen of Diamonds and The Black
Prince [Revich, 1975, pp. 92-94.].
R. Sobolev (1926-1991) wrote a positive, but too traditional and boring
review of the detective TV-series Seventeen Moments of Spring [Sobolev, 1975,
pp. 52-54] by T. Lioznova (1924-2011).
Maybe the editor S. Chertok could venture out to reprint a brilliant review
Lessons ‘Moments’ by V. Demin, published earlier in Soviet Screen [Demin, 1973,
p9. 4-5]. But, firstly, D. Pisarevsky, the editor in chief of Soviet Screen, lost his job
in 1975 because of "ill-advised" the publication of this brave article. And secondly,
as the saying goes, better safe than sorry...
Although readers it would be useful to reflect on the following V. Demin’s
phrase: "The swastika, rituals fires and torchbearers, skulls as emblems - fascism
was not averse to flirt eerie black symbols… The film does not indulge these
claims. … What is there? There people crippled fascist order, accustomed to trust
"the system" more than himself. But all the same people, not monsters. This is
intriguing, and this is also should not be underestimated" [Demin, 1973].
T. Hloplyankina drew the attention of readers, that "films flirting with
melodrama and at the same time carefully concealing this flirtation pretentious
dialogue, speculation on the topic of modern film language, appear on the screen
quite often. And it's a pity, because this genre, of course, the audience favorite, and
always urging him feeling good, worthy of better treatment" [Hloplyankina, 1975,
p. 96].
And D. Pisarevsky, yet not dismissed from his position, referring to the
results of the survey of Soviet Screen readers, reasonably stated that "mass surveys
the audience once again confirmed that box office and their true value and
evaluation audience are very different things. Films that have received the highest
evaluation of the audience, not all cases can be found in the box office top list, and
the comedy and adventure movies that have gathered of millions audiences, often
missing in the list of the best films of the year" [Pisarevsky, 1975, p. 99].
Screen 1974-1975 (1976, put in a set in November 1975)
Yearbook changed the editor. The new editors E. Bauman and G.
Dolmatovskaya were assigned instead fired S. Chertok (by the way, in one year
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
with D. Pisarevsky). And Screen 1974-1975 not only reduced the presence of
foreign materials to an all-time low (19% of the total volume of materials
collection), but also got rid of such talented, but "too free-thinking" authors like L.
Anninsky, V. Demin, Y. Khanyutin, N. Zorkaya and I. Levshina...
In 1975, USSR celebrated the 30th anniversary of the victory over Nazi
Germany, so the bulk of the material on the Soviet cinema was devoted to films
about the war. Firstly Liberation by Y. Ozerov (1921-2001) and They Fought for
Their Motherland by S. Bondarchuk (1920-1994).
V. Baskakov wrote: "Deep, bold, talented director Sergei Bondarchuk,
wonderful actors, the whole shooting team embodied on the screen the ideas and
images of Mikhail Sholokhov's novel They Fought for Their Motherland"
[Baskakov, 1976, p. 24]. And A. Karaganov wrote that "S. Bondarchuk created a
movie, endearing courageous truthfulness" [Karaganov, 1976, p.12]. But even he
could not afford to respond as super positive about the rather loose and strained
pathos of Liberation: "This film is not free of errors. ... But on the whole ... this is
a remarkable work, endearing honesty and recreation events scale, purposefulness
directorial solutions, carrier and the actor's art" [Karaganov, 1976, p. 11].
It seems that the updated Yearbook tried to show their loyalty to the
precepts of the Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee of
the On Literary Criticism: Screen 1974-1975 wrote positively even such mediocre
movie on the military theme as Ballad of Kovpak [Kudin, 1976, pp. 38-42], Flame
[Shatsillo, 1976, pp. 42-46] and High Rank [Kazarinov, 1976, pp. 46-48].
Although all three reviews noted for the sake of decency "minor deficiencies", they
always stressed that these films "have become a notable event"...
But T. Ivaniva’s article about L. Bykov’s wonderful film Only old men go to
fight interesting to read. And it is difficult not to agree with the fact that "the
director seems to not want to work it is required to look original, relishing the
unexpected turns in the threads or exclusively modern film language. Apparently,
he is not afraid to appear neither too traditional nor too sentimental" [Ivanova,
1976, p.49].
The Yearbook was again under the influence of On Literary Criticism
reviewing working class drama The Hottest Month [Egorov, 1976, p.87]. But V.
Mikhalkovich had a more sober view of the films on the working class topic
[Mikhalkovich, 1976, p. 116-120].
The main part of the modern section of the Yearbook was given to the
analysis of Red Kalina by V.Shukshin, Romance for Lovers by A. Konchalovsky,
and Daughters and Mothers by S. Gerasimov and other notable works of the
screen.
G. Kapralov’s article was correct: "In the interpretation of the history of
Red Kalina could become commonplace and criminal chronicle and cheap
melodrama. But V. Shukshin raises it to the height of moral and philosophical
thoughts about life, its true and false values" [Kapralov, 1976, p.76].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
L. Belova was no less convincing in his argument: "The heroic soul, ready to
exploit in the name of goodness and justice, Olga Vasilyeva from the movie
Daughters and Mothers in the same time is not a standard of positivity. ... The true
value of her nature is dialectical, because its manifestations Olga also draws as
little scary ... This film give us the chance to think" [Belova, 1976, p. 92].
E. Gromov wrote that the film Romance for Lovers "a truly talented and
significant. This is a deeply poetic meditation on love and duty, the meaning of
life" [Gromov, 1976, p. 82].
E. Bauman equally appreciated ironic parable Jackass By E. Shengelaja:
"This film has many many unusual, striking the imagination and eccentricity
paradoxical situations, characters, dialogue, unexpected plot and thinking of the
author. This is a comedy in which intertwine the seriousness of the parable and
slapstick mischief, which is juicy, a visible, tangible and yet inconceivable
fantastic reality coexists with the reliability of a fantastic dream" [Bauman, 1976,
p. 126].
Introducing readers to his reflections on the cinema, M. Zak (1929-2011)
rightly pointed out that the film Until the last minute is "undisclosed political
biography of the hero, because word-gun reduced to the level quotational
journalism" [Zak, 1976, p. 115].
Screen 1975-1976 (1977, put in a set in August 1976)
This is another issue, edited by E. Bauman and G. Dolmatovskaya.
XXV Congress of the Soviet Communist Party was held in February-March
1976. This Congress was one of the peaks in the "small cult of personality" of L.I.
Brezhnev. This explains why the "report-inspiring" article by A. Kamshalov
decorated the references to the report of the general secretary [Kamshalov, 1977, p.
28]. A. Kamshalov, in particular, didactically wrote: "A new stage of communist
construction places high demands on literature and art, including the cinema. …
Our party orients writers, artists, composers, filmmakers, television and the theater
workers of the fact that the rich possibilities of art, exciting persuasiveness of
artistic images used for the enrichment of moral people, to improve their spiritual
potential. ... The devotion to communist ideals – that is the main thing that I would
like to see in the way of the worker or collective farmer, a scientist or a warrior,
leader or an ordinary party building a new life" [Kamshalov, 1977, pp. 23, 26].
I think after such a "seed" the quotation from Brezhnev logically looked
and in an article on the movies’ working class subject [Korobkov, 1977, p. 48].
The communist pathos of G. Kapralov’s article about working class film
Prize was in the same key: "Screen offers us a certain model, an example of how
can and should be addressed sometimes some of the issues in a socialist society,
where we have the party criticism and self-criticism. But this "model" is designed
not speculative, not built artificially, but life itself is born... The story of Vasily
Potapov and his team is not the last place in the chain of large and small events of
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
everyday life that add up to the overall flow of our irresistible movement towards
communism" [Kapralov, 1977, pp. 68-69].
The cinema and Communist party functionary D. Shatsillo spared no
compliments regarding romanticized film biography of one of Communist leaders
– G. Ordzhonikidze (I accept) [Shatsillo, 1977, pp. 87-91].
E. Bauman wrote equally rosy about another deservedly forgotten now film
Time of her sons: "This is the story of the triumph of life, the happiness of peaceful
labor, the great love of his native land. … the main idea sounds distinctly and
clearly: this is the idea of man's responsibility to his country, ahead of its time"
[Bauman, 1977, p.80].
And usually more thoughtful E. Gromov, alas, could not resist the praise of a
mediocre film Earthly Love, which was shown "a man of modern times, the era of
socialist, a communist, was acutely aware of the enormous challenges that were
then in front of the party and the country" [Gromov, 1977, pp. 86-87].
But N. Sumenov (1938-2014) did not dare to sing a solemn hymn to
working class drama From dawn to dusk by G. Egiazarov. Film critic rebuked this
movie in edification, smoothing out conflicts and problems [Sumenov, 1977, p.75].
The rest of the annual reviews were written in a more analytical manner.
For example, V. Vilchek (1937-2006) gave an interesting analysis of the
letters of moviegoers (especially on the comedy Afonya by by G. Danelia), which
were not only clearly marked with different levels of perception, audience analysis
of the film, but also stressed that the "naturalistic perception is a perception,
dictated by lazy, consumer life experience; People just covered (truly deceiving
himself) didactic reasons, they just want do not destroy their peace of minds"
[Vilchek, 1977, p.62].
As a result, V. Vilchek reasonably come to the conclusion that "We need
the concept of "integral film". That is, a film for everyone, able to satisfy the most
different, even polar groups of the audience. It is anticipated that this film should
have a multi-layer structure, so that each group of viewers might find it that
searches and understands the art of one: interesting plot, the second: a fine plastic
or of their idols, and others: deep philosophy, etc." [Vilchek, 1977, p. 63].
Yearbook praisedbook the film Hundred days after childhood by S.
Soloviev. T. Ivanova wrote that “the very sophistication plot of this film, the game
with motifs of classical works, lurked danger: to consider the region bookish
reminiscences in the frame of quite closed experiment. The filmmakers were able
to overcome this danger" [Ivanova, 1977, p. 95].
A historical and romantic melodrama The Captivating Star of Happiness by
V. Motyl received a positive assessment from Y. Turin (1938-2016) [Turin, 1977,
pp. 96-102]. Film critic L. Rybak (1923-1988) supported screen experiment of M.
Schweitzer, who, the first time in the director's biography, turned to the genre
fiction parable in the film Escape of Mr. McKinley: "This unusual movie built on
extreme aesthetic principles; its action steeped in reality, this story is woven of
fantastic events. … We see something unbelievable, inconceivable from the
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
standpoint of ordinary logic in realistic circumstances, but it is quite convincing as
an artistic metaphor, true to his moral (or immoral) nature" [Rybak, 1977, p. 105].
Screen 1976-1977 (1978, put in a set in January 1978)
This Yearbook changed one of the editors. New editors (until the last issue)
became Y. Turin and G. Dolmatovskaya.
Of course, the diamond jubilee of the Soviet regime (1977) and the
Resolution of the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee On working with
creative youth (October, 1976) played a important role in Soviet film criticism
process. V. Baskakov [1978, pp. 29-35] and M. Alexeev [Alexeev, 1978, p. 50]
wrote about clearly and directly. N. Sumenov wrote: “Liberation by Y. Ozerov
clearly reflected as a strike force of world imperialism were broken, met on his
way a monolithic multi-ethnic state of workers and peasants who defended the war
the freedom and independence of their country, Lenin's motherland, the
motherland of the Great October. … Soldiers of Freedom shows not only the
successes but also the dramatic pages of the people's liberation struggle. … And
very good episode of this film, where L.I. Brezhnev (actor E. Matveev) speaks
about communism with simple Czech workers. This episode is capacious and
extremely important for the expression of the author's concept of dialogue as it
sums up the film as a work of political cinema" [Sumenov, 1978, pp. 78-80].
It seems that everything has already been said in this "critical" passage...
But, no: N. Sumenov with skillful pen of communist functionary added cold war
sentence: "Bourgeois propagandists used up a lot of pages, arguing that the
national liberation struggle, the people's democratic and socialist system in Europe
was planted against the will of the peoples of these countries. Accessing historical
facts refutes the malicious lies. In carrying out their internationalist duty, the
Soviet Army liberated from fascism, not only his country, but also the people of
other European countries that have chosen the democratic path of development.
Our ideological opponents, ideological means fighting against the socialist
community of nations now rely on inciting nationalist sentiment. They are trying to
drive a wedge between the peoples, to oppose one another nation, to split the unity
of our country. That is why today is so important political picture, excitedly and
earnestly preaching the ideals of proletarian internationalism. It is no exaggeration
to say that internationalism becomes the main theme of the film Soldiers of
Freedom, its most important task" [Sumenov, 1978, p.83].
The articles about Leninist films Trust [Zaitsev, 1978, pp. 84-86] and
October [Pustynsky 1978, pp. 132-133] were additional plus to Soviet anniversary.
The alternative approach to the official analysis of war films was presented
in M. Zak’s article. He, not fearing the religious foundation, gave the high praise
for L. Shepitko’s masterpiece Ascension: "The director is harsh and intransigence
in the image of suffering, intransigence in relation to the viewer's perception,
which has its own thresholds. She leaves nothing behind the scenes, and the
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
spectators run with the hero all painful path… Mythological paint gradually slides
over the screen. … the evangelical omposition openly establish themselves in the
frame" [Zak, 1978, p. 68].
But M. Zak somehow confused realistic textures in the film Twenty Days
Without War, typical of the director's style of A. German: "The efforts of the
director sometimes seem excessive, particularly in the field of decorative arts"
[Zak, 1978, p. 66].
The films on contemporary topics was also in focus of the Yearbook:
Mimino, Own Opinion, The White Ship, Only You, Hoax and Word of Protection.
A. Zorky wrote about one of the best G. Danelia’s film:
"Mimino has everything which you can want in good movie: humor, honesty,
simplicity, seriousness, the great script, mature craftsmanship, beautiful duet of
actors" [Zorky, 1978, p. 209].
N. Savitsky quite convincingly argued that the Own Opinion "main
character is too self-confident, the winner from the start. He appeared not to study,
but teach. He almost does not make mistakes, and I can’t trust him. ... This film has
absolutely predominant declarative tone, journalistic style, emotionally depleted"
[Savitsky, 1978, p. 96].
K. Rudnicky (1920-1988) was dissatisfied with the imbalance of a characters
in a film of screenwriter A. Mindadze and director V. Abdrashitov Word for
Protection because "the fate of main heroine Kostina, like a powerful magnet
attracts all interest and takes in all the excitement of the audience. Conceived (and
contrived!) parallel movement of the two female roles in the living reality of the
film is replaced by a powerful movement of a single Kostina’s drama" [Rudnicky,
1978, p.124].
Speaking about the melodrama Only You by I. Kheifits (1905-1995) M.
Kuznetsov (1914-1980) was, in my opinion, overly didactic, emphasizing "how
important it is for our contemporaries have the own culture of senses… And this
controversial, somewhat uneven, but very interesting film devoted to this area of
moral life" [Kuznetsov, 1978, p.104].
Reviewing musical melodrama about the school and school children Hoax,
T. Kukarkina began with praise: "V. Menchov has chosen for his first directorial
work of dynamic form of the narrative, catchy, bright, spectacular. Pop-music,
beautiful person, elegant interiors, the plot tension overshadowed psychological
thoroughness. The director focused on the incessant emotional impact. It is
promoted and given rhythm and unique scene transitions, and the absence of
general plans and panoramas. All large, brightly. And the film looks in one breath,
he excites and makes empathize heroes" [Kukarkina, 1978, p.119]. But then T.
Kukarkina made the negative conclusion, in my opinion, unreasonably harsh: "The
stated problem, moral collision blurred, scattered in different semantic series,
replacing the regulatory rules of ethics. ... The idea of the playwright essential to
solve problems is obvious, but simplified to elementary commandments"
[Kukarkin, 1978, p.121].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
The main article in the portrait gallery of the yearbook (articles about the
work of actors Y. Solntseva, R. Adomaitis, I. Churikova, G. Burkov, E. Simonova)
was the text of R. Yurenev. Remembering the Kuban Cossacks by I. Pyrev, film
critic wrote that "of course, all the circumstances of this picture is not shown of
collective life. There was no criticisms, no objective assessment of the life
difficulties. But it was fun and joyful chanting of the collective-farm labor, a new
morality, friendship and ardent love in the conventions of the genre of musical
comedy and operetta" [Yurenev, 1978, p. 139]. But "modern dramatic Pyrev’s
movies Our Mutual Friend, Light of Distant Star were weaks, and quickly got off
the screen"[Yurenev, 1978, p.139].
R. Yurenev thought the main Pyrev’s artistic achievement The Brothers
Karamazov where director "boldly sacrificed many lines, many novel ideas,
focusing on the problem of realization of its main characters. And here and he
showed courage, and taste, and a very deep and subtle understanding of the
individual characteristics quite similar to each other actors" [Yurenev, 1978, p.
142].
Screen 1977-1978 (1979, put in a set in November 1978)
Screen 1977-1978 continued the theme of the 60th anniversary of the
Sosialist revolutionary. A. Novogrudsky (1911-1996) wrote an article under the
eloquent title Under the Sign of the October Revolution: "Why is the bourgeois
film researchers praise the first Soviet revolutionary cinema masterpieces (even
emasculating their ideological content and focusing on the purely aesthetic
categories)? The answer is quite simple: to build the anti-scientific scheme of
"attenuation" of Soviet cinema, to belittle the significance of such great works as
Chapaev, a trilogy about Maxim and other outstanding films, declared "nonexistent" creative achievements of Soviet filmmakers after 1920s. The Western
cinema books repeated this false scheme with the dogmatic obstinacy
pseudoscientific treatises ... Another false is the accusation of socialist realism in
the canons of censorship"[Novogrudsky, 1979, p. 28].
It is clear that the Novogrudsky’s arguments look mildly, unconvincing,
because the Western festival movement and Western film studies, actually
rejecting the ideology of "socialist realism" (like the 1930s and subsequent years),
always supported talented Soviet movies of post-Stalin era (including many films
of M. Kalatozov, A. Konchalovsky, S. Parajanov, A. Tarkovsky, G. Chuhraj, M.
Khutsiev and other masters).
A. Medvedev presented his article The feat of the people, the fate of the
People, which he wrote about very mediocre "socialist realism" films Carpathian
Mountains ... by T. Levchuk and Destiny by E. Matveyev: "Much of these works is
debatable. However, I would like to emphasize the important thing in the film
chronicle of the national artistic feat of new lines are written, enriching our
memory, spreading its horizon" [Medvedev, 1979, p. 46].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
N. Savitsky published anoter positive-boring article about the drama on the
workin class topic - Feedback by V. Tregubovich [Savitsky, 1979, pp. 87-92].
Reflecting on the movie Call me in the distance light by S. Lubshin and G.
Lavrov, E. Bauman wrote that "the film carefully and clearly conveyed Shukshin’s
intonations, Shukshin’s thoughts. And a huge credit for this belongs to the
ensemble cast"[Bauman, 1979, p. 102].
But Y. Turin very severely appreciated the talented drama Wounded Game
(The Orphans) by N. Gubenko: "The main character fell apart in every sense of the
word into two parts: his childhood was promised a great personality, but the
maturity has been deprived of concreteness, the flesh. Here the main failure of the
movie. Bartenev was forty years in the present tense only eyewitness and
participant in the events does not unlike Bartenev-child wounded" [Turin, 1979, p.
97].
Surprisingly, but the Screen 1977-1978 dared (and I think rightly) criticize
S. Rostotsky, logged by this time the cohort of "untouchables directors". His
adaptation of the novel White Bim Black Ear had a huge success with audiences,
but the Yearbook published the following opinion: "The filmmakers removed the
the air, breath of prose. Hard film in some of its parts has become cruel, almost
tortured nerves of the audience" [Marchenko, 1979, p. 101].
Portrait Gallery of Screen 1977-1978 was extensive [Zakrzhevskaya 1979,
pp. 114-120; Lagina, 1979, pp. 121-126; Yurenev, 1979, pp. 145-147; Krivitsky,
pp. 147-153; Tarasenko, 1979, pp. 136-141; Khanyutin, 1979, pp. 131-136;
Vladimirova, 1979, pp. 154-157].
Summarizing the results of a creative way of film director I. Talankin (19272010), E. Vladimirova rightly noted that "diversity is the main quality of his work,
his films is open for the emotionality, for the viewer's heart" [Vladimirova, 1979,
p. 157].
Y. Khanyutin (1929-1978) wrote one of his brilliant articles: "N. Mikhalkov
made his debut in directing as a secular dandy on Opening Day, with noisy, fun,
dazzling cascade of film techniques. His first film At Home Among Strangers… has
fairy-tale characters, act according to the laws of natural justice and faith in their
triumph. And the director also believes with them. Negative character desperately
asks: "My God, my God, why are you helping this cretin, not me?". "Because
you're a greedy", - meets the positive hero of this film. As in fairy tales: brave and
noble hero wins and punished negative character" [Khanyutin, 1979, pp. 131-132].
Turning to the analysis of the second work of N. Mikhalkov, Y. Khanyutin
gave an exhaustive answer to the question of why the Slave of Love had no total
box-office success: "The director chose exactly the genre corresponding to the
subject: melodrama. But, it seems, he made a fatal mistake in relation to the
selected genre. He puts the film with a certain ironic distance towards the
character. And the romance can not tolerate distance, she can not live without the
immediacy and simplicity. And the lack of sensitivity are not compensated by the
exquisite interiors, an elegant stylized fashion and costumes and even a soft smile
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
of the author in relation to the figures of the cinema. Perhaps the lack of
spontaneity prevented the Slave of Love to win the success with the audience"
[Khanyutin, 1979, p. 132].
Mikhalkov's Unfinished Piece for Mechanical Piano (on motives of the
early play of Anton Chekhov, known as Platonov) received the highest evaluation
from Y. Khanyutin: "He started (in At Home Among Strangers… and Slave of
Love) in easy and artistic author's style with elegant and slightly retro. But now
cutesy shell of the century is replaced by the director of a thoughtful and unhurried,
develops relationships of characters, exposes the complexity of their relationships,
the depth of subtext. ... Mikhalkov away from traditional interpretations of
Chekhov, from the elegiac, muted emotions, halftones. This film presents Chekhov
sarcastic, bitter, merciless, built on the dramatic tension, catastrophic drops,
breakdowns from tragedy to farce. ... The film unfolds slowly, there is a feeling
that his exposition, where it turns out "who's who" tightened. There are the shock
episodes, designed for immediate impact, that were in the first Mikhalkov’s film.
But gradually you enter into the world of movie, and this film powerfully addictive
you. This is one of those works of art that have a strong impact in the end and
leave a long period of "aftertaste", the desire to think about the film and its
characters. Probably, this is the quality of this serious work. No, not dapper
professional, not a brilliant actor gets out of the frame of the film. This is the
artist’s deep penetratition into the essence of phenomena, the invitation the viewer
to thinking" [Khanyutin, 1979, p.132, 136].
Screen 1978-1979 (1981, put in a set in July 1980)
Yearbook Screen 1978-1979 was put into set in July 1980, after the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan, in response to which the United States has announced a
boycott of the Moscow Olympics, and an embargo on the Soviet Union in modern
technologies and grain. And Soviet communist Party Central Committee
Resolution "On further improve the ideological and political education work"
(April 1979) adopted a year earlier: "The Communist Party organizations, agencies
of culture, ideological institutions, creative unions have the task of improving
ideological and political Marxist-Leninist education of the artistic intelligentsia"
[Resolution ..., 1979].
In short, a "discharge" policy was ended and new peak of the cold war
started. And only one month left before resuming jamming broadcasts Voice of
America and other Western radio stations in the USSR (20-21 August 1980)...
Article of V. Drobashenko (1921-2012) [Drobashenko, 1981, pp. 11-17] and
Y. Cherepanov [Cherepanov, 1981, pp. 72-75], N. Zaitsev [Zaitsev, 1981, p. 77,
80], N. Sumenov [Sumenov, 1981, pp. 80-83] were the responses to the
Communist Party Resolution.
In particular, Y. Cherepanov, without the slightest shadow of a doubt, wrote
that all in the film The taste of bread "taken from life, everything is authentic, all
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
carefully calibrated almost scientific precision, especially for the reader who is
familiar with L.I. Brezhnev's book Virgin Lands” [Cherepanov, 1981, p.72].
The most interesting part of this Yearbook was devoted to a school topic in
the movie. Here E. Gromov correctly noted that "we can see the school life mostly
on the side of the adult position. … Oh, what are they bold and uninhibited! The
creators of the films about school are often lose critical, realistic view relevant to
the younger generation. … It is, however, a long-standing problem of our children
and youth film: no one had achieved the severity level of youth estimates that
existed in the film Three Days of Victor Chernyshov" [Gromov, 1981, pp. 33, 36].
However, further critic convincingly argued that the situation in the
children's and youth film at the turn of the 1980s, "in many ways better, more vital
than existed a few years ago, when the main charge of emotion and admiration
spent on teachers... And otherwise, a negative image of the teacher often met with
hostility. Now, the teachers began to show a wide variety: from very good, almost
perfect, to the purely negative. Sometimes a critical attitude to the teacher even
prevails over the claim that is also not terrible. No need to worry too much about a
strictly balance, if the cinema school has vivid teachers personalities in the films
Diary of School’s Director, Aliens Letters, Betrayed ... We are proud of its
achievements in the field of youth and children's movies. But also see their
weaknesses and unsolved problems" [Gromov, 1981, p.35].
E. Gromov rather sharply criticized the talented film The key is not
transferable By D. Asanova (1942-1985), insisting that "one way or another, but
the teacher Marina Maximovna consciously unconsciously creates a closed
microcosm for only a gifted, bright, intelligent students. But what about those who
are not talented? ... Talented Marina Maximovna, focusing only on the talented
guys, perforce brings them pride, of which she is not deprived. From it only a step
to the arrogant neglect of a rough, everyday work, and ordinary people" [Gromov,
1981, pp. 34-35]. And there are the final E. Gromov’s conclusions: "The film
touches on the difficult teenage problems are not easily solved, they hurt"
[Gromov, 1981, pp.37-38].
The remaining sturdy and extensive positive reviews in the yearbook were
devoted to films Strange Woman [ Gromov, 1981, p. 92], Declaration of Love [Zac
1981, pp. 92-95], Nahapet [Medvedev, 1981, pp. 95-97], Biryuk [Nedelin, 1981,
pp. 97-99], Centaurs [Shilova, 1981, pp. 83-87], Price's death ask the dead
[Belova, 1981, pp. 87-89], Man, that was lucky [Kuznetsov, 1981, pp. 99-102],
Father Sergius [Bauman, 1981, pp. 149-151], Rise [Kapralov, 1981, pp. 188-190].
Screen 1979-1980 (1982, put in a set in November 1981)
Screen 1979-1980 put in to the set in November 1981, i.e. after the last
Brezhnev’s XXVI Congress of the Soviet Communist Party, which was once again
told that "the manifestation of lack of ideology, ideological promiscuity, a
departure from the clear class assessment of individual historical events and figures
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
can damage creativity even gifted people. Our critics, literary journals, creative
unions and especially their Communist Party organizations should be able to
correct those who puts in one direction or another. And, of course, the active
principle to act in cases where there are works that damages our Soviet reality.
Here we must be uncompromising. The Communist Party has not been and can not
be indifferent to the ideological orientation of our art" [Proceedings of XXVI
Congress of the soviet communist Party, 1981, pp. 61-63].
However, only one of all Soviet film critics dared to speak in the pages of
the yearbook with a genuine Communist ideological position. It was tireless V.
Baskakov with the article about film Karl Marx. Young Years by L. Kulidzhanov:
"This film enriches our understanding about the life of the founder of scientific
communism, it gives ample food for serious thought about the most important,
most essential in the fate of mankind. ... Marx is the great thinker, scientist, leader
of the world proletariat, he first pointed out the right path of revolutionary
transformation of the world" [Baskakov, 1982, pp. 84, 88].
The rest of the film critics did not support this Communistic pathos,
preferring to remain in traditional reviews.
Arguing about the image of the screen character, E. Gromov came to the
right conclusion that "the history of art clearly shows that the vital credibility and
the strength of the aesthetic impact of the image of the hero, in essence, almost
independent of the presence or absence and his character shortcomings and
weaknesses"[Gromov, 1982, p. 57].
E. Stishova dedicated her article to Soviet film debuts: "Historical events
connected with the revolution, civil war, and even the World are increasingly
becoming for the present generation of filmmakers the only reason for the creation
of the adventure movies, where history easily sacrificed riot of imagination of the
author and spectator demand for exciting dynamic spectacle" [Stishova, 1982, p.
78].
R. Yurenev was olso strict, by only in relation to Five Evenings by N.
Mikhalkov: "I dare to accuse the director of the film in theatrical compositions. …
It is necessary to destroy gravitating to the dramatic unities theatrical composition,
build a free cinematic composition with multiple places of action" [Yurenev, 1982,
p. 102].
A. Medvedev published one of his best reviews about the sad comedy
Autumn Marathon by G. Danelia: "This is a pleasing example of the harmony of
all its beginnings: drama, director, actor, visual, musical. It's all happily found each
other and each is fully expressed himself" [Medvedev, 1982, p. 89].
L. Melville generally supported the poetic parable Babylon-XX by I.
Mykolaychuk (1941-1987): “Fine fragmentary structure of the film at first glance
may surprise… But we can see more and more that its creators based on eternity of
life and folk culture. ... Babylon-XX’s stylistic is aesthetic principle of popular
culture, its moral and artistic syncretism. Beautiful is always good, and the good is
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
the way to beautiful. ... We know the age-old tradition of native culture, always
beautiful and good. The film keeps these traditions" [Melville, 1982, pp.112, 114].
Socio sharp detective Interrogation [Freilich, 1982, pp. 92-95], dramas
Early Cranes [Zak, 1982, pp. 103-106] and Several interviews on personal matters
[Sumenov, 1982, pp. 106-109] also received the support from the authors of the
Yearbook.
Y, Turin’s article about great Russian actor A. Solonitsyn (1934-1982) was
the best among the actors' portraits. Here, perhaps, for the first time, the Yearbook
so vividly and clearly published the analysis of the works of this outstanding actor,
the main actor of A. Tarkovsky (1932-1986). Y. Turin wrote that Stalker "was for
Solonitsyn and Tarkovsky a fantastic environment material, the nature of the
mysterious, unknown world. … in general, purely earthly problems as a matter of
priority: to heal the soul, a disturbed conscience, fix the personal balance. ... The
film brings to the indissoluble triangle regulations humanism, technocracy and
faith..." [Turin, 1982, pp.139-141]. And here Y. Turin rightly argued that the highrise Trakovsky’s film compositions "resemble the crystal structure: proportionality
and indispensability of each item, mathematically calculated harmony of all the
parts" [Turin, 1982, p.138].
Screen 1980-1981 (1983, put in set in December 1982)
July 30, 1982 was the time of the Soviet Communist Party Central
Committee Resolution On the creative connections literary journals with the
practice of communist construction, where Communist Party once again called for
the tightening of ideological censorship and nuts.
Screen 1980-1981 has been put in set in December 1982, already under the
reign of Y. Andropov (1914-1984), so Yearbook’s content was probably one of the
most boring and unsuccessful.
I. Rachuk (1922-1985) was crowded of false pathos about politically
conjunctural film From Bug to the Vistula by T. Levchuk T. (1912-1998): "This is
struggle for communism"[Rachuk, 1983, p.76]. F. Kuznetsov similarly positive
and pathetic wrote about as weak working class drama Horses in midstream is not
by G. Egiazarov [Kuznetsov, 1983, p.68].
E. Gromov also was noted in the margin of the ideological front with
respect to the communist orientated film Your son, the land: "What is the main
result of the film, its principal novelty? A vital and artistically valid ideal hero, the
perfect Communist party worker appeared on the screen" [Gromov, 1983, p.75].
V. Baskakov wrote another pathetic lines: "S. Gerasimov, one of the
founders of the creative method of our cinema, highlights the kinship of this art
with the most humane system of social relations: the system of socialismcommunism. This is an essential feature in the work of this artist" [Baskakov,
1983, p. 120].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Against this background, A. Romanenko’s article looked much more
attractive. First, she rightly wrote about how hard to find "a movie in our cinema,
where talent truthfully described the all-consuming love, poetic and happiness, the
dreams of young and mature people" [Romanenko, 1983, p.32]. And then, she
sadly noted that "screen tale is transformed, changes the appearance, language, and
most importantly - the address. It is increasingly becoming a holiday, which is
fairy tale, but not for children" [Romanenko, 1983, p.34].
Y. Turin was a little more positive, but in relation to the historic theme:
"We can see the existence of cinema, associated with the history of the peoples of
our country. Although the force of inertia is still very high" [Turin, 1983, p.43].
R. Yurenev wrote the article about one of the Soviet box office leaders melodrama Guys ..! This article was actively supported the line of the Soviet State
Committee for Cinematography for increasing screen entertainment: "Guys ..!
clear expressed the idea alive and strong characters people and calm, reliable life.
Melodrama win his love of the audience" [Yurenev, 1983, p.84].
Screen 1981-1982 (1984, put in set in December 1983)
Shortly after the solemn celebration of the 60th anniversary of the Soviet
Communist Party Central Committee published the Resolution Topical issues of
ideological and mass political work of the Communist party (June, 1983). It is
clear that the faithful soldiers of the ideological front, like, for example, V.
Baskakov, respond to this demands: "There are vain efforts of the western film
critics who are trying to impose their orientations to the Soviet cinema, their ideas
how to rewrite the history of our new movies. We can do the cinema without the
help of such advisers and well-wishers..." [Baskakov, 1984, p. 7].
Y. Cherepanov was also advocate of the Communist party topic: thinking
about a weak film Hope and Support, he wrote: "This film reflects the topical
problems of modern life, the important issues State Food Program" [Cherepanov,
1984, p.60].
E. Gromov praised very highly the film Lenin in Paris: "This work of our
oldest masters S. Yutkevich and E. Gabrilovich passionately and convincingly
reveals the deep modernity Lenin and Leninism. Lenin in Paris fundamentally
enriches our Leninist cinema" [Gromov, 1984, p. 58].
As usual some Yerabook’s articles dedicated to the military topic. Y. Turin
wrote that the film Fact "extremely reliably demonstrated the bitter, harsh truth of
the war without discounts for a range of events, with no allowances for the time it
takes away even a hint of pacifism, forgiveness" [Turin, 1984, p.64]. And E.
Bauman noted that "Starfall by I. Talankin is a very human and very sad movie.
This film is permeated with bitterness about youth, war, love" [Bauman, 1984, p.
67].
A. Romanenko’s article was about The Night is Short, the film with post-war
childhood topic, where "the theme of domestic growth boy inscribed in the frame a
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
true story, in harmony with the theme of the post-war renewal of life. ... This film
acquires an epic breath in the final" [Romanenko, 1984, p.74].
E. Stishova presented the highly controversial thesis, arguing that "detectives
and blockbuster, horror and disaster films have lost their absolute power over the
spectators' hearts, but a modest life stories of ordinary, unremarkable women
have, as it turned out, a huge attraction" [Stishova, 1984, p.32].
And, as if confirming this thesis, G. Dolmatovskaya explains the reasons for
the success of melodrama Beloved Woman of Mechanic Gavrilov: "This film was
conceived and written specifically for Ludmila Gurchenko. And she was
generously rewarded for widely show her multi-colored iridescence talent, keeping
a sense of proportion and tact" [Dolmatovskaya, 1984, p.76].
M. Vlasov (1932-2004) dedicated his article to the positive image of film
critic R. Yurenev [Vlasov, 1984, p.103].
Screen 1982-1983 (1985, put in a set in August 1984)
Screen 1982-1983 was put in the set already during the brief reign of K.
Chernenko (1911-1985), in August 1984. The Cold War was still in full swing.
And the Soviet Communist Party Central Committee published new Resolution
(April 1984) On measures to further improve the ideological and artistic quality of
films and strengthen the material and technical basis of cinematography.
Surprisingly, but the previously fairly sensitive to the Communist Party
guidance, Yearbook limited the reaction only N. Sumenov’s article Loyalty to the
truth of history [Sumenov, 1985, p.80].
Most of the materials of the Soviet part of the yearbook were devoted to
films on contemporary topics.
Tone M. Zak’s reviews the film Private Life was restrained and neutral. Film
critic point out that this movie "closer to the monodrama, much depends on the
central role of the artist. Ulyanov translates the problem into the character …
when the fate of the human break" [Zak, 1985, p.77].
The tragic film Farewell by E. Klimov got appreciation of Y. Turin: "This
film not turned into a way of idealization of patriarchal heroes, but ... enriched our
common memory, our conscience..."[Turin, 1985, p.89].
Y. Turin (under the pseudonym Samarin) gave same high mark to
wonderful film Boys by D. Asanova: "Asanova is maximalist by nature. … She
loves and knows how to think, to analyze and even risky. She believes in moral
and hence aesthetic value in the spiritual screen power" [Samarin, 1985, p.93].
I. Shilova wrote the deep review about Heiress Straight by S. Solovyov:
"The man in the face of life, people in the face of great culture, a man to himself there are Solovyov’s films topics (One hundred days after childhood, Lifeguard).
Soloviev is most ironic in the new work. Time makes its own amendments to the
simple and clear relations, the artist not only feels them, but also offers the moral
changes in his trilogy cardiogram" [Shilova, 1985, p.35].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
E. Gromov and M. Kuznetsova devoted their review of the most notable
comedies of those years: Train Station for Two by E. Ryazanov and Native by N.
Mikhalkov.
E. Gromov wrote that Train Station for Two "looks tense, with great
excitement. This is the comedy. Do not lyrical although it has a lyricism; not
satirical, but it has a sarcasm and anger; not tragicomedy, although it has sorrow
and grief. ... This is dramatic and conflict work, by causing laughter and fun high
catharsis: cleansing, enlightenment, faith in life and hope for good luck" [Gromov,
1985, p.85].
M. Kuznetsova went to the Native with a retrospective point of view:
“Previous Mikhalkov’s films were the fireworks talents with the coldness of the
mind. … In the Native director refused many means of cinematic expression: strict
realism, no frills, sophisticated visual metaphors" [Kuznetsova, 1985, p.92].
Screen 1983-1984 (1986, put in a set in September 1985)
Screen 1983-1984 was put into the set in September 1985, already in power
times of M. Gorbachev, in the year of the 40th anniversary of victory over Nazism.
Perestroika was still in its infancy, and so Yearbook could still afford even then
very dubious assertion that Victory by E. Matveev and Duma about Kovpak by T.
Levchuk gave the examples of how "deeper and more objective understanding of
the history of the war in the cinematographic art" [Turin, 1986, p.56].
But in general, the content of Screen 1983-1984 was significantly different
for the better on a number of previous yearbooks.
And today I, of course, agree with the fact that "The film Wartime Romance
by P. Todorovsky has the plaintive lyricism of memories when the wounds still
bleeding in the hearts of people recently graduated from war" [Bauman, 1986,
p.140] .
L. Anninsky appeared after a long absence from the pages of the Yearbook,
in this case – with the analytical article of the film Leo Tolstoy by S. Gerasimov
[Anninsky, 1986, s.82-87].
E. Gromov is not tempted by ideological rhetoric this time. He wrote that the
film Time of Desires has "peculiar comic and satirical tone, which is particularly
felt in the first half. This does not prevent, but rather helps to highlight the
strikingly posed in the picture sharp social and psychological problems. ... As any
Y. Raizman’s film, his new movie is professionally perfect and talent, and most
importantly - without the didactics"[Gromov, 1986, p. 90].
M. Zak compared the films Without Witnesses by N. Mikhalkov and
Epilogue by M. Khutsiev: "There are movies-dialogues on the conflict basis. The
conflict between humanistic positions and moral anomaly" [Zak, 1986, p. 37].
Drama Life, Tears and Love also received the high mark from the Yearbook:
"This film has sophistication and beauty (landscape, music, expressions of human
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
faces), stylistically underlined. It is generally characteristic of the artistic
handwriting of the director N. Gubenko" [Afanasyev, 1986, pp. 92-93].
A. Gerber wrote an excellent review about the parable The Parade of
Planets: "Cinema world of V. Abdrashitov and A. Mindadze does require active
participation from the audience. Live your life without thinking and without
straining too, of course, possible. But if we remember that we live the last time,
and other such case is no longer imagine involuntarily want to present to him the
requirements higher than the simplest organism... We still belong to the world, and
all the disasters in us. The Parade of Planets, in my opinion, just about it" [Gerber,
1986, p.97].
Young at that time film critic A. Erokhin (1954-2000) published perhaps his
most traditional style review (on the crime drama Joint Offenders): "Do we always
happen are attentive and sympathetic to the family and others? It always give the
right to vote their conscience? Whether always you live as it should, as a decent
man? That's what the film says" [Erokhin, 1986, p.103].
R. Yurenev was extremely strict and harsh against Y. Yevtushenko’s poetic
autobiography Kindergarten: "The main failure of the movie is cluttered,
pretentious script. Its episodes are loosely coupled, multi-style, often imitative,
secondary" [Yurenev, 1986, p.100].
Screen 1987 (1987, put in a set in September 1986)
At first glance, it seems strange that Screen 1987 was published right after
Screen 1983-1984. However, in reality everything is explained quite simply: the
compilers of the Yearbook felt that the gap between the year indicated on the cover
of the book and real year sales become too large. For example, Screen 1983-1984
came to buyers only in 1986. Thus, it was decided to "jump" a few years: Screen
1987 arrived in bookstores in 1987.
Yes, Screen 1987 reached readers in rough perestroika in 1987, but this
Yearbook was put into a set in a relatively quiet 1986, and its content is still
reminiscent of Screen 1983-1984.
Of course, the impact of the perestroika are already felt in the pages of
Screen 1987. Obvious signs of this: no servile reactions critics on solutions of
XXVII Soviet Communist Party Congress and the Resolution of the Soviet
Communist Pary Central Committee On the shortcomings in the practice of the
acquisition or rental of foreign films.
Yes, Screen 1987 released the propagandist article of V. Baskakov about
week film Battle for Moscow, arguing that "This movie is actively involved in the
ideological struggle, fighting fakes and insinuations about the second world war,
which threw a lot of screens western film market" [Baskakov, 1987, p. 90].
However, others trends dominated in this times. For example, E. Gromov
published a positive review of the war drama Come and See by E. Klimov (he was
elected the head of the Union of Cinematographers in May 1986): "If you plunge
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
into the atmosphere of the idea of the film, the more clearly realize the highest
truth of the artist, who has decided to show the suffering of the people, the height
of their spirit and lowlands fall as they were in their stark reality" [Gromov, 1987,
p. 92].
E. Stishova gave the highest praise recently "bookshelf"’s masterpiece My
Friend Ivan Lapshin by A. German, noting that "the density of this cinema world,
such as in the third and fourth viewing, discover new details. The author controls
every piece of cinematic, nothing is "just so". Each plan, each angle, every detail
are associated with the concept, with the plan as closely as possible the past. There
is nothing accidental, nothing official, drawn into the frame as a backup story"
[Stishova, 1987, p.109]. L. Mamatova supported satirical film The Blue Mountains
by E. Shengelaja [Mamatova, 1987, p. 106].
A. Plakhov wrote meaningful and thoughtful article on the relationship
between film and literary classics. Reflecting on the S. Soloviev’s films, A.
Plakhov noted some "curious clash of the "two cultures" of moral and everyday
behavior made in his teen trilogy. Drama emerging young soul is checked each
time in the spirit of the classics, whether Lermontov, Tolstoy or Pushkin. And,
there are (sometimes even contrary to the intentions of the author) reveal the
cultural incompatibility of classic designs and the world hits, jeans, chewing gum"
[Plakhov, 1987, p. 39].
Going further to the analysis of the film A Few Days in the I.I. Oblomov’s
Life A. Plakhov concluded that "this is the most complicated case of experiments
with classics… The artistic consciousness of the director N. Mikhalkov with equal
ease to adapt classical harmony, stylistic elegance of the forms and momentary,
sometimes the surface tension builds. Doing Oblomov, he famously included the
characters of the novel in the epicenter of the current talk about "business
people"… This film is too relevant, in order to preserve the continuity of the thread
with a Goncharov’s masterpiece, but the movie turned out to be one of the possible
interpretations and found novel characteristic of classical perfection" [Plakhov,
1987, p. 43].
In this context, A. Plakhov was convinced that Vassa by G. Panfilov
"especially weighty in recent years confirms the intrinsic value of a specific type of
film adaptation based on the inner, but not on a formal relationship with the
classical primary source" [Plakhov, 1987, p. 43 ].
D. Urnov wrote about the screen versions of Russian classic play much
more severely: criticizing Cruel Romance by E. Ryazanov: "Classic text does not
allow for such treatment themselves. Text dies but does not surrender, and the
"winner" received anything. And at the same time and the audience also left with
nothing" [Urnov, 1987, p. 32].
A. Romanenko, in my view, correctly noted that film We Were Young by M.
Belikov (1940-2012) "is a continuation of his film The Night is Short. But the style
is fundamentally different. If there would be difficult to draw the line between
lyrical feelings of the characters and the author's confession, the author here is not
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
so fused with their characters, not so frank, not in the least gives himself"
[Romanenko, 1987, p.114].
S. Shumakov exactly defined the genre of comedy Love and Pigeons by V.
Menshov: a tantalizing folk fantasy: “The authors passionately want to please their
audience. ... The simplicity of Love and Pigeons is deceptive. Before us, of course,
a splint, but it is quite modern" [Shumakov, 1987, p. 115].
Screen 1988 (1988, put in a set in September 1987)
Screen 1988 was already really the product of perestroika. The first time the
authors of this Yearbook wrote their articles without regard to censorship and even
on the 70th anniversary of Soviet power.
L. Mamatova (1935-1996) gave the sharp critical intonation: "The
landscape of cinema changed in the late 1970s and early 1980s... For example,
about 360 movies on a contemporary topic was filmed in 1981-1985. And how
many of them are phenomena of true art? There may be disputes: 5, 15 or 20. …
The others films escaped from the conflicts, in other words - from the problems of
reality itself…" [Mamatova, 1988, p.20].
N. Zorkaya (1924-2006) presents the remarkable article dedicated to the
main film person of cinema-perestroyka - T. Abuldaze (1924-1994). She
considered his anti-totalitarian parable Repentance in the the frame of
philosophical and poetic trilogy: "Film says convincingly historical and artistic
truth - "evil, which came to power is a dead end." And "social evil is so
destructive, that is able to destroy itself". This is the main idea of the film director.
His creation, Screen terrible and absurd time, illuminated by faith and love, it
inspires, gives a clue of hope" [Zorkaya, 1988, p.118].
K. Scherbakov wriote about another previously banned the film - Tests on
the Roads by A. German: "Bitter that the film lay on the shelf for many years.
Well, it turned out that the breath so long" [Shcherbakov, 1988, p. 90].
E. Gromov published a positive review of "shelving" drama Theme by G.
Panfilov: "This film is unusual for our cinema... The main questions of art are
questions not only aesthetic, but also ethical, ideological, universally valid...
Theme is bold, bright, deeply patriotic film. … Burned ice and fire of truth.
Probably, and now the film there will be opponents. But I am convinced, the
supporters will be immeasurably more” [Gromov, 1988, pp. 95-98].
G. Kapralov praised fantastic antiwar film Dead Man's Letters [Kapralov,
1988, p. 85]. A. Troshin praised the exquisite film Keep me, my talisman by R.
Balayan [Troshin, 1988, p.108]. A. Romanenko highly commended the film
Games for children of school age: "This film not only about the "difficult
children", but also about the difficult fate of teenagers because they need love,
affection and trust" [Romanenko, 1988, p.103].
S. Shumakov unexpectedly gave a sharply critical assessment of Wild
Pigeon by S. Solovyov [Shumakov, 1988, p.101].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
It is interesting to note that Screen 1988 has two articles devoted to the
problems of film studies and film criticism.
S. Drobashenko began his article with the criticism of the situation in the
Soviet film studies: "Film Studies has come to us in the mid-eighties as a narrative
branch of knowledge. In fact there is a logic and historical reasons. Cinema science
for a long time has been busy formulating their own methodology, collecting facts.
Problem analysis (as more mature) stage is yet to come... After the war, it was, as
before, with rare exceptions, inert, passive descriptive. ... And ultimately, film
criticism lost a place in the public consciousness... The crisis began... because
Soviet film studies is not trying (and never seriously tried) to identify patterns of
vibrations level feature films in various stages of cinema, discover the causes of
periodically increasing the flow of gray cinema"[Drobashenko, 1988, pp. 143144].
Next S. Drobashenko went on to criticize the publishing activities in the
field of cinema: "In 1985 it was about 60 books on cinematography; for 1986 about the same. Fundamental research on the fundamental problems of history and
theory of cinema has not been published at all in recent times. ... Film studies
books, designed for professionals, as it turns out, is not profitable to publish: one
continuous losses..." [Drobashenko, 1988, p. 146]. It seems that a lot of this has
been true. But when S. Drobashenko passed to the examples, it is clear that his
criticism was form yesterday's propaganda: "Truly scientific, uncompromising
civic history of the Soviet cinema has not yet been written. ... Out of sight out of
researchers and something more important: … on-screen interpretation of
socialism as the leading, uniting the forces of society. And that's not film studies,
but a serious ideological blunder" [Drobashenko, 1988, p. 145].
M. Zak expressed his opinion about the movie and film studies process,
based on the more advanced position: "We must equally refers directly to the
creative process and to estimates of ready-made films"[Zak, 1988, p.31].
Screen 1989 (1989, put in a set in September 1988)
Screen 1989 was put into a set in the autumn of 1988, when perestroika
continued to gain momentum. And Yearbook published the analytical text about
A. Tarkovsky (1932-1986): "His film The Mirror could be called even shorter
word - Home… Home, family, holy trinity: mother, father, child are an echo of the
Andrei Rublev, Tarkovsky’s movie about the destruction, devastation of his native
land, the destruction of the house and its reunification in the frescoes. Man, losing
the house, leaving the house, cut off or break away from home, becomes a blade of
grass in the wind, it blows in the world's oceans, and the oceans too sensitive to
apostasy, to break away from the parental home, to the emptiness of the parental
nest. Recall the final of Solaris: the prodigal son on his knees before his father,
the citation of Rembrandt in the midst of the rebellious ethereal matter, which,
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
however, return it to pacify his son to his father, his remorse, his request for
forgiveness" [Zolotussky, 1989, p.78].
E. Stishova’s article was the key article in Screen 1989. She wrote: "The
audience began to ignore the social problem films: this fact which needed and
needs to be explained. Film critics, sociologists and cultural studies reserchers
offer different concepts. Some complain of stiffness, the rationality of the director's
thinking, the deficit mentality. Others draw attention to global processes, and
seized us sinners. Yes, the polarization of the tastes and preferences, yes, the
prevalence of younger audiences and the related need for entertainment genres: all
these is true. But is the ability to light up a general social interest, general social
emotions lost forever? And the final burst of romanticism is gone, along with the
1960s? It turned out there, is not lost. Will see very soon" [Stishova, 1989, pp. 3132].
E. Stishova tried to summarize the cinema tendencies: "Criticism has not
answered the question, to whom and why it was necessary to uproot from the
cinema all that is connected with the drama of human life in general. Born slang
word "blackness". A new look at the last war is the blackness. The crisis of the
Russian Empire, gave birth to a revolutionary situation in Russia is blackness. The
difficulties of post-war life is blackness. Objective contradictions of modern social
development is blackness. Non conformist talent is blackness ... Cinematography
rescued two factors. Factor of the objective cinema development, which it is
impossible to curb... The second factor is the persistent artists, true to himself...
They are exist, luckily for us... We have to understand the differences and
paradoxes of cinematic development of 1970s-1980s. On the one hand, an
unprecedented drop the zero level. And world-class achievements on the other.
And all this in parallel, in a historical situation" [Stishova, 1989, pp. 33-34].
Thinking about the future of the national cinema, E. Stishova was convinced
that "cinema needed the injection of culture... But this is the problem more
difficult. ... What the viewer is necessary? It is the question of questions. Here it is
necessary to determine in the main, strategic point: whether to go for
cinematography audience, or try to lead him away. The second way is much more
difficult: in contrast to the first, a proven practice of the last decade, there is no
recipe. In addition, this way is long: it is designed for a certain level of culture of
perception" [Stishova, 1989, pp. 34-35].
V. Tolstykh supported the thoughts of E. Stishova: "The relationships
between film and spectator are dialectical. This means that the viewer, being the
customer cinema, at the same time is the object of art education. … The viewer do
not always selective and demanding in their tastes and expectations. … The
problem is probably exists in the nature of the relationships that are emerging and
established between the spectator and the cinema. In fact, usually a "magnetic
field", social and aesthetic, there is between the screen and the viewer" [Tolstykh,
1989, p.142].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Against the background of the current total domination of the entertainment
cinema further arguments of V. Tolstykh read already tinged with nostalgia for the
lost: "Personally, I'm not against entertainment. But when they become the main or
primary spiritual food of millions, the state agree that there is more than strange
and disturbing. … However, another point of view expressed, according to which
each of us is only "employee plus consumer" who is entitled to fun and relax after
a hard day. But this view of man has nothing in common with socialism, but very
satisfied with the bureaucrats. … The idea is unenviable: you did a good job, and I
will give you the opportunity to relax. And then cinema turns to filmmaking
satisfaction of the working masses’ current needs, and the main function of the
film is declared "restoration" of physical and nervous powers of man (more
precisely, the employee). … As soon as the market will begin to penetrate into the
sphere of culture, worsen the problem of humanization of our art and its
relationship to human beings and human needs" [Tolstykh, 1989, p.143].
The bulk of the Yearbook dedicated to national cinema, was re-assigned to
the movies on a contemporary topic. And polemical section again appeared on the
pages of the book: A. Gerber, M. Kuznetsova and S. Shumakov arguing about the
film Plumbum, or The Dangerous Game.
A. Gerber believes that "this film about the destructive power of the social
activity that it carries, is not supported by moral ideals, devoid of moral
guidelines" [Gerber, 1989, p.124].
But M. Kuznetsova was strongly disagrees with this view: "I am afraid that
the younger generation can perceive Plumbum as an example for others to follow"
[Kuznetsova, 1989, p.130].
S. Shumakov was even harsher in his assessment: "Cold outside perspective
in which no sympathy… And as a result the authors are also prisoners of their own
design. The main character sensitively shamelessly manipulates people. It's
immoral. But, proving to us that, the filmmakers have not noticed, as the hero
began to manipulate, have lost their moral guidelines" [Shumakov, 1989, p.131134].
A. Romanenko created generalization of interpretations of youth topis in the
cinema: "We need to recognize that the inner life of a young man remained closed
for decades, not because so complex and non-contact our children, but because art
dreaded look into their features, describe their habits, listen to sincere confession.
Because it would require new methods and analysis, and civil courage, and
readiness even to the fact that the film can be forbidden. The obstacles were too
strong for such films and books... Now the art has begun to catch up, but it does
sometimes frantically and quickly penetrates only the top layer of life. Because the
life requires new forms of art and communication, and new analysis tools,
equipment and philosophical and sociological thinking, and the gift of a publicist.
... Even a decade ago it has been widely distributed three points of view on the
current generation of young people. Some have argued that young people have a
great, heroic, almost completely burning enthusiasm. Others have focused on the
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
negative phenomena in the youth environment, even exaggerated their scale.
Others sneered: two thousand years ago, the world lamented the fall of morals of
young, and this is age-old story. But none was able to grasp the true essence of the
concerns of young people themselves, to feel the guilt and responsibility of the
older generation, to understand the role of the social atmosphere that prevailed in
the seventies and has influenced the spiritual warehouse for young attitude. Today
young people has become a key issue both in life and in art. We found a deep
connection between the issues of education and the need for further
democratization of society in general"[Romanenko, 1989, pp. 43-46].
The article by V. Shmyrov was a kind of illustration of this. Film critic
wrote about Courier by K. Shakhnazarov: "This film is natural doubly: is it
possible to talk about young people, without counting on the complicity of the
audience? In any case, the film does not reduce the level of conversation about real
spiritual values, which, in my opinion, to form his central problem" [Shmyrov,
1989, p.122].
The Yearbook published positive articles about films Lefty by S. Ovcharov
[Turin, 1989, p.102], Sign of Misfortune by M. Ptashuk (1943-2002) [Yurenev,
1989, p. 96] and the creative portrait of film director K. Muratova [Zorky, 1989, p.
157].
Screen 1990 (1990, put in a set in November 1989)
Screen 1990, alas, put the final point in the history of the Yearbook...
Freed from censorship conventions A. Erokhin wrote the brief review of the
history of the Soviet cinema. He noted that the concept of "mass culture" is
universal, not exclusively Western, as it was considered in the Soviet official film
studies. A "mass man" is practically almost the only type of hero of Soviet films,
especially in the 1930s-1940s-1950s. Bouncy hard worker, who enthusiastically
welcomes any communist ordinary appeal: to raise the virgin soil or to shoot the
enemies, to build a Railway or blame the intelligentsia. This character, which is
produced by the official Soviet culture for decades is the ideal of "mass man." In
approaching this ideal in reality, Soviet cinema achieved very great success. "Mass
Man" always willingly going into easily manageable crowd. ... The history of the
Soviet cinema must be rewritten" [Erokhin, 1990, pp. 8-10].
V. Shmyrov also wrote the article about the history of the Soviet cinema. He
insisted that it is necessary to revise the official textbooks on the history of the
Soviet cinema, who praised conjunctural movies (like Communist, Red Bells,
Trust or Lenin in Paris) in favor of the communist regime [Shmyrov, 1990, pp.1518].
Addressing by the recent history of the Soviet cinema, L. Elnikova wrote
that even in the most difficult years of stagnation Lenfilm produced such sharp
social films as Old Wall, Prohindiada, Guys, My Friend Ivan Lapshin, Twenty
Days Without War, Dead Man's Letters [Elnikova, 1990, p.28].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Screen 1990 discussion section was set aside for social drama Little Vera by
V. Pichul (1961-2015), one the main sensation 1980s.
V. Bozhovich was one of the many supporters of V. Pichul’s debut film:
“Little Vera it seems to me the work of the most mature and promising. It is
absolutely no stylistic frills, but achieved rare unity between the subject, manner of
narration, visual solutions ... performance of the actors, reaching full compliance
between the situation, gesture, intonation and a replica. Those who do not like the
film (and there are sure to be many), it will throw a reproach to naturalism. I do not
agree with such a reproach. ... The authors of Little Vera do not tend to write off
the human meanness on the household environment. Here the characters are not
opposed to the circumstances, do not suffer under their yoke, but there are with
them in some sluggish agreement. Too candid image of sexual entertainment of
young people angered many. And the other is not outraged? The whole picture of
life, the truth of which can hardly be any doubt, do not make trouble? ... You want
to see life as it is? Go and see Little Vera. If you want something "beautiful",
helped to keep spiritual comfort: no problems, there are a variety of other films, a
complete set of comforting and entertaining surrogates. But I prefer Little Vera
and I hope that it will open in our cinema a new direction: the direction of the
harsh and bitter realism. I think that is exactly what we need now in terms of public
awareness"[Bozovic, 1990, p.128].
Y. Bogomolov was a more restrained, but also positive: "It turned out that
not a cleft between the generations (as one might think, looking at the film
Courier), but the gulf. … Usually the conflict between "fathers" and "children"
embodies of the romantic style. Here, both generations are mired in stagnation and
semi-conscious in a completely mutual exasperation. ... However, the authors'
courage has its limits. It is evident that at some point they could not hold on, not to
smooth the acuteness of collisions. This is reflected in the fact that the "children"
slightly romanticized, i.e. appear more conscious living" [Bogomolov, 1990, p.
129].
But S. Shumakov watched Little Vera from a different perspective: "Alas,
here it is necessary to recognize that the "children" … appear more relaxed and
smarter because the adults look more stupid, primitive, and sometimes caricature"
[Shumakov, 1990, p.131].
Continuing the analysis of the films of the youth topic, M. Kuznetsova
emphasized that Assa by S. Soloviev "was a success, and not just among young
people. The director gave away all the sisters on earrings, each viewer will find in
the picture that corresponds to his preferences and to satisfy the demands of
cinematic spectacle. ... Collage, magic charms, prudently adjusted" [Kuznetsova,
1990, pp. 132-134].
V. Ivanova wrote about Temptation by V. Sorokin. She urged the readers
that this film "inherits the best traditions of our school movie: respect for the
youngest, the conversation is not on different levels, but on an equal footing,
because even the smallest creature scurrying you somewhere underfoot is
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
personality in the highest sense of this word. That is it, it can be and is already bad,
and already good, but they come to life in society, they have the amount of claims,
but there is also the sum of pledges. ... Yes, some say, it is necessary as soon as
possible to introduce children to the injection of adult life. I do not know. But let's
still be introduced gradually, with anesthesia. And in any case, with love, as in the
Temptation [Ivanova, 1990, p.152].
Extensive articles of L. Anninsky and S. Freilich focused on the difficult
fate of the masterpieces of "thaw" cinematography: The Story of Asya Klyachina
(Asya Happiness) by A. Konchalovsky and I Am Twenty by M. Khutsiev.
L. Anninsky wrote: "Konchalovsky’s films are not connected in a chain,
and it is aware of. He is not like those directors that, like Tarkovsky, Shukshin and
Khutsiev beating at one point whole life, deep into a topic... He's different, he does
not have one world, there is no single solution to it, and in every case the set "the
only solutions." He should look for a new solution for each film, it is necessary to
invent it again, it is necessary to reinvent the wheel. The main thing is not to be
repeated. He was not repeated. Never. Strictly highlighted asceticism of First
Teacher, crumble, elegiac Uncle Vanya, the playful splendor of nostalgic The
Noble Nest and crystallized epic Siberiade with several generations stretched under
the "night star"... The appearance of The Story of Asya Klyachina in this way is one
of the mysteries of art. It really is a miracle: a great film, created as if at the next
formal reception. Then double-double miracle and mystery. Firstly, this movie is
made completely "formless", "out of style", but this film, I am convinced, is
worthy to enter into the history of world cinema as a masterpiece, in which form
and content are one another. And, secondly, it is here, at the junction of receptions
a revelation born, making The Story of Asya Klyachina is not only the best work of
Konchalovsky, but one of the key points in the self-knowledge of a whole
generation, the whole era" [Anninsky, 1990, p.188].
S. Freilich argued that "the process of spiritual revival of the film I Am
Twenty by M. Khutsiev occupies a special place. The film was the fact that not
only art, but also the fact of social struggle. ... Three friends, young characters of
the film, freedom-loving, independent, ironic, straightforward, vulnerable, with a
great sense of dignity, they can not be lackeys, and they were potential opponents
in the eyes of the pillars of the bureaucratic regime" [Freilich, 1990, p.193].
A section of creative portraits of filmmakers was very strong in the Screen
1990. A. Zorky (1935-2006), in particular, wrote about the works of film director
A. Smirnov [Zorky, 1990, p.164], I. Shilova (1937-2011) admired the talent of the
great actor O. Borisov (1929-1994) [Shilova, 1990, p. 177], and L. Zakrzewskaya
appreciated actor V. Gostyukhin [Zakrzhevskaya, 1990, p. 182].
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Results
It is interesting to note that Yearbook significantly changed the ratio of
materials about the Soviet and foreign films under the pressure of the political
situation (Table 2).
Table 2. Ratio of materials about the Soviet and foreign cinema in the
‘Screen’ Yearbooks
Yearbooks titles
Screen 1964
Screen 1965
Screen 1966-1967
Screen 1967-1968
Screen 1968-1969
Screen 1969-1970
Screen 1970-1971
Screen 1971-1972
Screen 1973-1974
Screen 1974-1975
Screen 1975-1976
Screen 1976-1977
Screen 1977-1978
Screen 1978-1979
Screen 1979-1980
Screen 1980-1981
Screen 1981-1982
Screen 1982-1983
Screen 1983-1984
Screen 1987
Screen 1988
Screen 1989
Screen 1990
The volume of
materials on the
Soviet cinema (%)
The volume of
materials about
foreign cinema (%)
68
63
59
54
62
46
63
44
51
75
62
64
60
57
65
60
67
69
72
59
60
62
66
27
28
29
43
35
45
35
47
44
19
33
29
32
36
29
40
33
31
28
33
31
32
26
The volume of
information materials
(filmography, awards,
etc.) (%)
5
9
12
3
3
9
2
9
5
6
5
7
8
7
6
0
0
0
0
8
9
6
8
As can be seen from Table 2, the amount of material on the Soviet cinema in
the first five years an average of twice the number of pages on the amount of
articles about foreign cinema. However, the Resolutions of the Soviet Communist
Pary Central Committee "On increasing the responsibility of the heads of the press,
radio and television, film, culture and art institutions for the ideological and
political level of the published materials and repertoire" (07.01.1969), "On Literary
Criticism" (21.01.1972) and "On measures for further development of Soviet
cinema" (02.08.1972) played a leading role. In the Screen 1969-1970 and Screen
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
1971-1972 amount of material on the Soviet and foreign cinema almost on par,
and, starting with the Screen 1973-1974, the volume of articles on Soviet cinema
has always greatly exceeded the amount of foreign materials, reaching the highest
threshold in the Screen 1974-1975 (75% vs. 19%) and Screen 1983-1984 (72% vs.
28%).
The equality between the materials about the film industry of the socialist
and Western countries in the Screens in the light of communist Party Resolutions
this could be equated with the "propaganda of the bourgeois cinema" (with all the
practical consequences ensuing therefrom), and the compilers of yearbooks wwre
apparently sensitive for it. Yearbook listened to the directives of the Resolutions,
where it was clearly stated the necessity to promote the socialist movies with
communist ideology and criticism from all western movies [Resolution..., 1972].
So there is nothing surprising in the fact that, starting with the Screen 19731974, and up to the time of perestroika: the articles on the cinema of the socialist
and developing countries, loyal to the Soviet Union was dominated in the materials
about foreign cinema.
Why informational materials (filmography, information about prizes at
festivals, etc.) disappeared on the threshold of the 1980s, and only appeared in the
Screen 1987? Here it is hard to assume any direct influence of censorship and
Resulutions: lists of the films in the Soviet box office were not secret (at the same
times, they always appear in the December issue of the Soviet Screen). Perhaps the
Screen wanted to save on annual volume of books?
The content of yearbooks were the materials that are already published
previously (in the Soviet Screen, Cinema Art, Soviet Culture, Film Festival
Satellite and others.), some texts written specifically for a particular collection.
Thus, the drafters thought, "screens" were supposed to provide readers not only the
annual panorama of cinema, but also the best, most relevant articles of the Soviet
film critics and film experts. 24 issues of Screen thematic collections were
published from 1965 to 1990. The volume of each of the Yearbook was from 175
to 388 pages. Each Yearbook published dozens of articles, artistic portraits and
interviews relating to both the Soviet and foreign cinema.
Standard Yearbooks’ structure was as follows:
- Section "Close-up" (on the achievements of the Soviet cinema of the
current period);
- "Controversy", "Discussion" (review of Soviet films, caused controversy,
controversial opinions);
- "Reflections and reviews" (theoretical articles that analyze trends, genres
and types of films);
- "Portraits" (creative portraits of Soviet filmmakers);
- "Creative Stand" (articles of Soviet masters of the screen - directors,
actors);
- "Before the film, after the film," "Club of interesting meetings" (interview
with the masters of Soviet cinema);
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
- "Anniversaries," "People, events, films," "Pages from the history of
cinema" (article to anniversaries screen masters and distinguished films, articles on
the history of cinema);
- "Dating", "Screens of the world", "Meeting", "In the picture, and behind
the scenes" (interview with foreign filmmakers and the articles about the foreign
movie, including topics about the films and guests of Moscow and other
international festivals).
- A reference section (filmographies, film awards, prizes).
From time to time Yearbook had different thematic headings (such as "Man
and War", "Debuts", "Shield and Music", "Classic" and others.).
The compilers of the first yearbooks were critics M. Dolinsky and S.
Chertok (1931-2006). S. Chertok was the only collector from 1970 to 1975. E.
Bauman and G. Dolmatovskaya were the collectors of Screen 1974-1975 and
Screen 1975-1976. Y. Turin (1938-2016) and G. Dolmatovskaya were the Screen
Yearbooks’ collectors since 1978 and up to the last issue.
The authors of Yearbookss, in most cases were well-known Soviet film
critics, many of which occupy leading positions in specialized editions of
magazines and newspapers, in the film instituts (Table 3).
Table 3. The main authors of the ‘Screen’ Yearbooks (1965-1990)
№
1
2-3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
The names of film experts, film critics,
the most frequently published article
on the subject of the Soviet feature
films in the Screen Yearbook
Y. Turin *
M. Dolinsky & S. Chertok **
E. Gromov
L. Zakrzhevskaya
E. Bauman
R. Yurenev
D. Pisarevsky
M. Zak
V. Baskakov
I. Levshina
T. Khloplyankina
I. Shilova
A. Zorky
L. Anninsky
V. Ivanova ***
G. Kapralov
M. Kuznetsova
A. Medvedev
N. Sumenov
J. Warsawsky
The number of articles published by
these film experts, film critics on the
subject of the Soviet feature films in
the Screen Yearbook
17
15
14
12
11
11
10
10
8
8
8
8
8
7
7
6
6
6
6
6
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
* Some Y. Turin’s articles were published under the pen name as Samarin.
* Some articles of M. Dolinsky & S. Chertok also printed under the pen names as M. Zinoviev
and S. Markov. Some their materials are available in the Screen collections without reference to
the authorship.
*** Some V. Ivanova’s articles also printed under the pen name as V. Esina.
1. Dr. Y. Turin (1938-2016), film critic, editor, novelist and screenwriter.
He graduated from the Institute of Cinematography (1962). He worked as an editor
at the publishing house Soviet Russia (1962-1974). Since 1974, he has become a
leading researcher at the Research Institute of Film Arts. He was the winner of the
Award of Union of Cinematographers (1981). Author of several books on the
subject of cinema.
2-3. M. Dolinsky (born in 1930) is journalist, film critic and editor. S.
Chertok (1931-2006) was journalist, film critic, editor. He was the head of
information section in Soviet Screen from 1964 to 1975, the researcher in Research
Institute of Theory and History of Cinema from 1976 to 1979. Author of several
books on the subject of cinema. Since 1979, he lived in Israel, where he
successfully continued his journalistic activities.
4. Prof. Dr. E. Gromov (1931-2005), film critic, screenwriter, film educator.
He graduated from the Moscow State University (1954). He was a member of the
Communist Party. He was the researcher at the Institute of Philosophy of the
Academy of Sciences, State Institute of Art Academy of Sciences, Research
Institute of Theory and History of Cinema. He wrote the scripts for several popular
scientific and documentary films. He was also professor in the Institute of
Cinematography (1967-1969, 1987-2005). Author of several books on the subject
of cinema.
5. Dr. L. Zakrzhevskaya (born in 1940), film criticc and screenwriter. She
graduated from the the Institute of Cinematography. Author of many articles on the
subject of cinema.
6. E. Bauman (born in 1932), film critic, editor. She graduated from
Institute of Theater Art (1955). She was the head of Department of Soviet cinema
in the magazine Soviet Screen for many years.
7. Prof. Dr. R. Yurenev (1912-2002), film critic, screenwriter, film
educator. He graduated from the Institute of Cinematography (1936). He was the
winner of the Award of Union of Cinematographers. He taught the Institute of
Cinematography (1939-2002). He also worked in the magazine Cinema Art (19461948), in the Institute of Art History of the Academy of Sciences (1948-1974),
Research Institute of Theory and History of Cinema (1974-2002). He was the
author of many works on the history, genre and ideological problems of
cinematography. He wrote the scripts of the several documentaries. He was one of
the most influential representatives of the official Soviet film critics, receiving
accreditation to the major international film festivals.
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
8. Dr. D. Pisarevsky (1912-1990), film critic, screenwriter and editor. He
graduated from the Academy of Communist education (1934). He was a member
of the Communist Party. He was Chief Editor of Soviet Screen (1961-1975), the
author of several books and many articles on the topic of cinema. He was one of
the most influential representatives of the official Soviet film critics in 1960s –
1970s.
9. Dr. M. Zak (1929-2011), film critic, film researcher. He graduated from
the Institute of Cinematography (1952). He was a member of the Communist
Party. Since 1974 he worked at the Research Institute of Theory and History of
Cinema, has gone from a research assistant to the Deputy Director. He was the
winner of the prize Nika for achievements in the field of film studies (2004), the
author of many books and articles on the theory and history of cinema.
10. Prof. Dr. V. Baskakov (1921-1999), film critic. He was a member of the
Communist Party. He held the post of first deputy chairman of the State
Committee for Cinematography of the USSR (1963-1973), and director of the
Research Institute for History and Theory of Cinema / Motion Picture Arts
Research Institute (1973-1987). Author of many books and articles, mainly
devoted to foreign films and ideological struggle on the screen. He was one of the
most influential representatives of the official Soviet film critics, receiving
accreditation to the major international film festivals.
11. Dr. I. Levshina (1932-2009), film critic, film educator. She graduated
from the Moscow State University (1954). Author of books dedicated to the works
of leading Russian actors, and problems of film education in schools.
12. T. Khloplyankina (1937-1993), film critic, screenwriter and editor. She
graduated from the Institute of Cinematography (1959). She worked in the Culture
newspaper, Literary Gazette. She was also the deputy editor in Soviet Screen
(1990-1992). She was the author of many articles about cinema.
13. Dr. I. Shilova (1937-2011), film critic, film educator. She graduated
from the Institute of Cinematography (1962). She worked in Research Institute for
History and Theory of Cinema and Institute of Cinematography. She was the
author of many books and articles about cinema.
14. A. Zorky (1935-2006), film critic and journalist. He graduated from the
Institute of Cinematography. For several decades he worked in the Literary
Gazette, Soviet Screen, and Cinema Art. He was the author of many articles about
cinema.
15. L. Anninsky (born in 1934), film critic, literary critic, editor. He
graduated from the Philological Faculty of Moscow State University (1956).
Laureate the prizes of Cinematographers' Union (1980), Literary Russia (1984,
1999), October (1983), Literary Review (1988, 1989), Zvezda (1995), Archer
(1996; 1998), television TEFI (1996). He worked in the magazine Soviet Union
(1956-1957), in the Literary Gazette (1957-1960), in the journal Znamya (19601967), at the Institute of Concrete Sociological Research (1968-1972), in magazine
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Friendship of peoples (1972-1991), Literary Review (1990-1992), Homeland
(1992) He is the author of many books and articles on cinema.
16. V. Ivanova (1937-2008), film critic, journalist and editor. He worked in
Moskovsky Komsomolets and Soviet Culture. She was a member of Communist
Party. She was the author of many articles on cinema.
17. Dr. G. Kapralov (1921-2010), film critic, journalist, writer. He was a
member of Communist Party. He held the prestigious post of deputy head of
Department of Literature and Art in the main Soviet newspaper Pravda. As the
correspondent of Pravda he visited regularly at major international film festivals.
He headed the Moscow section of the critics of the Union of Cinematographers of
the USSR (1962-1986). He held also the post of vice-president International
Federation of Film Critics (FIPRESCI) (1967-1986). He was the anchorman of a
popular Soviet TV program Cinema Panorama (1976-1979). He was the author of
several books and many articles on the topic of cinema.
He was one of the most influential representatives of the official Soviet film
critics in 1960s – 1980s.
18. M. Kuznetsova, a film critic, journalist, author of several articles on the
cinema.
19. Dr. A. Medvedev (born in 1938), film critic, editor, film educator. He
graduated from the Institute of Cinematography (1960). Honored Artist of Russia,
twice winner of the Nika Award. He was a member of Communist Party. He
worked in the Bureau of Propaganda of Soviet cinema as a guidance counselor,
head of lecture department, and since 1964 - the director. He was editor of Soviet
Film (1966-1972). Since 1972 he worked as the deputy editor, and (from 1982 to
1984) as editor in chief of the magazine Cinema Art. He was the first deputy
(1987-1989) and chairman (1989-1991) of the State Committee for
Cinematography of the USSR. The top of the career was position of the chairman
of the State Committee for Cinematography of the Russian Federation (19921999). Since 1999 he is President of the International Fund for Film and Television
Development for Children and Youth (Rolan Bykov Foundation). He is the author
of several books and many articles about cinema.
20. Dr. N. Sumenov (1938-2014), film critic, editor, film educator. He
graduated from the Institute of Cinematography. He was a member of Communist
Party, the chief editor of experimental creative association in Mosfilm. He was also
editor maneger in Cinema Art and advisor of the Minister of Culture of the Russian
Federation and member of the State Council, and professor in taught in Institute of
Cinematography. He was the author of many works on the subject of cinema.
21. J. Warsawsky (1911-2000), film critic, screenwriter and editor. He
graduated from Institute of Theater Art (1935). He was a member of Communist
Party. He worked as a deputy editor of Cinema Art. He was the author of many
books and articles on cinema topic.
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Conclusios
So, Screen Yearbooks more than a quarter century became a sort of mirror
of the Soviet criticism of the 1960s - 1980s, reflecting its ups and downs, forced to
default figures, ideological passages, thaw and perestroika hopes...
Russian film criticism changed significantly now, but compared to thaw and
perestroika times not always in the best possible way. For example, glamorous and
glossy, often superficial film critics dominate in the press and Internet…
Many of the authors of the Screen Yearbooks for a long time are no longer
alive... Some of the critics have gone into other professions... But life goes on, and
the Russian film criticism, in my opinion, still be able to delight true fans of the
film art deep level of analysis...
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Gromov, E. (1984). Thought Wings. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp.54-58.
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Levshina, I. (1972). Two awards. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 36-38.
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Shatsillo, D. (1986). Poem about war and peace. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 61-64.
Shatsillo, D. (1987). Feat in ice. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 95-99.
Shcherbakov, K. (1965). Tradition schemes quest ... Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 85-91.
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Shilova, I. (1978). Regimantas Adomaitis. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 156-160.
Shilova, I. (1981). Mythology of Contemporary History. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp.
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Shilova, I. (1982). Natalia Andreichenko. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 132-136.
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Shilova, I. (1985). Contemporary screen. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 14-40.
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Shilova, I. (1988). Industrial conflicts, family conflicts. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 36-41.
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Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Sobolev, R. (1983). Simplicity Wisdom (Vsevolod Sanaev). Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art,
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Sulkin, M. (1982). Elaman engages in battle. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 96-98.
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Troshin, A. (1988). Sound of a breaking string. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 107-108.
Tsereteli, K. (1969). "Eliso". Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, p. 28.
Turbin, V. (1969). Alexander Green, his rights, his duties. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp.
110-111.
Turin, Y. (1977). Way of the Cross. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 96-102.
Turin, Y. (1978). Welcome win! Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 97-99.
Turin, Y. (1979). Children after the war. Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-97.
Turin, Y. (1981). Ivan Ryzhov. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 115-118.
Turin, Y. (1982). Anatoly Solonitsyn. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 136-143.
Turin, Y. (1983). Again, the historical film. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 36-43.
Turin, Y. (1984). Film-call. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 62-65.
Turin, Y. (1985). Earth, water, people. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 86-90.
Turin, Y. (1986). Faces of heroic themes. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 47-56.
Turin, Y. (1987). Humanism Lessons (Sholokhov - Bondarchuk: The destiny of man). Screen
1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 152-158.
Turin, Y. (1988). Quiet Flows the Don of Sergei Gerasimov. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp.
151-154.
Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
Turin, Y. (1989). Talent of Resistance. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 102-105.
Tvalchrelidze, T. (1977). Sophia Chiaureli. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 145-148.
Ungureanu L. (1984). Actor with deep temperament (Mihai Volontir). Screen 1981-1982.
Moscow: Art, pp. 88-92.
Urnov, D. (1987). Why? What for? Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 28-32.
Vartanov, A. (1969). Stories, events, characters. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 134-138.
Vartanov, A. (1971). Telefilms? And what is it? Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 128-134.
Vartanov, A. (1972). We and G. Malyan’s film. Screen 1971-1972. Moscow: Art, pp. 47-49.
Vladimirova, E. (1979). Fidelity (I. Talankin - 50). Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 154157.
Vlasov, M. (1984). Happy gift. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 103-106.
Warsawsky, J. (1965). Film of action delayed. Screen 1964. Moscow: Art, pp. 44-51.
Warsawsky, J. (1966). Return to movie. Screen 1965. Moscow: Art, pp. 124-132.
Warsawsky, J. (1967). Comedy of Errors. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 105-111.
Warsawsky, J. (1967). Work of the Film. Screen 1966-1967. Moscow: Art, pp. 20-24.
Warsawsky, J. (1969). Dignity. Screen 1968-1969. Moscow: Art, pp. 75-79.
Warsawsky, J. (1971). Through the chronicle. Screen 1970-1971. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-93.
Wilchek, V. (1976). Spectrogram of success. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 58-63.
Yurenev, A. (1977). Boris Babochkin. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 142-144.
Yurenev, A. (1979). Happy fate (A. Khokhlova - 80). Screen 1977-1978. Moscow: Art, pp. 145147.
Yurenev, R. (1975). About sensitivity of the human. Screen 1973-1974. Moscow: Art, pp. 19-21.
Yurenev, R. (1978). Indomitable (the 75th anniversary of I. Pyrev). Screen 1976-1977. Moscow:
Art, pp. 136-142.
Yurenev, R. (1982). Five parties and two actors. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-102.
Yurenev, R. (1983). Victory of conscience. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 82-84.
Yurenev, R. (1984). Jakov Protazanov. Screen 1981-1982. Moscow: Art, pp. 106-110.
Yurenev, R. (1985). Vsevolod Pudovkin. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 130-134.
Yurenev, R. (1986). Failure. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 100-101.
Yurenev, R. (1988). Military prose Poetry. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 90-92.
Yurenev, R. (1989). Cleansing Fire. Screen 1989. Moscow: Art, pp. 94-96.
Zaitsev, N. (1978). Optimsm of the revolutionary perspective. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art,
pp. 84-86.
Zaitsev, N. (1981). No one is forgotten and nothing is forgotten. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow:
Art, pp. 76-80.
Zak, M. (1975). Big Picture Show. From observations of cinema. Screen 1974-1975. Moscow:
Art, pp. 111-116.
Zak, M. (1977). Master. Screen 1975-1976. Moscow: Art, pp. 134-137.
Zak, M. (1978). Director selects the position. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 63-69.
Zak, M. (1981). Autobiography of love. Screen 1978-1979. Moscow: Art, pp. 92-95.
Zak, M. (1982). Counter-movement. Screen 1979-1980. Moscow: Art, pp. 103-106.
Zak, M. (1985). Business man on vacation. Screen 1982-1983. Moscow: Art, pp. 75-78.
Zak, M. (1986). Dialogues. Screen 1983-1984. Moscow: Art, pp. 32-37.
Zak, M. (1987). Checking using life. Screen 1987. Moscow: Art, pp. 22-28.
Zak, M. (1988). Stairs analysis. Screen 1988. Moscow: Art, pp. 31-35.
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Медиаобразование. Media Education. 2017. № 1
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166-170.
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Moscow: Art, pp. 178-182.
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pp. 110-118.
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Zorky, A. (1978). Mimino is Georgian Falcon. Screen 1976-1977. Moscow: Art, pp. 208-209.
Zorky, A. (1983). Tehran Case. Screen 1980-1981. Moscow: Art, pp. 137-140.
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162-167.
Russian Journal of Sociology, 2016, Vol. (3), Is. 1
Copyright © 2016 by Academic Publishing House Researcher
Published in the Russian Federation
Russian Journal of Sociology
Has been issued since 2015.
ISSN: 2410-9118
E-ISSN 2413-7545
Vol. 3, Is. 1, pp. 4-9, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/rjs.2016.3.4
www.ejournal32.com
UDC 316
Soviet Cartoons Media Texts in Cold War Times: Hermeneutic Analysis
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russia, branch of Rostov State University of Economics
Prof. Dr. (Pedagogy)
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Abstract
The author uses the hermeneutic analysis – a study of the process of interpretation of media
texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the views of the agency / author on the media text.
This analysis suggests media text comprehension through comparison with historical, cultural
tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media images in historical and
cultural context by combining analysis of the structural, plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic /
visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media texts’ characters. As a result, the author concluded
that the era of the Cold War, which spawned mutual ideological confrontation of the communist
and capitalist countries, covering all categories of media texts, including animation / cartoon.
Cartoons were used as levers of power required reports confrontational ideas in attractive folklore,
fairy package in order to influence not only adults but also on children's audience.
Keywords: media literacy, film studies, cartoons, media education, animation, cartoon, cold
war, ideology, media text, cold war.
Introduction
In my previous works (Fedorov, 2008; 2011), I have repeatedly appealed to the technology
hermeneutic analysis of media texts (Eco, 1998; 2005; Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001, p. 80-81).
This time I use as an example of the Soviet cartoons media texts on the topic of Cold War. This
data analysis of media texts, in my opinion, will be useful for the training of future culture & art
historians, sociologists, linguists, psychologists and educators.
Materials and methods
Technology hermeneutic analysis of Soviet cartoons media texts on the topic of "cold war".
The historical, cultural, political, ideological context
Historical Context
- the place of media texts’ actions: the United States, an unnamed country;
- the times of creation of media texts: these cartoons were created in the second half of the
1940s.
- the era of the cold war was the source of the creation of the set as the anti-Soviet / anticommunist and anti-western / anti-bourgeois media texts within the time period 1946-1991 years
(since March 5, 1946, when Winston Churchill made his famous Fulton speech, sharply criticized
the policy the Soviet Union, and since August-September 1946, when Stalin’s regime adopted "anti-
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Russian Journal of Sociology, 2016, Vol. (3), Is. 1
cosmopolitan" resolution "On the magazines "Zvezda" and "Leningrad", "On the repertoire of
theaters and measures for improvement" and "On the use and discharge Foreign Literature").
General socio-cultural, political and ideological context of the second half of the 1940s:
- the restoration of the war-torn Russian economy through the exertion of all human
resources;
- the rapid development of military industry, nuclear development;
- the establishment of totalitarian regimes (completely dependent on the Kremlin) in almost
all the countries of Eastern Europe;
- a return to the practice of mass repression (the struggle against cosmopolitanism, antiSemitic campaign, etc.).
Discussion
I agree with Russian philosopher and political scientist D.P. Konchalovsky, who come to the
conclusion that Russia in the 1930s - 1940s, has turned "in hierarchically structured society
absolutist police-type class division, hierarchical bureaucracy, strict discipline, lack of freedom and
personal rights. As if stricken 19th century. Return to the 18th and even the 17th century. This is
the essence. But apparently, this regime, for the sake of the era and the recent habits, created and
supported in every possible way scenery of democracy and freedoms. It is necessary for both
internal and external use. To create this duality and contradiction have to befuddle, to confuse
people. Hence the propaganda reinforced at every turn (to prevent people to recover and to think
again), here the suppression of contact with people who saw the West, they neutralized as much as
possible, hence the "iron curtain" (Konchalovsky, 1969, p.24-25).
Undoubtedly, even in the era of peak "cold war" - as in the United States and the Soviet
Union - were the media texts with positive characters from the country of "potential enemy".
A positive foreign characters mostly appear in the Soviet film adaptations of literary classics, which
is set in the past (at least - until 1917). As for western characters of the second part of 1940s, they
met in the Soviet media texts if they are anti-imperialist, anti-bourgeois attitudes and actions, and
even better - direct support of communist ideas.
But, of course, most of the Soviet media texts on the theme of modern Western life in the
times of "cold war" was created with the aim of exposing and accusations of imperialism and the
bourgeois world.
In this respect, it is very interesting of real events on both sides of the "Iron Curtain." Yes, we
can agree with that the atmosphere of mutual suspicion, rudeness, cynicism, fear, complicity and
disunity in last years of Stalinism completely displaced from the domestic themes, could be realized
only in the construction of the "enemy image (Turovskaya, 1996, p.106). But, alas, a very similar
atmosphere, in spite of all the American democratic tradition, there was in the process of "witch
hunt", launched at about the same years of Senator George McCarthy in relation to many of the
Hollywood director and screenwriter, accused of sympathizing with communism and the Soviet
Union.
At the same time these two mutually hostile media trends are similar version where the true
facts (in varying degrees) combined with ideological and aesthetic falsification.
I confidently assert that the Western enemy media image was formed in the Soviet Union (as,
indeed, the image of the Soviet enemy in the Western media texts aimed against the USSR) back in
1920s-1930s and later operated effectively for many decades: the vast majority of it was the image
of the aggressor / aggressor alien / spy / criminal barbarian / degenerate, and if intellectual, then
again, hostile, spiteful and cruel.
In addition, the external threat was "a convenient excuse for domestic problems and
contradictions in the socio-economic and political system, which could otherwise be seen as
evidence of the inhabitants of the Soviet Union its imperfections" (Fateev, 1999). It was typical for
the Stalinist socialism with the because “the dominance of a ruthless and all-consuming state”
(Konchalovsky, 1969, p.17).
In this context, the so-called Marshall Plan, developed in 1947 by US Secretary of State James
Marshall, was treated by Soviet propaganda as a threat to the socialist camp. The Marshall Plan
worked in Western Europe (Britain, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands) from 1948 to
1951 and became known to be one of the most effective economic projects to revive the war-torn
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Russian Journal of Sociology, 2016, Vol. (3), Is. 1
states. Of course, billions of dollars of investment in the development of Europe were associated
with the political conditions of the anti-communist orientation.
Hence it is clear that the Marshall Plan in the Soviet Union was perceived hostility and Soviet
media of late 1940s were awash with articles against this action.
Ideological propaganda of the Cold War could not circumvent and artistic sphere of life in the
USSR. So in addition to the decision of the Politburo of the Communist party "On the magazines
"Zvezda" and "Leningrad" (Decision ... 1946),"On the repertoire of theaters and measures to
improve them" (Decision ... 1946) the Resolution "On the opera "The Great Friendship" of
V. Muradeli" was published in February 1948. This Resolution accused the Soviet composers'
works in which “the most clearly presented formalist perversions, anti-democratic trends in music,
alien to the Soviet people and their artistic tastes. Characteristic features of this music is the denial
of the basic principles of classical music, preaching, atonality, dissonance and disharmony, which
are supposedly an expression of "progress" and "innovation" in the development of musical form,
the rejection of the essential foundations of a musical work, which is a melody, passion chaotic,
neuropathic combinations that turn music into cacophony, a chaotic jumble of sounds. This music
gives much the spirit of contemporary modernist bourgeois music of Europe and America
displaying insanity of bourgeois culture, a complete negation of the musical art, its dead end”
(Decision ... 1948).
Moreover, in April-May 1949, the Soviet Union developed a special "Action Plan to
strengthen the anti-American propaganda in the near future," provides for "the systematic printing
materials, articles, pamphlets exposing the aggressive plans of US imperialism, anti-national
character of the social and political system of the United States, debunks the fable of American
propaganda about the "prosperity" of America, showing the profound contradictions of the US
economy, the falsity of bourgeois democracy, the insanity of bourgeois culture and mores of
modern America" (The plan ... 1949).
Results
And it should be noted that all three of anti-Western cartoon, shot in 1949 - Ambulance,
Mr. Wolf and Alien Voice - fully meet the objectives of this plan.
The first of these was exposed perfidy of the Marshall Plan, the second - the greed and deceit
of the American bourgeoisie, and the third - noxiousness formalism and jazz music.
The ideological, political context
The term Cold War is closely related to such concepts as psychological war, ideological
struggle, political propaganda, ideological propaganda, propaganda (under the propaganda
I understand purposeful regular a media introduction into the mass consciousness of this or that
ideology to achieve a particular social effect planned) and the enemy image. According to the just
determination A.V. Fateev, "enemy image is an ideological expression of social antagonism,
dynamic character hostile to the state and the citizen forces, a policy tool of the ruling groups of the
society. ... The enemy image is a crucial element of psychological warfare, which is a deliberate
and planned use of propaganda by political opponents, among other means of pressure for the
direct or indirect influence on the opinions, moods, feelings and behavior of the enemy, allies and
their populations in order to force them to act in pleasing to the government directions"(Fateev,
1999).
In this sense, animated film Ambulance, Mr. Wolf and Alien Voice noticeable clear message
of propaganda aimed at convincing the audience that:
- The Marshall Plan is built on the evil designs of the US imperialists in the guise of
economic aid to rob and plunge into poverty population of the European countries (Ambulance);
- Even pretending for a while pacifist Western bourgeois sooner or later finds its aggressive,
greedy nature (Mr. Wolf );
- Imposed by the West and disharmonious cheeky "music of thick" (jazz, etc.) must be
uncompromisingly rejected the true connoisseurs of classical music, folk tunes and genuinely
(Alien Voice).
In general, the ideological and political context of world, depicted in the anti-Western Soviet
cartoons in 1949, can probably be described as follows.
Ideology and political context of world depicted in the anti-Western Soviet cartoons of the
Cold War times.
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Russian Journal of Sociology, 2016, Vol. (3), Is. 1
Ideology of the world represented in the media text: the imperialist bourgeois ideology, the
ideology of survival in the world of the wolf (Ambulance, Mr. Wolf), the ideology of the struggle for
traditional music against harmful foreign influences (Alien Voice).
The hierarchy of values of the world in the media text: wealth - power - fun, entertainment
(Ambulance, Mr. Wolf), enjoy of jazz melody (Alien voice).
The recipe of a success for the characters of the media text: to be aggressive imperialist,
greedy and deceitful bourgeois (Ambulance, Mr. Wolf), to be alover of discord and disharmony in
the music (Alien voice), to be able to survive in the world of the wolfs (Ambulance, Mr. Wolf).
Characters seek to achieve this success by any means available to them - false propaganda,
armed aggression, persistent implementation of the masses modernist music.
In general, these cartoons have stereotyped characters, but some characters may also have
individual characteristics (eg, Mr. Wolf first puts on the mask of a pacifist).
Cultural Context
As a product of mass / popular culture, Soviet 1949’s cartoons on the theme of confrontation
with the Western way of life relied on folklore and fairy sources, including traditional fabulous
presentation about wolves as a negative and evil beings, a hares like eternal victims of predatory
animals and so on. Thus, in the Ambulance and Alien voice folk-fabulous images of animals and
birds were transferred to Western and Soviet values representation, helping to strengthen the
image of the West as hostile and alien to the Soviet Union.
In particular, the Alien voice quite clearly resonates with the base of the era of the "cold war"
Soviet book with the eloquent title Music of spiritual poverty, which clearly states that "the task of
modern jazz is directly opposed to the tasks of the people's dance songs and music. It does not
excite strong, cheerful feelings, but rather dampens and suppresses them. It does not carry the
impetuous passion, but mesmerizing deathly cold of their mechanistic rhythms disastrous
monotony and scarcity of musical material. And even when its purpose - to act as a pathogen, it is
used only to stun the hysterical cries of" (Gorodinsky, 1950, p.81).
Genre modification: basically - satire.
The main dramatic stereotypes of media texts:
- The representatives of Western values invade in the peaceful world of positive characters
(Ambulance, Alien voice) in an attempt to deceive, entrap, rob, spoil the artistic taste; but - sooner
or later - positive characters realize deceit of these shares and begin to deal with them.
- Western bourgeois characters may at some time to pretend to be pacifists (Mr. Wolf) or
benefactors (Ambulance), however, their negative, bestial essence is found...
Methods of representation of reality (iconography) - furnishings, household items, etc.
The modest appearance of positive characters; luxurious furnishings life of the Western
bourgeoisie. Western capitalists (Mr. Wolf) is shown with a significant share of grotesque.
The typology of the characters (their values, ideas, ethics, clothes, physique, vocabulary,
facial expressions, gestures)
Character Age: 50-60 years (Mr. Walk and his wife), the age of the characters, animals are
more difficult, but at least they are not old...
The appearance, clothes, physique: characters dressed according to social status, although
the poor bunny gets first of the new bourgeoisie expensive suit).
Appearance of a positive characters are usually attractive, the appearance of bourgeoisie and
their henchmen, by contrast, - repellen...
Social status, profession characters: social position for bourgeois characters and poor
characters (regardless - people or animals) is significantly different.
Marital status characters also depends on the specific plot of the media text.
Negative characters’ traits: greed, cruelty, meanness, dedication, hostility, cunning,
strength.
Positive characters’ traits: gullibility, naivety, the ability to resist bourgeois influence.
Bourgeois characters shown angry, rude and violent, with a primitive vocabulary, active
gestures and unpleasant tone of voice.
The positive characters, in contrast, has a pleasant voice (especially of the Nightingale from
Alien voice.
The whole character of all characters mentioned above is depicted by a dashed media texts,
without going into psychology.
7
Russian Journal of Sociology, 2016, Vol. (3), Is. 1
Value orientations (ideological, religious, etc.) of characters: in all three "confrontational"
cartoons negative characters clearly manifested bourgeois, imperialist, modernist values, coupled
with a focus on violence as a means of solving problems. Values of positive characters are similar to
the "traditional folk".
The actions of the character, his methods of conflict resolution: the actions dictated by the
development of the characters mentioned above storylines stereotypical media texts.
A significant change in the plot by the media and lives of the characters, problems
encountered, solutions to the problem.
Negative characters interrupted of ordinary life of positive characters. A problem: the life
(Ambulance), or artistic values (Alien voice) of positive characters are threatened. And there's only
one way to solve it – the struggle with negative characters, their foreign influence.
Conclusion
So, I tried to specific examples make hermeneutic analysis - a study of the process of
interpretation of media texts, cultural and historical factors influencing the views of the agency /
author on the media text. Hermeneutical analysis suggests media text comprehension through
comparison with historical, cultural tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through
comparison of media images in historical and cultural context by combining analysis of the
structural, plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic / visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media
texts’ characters. As a result, I concluded that the era of the Cold War, which spawned mutual
ideological confrontation of the communist and capitalist countries, covering all categories of
media texts, including animation / cartoon. Cartoons were used as levers of power required reports
confrontational ideas in attractive folklore, fairy package in order to influence not only adults but
also on children's audience.
Filmography:
1. Mr. Wolf. USSR, 1949. Directed by V. Gromov. Writers: V. Dlugach, S. Romanov (author
of the play "Island of Peace" – E. Petrov). Operator M. Drujan. Composer Y. Levitin.
2. Ambulance. USSR, 1949. Directed by L. Bredis. Screenwriter A. Medvedkin. Operator
E. Petrova. Composer N. Peyko.
3. Alien voice. USSR, 1949. Directed by I. Ivanov-Vano. Writers: D. Tarasov, M. Kalinin.
Operator N. Voinov. Composer Y. Nikolsky.
References:
1. Eco, U. (1976). A Theory of Semiotics. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Silverblatt, A. (2001). Media Literacy. Westport, Connecticut - London: Praeger, 449 p.
2. Eco, U. (1998). Lack of structure. Introduction to semiology. St. Petersburg: Petropolis,
432 p.
3. Eco, U. (2005). The role of the reader. Research on the semiotics of the text.
St. Petersburg: Symposium, 502 p.
4. Fateev, A. (1999). The image of the enemy in Soviet propaganda, 1945-1954. Moscow:
Publishing House of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
5. Fedorov, A.V. (2008). Analysis of the cultural mythology of media texts in the classroom
at the student audience // Innovations in education. 2008. № 4, pp.60-80.
6. Gorodinsky, V. (1950). Music of spiritual poverty. Moscow: Muzgiz, 139 p.
7. Konchalovsky, D.P. (1969). Ways of Russia. Paris: YMCA-PRESS, 1969. 261 p.
8. Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party "On the magazines
"Zvezda" and "Leningrad". Moscow, 1946, August, 14.
9. Resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party "On the repertoire of
theaters and measures to improve it." Moscow, 1946, August 26.
10. Resolution of the Politburo of the Communist Party "On the opera "The Great
Friendship" of V. Muradeli." Moscow, 1948, February, 10.
11. The Action Plan to strengthen the anti-American propaganda in the near future.
Moscow, 1949. RCHIDNI. File 17-132-224, pp. 48-52.
12. Turovskaya, M.I. (1996). Movies of Cold War // Art of Cinema. 1996. № 9, pp. 98-106.
8
Russian Journal of Sociology, 2016, Vol. (3), Is. 1
УДК 316
Советские анимационные медиатексты во времена холодной войны:
герменевтический анализ
Александр Федоров
Таганрогский институт имени А.П. Чехова, филиал Ростовского государственного
университета экономики, Российская Федерация
Доктор педагогических наук, профессор
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Аннотация. Автор этой статьи использует герменевтический анализ – исследование
процесса интерпретации медиатекста, культурных и исторических факторов, влияющих на
вид на агентство / автора медиатекста. Этот анализ предусматривает анализ через сравнение
с исторической, культурной традицией и реальностью; проникновение в логику
медиатекста; анализ аудиовизуального ряда медиатекста в историческом и культурном
контексте, сочетая структурной, этический, идеологический, иконографический,
семиотический анализ. В результате, автор приходит к выводу, что эпоха холодной войны,
которая породила взаимную идеологическое противостояние коммунистических и
капиталистических стран, охватывало все категории медиатекстов, в том числе
анимационных / мультипликационных. Мультфильмы были использованы в качестве
рычагов власти для пропаганды конфронтационных идей в привлекательной фольклорной,
сказочной упаковке, для того, чтобы влиять не только взрослую, но и на детскую аудиторию.
Ключевые слова: медиаграмотность, мультфильмы, медиаобразование, анимация,
холодная война, идеология, медиатексты, холодная война.
9
Alexander Fedorov
Film Criticism and Russian Screen *
Film-Criticism and Cinema-Press in Russia
The history of Russian cinema-critics will be written some day, including the main
stages, currents and directions, «the revolution's romanticism» of the twenties, «the ideological
conservatism» of thirties and forties, «the thaw» of the fifties and sixties, «the stagnation» of
seventies, the problems the capital and provincial cinema-critics, etc.
My intentions here are more modest - to chronicle the situation in the nineties, when the
former leaders of the profession (Rostislav Urenev, Georgy Kapralov, Alexander Karaganov)
were removed for various reasons, or became TV-journalists (Boris Berman, Sergey Sholokhov
and Petr Shepotinik). Others (Victor Demin, Georgy Bogemsky, Vladimir Baskakov, Valery
Turovskoy), left us for a better world...
«Reading Hall» (editor-in-chief of Alexander Troshin) - vastly simplifies the access to
the statistics of the articles published by Russian cinema-critics. From the Russian «old guard»
of cinema-critics, only a few preserved their positions: Lev Anninsky, Jury Bogomolov, Myron
Chernenko, Kirill Razlogov and Alexander Braginsky, each of them publishing an average of ten
articles a year. The leading Russian cinema-columnists (Jury Gladiltsikov, Leonid Pavluchik,
Victor Matisen and others) publish 30-40 articles per annum. The «critics-stars» of the
«Perestroika» Alexei Erohin, Alexander Timofeevsky, Viacheslav Shmyrov and Sergey
Lavrentiev have less articles to their credit, despite the fact that given their nontrivial method of
criticism, each of them could, probably, be at the head of his own cinema magazine.
The new names on the firmament of Russian cinema-critics include Statislav F.
Rostotsky, Elena Telingator, Dmitry Savosin, Georgy Samsonov. Their articles are more
frequent than ever in the Russian press. However, only Dmitry Savosin tends to continue the
glorious tradition of «francophone» Alexander Braginsky. A big group of young critics works
now in the new magazine «Premiere» - the analog of French-American «Premiere» for young
readers.
But the only true leaders of cinema criticism in the nineties are Andrei Plakhov and
Sergey Kudriavtsev. They publish annually about 100 articles, reviews, portraits of actors and
directors. Sergey Kudriavtsev also published 3 volumes of video-cinemacatalogue-encyclopedias
and the special books «All is Cinema» & «Our Cinema»...
Since the mid-eighties, Andrei Plakhov has become the most active participant in
international cinema-festivals. He did not miss, probably, any important cinema events during
that period. His reports are analytical, ironical and professional. Sergey Kudriavtsev, as a rule,
sees the films in Moscow, but his efficiency is astounding. He writes thousands of voluminous
reviews and portraits, including detailed lists of all prizewinners, be it the Oscars, Cesars, Palmes
d'Or, Golden Lions, etc. Many other Russian journalists, less known, lacking the necessary
preparation, with modest baggage of knowledge, abilities and talent, systematically write about
cinema and travel to festivals. But Kudriavtsev does not enjoy this privilege...
The articles of Sergey Kudriavtsev and Andrei Plakhov stand out due to their high degree
of professionalism (the lucky absence «scientific» style) and the love for Cinema Art.
Certainly, in the age of computers and satellite, television tends to be more prestigious
then cinema. The audience for TV-critics is now enormous. And many critics find it much easier
to speak or to interview than to write the articles. Which makes «non-television» people such as
Sergey Kudriavtsev and Andrei Plakhov, look like old-fashioned traditionalists. But since when
are all critics supposed to be avanguardists!
Else 15 years ago the situation in Russian cinema-press thread seems stable: for massaudience was released magazine «Soviet Ecran» with million by circulations and advertising
review «Satellite of Cinema-Viewer». For elite audience - fat magazine «Cinema Art», for
1
cinema-distributors - monthly magazines «Soviet Film», «Projectionist» and «New Films», for
amateurs of the dramaturgy - magazine «Screenplays». Materials about movies regularly
emerged on the leaves ordinary press is and all...Compared with dozens French or American
periodical cinema-press this is was, certainly, drop in sea. That is why Gorbachov's liberalization
immediately led to appearance the new cinema-magazines. With the emergence of Petersburg's
«Séance», with European style and the intellectual reflection of Russian cinema-critics of the
young generation, Moscow lost its old monopoly in cinema-press. But in the early '90s Moscow's
critic Vladimir Borev made the publishing home «Video-Ace Magazine's bouquet: «Video-Ace»,
«Video-Ace Premier», «Video-Ace Express», «Video-Ace Sunrise», «Video-Ace Favorite»,
«Video-Ace Satellite», «Video-Ace Crown», «Video-Ace Dandy», etc.
Truth, the first outputs of this magazines had very modest polygraphy, but soon financial
backing of several Moscow's banks and working agreement with one of top French publishers
carried out «Video-Ace» on entirely European level color photo-design and scope about 200
leaves of big format. In that or another key magazines of «Video-Ace» from the very beginning
were oriented generally on Hollywood cinema, the portraits of top directors, interview, hitparades, reportages from the largest festivals, information about video-techniques, video-pirates
and legal video-firms.
Almost simultaneously with «Video-Ace» other cinema-press appeared in Moscow:
«Video-Digest» (Editor Vsevolod Vilchek), weekly newspaper «Ecran and Scene», epatage
newspaper «Cinema Home», magazine «Cinema-Eye» (about cinema-business) based by the
group of the authors of the «youths of outputs» in «Soviet Ecran», professional and academic
«Cinema-critics' Memos» (Editor Alexander Troshin from Scientific Institute of Cinema,
Moscow) and modest little magazine «Opinions» about new Russian films. The boom of the
periodical press of end '80s - early '90s also concern cinema-press. For account of the several
sensational publications increased the circulation of «Cinema Art». Magazine «Ecran» losing at
new redactor Victor Demin (1936-1993) its prior adjective «Soviet», as before retained
auditorium of readers. How mushrooms after rain, unfortunately, with the same duration of
existence, steel to emerge another issues of cinema-press («Cinema-Video Review», «Film and
Video Reporter» and so on.): let with pore by bad quality seals, but with great titles.
But everything was changed after the beginning of Eltsin's reforms. Existing state budget
«Opinions» closed. Due to the same financial causes not get till ninth number, was gone in
history «Video-Digest». Was concealed with banking money, the magazine's bouquet of «VideoAce» (200 pages) fading directly on eyes. With larger temporary intervals steel to come out
«Ecran» (despite the heroic attempts of new editor Boris Pinsky) and «Cinema-Eye». Obviously
not from good life were poured out under one binder «New Films» and «Projectionist». Last NN
of «Video-Ace» & «Ecran» was published in summer of 1998. It is very difficult to publish
something without of money...
Only «Cinema Art» (though even greatly losing in circulation: from 50,000 to 5,000) was
successful publishes (with the grant's help). Thread seem, situation existing in Russian cinema
press, logically reflected common painting in domestic cinema (blunt abbreviation filmproduction, economic difficulties, etc.).
And, contrary to all forecasts, in end of '90s Alexander Semenov founded the new
«Video-magazine» (for distributors of videos) and old editor of «Video-Ace Express» Georgy
Samsonov founded magazine «Film». New Russian cinema-paper for professionals were borne
at the end of 1998: «SK-News» (The News of Union of Russian Filmmakers»). Also gave to
start to right away several new magazines about movies and video. In may 1997 appeared of
Russian edition «Premiere», a la French-American samples: qualitative paper, excellent colors,
the absence of pirates' photos... To the editorial office honor must badge, what she was not was
limited by the translations of the clauses of its foreign partners: the better half of 100-pages
scope occupied material about Russian cinema, video, sound and computer. Another new
magazine (60 pages) is «Cinema-Park» at the same colors and Hollywood orientation.
Incidentally, unlike Western «Premiere», «Cinema-Park» has more Russian. However on
2
today's Russian market they do not only compose serious competition, but also residing as to
essence on one genre-thematically floor of bulks each other for right of to be the most popular
Russian cinema-press. What it: rejuvenation of Russian cinema-press, or artificial reanimation
of detrimental business? Shall-see...
Alexander Fedorov
Alexander Fedorov
The Mystery of Russian Cinema
Russian cinema today is, like Russia itself chaotic, unpredictable and full of contrasts. No
one can tell if the country will become an equal among equals on the world's professional stages
by the beginning of the 21st century, casting off its poor role as a supplicant to Western artistic
leaders.
Anyone who knows even a little history is aware that Russia was virtually outside
European civilization for 75 years of XX century. The Communist regime firmly controlled all
spheres of life for a sixth of the planet's citizens. In spite of totalitarian pressure, however,
Russian culture managed to survive. The best books of Mikhail Bulgakov and Anna Ahmatova,
the symphonies of Dmitry Shostakovich and Alexander Prokofiev, the films of Andrei
Tarkovsky and Vassily Shukshin were created in the years of the most rigid censorship.
Despite bans, prisons and gulags, the artists leaned to speak to their readers and
spectators in some sort of «language of initiates». Music, without clearly defined plot, made it
much easier to do this. Writers, directors and actors were forced to talk about many things in
hints and symbols, taking advantage of legends, fairy tales and parables.
Russian authorities of the 60-s through the 80-s officially supported the publication and
distribution of classical literature - the works of Lev Tolstoy, Alexander Pushkin, Nikolai
Gogol, Ivan Turgenev, Anton Chekhov, etc. The best film directors knew this, and were aware of
weakened censorial control applied, at times, to screen adaptations. Consequently, the period
saw The Nest of Noble Family(1968) based on Turgenev novel and Uncle Vanya(1971) based on
Chekhov's play, directed by Andrei Konchalovsky.
There were also Station's Employee (1972, using Pushkin's prose) directed by Sergey
Soloviev, Dead Souls (1984, from the Gogol novel) directed by Mikhail Schweitzer, and others.
Nikita Mikhalkov, making films based on Chekhov (Unfinished Piece for Mechanical Piano,
1976) and Ivan Goncharov (Several Days in the Life of Oblomov, 1980), succeeded in telling
more about the situation in Russia - and the national character - than the majority of his
colleagues whose pictures dealt with the country's modern life. Oblomov embodies the
paradoxes of mysterious Russian soul: intelligence, talent and an innate sense of beauty go
poignantly hand in hand with passivity, laziness, sleepy inaction and abstract dreaming...
The Russian cinematic fairy tale also has old traditions, founded by Alexander Row (The
Frosty Fire, Water and Cooper Trumpets, Morozko, etc.) and Alexander Ptushko (The Stone
Flower, Sadko). Until recently, however, fantasy films had to submit to two unwritten rules: all
except a few were made for a children's audience, and the action had to take place in ancient
times, in a faraway kingdom. The first rule dictated an understandable style for the fairy tale,
with vivid, clear pictures and vocabulary, and villains looking not very fearful but on the
contrary, usually, funny and harmless. The second rule was very seldom infringed, because
magicians, witches, demons and other fairy characters - according to «highly placed» thought could be perceived as an embodiment of the authors' mysticism intruding on a modern
background. In these cases, when magic and witchery were admitted into our days (as in The
Snowy Fairy Tale by E.Shengelaya and A.Saharov), unintended associations and parallels
appeared.
In the word, the production of films similar to The Omen by Richard Donner and The
3
Shining by Stanley Kubrick for the Russian screen couldn't be even imagined until 80-s. Now the
situation has turned 180 degrees. Russian screen are full of foreign and indigenous horror films
and fearsome tales that chill the blood. Vampires, demons, witches and others evil spirits have
become frequent guests on video and cinema circuits from Moscow to the very frontiers...
Remarkable Russian actors - Oleg Dal (1941-1981), Vladimir Vissotsky (1938-1980),
Anatoly Solonitsin (1934-1982), Vladislaw Dvorzecki (1937-1978), Nikolai Grinko (19201989), Alexander Kaidanovsky (1946-1995) - very often played heroes who stood beyond the
usual circle of life on the screen of the 60-s and 70-s. The Fairy Ivans, fools and intelligent
outsiders of Dal. The hot-tempered, contentious, furious romantics of Vissotsky. The inspired,
always doubtful or cynical, devastated heroes of Solonitsin (Andrei Tarkovsky's favorite actor)...
These were in opposition to the artificial characters distilled in the retort of Socialist Realism.
Censorship was ruthless to the filmmakers. Important scenes, phrases and frames were
cut out of many movies. Yet Tarkovsky's Andrei Rublev (1966), despite all the alterations,
extolled Russian culture and closely connected with the Orthodox faith, while Elem Klimov's
The Parting (1981) remained an angry accusation of the political system of the time, aspiring to
destroy this same culture and religion.
After the widespread destruction of temples and churches in the 20-s and 30-s, Russian
culture became a peculiar national religion; as the only source of spirituality, it allowed people
who could not stand slavery to maintain a dream of Beauty during the hardest years.
Indisputably, politics had a highly negative influence on the development of Russian
culture and education, but the classical legacy of art helped people to survive. Every new truthful
book or film of the masters was perceived throughout the country as a desirable breath of cool
wind. I remember how the books of Alexander Solzhenitsyn were handed around, how the films
of Marlen Hutsiev or Gregory Chuhrai, in the '60s, were discussed till voices became hoarse.
And what events for Russian viewers in the '70s were screenings of masterpieces by Federico
Fellini (Amarcord, Orchestra Rehearsal)! Another paradox of Russian life is that all people
hoped for and aspired to the «light future», yet their ranks included dissenters who were
Slavophiles, craving a return to the Russia of 1913, and dissenters of Western orientation who
wanted a rapprochement with America, while the majority of the so-called «common people»
faithfully waited for a near-Socialist paradise of well-being and, in the name of this, were ready
to tolerate «temporary» hardships. Today a lot of Russian politicians try to find some «middle
way» between capitalism and socialism where, to trust the premises of fashionable leaders,
harmony will reign. In the political, economical currents some Russian filmmakers thoroughly
lost their bearings, becoming victims of the whirlpools, submerged stones and shallows. Having
got rid of censorship and having been given «carte blanche» in freedom of thought, they began to
throw onto the screen what they apparently believed were commercial and brave statements, but
which in fact were monotonous, non-competitive films. The freedom didn't evoke the expected
abundance of masterpieces, because bitter truth alone isn't enough for the creation of a work of
art. Talent is also needed, and it is everywhere in deficit.
More and more Russian cineastes, finding it harder and harder to work in the Motherland
in a condition of permanent economic crisis, are gathering under Western’s roofs. Almost all
Russian masters (Nikita Mikhalkov, Pavel Lungin, Ivan Dykhovichny, Valery Todorovsky, Gleb
Panfilov, Andrei Konchalovsky, Alexei German and others), even if they make films in China or
in Moscow, nevertheless do it with the help of U.S. or French money, on Western film stock,
with the Western sound system. Western producers willingly stake these talented directors who
capture prizes at prestigious festivals. For nearly a year the preeminent actor of Russian cinema Oleg Yankovsky (Nostalgia by Andrei Tarkovsky)- appeared on stage in a Paris theater. It is
rather logical: Russian filmmakers hope that West will become a gate to the world screen for
them; at home indigenous movies are being forced out by American production everywhere.
Only the most entertaining Russian films manage to survive the competition in such conditions,
but they, as usual, copy U.S. pictures and don't hold any special interest as art. Undoubtedly,
such work in the West (by Andrei Konchalovsky and Nikita Mikhalkov, for example) requires a
4
certain attention to the producers' wishes and an orientation toward middle-of-the-road European
and American viewer's tastes. Well, don't judge and you will not be judged...
The words of Russian great writer Gogol about the «Bird-troika» - Russia - therefore
turned out to be really prophetic: «Russia, where are you rushing to? Give the answer. No
answer».
Alexander Fedorov
Phenomenon of Russian Cinema-Hits
Modern screen art over its success to the use of folklore, myth, synthesis of the natural
and supernatural, and a consistent orientation toward the most popular plot schemes. Their
metaphorical appeal is not to the rational but to the emotional. through identification with the
magic power of heroes and standardization of ideas, situations, characters and so on In
compensation for dreams not realized in life, there are illusions - happy endings. In movies, TV
shows, and music videos' rhythmic organization, viewers' feelings are influenced as much by the
order of changing shots as by the content of productions.
American critic Richard Corliss notes that for the creators of many Hollywood movies
plot is a thing of past, and these movies are more thrilling than satisfying. Their main impact on
most of the youthful public lies in the expect special effects making spectators gasp in surprise or
freeze with fright. this «dynamic cinema», according to Corliss, put higher demands on viewers,
because we have to follow every frame of a shot waiting for the trick. These features of mass
culture reveal themselves in some favorite movies of the Russian audience. They are clear
embodiments of the above-mentioned «phenomenon of mass success» tendencies.
The action in these films moves form one short episode to another (in order not to be
boring to viewers) with sensational informativeness: event take place at various exotic locations
in a cruel world of pirates drug dealers, Mafia men, racketeers and prostitutes. Psychological
pressure is active - throughout the stories the idea that sly enemies (inner and external) are
scheming is repeated over and over. Now something mean is planned, now somebody is robbed;
now positive heroes are attacked...
The main hero of these movies is an almost magical, fairy-tale character. Cute, strong
and smart, he comes out of al supernatural situations safe and sound (an excellent motif for
identification and compensation). Many episodes touch human instincts and emotions (such as
fear). There's even continuity, as each story supposes an endless number of sequels. In spite of
an absence of technical shine and the presence of numerous mistakes of taste or sense, the
common components of these motives are rather professionally presented: fights, chases,
shootings, pretty women, alarming music, strong feelings, a minimum of dialogue, a maximum
of movement, and other attributes of action films. Other favorites of Russian public are made
with similar attitudes and qualities...
Much more firmly than in cinema, these features of mass culture show themselves on
Russian TV. Ideally, television should be various, unobtrusive, rich in visual information, and
pluralistic without dull teaching and officiousness. Only lately has Russian TV started
developing aesthetics for its entertainment packages, rejecting the different demands of the
public. There are some intellectual and game shows - even some mass-culture programming made on professional level. But the border between artistic and inartistic is often erased in a
tendency toward documentary, one-day value, «open» formats that reproduce something in its
process of becoming an event. This peculiarity of mass communication is an obstacle in
determining the aesthetic distance. For examples, platitudinous music videos are show all the
time on Russian TV; if a viewer didn't have taste preferences; this could penetrate deep enough
into his mind to unconsciously determine them...
Alexander Fedorov
5
The Gloom of Russian Fantastic Movie-Land
One might think, after the gloomy films of Constantine Lopushansky (Russian Symphony,
Letters from a Dead Man) and other supporters of the genre usually called futuristic fantasy with
element of horror, that the fashion would have faded. Russian cinema and video viewers prefer
the technically perfect American scare movies to our boring and indistinct mix. In contrast with
the old Romantic stories about men-fish and astronauts, however, the heroes of many Russian
films of '90s continue their agonizing, hard traveling across «The Zone», and if they leave the
surface of the Earth, they do so only to hide in another planet's gloomy caves or dungeons.
Often the action of these pictures takes place under some dictatorship. On the land and in the air
the «services of liquidation» move, armed with lethal weapons. For photography dirty and
deserted streets are chosen, with decayed houses, the walls of which are covered with mold as
turbid water slowly drops from the ceiling. Hysterical characters with matted hair and eternal
bags under eyes rush about the ruined labyrinths and sandy ridges. They may keep silent for a
long time, staring into cracked mirrors or, contrariwise, burst out in endless superintellectual
monologues. Here dark old oaken doors creak vilely and swampy puddles stick underfoot (a
variant: the unsteady sand is creaking). The beautiful and mysterious women from time to time
throw off their covers, and their naked bodies shine in the semi-darkness...
Central scenes of such films are episodes of contact with the strange and forbidden Zone
where, in imitation of Andrei Tarkovsky's works (Solaris, Stalker), a lot of extraordinary things
happen to the heroes. There is uncertainty at every step: malicious mutants, werewolves, dogcannibals, maniacs, and so on.
The motives «inspiring» authors of this «Russian fantastic movie-land» are
understandable. They want to create something epochal on the theme of humankind's
responsibility for its actions on the planet; to condemn the principle of «the end justifies the
means»; to think about the problems of ecology and nature, psychology and intellect. As a rule,
however, philosophical concepts are hardly visible through the steam of cinema clichés, rented
for the occasion.
The authors of such films often claim famous literary origins. But their modest «based
on» postscript only affords an opportunity to make a middling movie out of any original story or
novel once it is provided with meaningful pauses. These, deprived of a psychological basis, serve
only to lengthen the picture.
It's hard for even talented actors to play in these films, because their heroes are submitted
to the firm laws of the marionette. It's easier for less-gifted actors but that, obviously, doesn't add
artistic pluses. Perhaps only cinematographers and designers feel themselves free there, hoping
to surprise spectators with defined compositions, whimsical plays of light and color.
Unfortunately, poor budget are quite clearly evident. The technical backwardness of Russian
cinema is obvious in the productions' primitive shooting; their horrors don't frighten. Fantasy
today can't be made with ancient means: the gap in effects, tricks and technology is too great
between Russian «fantastic movie-land» and any of the works of Robert Zemeckis, James
Cameron or John Carpenter.
One way out for Russian fiction is as old as cinema world - studying the films of
Spielberg and Lucas - but the disorder of our economics does not evoke optimism...
Alexander Fedorov
6
Alexander Fedorov
From Boarding School to Nuthouse
(Domestic and Other Violence on the Mirror of Russian Screen)
Recently I found a new hobby: collecting stereotypes of Russian cinema plots. For
examples, the theme: "Domestic & Non-Domestic Violence on the Mirror of Russian Screen".
1. Public schools, boarding schools, children's shelters, educational-training
establishments.
Action of films in this category always alternates between bathroom and punishment
room, between ruined shed and small, dark cell. Under the narrator's "My address is neither a
house nor a street..." there is violence, drug addiction and cruelty - when a teacher, knowing the
customs of his group, prefers not to notice fresh blood on the dresser mirror in a child's bedroom,
or when the strong mock with pleasure the weak. Somebody stark naked is sitting on the toilet,
somebody in the same state of dishabille is running down and up stairs...
Russian moviegoers once watched sentimental, touching stories about careful, kind tutors
trying to create an illusion of homey coziness for poor orphans. That was ages ago. Now,
whatever the film, it's a severe and ruthless accusation, saying we can do nothing - over the last
80 years the whole country turned into an unfriendly state institution whose inhabitants, from
early childhood, are doomed to endless humiliation, indignity, discomfort and stress, poverty and
constraint. In the boarding school, as in a drop of water, all the evils and vices of life are
reflected, where a 15-year-old boy knifes to death a strong, drunken man. This is not only
revenge for the raped girl of the same age, it is furious and irrational retaliation for a crippled
childhood, for a friend who became the victim of drugs, for the false slogans of adults, for their
indifference, for...
The teachers in Category N 1 are only administrative appendages of the formal
mechanism of management. Hypocritically, they can suddenly cry with the power of a fireengine siren then, in a moment, smile as if nothing had happened. By the way, this is a fact noted
by authors of the pictures' source books: workers in Russian boarding schools, with the help of a
system of instruction in "standard educational training", acquired the strange – for normal people
- ability to drive themselves almost to hysterics (outwardly) with absolute coldness and
indifference in their hearts. On screen, portraits of these tutors are well matched by
characterizations of the destitute boys' and girls' parents. They don't mind letting fall a tear - over
glasses of vodka - to lament a son or daughter given away to the boarding school. Audiences pity
the children, abandoned by this scum to live at this scum to live at the expense of the weak
Russian state, as they pity some mad father, drunk, wandering at night under the windows of a
boarding school in order to see his child.
2. Sanitariums, hospitals and other medical establishments
"All the world's a nuthouse, and all its people are mad". Rephrasing Shakespeare is
probably the best way to express the main idea of film in this category.
For example, all characters - wives and children, neighbors and passersby - cooped up in
their communal flat wish the main hero to kill a bureaucrat who for years hasn't maintained
normal housing It is for this mission the hero is brought from a mental hospital: a psycho is a
psycho, he can't answer for his acts. Once freed, however, the hero finds himself still in a world
of madmen: there is the former cavalryman with naked sword, the bald athlete who is glutton and
drunkard, some mountaineers, some people from an underground organization singing a song
about "the black raven", etc.
Having got into the office of the hateful chief at last, our hero is again part of a crazyshow, this one scripted by the sly bureaucrat. There are machine-gun firings and explosions of
grenades, poisoned coffee and the staff's pretended pity for the freezing children. The film ends
with the escape of the real psychos who capture the main municipal building while troops and
tanks are called against them, and demagogic speeches are made. In a word, everyone wears
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fashionable political dressing; with their exposes and social accusations, cinema mediocrities who were quietly making nonsense films before this time - now are trying to dash forward as
leaders of the "fighters" and "truthful people". Their operative principle is: I'll roar, if nobody
will hurt me.
The setting for these films from my second category are, as a rule, unpleasant interiors...
dirty walls painted with cheerless colors, semi-submerged basements, filthy hospital cots and
soon. Numerous conversations are staged, but their dialogue is empty and unintelligible for
viewers with more or less stable nervous systems. Indisputably, the nuthouse as a model for the
totalitarian state, were every display of normal mentality and human individuality is suppressed,
is good material for the creation of gloomy parables, pathological visions, shocking naturalistic
images and surrealistic symbols. If only these films had less of the epigone's features.
3. Prison colonies and other reformatories
A typical scheme: some sort of remake of action pictures of the '60s-'70s about war.
Added will be homosexual passion and, certainly, scenes of cruelty and violence with dozens of
accusatory speeches. But today's on-screen "bad guys"(fascists) and "good guys"(heroically
struggling prisoners preparing a protest action or an escape) are caricatures. In short, after
watching several of these films, you could easily gain the impression that all of them make up
one gloomy and monotonous serial about the Russian State House. It can be located anywhere,
the main point is the same. But the stream still flows, as Russian screenwriters and directors
continue to gladden our hearts with cinema theses about what is wrong. All this makes me sick.
Yet in spite of it... we live! I wish, though, that my collection of Russian State Institutional Films
didn't keep replenishing itself.
Alexander Fedorov
America, America…
Consider these titles – I Want to go to America, We Are Going to America, The American
Boy, Our American Borya, The American Grandpa, The American Daughter, The Groom from
Miami…
These are the titles of a few of the many Russian films of the 1990s that have the
‘American Dream’ as their theme. Basically, these are entertainment films that are not made for
festival awards or critical acclaim, but deal with the dream of many Russians to visit the U.S.
one day.
In Russia now, as in the West, directors and producers must find money to produce a
movie. Having announced their intention to make a movie that takes place in New York, Miami,
or Hawaii, Russian filmmakers of this ‘American Series’ assume that they will more easily find a
backer. For one thing, a backer is more likely to think that an American theme will bring
theatrical success. Also, filmmakers themselves want to visit the world across the ocean.
Besides, shooting on location in the U.S. encourages the participation of popular Russian actors,
who like to have a good time for free.
The basic interests of these Moscow film crews, then, are from art and close to partying
and shopping. Russian actors waste little time in America. Aside from making the movie, they
get a tan, go shopping, and put on some shows for Russian immigrants living in Brighton Beach
or in other parts of New York and U.S. It’s kind of funny that the plots of some of these
‘American Series’ Russian films are about the adventures of Moscow actors, artists, singers, et
al., who come to the U.S. to make money by any means.
Other plots are popular as well: an ordinary Russian guy gets an inheritance; or a Russian
guy gets an inheritance; or a Russian returns from America and learns that a gang has killed his
best friend, and now he must seek revenge. But probably the most popular stories are about
prospective grooms (less frequently, brides, grandfathers, and grandmothers) who come from the
U.S. to Russia searching for a loving and faithful spouse. This is certainly understandable – it’s
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much cheaper to make such movies because the action takes place principally in Moscow.
Comedies about American grooms (as a rule, of Russian origin) come in two basic varieties. In
one version (e.g. Our American Borya), a shy young man comes to Moscow from the U.S. to
visit his relatives. His hosts begin searching for a bride at once. Almost immediately, young
women are besieging ‘the man of their dream’ and he tries to get rid of them. In another version
(e.g. The Groom from Miami), a self-confident young man comes to Moscow to visit relatives.
He begins a search for a young woman himself, and ends up finding the woman of his dreams.
Name actors are what filmmakers bank their money on. And sometimes this works. In
The Groom from Miami , L.Udovichenko, with her uniquely naughty, diva-like manner, plays a
sly woman who attract men with her classy appearance, then robs them of everything. There is a
lot of charm and irony in her performance. On the whole, however, such comedies resemble
amateur drama-club productions in which the quickly-written then acted script seems like a
collection of pointless, often vulgar episodes. Sometimes not only professional actors performs
in these films, but also their wives, children, and other relatives. It’s as if the filmmakers have
decided that, since the relatives have traveled to America, why shouldn’t they appear in the
movie, too?
Having had a lot of fun on location, filmmakers of this ‘America Series’ often like to
show off their patriotism. Their characters reject the American dream in the film’s finale, and
choose to stay in unlucky and troubled Russia. But by the mid-1990s, when this kind of plot
became a cheap cliché, Russian directors started to change the minus sign to plus more
frequently. The makers of The Groom from Miami, for example, frankly suggest to Russian
audience that they leave for U.S. Forever. Not a bad suggestion, perhaps. But if they were to
follow it, who would be left in Russia?
Alexander Fedorov
Videopirates from Russia
Undoubtedly, Russia today takes one of first place in the world's number of videopirates.
The Kremlin has signed the Bern international authors' rights convention. But Russian authorities
doesn't control the pirates' audiovisual productions. Countless booths sell thousands CD, CDROM and videocassettes with Western films - mainly the newest which have just appeared in
America, France or Italy. Of course, nearly 80% of this audiovisual production are American CD
and action films with Stallone, Van Damme, Schwarzenegger and others Hollywood stars. The
adroit shopmen, as a rule, have neither licences to the copyrights nor the right to sell or rent
foreign CD or films, but the trade is very successful.
The purchase price of one videocassette or CD is nearly $2-4 dollars in the black market.
The same cassette can be rented in hundreds of Russian cities and towns for half a dollar a day.
One Russian videopirate revealed to me the secret of his "firm's" operational efficiency.
Once a month - or more often - Moscow agents leave for America to buy as many new DVD,
laserdiscs as possible in the biggest video shops of New York, L.A. and others cities.
(Videocassettes are less desirable because of their larger size, which makes it difficult to
transport them abroad). Having gotten the batch, the agents return to Moscow where in several
underground studios the American laserdiscs are copied onto videocassettes on a mass scale. In
the course of this, the U.S. NTSC system is transformed into Russia's adopted system - PALMESECAM/VHS. The cassettes are translated into Russian by a staff of experts in English, a lot
of whom have been occupied with this profitable business for 10-20 years.
Sometimes it happened that Russian videopirates can't buy a laserdisc of the latest screen
hit quickly. Then the executive agent arms himself with a camcorder, goes to an American movie
theater where, for example, Spielberg's new production is showing, and photographs the film
straight form the screen. The quality of such a recording is, of course, much worse than that of a
laserdisc, but the salable result can be brought to the Russian video market with maximum speed.
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Audiovisual-pirates across the country know well in Moscow "offices" the converted
cassettes or CD can be bought. Two or three times a month they come to Moscow, pick up the
next lot of transfers and then copy them for consumers in their cities and villages. Piracy is not
only the selling or renting of stolen videos, CDs or CD-ROMs, however. There is wide broadcast
of Western cinema novelties by little private TV channels. (Even small Russian towns have two
or three local private TV channels.) Each shows from two to six pirated videos a day. Besides,
the cable owners get monthly income from subscribers, and the private-TV owners meet
expenses by inserting commercials during the piratical video's broadcasts.
The broad development of audiovisual-piracy in Russia has, to my mind, one
characteristic peculiarity. Being in an extremely difficult financial situation, many Russian
viewers find in an everyday exposure to pirated films the only opportunity to feel themselves in
another world even for a few hours, to escape from the surrounding misfortunes, hardships, etc.
Watching the screen adventures of Harrison Ford or Bruce Willis characters who, in
peaceful well-being, enjoy ownership of cozy two-storied American cottages while they busy
themselves with clarification of love affairs, Russians can admire the power of foreign
technology in fantastic special-effects super-shows and, if only in dreams, find a place as heroes
of an inaccessible life.
Some 20 years ago Russian authorities struggled severely not only with the audiovisualpirates, but even with common spectators - anyone who had bought abroad an erotic cassettes or
one containing Rambo's latest adventures. People could be imprisoned for illegally watching the
Godfather or Caligula. Today audiovisual censorship in Russia is practically unknown. Up to
1987, the audiovisual stream in Russia was almost 100% controlled by strict regime. At the end
of '80s the system, in place for 70 years had begun to disintegrate; in the early '90s it finally
collapsed. Russian audiovisual pirates now reign boundlessly and completely, cutting into profits
of the ordinary cinemas whose attendance is catastrophically down. Spectators filled only 2-7%
of the seats in the average movie theater (exceptions: several modern Dolby Digital theaters in
Moscow), even there was an American novelty on the screen. Russian viewers prefer the screen
of their home TVs. Once Russia was called the Empire of Evil. I can only hope it will newer be
the Empire of Audiovisual-Pirates...
Alexander Fedorov
Something About Russian Screen
The Outsiders: Two films by Sergei Bodrov
S.Bodrov, well reputed as a commercial screenwriter in the ‘70s, in the ‘80s became the
real revelation among new directors. His films – I Hate You (1984), The Sweet Sap of the Grass
(1985), Unprofessionals (1985), SIR: Freedom Is Paradise (1989) – received prizes in many
Russian and foreign festivals. They told viewers about the problems of a generation of teenagers
with unusual – for those times – frankness and artistic power. Bodrov showed that he could work
with unprofessional actors; the reality of his films was enhanced by improvisation on the set, and
by the subtly elaborated psychology of the leading characters.
Unfortunately, Bodrov’s Cardsharper (1990), a dashing story about professional card
players, somewhat surprised his admirers with standard situations and diminished directorial
effort. His I wanted to See the Angels, however, refutes the pessimists who hurried to relegate
him to a level of minor importance.
I wanted to See the Angels can be linked to a fashionable stream of “unmasking” films
with naturalistic themes. There are rockers on roaring bikes, Mafia gunmen, dirty basements,
scenes of morgues and police, and the cold, comfortless nighttime Moscow’s streets. Moscow
itself is shown from its black side. You do not see here the bright lights of New Arbat and
fashionable supermarkets, but rather the plain outskirts whose houses sullenly twinkle with the
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weak-sighted windows of communal flats… nearly the film’s only scenery. There are also
familiar main characters: the novice hired killer and street girl. In short, a number of dull clichés
are present.
But it seems one can make a good film with such ordinary – for Russian cinema –
characters and settings. Of course, it depends on the director’s talent. Bodrov managed to imbue
this story of the bitter love of a Saratov boy (who comes to the capital to kill a Mafia debtor) and
a rocker’s girl (who dreams of writing a letter to Madonna) with the sincerity of real feelings.
The general sensation after the film is hopelessness. Young outsiders can’t “find
themselves” in a life that holds no prospects. Being romantics in their souls, they aren’t satisfied
to sit as clerks in commercial shops for many hours or sell bubble gum in the Metro stations. One
woman is attracted to the image of an “easy rider” flying on a bike along the freeway; another
dreams about warm American beaches and communications from the famous pop-star. But these
dreams stay unrealizable, as castles in the air; each of the characters has a better chance of going
to the heavens by way a lover of women’s caresses – a hospital attendant – will out with the
neatness of a professional, fill out the last medical report on the “client”.
This had no chance of becoming a Russian screen bestseller. As well as its heroes, the
film itself was condemned to be an outsider. There are too many dramas and sad stories in
Russian modern life to hope that a film telling about such joyless things in earnest and without
sentimentality could achieve mass success.
In the same year of the release of the forlorn I wanted to See the Angels, Sergei Bodrov
produced White King, Red Queen. The main character was played by French actor André
Dussolier who became known for roles in the films of his more famous compatriot Alain Resnais
.
White King… begins as a biting comedy of temperaments. A small Russian trade-union
delegation comes to a Swiss town for a conference and stays in a little hotel. This gives the
director cause to show the charms of poor Russians who once in a blue moon can fall greedily
upon the West. There are dinners with tinned fish in the room, the sale of vodka “for a song”,
wild joy upon the receipt of 20 or 30 dollars, an occasion for free refreshment, and so on. The
heroine is a mature woman with sings of former beauty who dully begins a flirtation with an exTV commentator while their colleagues drink spirits from morning till evening. The situation of
Russians who find themselves shameful beggars in prosperous Switzerland may be a little
exaggerated; taking into account the almost comedic plot, however, it doesn’t seem a falsity.
Further on, the comedy turns smoothly into melodrama: an elegantly dressed man (Dussolier)
appears in the hotel; 20 years ago he was a famous Russian chess player who moved to the West,
and he has learned that his old love, by the whim of fate, is in Europe for several days… but,
alas, one can’t step in the same river twice, the previous love can’t be renewed, and the Red
Queen doesn’t find enough strength to stay with the White King.
This sad story with a gay beginning, although not claiming the psychological depths of
Bergman or Antonioni, is made with European mastery. Bodrov skillfully observes the laws of
the melodramatic genre with its heightening of emotions and expectant pauses, while accenting
the differences in mentality, habits and image of his characters so as to make the film
understandable and accessible to a European audience. Because of this some things at once
obvious to Russian viewers are explained more distinctly and straightforwardly than we might
expect, but this perspective takes into account the film’s distribution in the West.
Alexander Fedorov
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Alexander Fedorov
Retro-styles
The System’s Typical Product
1934 was one of the most fateful years for our suffering Russia. The shooting of
Communist leader Kirov was the cause of a new wave of mass murders. Ex-cameraman and now
director D.Dolinin, in his eighth movie The Myth of Leonid, tries to catch the sense of that time,
to investigate the phenomenon of “the small man” Leonid Nikolaev – one of the screws in the
Party’s machine constructed by the Bolsheviks. Like I.Dyshovichny in Moscow Parade, Dolinin
doesn’t want to make everything happening on screen into documentary. Remaining within the
framework of realistic narration, the director tries to investigate the character of a hero,
interpreting him as the typical product of a totalitarian system. The ambitious, pitiful, odd, selfloving Nikolaev doesn’t evoke compassion, though there is nothing to hate him for… there were
plenty of such people in those days. He was just the one to whom that lot was cast, and with his
help Stalin’s intelligence corps played its bloody game, using his extreme, odious
suspiciousness.
Had The Myth of Leonid come out about 15-20 year ago, its appearance would probably
have raised viewers’ interest and tempest in the Russian press. But, unfortunately, the movie is
late. Readers and moviegoers in Russia have already been exposed to a storm of information
about different aspects of the Soviet totalitarian regime. Their fed-up feelings can be overcome
only by a masterpiece. The Myth of Leonid doesn’t claim this title.
Lost in the Kremlin…
The Inner Circle directed by A.Konchalovsky developed a certain reputation in Russian
cinema press: one after another, critics said that its aim was to cater to Western viewers’
preferences by means of American marketing techniques.
There are reasons for such a conclusion: The main roles in the film are played by the
American Tom Hulce and the British bob Hoskins; the story of Ivan Sanshin, Stalin’s private
projectionist, is developed on the screen in a style close to the traditions of melodrama.
Konchalovsky, an expert in psychological drama (Uncle Vanya, Duet for One), turns up the
volume in The Inner Circle while deliberately declining to apply a European depth – a
penetration of thought – to his characters; that, of course, makes them understandable to an
audience not versed in the twists of Russian history through the Thirties and Forties.
Many Russian directors, probably inspired by A.German’s My Friend Ivan Lapshin,
would try to focus on the tragedy of the bitter understanding of truth by a man who, a cog in
Stalin’s totalitarian machine, became the obedient executor of another’s orders. But this Russian
directors of an American film accentuates the love story of Ivan and his wife who passed through
the dirty, lusting hands of the killer Beria. In another move, Konchalovsky demotes her
memories in favor of the usual plot constructions of standard transpacific cinema.
And, frankly speaking, I don’t see anything bad about this.
The internationalism (not of class, but common human values) of the cinematic language
in The Inner Circle is a necessary bridge between different mentalities and cultures.
Moreover, Konchalovsky managed to gather a wonderful acting team. Tom Hulce (the legendary
Amadeus in M.Forman’s film) plays Ivan in such a way that there is nothing for us but to wonder
how this star of Western screens captured Slav naiveté’, enthusiasm and childlike
defenselessness.
B.Hoskins, in the role of Beria, scores no less of an exact hit with the buttery look of this
funny fat man from whose eyes sometimes blows a cold, ominous wind. Maybe the role is
played slightly grotesquely, yet it is brightly convincing. Against this background, A.Zbruev
loses in the role of Stalin; he hasn’t got much kick or an actor’s original vision.
A whole constellation of Russian actors play minor characters in The Inner Circle, and in
spite of their short appearances on screen stay in memory even more than in their previous roles.
Brilliantly does I.Kuptchenko lead her episode as a teacher in orphanage for children of the
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“people’s enemies”, revealing contradictory feelings of fatigue, fear, compassion, pain and
devastation.
A sense of the real nature of a Russian woman who doesn’t understand how it is possible
for a man to love Comrade Stalin more than a wife and a poor child exists in the performance of
the performance of the American actress L.Davidovich also.
In The Inner Circle Konchalovsky aspires to show that despite all hardships the people
felt themselves happy in the faraway Thirties, though their happiness was possible only while
they trusted leaders infinitely and dispensed with questions and doubts. As soon as they began to
ask questions, the whole of their prosperity was ruined, drawing them into the currents of
morally and physically crippled Fates.
Returning to Form
Frankly speaking, Piotr Todorovsky’s, previous film with the enticing title of Inter-Girl,
very much disappointed me. A subtle psychologist, director of the wonderful The Martial Love
Affair and imperfect but ingenious Along Main Street with the Brass Band, Todorovsky suddenly
was carried away by V.Kunin’s shallow story that showed – in an accessible, mass-language
style – how prostitutes could love. Of course, thanks to the director’s professionalism, the
straightforward script began to look rather profound and sometimes even psychologically
convincing, but on the whole it was not suited to Todorovsky’s personality.
Thank to God, in his Encore, More Encore Todorovsky has returned to his own style. He
himself wrote the script about the life of Russian military town in 1946, he wrote the touching
music, and he chose the same title as that of canvas by the famous Russian artist Fedotov.
I spent my childhood in one such town for Army personnel. And during the screening I
remembered the past with a sad nostalgia. The closed community: a reserved world where
everybody knows each other, where even a needle in a haystack could never hidden from the
curious eyes of the officers’ wives, but where nevertheless all kinds of extraordinary events take
place. Now the handsome major brings a whole bunch of frivolous beauties from the city in his
smart car; now several drunks fight; now the senior lieutenant, pistol in hand, chases his
unfaithful wife…
Gathering these stories together, and inviting Mel Brooks to direct, a very funny comedy
could be made. But Todorovsky, as is well known, isn’t Brooks. So in his film the funny
episodes (for example: a husband comes home after work to find his wife sleeping with his
chief) are mixed with a dramatic plot. The ominous signs of those times are in evidence – when
the authorities could send a boy, who was counting days till the end of his military service, to
prison simply for carelessness in writing several superfluous words to a civilian friend; when the
colonel, a wartime hero, had to submit to a miserable KGB captain; and so on.
One Russian critic declared in TV program that Encore… evokes brutal laughter among
audiences, that there is no love in the film, and primitive instincts triumph. From my point of
view, only a man who didn’t watch attentively could have such an opinion. True, there is no
refined, intellectual love here; the love scenes are loaded with humorous detail. You believe,
however, in the sincerity of the characters’ feelings. You believe that while the colonel, who was
in the whole war, loves his wife whom he met at the front, he can’t forget his pre-war wife too.
You believe that the colonel’s young wife had fascinated the charming lieutenant and then he
lost courage. You believe in the love of the unfaithful wife, who receives her husband’s
supervisors in her bed for the sake of his service career.
This film appeals because it does something the Russian cinema of late years has pretty
much forgotten is possible: Todorovsky tells about life through love… even if it sometimes
looks funny and is not what you’d call spiritual.
Those years
Summer 1957. Moscow. International festival of youth & students. The rhythms of
banned jazz. Smiling young faces…
V.Moskalenko rather carefully recreates the romantic atmosphere of those years, when
Russia was creeping slowly out of Stalinism’s ice age. The love story of a Moscow student and
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his new girlfriend – French with Russian origin – seems natural against this background. The
authors of the film The Way to Paradise, however, don’t seem to want to please us with retromelodrama: the lovers are between two fires. On one hand, the KGB wants the Russian boy,
nephew of an academician-chemist, to be its informer. On the other, the girl has been sent by the
French side to learn the chemical secrets of her boyfriend’s uncle.
Obviously, it’s an unexpected change after a lyrical beginning. I would have liked the
film just to tell the love story… sentimental, a little bit sad, with its ‘50s teenage hits. But I’m
sure this spy’s version of the plot will find its admirers, especially since in this conflict the
authors are obviously on the side of love, not the interests of this or that intelligence or secret
service.
The Way to Paradise is made with a sense of style, the actors’ play is rather convincing.
Like S.Ursulyak’s Russian Ragtime, Moskalenko’s film doesn’t claim psychological depth and
analysis. It’s a moody sketch, invoked by nostalgia for the end of the ‘50s.
Melodramaland’ 66
The late Russian poet and screenwriter G.Shpalikov had a wise line: “Never come back to
the old places”. I won’t say that’s a strict rule, but director B.Frumin’s melodrama Viva, Castro!
Convinces from its first episodes that nostalgia for his youthful experiences in the ‘60s didn’t
help him create some special piece of art. The attraction of “the time of good hopes”, brightly
reflected in M.Hutsiev’s 1962 I’m 20 and G.Danelia I Am Walking in the Streets of Moscow
(both movies, by the way, made from G.Shpalikov scripts) in lost in Viva, Castro! The young
actors are dull and stiff, the love story is unemotional and weary against the background of a
1966 visit by Cuban leader Castro to Moscow. The spirit of those days is evoked only by the
soundtrack’s songs from archival tapes.
Some years ago B.Frumin could make much better melodramas. But having captured the
attention of audiences with The Diary of the Principal (1976) and Family Melodrama (1977), he
became a victim of s\censorship. His 1978 film Mistakes of Youth was banned; he emigrated to
the USA where he couldn’t manage to find success. After making Black and White in 1991 he
has attempted, with this film, to return to his Russian roots, not listening to Shpalikov’s advice.
Unfortunately.
Detective Tricks’83
Y.Moroz’s film The Black Square is based on the detective novel by F.Neznansky, The
Fair in Sokolniki, whose action takes place in 1983. For Russia that year was extraordinary, as
ex-KGB leader Andropov tried to fight the Mafia in the highest State spheres. The novel’s main
character, a young investigator, gradually understands that the trail of an apparently ordinary
murder leads to the Kremlin, where plans of world control involve seizing the planet’s main oil
resources.
This could have been filmed as a serious traditional detective story. Moroz chose what I
find a more successful approach – half parody, with an accent on the detective’s humor, and half
tricks. The cast, understanding the director’s aim very well, enjoyed acting, making fun of
commonplace details in past Russian life (like so-called “grocery requests” with were the
privilege of the authorities only, because of the lack of food in stores).
Not placing any special stylistic emphasis on 1983, Moroz nevertheless recreates the
atmosphere of that time pretty convincingly… a time when Russia fought not only with the
Mafia, but with its own ordinary people, too, if they happened to be outdoors during working
hours.
Watching these characters form a ‘90s point of view, the film’s authors certainly
understand how naïve and unrealistic dreams about victory over corruption were. That’s where
the bitter feeling radiating through the comedic action comes from. Famous Russian
abstractionist Kazemir Malevich’s canvas The Black Square becomes a symbol of unbeaten Evil,
whom the Good is doomed to forever fight.
Alexander Fedorov
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Alexander Fedorov
Crime on the Russian Screen
Agatha Christie’s Arithmetic
Dmitry Svetosarov, who likes showy cinema, is not a very consistent director. Now he
flashes with European professionalism `a la Claude Lelouch in The Speed (1983), now he sags
into dull naturalism with The Dogs (1990). In The Arithmetic of Murder Svetosarov decided to
stay with the traditional detective format. The crime in the film is investigated with all rules of
the genre: detailed questioning of witnesses and suspects, the appearance of some convincing
alibis and so on.
A Petersburg public flat, at firs sight very common, turns from episode to episode into a
mysterious tangle of criminal threads in Agatha Christie’s favorite method: any character could
have committed the crime. The film doesn’t limit itself, however, to the arithmetic of a detective
thriller. S.Bekhtirev plays the main role of armchair-bound invalid. Never destroying suspense
and other attributes of the genre, he creates a contradictory image of the man, aspiring to the…
But I shall not reveal mystery. There are many surprises, and the film, although far from a
Hitchcockian masterpiece, is psychologically convincing, never dull. And cinematographer
S.Astahov demonstrates great skill working in feebly lighted rooms.
Feeling Cheated
The Day Before, form the viewpoint of this writer who is very tired of unprofessional
movies about the Mafia, starts riskily. A group of actors, sitting in armchairs, speaks in wooden,
false voices about some machinations. In a minute, however, you understand that it’s a sharp
parody of Russian F-class action movies.
After this prefatory trick the film’s debuting directors, former actors O.Boretsky and
A.Negreba, take an abrupt turn into stylization. The story becomes one of nice, handsome young
men and women trying to preserve the ambience of 1970 “kitchen talks” in the ‘90s: sociable
jokes, romantic attractions, intelligent discussions. In a word, praise to friendship. In this main
part of the movie the attentive viewer will find a lot of cinema quotations from films of the ‘70s
by O.Ioseliani, K.Muratova, etc. It’s a playful stylization in many ways. Not for a minute does it
become the fruit of cold calculation, or lose its free, elegant spirit of improvisation.
Then the alarming signals of other words intrude on the movie’s intellectual lyricism: a
sex maniac attacks one of the heroines; the other charming woman, aiming to prevent a rape,
plucks out the eye of a street beggar. After such encroachments the final events of the film, with
all their unexpectedness, have a certain logic. Feeling cheated, as were we all in that time, the
intellectuals do not become nice heroes. Donning masks and taking up guns, they engage in
murder and robbery “to get to the West”. In this way the film reflects the old story of some of
Tbilisi’s youthful elite who tried to fly an airplane away from the hated USSR.
After this mutual directorial debut, Boretsky and Negreba decided to go their own ways,
though their duet, to my mind, turned out to be organic and united.
Thirst for a Thriller
Former actor A.Haritonov proves, in his directorial debut, that he wants and is able to
make thrillers. In Thirst for Passion Haritonov didn’t hide quotations from other films (for
example, Kubrick’s The Shining), he built them precisely into the action. The story, about a
phantom-twin chasing a young aristocratic lady, is taken from Valery Brusov’s prose and is told
according to the rules of classic thrillers in the spirit of Hitchcock: ominous pauses,
presentiments of terrible events, and a coldly erotic elegance… all giving the film a necessary
style.
Surely, Haritonov is not Kubrick. He isn’t even Brian De Palma. He does have a
command of his profession, though, and his actors are good. A.Vertinska is very effective in both
role, real and illusory, while I.Kostolevsky, as the police commissar, can compete with the
inspector in any American crime-detection TV series.
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A Toy-Brick Game
Director and actor I.Okhlobystin likes to astonish the Russian public. I can’t remember
the last time some cinema personality as famous as he declared an attachment to drugs. But
Okhlobystin has made it several times (now he is very religious man). In his detective story The
Arbiter he also spites tradition, splintering stereotypes and playing with them at the same time, as
a child does with toy bricks. His characters – a freshman detective with his gray-haired colleague
– chase a serial killer. The standard plot becomes the basis for cinematic hints by the
director/leading man. Single shots and full episodes periodically quote or resemble the films of
Alan Paker (cameraman M.Mukasey doesn’t miss a chance to play with light rays penetrating
the blades of a gigantic ventilator), Hitchcock, Friedkin, Lynch and Scorsese.
These ironical quotations and hints help the director turn the film into some kind of
retrospective, proving that the style of French post-modernists Luc Besson (Subway) and Leos
Carax (Mauvais Sang, Boy Meets Girl) are close to the interests of modern young Russian
cineastes. Not accidentally, maybe, many members of The Arbiter’s team resemble (in their
creative style) famous parents in some way: actor Kirill Kosakov, composer Artem Artemiev,
etc.
The Arbiter counts on aficionados. It’s hard to surprise somebody in the West with this
kind of movie. American, French and British cinema, to my mind, has polished such style till it
shines. In Russian, I.Okhlobystin’s work is doomed to the TV heading “Not for Everybody”.
Devilish Speculation
N.Stambula’s film Operation Lucifer is made with clear intention: to add to gossip
about the mysterious murder of Russian pop star Igor Talkov. Stambula offers his own version of
the death of the singer, composer and poet: that neither jealous competitors, the Mafia nor
racketeers are guilty, but Develish power, the same evil creatures who – in Stambula’s plot –
want to kill an actor playing the role of Talkov in some movie by a gloomy director. There is a
subplot about a woman who buried her husband in a suit, one of whose pockets held a lucky
lottery ticket for a prestigious car (this story was printed in all Russian newspapers some time
ago). The action is interrupted by erotic scenes in a pool and out of it. In a word, it’s pure
speculation.
However, who knows? – if Stambula had the talent of Alan Parker, director of the 1987
mystical thriller Angel Heart, this might have been something artistic. But as it stands there is
nothing going on.
Alain Delon doesn’t Drink Eau de Cologne
And this drink isn’t favored by his screen heroes either, among which are hired killers (Le
Samourai by J.-P.Mellvile, Traitment de choc by R.Davis, etc.). Actor and director V.Shilovsky
decided to try on one of the established Delon’s roles. In Deadline Shilovsky plays a liquidation
professional making Mafia people uncomfortable. His next victim becomes respectable, and sets
out to destroy the superbosses. Shilovsky’s hero kills a “client”, then wants to be out of the
game, but…
All in all, the standard plot of Deadline doesn’t shine with specially dramatic passages.
It’s not actually bad, though, until Shilovsky tries to give the actions of his character a
psychological basis. As a child, he saw during the war how some died of hunger and others
enjoyed a glut of apples and peahens. That’s when he began to hate the masters of life.
Therefore, he is not an everyday hired gun, but a man with firm ideological principles – the
killer-avenger. This is another Russian attempt to complicate things, to make a murderer not a
murderer but some sort of victim of the social environment.
Pity, but there is none of Delon’s charm in Shilovsky’s hero. And he drinks, alas, eau de
Cologne instead of bourbon and Napoleon brandy…
Primitive Scripting
The plot of B.Grigoriev’s The Confession of the Mistress is simple: the Mafia kidnaps a
businessman, one of the so-called New Russians, and demands money from his mistress and
companion. A police detective tries to free the hostage with the woman’s help.
16
Most of the movie takes place in the heroine’s gorgeous apartment, where she and
detective are sitting beside the phone on which criminals call her from time to time. Under these
conditions only excellent directorial effort and well-developed acting could have saved the
movie. But neither M.Zudina nor M.Zhigalov manages to bring life to the primitive script
scheme. Their characters are monotonous and unattractive, their dialogue is boring. The action
develops very slowly, and by the middle of the movie only determined perseverance keeps one
from walking out for a breath of fresh air.
Belief in a Right to Kill
Kidnapping themes are as common in Russian cinema as American. The suspense movie
The Nonhuman tells of the kidnapping of a 13-year-old boy whose mother had a high office in
City Hall. Contrary to some other versions of such events, director Y.Ivanchuk puts the main
accent not on details of investigation, chases and fights, but on the family’s moral situation. The
kidnapping is presented as a harsh revenge for the mother’s sins (bribery, corruption, lying).
Here the talented actress L.Gurchenko had material for creation of an interestingly complicated
character. She played it, however, for half its potential, without the psychological truth she
brought to The Five Nights (1979) by N.Mikhalkov and Sibiriada (1980) by A.Konchalovsky.
S.Bragarnik, who performed a similar rile in V.Aristov’s drama Devil , managed to create a more
convincing and interesting character.
The criminal in Devil was scarier, too. Actually, he was kind of a Raskolnikov from
Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment, fixated on the belief that he was superhuman, having a
right to kill for some higher aims. In Devil the criminal didn’t get punished and the evil was his
celebration of a devilish victory. In The Nonhuman the criminal is killed by an assassin’s bullet.
Happy ending? Or evil just passing on its bloody baton?
Elena and a Russian Clyde
Russian Roulette, a film by V.Chikov, is made for spectators who love the American
cinema of the ‘60s-‘70s. A couple of gangsters-outlaws rob racketeers, thieves and at last just
suspicious-looking rich men until the dramatic ending. Chikov doesn’t conceal the origin of his
movie in Arthur Penn’s 1967 Bonnie and Clyde. But his action takes place in Russia of the ‘90s,
and instead of Faye Dunaway and Warren Beatty there are Elena Yakovleva and Denis Karasev.
They are not bad actors but they play in too “soviet” a way. The vivid music of A.Kozlov, with
its rich saxophone tunes, from to time evokes a moody, stylish variation on the theme of
gangsters’ Eros, grown dim in a romantic fog.
It would be ridiculous to demand that a common criminal movie rise to the level of
Dostoevsky, so let’s enjoy at least Russian Roulette’s good music.
Abuse, Song, Fighting, Sex and Guns
It seems like only yesterday that Russian authorities didn’t want one of outstanding director
K.Muratova’s films exhibited because its main female character uttered a couple of “bad language” words
in one scene. In N.Dzhgurda’s film Superman Against His Will, or The Erotic Mutant the characters are
swearing in nearly every scene, and it’s O.K. – the movie is circulating without restriction.
Were there indisputable artistic values in Dzhigurda’s auteur effort – he is the screenwriter, codirector (with S.Gaiduk), singer, poet and actor playing the role of an engineer-inventor in a constant fight
with the Mafia – to be compared even a little with Muratova’s films, no one would be paying attention to
its vocabulary. You can hear more of it in real life. Unfortunately, besides the trumped-up “bad language”
Superman… can attract attention only through numerous soft-porn scenes wherein N.Dzhigurda
apparently acted without a “body double”, while shyer A.Hmelnitska used the services of a young
photomodel from Moscow men’s magazine Andrei. The film’s sexual-acrobatic episodes are, however,
rather monotonous, and no more creative are its action scenes’ skirmishes.
Dzhgurda with his hoarse voice reminiscent of Vysotsky, flashes on Russian TV screen in
assorted music videos, concerts and commercials. Superman…, obviously, was planned by him as a 1 1/2
–hour self-promotion, counting on million-ruble box-office profits. And here it is – an old, greasy,
obscene story with an unbridled pop-music soundtrack.
Alexander Fedorov
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Alexander Fedorov
Comedies `a la Russe
Identifying with Images
Until only recently it was hard to even imagine a comedy about the life and activities of
Lenin appearing on Russian screens. His persona remained sacred through all the years of ‘20s –
‘80s. But two talented directors - V.Studennikov & M.Grigiriev – have ventured to destroy a
stereotype and defy the censors’ ban with A Comedy of Strict Regime. Those between age 50 and
100 certainly remember the unforgettable spring days of 1970, when the whole great country of
Soviets prepared to celebrate the 100th anniversary of this legendary workers’ leader. Press, TV
and radio sent and endless stream of information blockbusters at the public. From Moscow to the
very east a great wave of holiday celebration was rising.
The central characters of this movie swam in it, unfortunately for them. They, the officers
of a rigidly organized prison colony, decide to surprise the authorities with an amateur-theater
production, The Light of October, casting convicts in the roles of the first world state’s workers
and peasants. In might seem that nothing could be stupider than this! But the more the exthieves and murderers identify themselves with their images, the clearer a resemblance becomes.
Sitting in the theater, you understand that in spite of obvious differences (in education, for
example) the actors and the prototypes are people with similar moral values. For them the life of
an individual is worth nothing (“no man, no problem”), the aim justifies all means.
The seriousness of its material notwithstanding, the film is a real comedy, with excellent
satirical skits on the colony’s life (a huge poster says, “Lenin is more alive than everybody living
even now – V.I.Lenin”) and a perfect understanding of funny elements. It is not accidental that
the role of this leader is given to the plainest, most insignificant convict, who day after day
begins to identify with it, arming himself with quotations from the books and films of M.Romm
– Lenin in October (1937) & Lenin in 1918 (1939) – and becoming himself a real leader, able to
make the mob follow him wherever… even to escape from the colony, distracted by the
celebration.
There is no Lenin-movie cliché that is not ironically remade in A Comedy of Strict
Regime. In a fountain of quick-witted gags and dialogue the action develops dynamically;
without extended or repeated tricks. This is humor behind which lies a bloody and terrible
history of “dictatorship of the proletariat” and civil war, mass terror and violence. But there is a
saying in the holy book of Marxism: “Mankind parts with the past laughing”.
The same, with a difference
Remake is not a very word in Russian cinema yet. It applies to America, where they like
to shoot the same script several times. Often, it’s done without a wish to parody the original; yet
attempts to use cinema classics as background for ironic rewondering happen too.
Such appears to be the goal of Igor & Gleb, the Aleinikov brothers-film, ex-editors of
handwritten paper, Cine-Phantom, and authors of the 1980’s Underground Cinema. They took
the script of a famous I.Pyriev comedy, Tractor-drivers (1939), and made a parody in the spirit
of amateur action films about Russian Mafia. At first it’s funny. Why not? The female tractordriver Mariana lives in a luxurious villa, drivers an American car, shoots every kind of weapon
expertly. Rivals from a competing farm resemble a gang of terrorists and assassins. The exsolder Klim has to make an uneasy choice between these two armed, warring groups.
Unfortunately, the authors’ imagination and fantasy are sufficient for a 30-minute movie
only. In 15 to 20 minutes the film’s action stops going anywhere, the tricks and gags are being
repeated, and it doesn’t look funny at all. In a word, 85 minutes of The Tractor-drivers 2 are too
much. And what was forgivable in enthusiastic amateurs, on the big screen looks like
unprofessionalism.
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A Russian Shveik
Recently a lot of movies have shown, with realistic thoroughness, the horrors of Russian
army life: violence, cruelty, crimes, murders. Y.Volkogon’s Saluting! , for what may be one of
the first Russian film, tells about the same problems in the comedic tradition of novelist
Gashek’s unforgettable hero, The Good Soldier Shveik.
The comedy evolves with some bitterness, but it is funny at the same time. A.Androsov
brightly plays Ivan, the recruit who manages to make fools of stupid authorities and even
Ministry commissioners with his untamed optimism and idiotically thorough completion of
orders. Half Shveik, half hero of folk tales, Ivan comes safe and sound through dead-end
situation to win the love of his commander’s daughter.
Viewers who know Russian army life will probably get genuine pleasure from how the
movie turns into gags so many barracks customs, from the cleaning of latrines to the thousand
repetitions of the same drills. Reality, however, can be glimpsed in each absurd episode.
Wouldn’t it be great if everything shown in Saluting! Were just a fantasy!
Country Clumsiness
The star of V.Chikov’s comedy About Businessman Foma, M.Evdokimov, used to be
famous in Russia as a music-hall comic, reading humorous and satirical monologues in the
character of a rural athlete who from time to time comes out of a bathhouse with “a red face and
vodka inside the shirt”. Director Chikov decided to adapt this character for the big screen by
making Evdokimov into Foma, a tractor-driver who, having sunk his tractor while drunk, decides
to open a pay-restroom in his native village. The film obviously expects laughter to be evoked by
this odd situation itself. Really, though, what is a public toilet for in this tiny village where
everybody has his own house? The gag is simply not enough for a full-length comedy. Aware of
that, the script adds racketeering and a mad Communist who decides to protest this form of
private property by burning himself in the new toilet.
Sometimes it gets laughs, but on the whole it’s too monotonous and clumsy.
Evdokimov’s original monologues, told from the scene, were much funnier.
With Maternity in Mind
A young, single, pretty woman wants to have a baby without marrying its father. It’s not
so easy, however, to find a suitable man. In A Baby for November director A. Pavlovsky
develops this idea in the comedy genre (though the events can be easily imagined in a dramatic
version). A line of male characters, all unsound for our heroine’s purpose, passes episodically
before our eyes. Finally, a married friend lets her borrow her stupid husband (one of the most
popular actors of today’s Russian cinema, S. Makovetsky, is very good as this infantile fellow)
There are plenty of spicy situations which, I suppose, would be likable if directed by French
masters for erotic comedies. But Pavlovsky is neither Michel Deville nor Roger Vadim. Erotic
here lack charm, and there is no improvisational delicacy in the performances of the majority of
actors. A sex comedy doesn’t have to be so serious.
An Author Acts
Nearly every famous actor in Russia today has decided to try directing. So have
screenwriters and even film critics. More often, though, music-hall comics and pop singers
become movie actors – and the screenwriters are taking a turn. They used to write scripts. Now
they perform in film. In leading roles. You want an example? Here you are: a film by
S.Nikonenko (also an actor, by the way), I want Your Husband, in which the man of the title is
played by writer-humorist M.Zadornov, who decided to transfer his own monologues to the
screen.
One day a wife opens an apartment door and there stands some lady declaring that she
wants to buy her precious spouse. This start is rather intriguing. But as soon as the husband
appears the movie turns into a kind of radio show or TV performance of Zadornov reading his
stories. This famous writer lacks the acting skills to keep viewers’ attention for an hour and a
half. And the director hasn’t helped him at all; action, taking place primarily in one room, is
filmed uncreatively, on the level of a common new report.
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The great Chaplin, as we know, was a screenwriter, director, actor and composer all at the
same time. But he was Chaplin…
Not Quite a “The Sting”
In its script and style, V.Mishatkin’s crime comedy We Will Meet in Tahiti resembles
George Roy Hill’s famous The Sting and its Polish variation Va-Banque by U.Mahulski. This
director’s level is undeniably lower, and the movie came out not brilliant, but there are many
funny episodes and the gags are no worse than any of Mel Brooks’. Young actors play – with
visible pleasure – the roles of the smart rogues; L.Kuravlev is excellent as their elder colleague, a
lover in the guise of a thief-pensioner…
Service Compris?
It is common to give tips to waiters in a restaurant. That’s a rule all over the world. The
protagonist of R.Zurzumia’s comedy The Waiter with the Gold Tray decides to break the rule
and step out of the game. This is dangerous: his colleagues, not wanting “the good guy” around,
call him a traitor. The restaurant’s customers, surprised by this waiter’s unusual behavior, almost
kill him.
The situation of the “white crow” is not a new one for art. Yet it’s one thing when authors
of a film depict, for example, someone standing up against a totalitarian regime, it’s another
when they just tell about a man who doesn’t want to take extra money from clients.
Zurzumia pays no attention to this difference, making the waiter (played by the popular
Russian actor A.Abdulov) almost a hero, one worthy of the Honored Legion awards. This could
be forgiven if the movie had shone with artistic fantasy, gags, quick-witted dialogue.
Unfortunately, the script of The Waiter with the Gold Tray is another one failing to justify a fulllength film
Seeing Paris
French motifs have become very popular in Russia. “To see Paris and die” – the title of a
A.Proshkin film – become the theme of a lot of Russian films and Y.Mamin’s comedic fantasy
The Window into Paris, characters can be instantaneously transported between Petersburg
communal houses and the center of modern Paris. Mamin plays up the essential difference
between Slav and Western mentalities rather successfully. One unlucky Frenchwoman, who
finds herself almost naked in a dirty Petersburg yard, is absolutely unable to get used to
situations that surround all Russians from childhood, while Russian citizens – having discovered
a magical route to France – in several days begin to trade in the French stock market and steal
whatever isn’t fastened down. Against such a background, the figure of a failed musician, an
aged romantic who just wants to get pleasure from the sudden gift of fate, seems funny and odd.
Maybe the best joke of the film, in which Mamin sounds the highest note of pitiless
sarcasm, is the sequence about a restaurant musician who moved to France about ten years ago.
Lazily offering cognac to a former friend, he abuses Frenchmen and their customs, sentimentally
recalls Russia and almost cries while saying that he would give everything for an opportunity to
return to Petersburg just for one minute. As a gag, his friend fulfils this wish (via the magical
“open window”). But instead of the expected ecstasy, the emigrant – seeing an armored car in
front of the Petersburg railway station – falls into despair.
The fact is that modern Russia is good only in sentimental dreams and in conversations
before the cozy foreign fireplaces of restaurants with a view of the Sein, the Thames or the
Hudson.
I can’t say that Mamin’s film is as funny as the early comedies of Leonid Gaidai. There are
brilliant comedy scenes and pointedly devised details (in the principals office of a private college
for young businessmen, hanging portraits of political leaders have been replaced by gigantic
dollar symbols), but they are side by side with useless dialogue and events.
The finale of the film – driven by the slogan “We don’t need French shores” – isn’t,
frankly speaking, new. There are, however, more successes in The Window into Paris than
stereotypes.
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Almost a Fairy Tale
Kira Muratova’s film The Asthenic Syndrome (1989) was strict uncompromising, even
ruthless in its aesthetics and vocabulary. Her The Sensitive Militiaman’s style is completely
opposite: imitative conventions harmonize with a fairy-tale plot.
Anatoly, a nice young soldier, finds a baby in a cabbage patch one night and wants to
adopt him. This idea might have been taken from the half-forgotten Russian cinema of the late
‘50s and early ‘60s, when there were very popular lyric films about sweet lovers and handsome
babies. And, in fact, at first sight The Sensitive Militiaman seems to be a naïve, bright movie
about love and compassion awakening in its hero.
But K.Muratova remains faithful to herself. Her film is a subtly stylized, unusual toying
with mythology, ironic quotations and eccentric characters… all making it impossible not to
notice a connection with her previous works – The Long Seeing Out (1971), Learning the World
(1978), The Change of Faith (1988) and others.
The slightness and transparency of this picture may be a surprise for those who expected
a new Asthenic Syndrome. Muratova’s talent, however, was always unpredictable, original,
mobile. For some, her cinema is affected; for others, this writer included, it is attractive and
masterly.
Alexander Fedorov
Alexander Fedorov
Fantasies and Parables…
A Fearsome Story
The authors of Gongofer speak frankly and ironically about the old and new clichés of
fearful cinema tales. I wouldn’t, however, call this film, directed by B.Kilibaev, a clear parody.
It is a fantasy on the theme, with hints of the stories of Nikolai Gogol, its style in the spirit of the
genre’s aesthetics.
Kolka, a young Cossack, comes to the capital with his uncle to buy a bull for breeding.
Initially the film recalls Pig-Woman and Shepherd (1941) with its pompous fountains and frank,
intellect-unburdened faces of the heroes that look as if they were created especially for the
cinema, glorifying the best collective farmers in the world. But soon after, the unpretentious
comedy about provincials in Moscow for the first time breaks off as the ill-fated Kolka meets the
blond beauty Hanna – who turns out to be a witch and exchanges eyes with the guy during their
love ecstasy.
Kilibaev deliberately makes this perfidious substitution shocking and natural. The camera
keeps our attention on the spreading eye slime in the palm of treacherous Hanna, surrounded
with a hellish glow. And then a chain of funny and rather frightening episodes begins, in which
Kolka and his uncle try to get his stolen eyes back.
Gongofer can be reproached for its eclectic lack of style. But despite that Kilibaev
managed to make it a dynamic show, whimsically combining myths of the epoch of Socialist
Realism with special effects like Joe Dante’s.
What Boredom!
E.Nikolaeva’s film Sextale is derived form Vladimir Nabokov’s airy, refined story The
Tale, as is clear to any admirer of the works of famous Russian-American writer. But I’ll avoid
comparing screen and prose because during all the action of Sextale the original plot’s
development is absent. The filmmakers, probably, isn’t want to write more dialogue than
Nabokov did and decided to fill in the pauses (the story is short and film is long) with displays of
whimsical decorations, costumes, smoke and fog. The set decorators and artists really worked
hard on this. It needed something else, however… such as actors with skill. On one hand
L.Gurchenko is supple and musical in the role of The Devil, tempting a pretty young man with
displays of erotic desire. (It is the tempter’s whim that the fellow can choose – until midnight –
21
any number of the most beautiful women, providing this number is odd.) On the other hand,
there are inexpressive performances, in unemotional erotic scenes, by all the other actors. Add to
this an unjustified reserve of action, slack cutting, and badly recorded sound. In short, it is very
boring – despite the participation of the bright Gurchenko with her playful expression, biting
irony, and natural sense of style.
Rather than seeing the movie, it’s better to read Nabokov.
Too Obvious an Allegory
A rain of festival awards and unanimously enthusiastic opinions greeted the film
Drumaniada by S.Ovcharov practically from the first days of its release. “A unique contribution
to the development of Russian cinema”, “faithful to the theme of love for life” – those were
some phrases praising the picture. My voice, I’m afraid, will be omitted from the chorus.
Drumaniada seems to me the weak work of a talented director.
Previous fantasies by Ovcharov – Clumsy (1979), Flight of Fancy (1983), Left-hander
(1986) and his version of Saltykov-Schedrin’s The Story of the One Town under the title The It
(1989) – were created in an atmosphere of strict censorship that began to weaken and die only at
the end of the ‘80s. Using the traditions of Russian folklore and comedy tricks from the great
silent films, Ovcharov created a world built on eccentric allegory. I can’t say that director openly
presented puzzles and symbols to his viewers, but the satirical sharpness of his films (The It
especially) probably was read by every attentive admirer of the tenth muse.
In contrast, unnecessarily straightforward, newspaper-style satire can be felt in
Drumaniada in spite of its allegorical plot. The premise itself is interesting: to make a one and a
half-hour parable – about the misadventures of a funeral orchestra’s drummer who inherits an
enchanted drum labeled “Stradivarius” with which he travel around Russia – without the
characters speaking a single word.
But… again there’s a captious “but”… the story of this poor wretch is good enough for a
short film only. Forty minutes into the picture one feels the exhaustion of the method, as one
monotonous episode follows another. Even a scene in which the wonderful drum turns into a TV
set for several minutes is just boring. And the climactic sequence of the visit of foreign homeless
people to Russia, taking place in a town’s rubbish heap, is rather crudely made, and the actors’
performances are inexpressive.
An image of this country as a rubbish heap populated by homeless beggars has become
the Russian media’s most widespread cliché. The film’s other symbols are equally
straightforward and shallow. The signing of treaties for collaboration between Russian and
foreign beggars won’t impress anybody as a satirically courageous fantasy. And there are a great
number of such scenes. The behavior of the main character – the sad clown, a pale reflection of
Baster Keaton – and the development of early episodes become too predictable. The only good
thing about Drumaniada is the music on the soundtrack: Beethoven, Mozart, Mahler – this is
forever!
Ivanov after Godard
For his directorial debut in feature cinema, E.Ivanov chose an ambitious project requiring
a subtle stylistic gift: anew version of Jean-Luc Godard’s brilliant 1959 `A Bout de
souffle(Breathless) . Ivanov’s film is called Nicotine, and its action takes place not in Paris at the
end of ‘50s, but in Petersburg of ‘90s. On the whole, the plot’s lines – and even several details of
the characters’ dress – are retained. But something like the fantasies of Leos Carax and JeanJacques Beinex breaks the style of the “new wave” at times. In general, this film is close to the
classical understanding of the word “remake” without parody, admixtures or eccentric pranks.
It’s a pity that Ivanov insistently demands we pay attention to his source, the legendary
Godard’s debut with Belmondo and Seberg in the leading roles. He does this by making the
characters attend a lecture by cinema critic and director O.Kovalov, who introduces the film `A
Bout de souffle to Petersburg’s movie fans; and he also restages one of Godard’s press
conferences with the help of a double.
22
This persistence is worthy of a better application for two reasons. First, viewers who
know the creative work of Godard very well, or who at least saw `A Bout de souffle? Guess the
family tree several minutes into Nicotine without any oral prompts. Secondly, viewers who don’t
know who Godard is will be helped neither by lecture episodes nor by stills of his old
masterpiece to perceive Nicotine as a remake: the visual associations, cutting and plot parallels
remain “unreadable”.
Yet Ivanov’s biggest mistake, it seems to me, is in the unfortunate choice of actors who
very much let him down. It’s hard to suppose, certainly, that a young director might his the target
and find Russian performers whose scale of personality and charm would live up to Belmondo’s
and Seberg’s But having cast actors deprived of not only inward charm also attractive
appearance, Ivanov had to use them as visual effects, simply opportunities to underline – in
strange, long passages of light and shade – the black and white style of the film.
The emotional influence `A Bout de souffle? In which the reckless Michel, having
accidentally killed a cop, tried to fight his fate till the tragic realization of the exhaustion of his
life, is left below the surface by the director of Nicotine.
That is why, to my mind, this is not a warm declaration of love to the French “new wave” but the
fruit of cold, professional calculation.
To Believe the Prophecy for a Moment…
The film of E.Riazanov get sadder form year to year. The Prophecy is perhaps his most
sorrowful. It even has a gloomy outset: a famous writer (O.Basilashvili) learns from a Gypsy
fortune-teller that only a day is left for him to live and he is to meet with an unexpected man.
In that mystical tone a young man (A.Sokolov) with the same name and same temple scar
appears in the writer’s flat. Who is this mysterious double – phantom or guardian angel? The
answer remains open throughout the film.
So the time of summing-up comes for the tired writer, shaken by life. He is well-to-do in Russian
terms: he has an apartment in the center of Moscow, a car and video camera, and his books are
published in Paris. But, characteristically for a man living in a country of endless admonitions,
distress his look reveals the effect of freedom’s absence. And it’s not because of the peculiarities
of his biography (his father perished during the repressions, his mother is Jewish – which he
couldn’t mention for a long time – and his wife died in a car accident). The brand of unfreedom
is stamped on practically everybody in Russia, except those under 20.
In that regard, the choice of actress for the leading female role was perfect: French star
Irene Jacob Though her character is just a modest cashier in a bank, she can be at once
distinguished from the surrounding Russian fuss by her uncommon expression. She becomes a
fairy princess and, probably, the writer’s last love… for this princess is colored by the shade of
nostalgia for unrealized dreams.
In contrast with Riazanov’s previous works (Dear Elena Sergeevna, etc.), there is little
topical populism – although the conclusion is connected with one of the most widespread script
devices in Russia today (escaping from Mafia pursuit, the hero tries to leave for Israel). Sensitive
to his audiences’ mood, Riazanov couldn’t but feel that a mass interest in cinematic political
investigations and revelations has almost disappeared, while the need for melodramatic love
stories is great.
Actually, The Prophecy, can’t be called melodrama. There are comedy episodes (a
visiting fanatic suggests that the writer burn himself in Red Square as protest against something
– it’s not important against something – it’s not important against what, the main thing is to
perform the action), and there are elements of a parable. I don’t find such a genre alloy organic
and convincing. This seems to be the director’s attempt to get a second wind.
And I’m Again Walking about Moscow
Thirty years ago, whistling happily, the hero of young Nikita Mikhalkov walked through
Moscow streets wet with rain. It was a time of hope, joy was felt there. The Metro stations
shone, shady lanes in the park attracted. The heroes of another G.Danelia’s firm film Nastya are
also young, also fall in love, make dates in the Metro and jump on the day’s last bus or streetcar,
23
but the intonation has become sad, and even the funniest moments are tinted with this sadness
like maple leaves in autumn.
Telling the fairy tale of a Moscow girl who one fine day turns into the beauty from an
advertising poster, Danelia deliberately puts aside the gloomy old song with which modern
Russian “exposé” films are so rich. And in this film there are no fights in doorways, no scenes of
undressing and no “bold” language of modern Russian cinema.
Danelia has cast charming A.Abdulov as the representative of new “democratic power”.
Yet the film doesn’t fall into the expected wrathful pathos. Abdulov’s hero is petty in his
nouveau riche manners, fussy, boastful, infinitely proud of his position as prefect and his
participation in big-time politics, but he hasn’t lost his wonderful outbursts of soul.
The main success of the film is a duet of actresses playing the role of the 18-year-old
stationery clerk. Before the magic change Nastya was a nice girl, unhampered by men’s
attention, who tried to break out of the solitude, poverty and grayness of surrounding life with its
mother-yardkeeper, small flat and a brightly made up shopgirl colleague who, month after
month, suggested dubious entertainments with “cool guys”.
Nastya after the miracle is a beauty. With surprise she discovers how much appearances
influence the life of a man… not, often, in the best way. Happening upon an art show in the
subway where “men of culture” get very drunk and petty thieves pretend to be businessmen or
weighty sponsors., Nastya feels herself a stranger in this festivity of pseudo-life.
Alexander Fedorov
Territory of Love
The Wind from the East…
Nikita Mikhalkov’s Urga reached Russia in the glow of a triumph at the Venice film
festival. This picture about a possible harmony with nature, about the attempt of a common
Russian driver to understand the world of Mongolian nomads, was received in Moscow with
restraint, in spite of additional praise from Rome and Paris. There were a lot of things the film
was reproached for: An attempt to run away abroad from the difficulties of Russia’s troubled
time, for a tourist’s point of view on Asia and its people, for lacking the intuition of Bertolucci,
and so on.
Urga it rather vulnerable to such reproaches, though they don’t seem to me well
grounded. On the other hand, charges against the director’s and script’s prosaicness (as in a talky
restaurant episode about the essence of the Russian nation) are fair. But all this is put aside when
you see the wonderful landscapes of the imposing steppes, shot by V.Kaluta’s camera, and when
you hear the thousands of sounds.
The simplicity and ease of the Mongolian and Chinese actors frees a comical story (how a
Mongolian herdsman’s wife sent him into town for contraceptives, lest they be punished for
violating a law controlling the birth rate) from any bad tone. The professional European actor
usually has serious problems when working among Asiatic performers, but V.Gostukhin’s hero
is well realized and convincing.
So, after a long interval, Nikita Mikhalkov decided to return to the free-breathing
cinematograph.
And God Created Kiss
Director A.Karpikov, the pupil of Sergei Soloviev, is talented, flashy, and skillfully
stylized. His The Fish in Love (1989) was an elegant fantasy on themes of the French New
Wave, transformed in the atmosphere of Kazakh’s nighttime capital. Air Kiss continues a search
in the same direction. The film can seem an affected melodrama about how a beautiful nurse
prefers a lame gardener and a bandaged moto-racer to her respectable fiancé, the chief doctor of
her hospital. Yet it is bright and ironical, with a hint of the aesthetics of Roger Vadim and the
unforgettable image of Brigitte Bardot. In short, it’s postmodernism with a parodic layer that is
not very intensified and does not disturb the emotional atmosphere at all. And to their credit, the
young actors play sincerely, animatedly.
24
A doubtful spectator, after seeing Karpikov’s film, may ask: What about something
Kazakhian? All the characters are played by European actors – where is national vividness? But
who says Russians must make movies just about Russians, and Kazakhs about Kazakhs?
A Day Without Arguments
In You’re My Only One director D.Astrakhan succeeds in expressing the sensations of
average Russian who for one wonderful day experience a “holiday of life” in which there is no
place for nostalgic sentiments and hot arguments on spirituality, in which businessmen
accompanied by suave friends drive about in Fords and Mercedes, lazily count wads of dollar
notes, buy foreign delicacies and telephone New York right from their cars.
The life of 40-year-old Eugeny (A.Zbruev) resembles thousands of others. He has a
modest occupation as engineer in some institution, a flat in a standard tall block, a wife
(M.Neyolova) dreaming of escape from the closed circle of humiliating poverty, and a 16-yearold daughter for whom her ill-provisioned parents are a vivid demonstration of how one mustn’t
live – the embodiment of her dread of destiny.
The film’s opening episodes create a familiar sketch of “common family of intellectual
workers”: reproaches of Eugeny by wife and daughter, unmistakable hints that he is a typical
failure, that all others managed to do better long ago, that he ought to join a number of fellow
employees in a Russian-American joint venture, etc. And then, dreams… about trips over the
ocean, Hawaiian beaches, Dior perfume and Cardin dresses…
Zbruev and Neyolova play this without pressing, without relishing the muddle of their
characters’ lives. Even scenarist O.Danilov’s move into fantasy doesn’t make their performances
less truthful. It turns out that the firm organizing the joint venture is headed by one of Eugeny’s
former schoolmates whose younger sister Anna comes to Russia from USA. Anna has loved her
“only one”, her “unique Uncle Eugeny” since childhood. Now she is ready to become his fairy
godmother – or princess: buy him a smart suit, make him the representative of the American firm
in Russia, drive him in a Mercedes along the Petersburg streets.
But pride prevents Eugeny from becoming dependent on his old friend, although pride is
not the main problem in his affair with Anna: “I don’t love you, you see! Don’t love!” he cries to
his benefactress in a riveting sequence. A lot of things are mixed in Zbruev’s expression. It
would be good if he spoke so because he was deeply in love with his wife, but not at all… love
has smoothly changed into habit. And if it’s possible to live without rapturous love with one
woman, then why is it impossible with another? There is quite another thing, too – fatigue:
hopeless awareness of the fact that his life is over, that he has no strength to restart everything
from zero.
The bitterness of this feeling doesn’t disappear after either Eugeny’s return to his wife or
a Felliniesque postscript with a birthday celebration in the snowy garden of his house. Having
escaped the turn of fate, the heroes of You’re My Only One will, several days after the touching
departure of Anna for America, again poison each other’s lives with mutual criticism… and
dream about a separate room for their daughter.
The film reminded me of the best works of E.Riazanov (Beware of the Car, Irony of
Fate) and G.Danelia (The Autumn Marathon). D.Astrakhan can tell a story emotionally, vividly
and with psychological truth, in spite of its fantastic turns.
Identification of Cliché
Antonioni, Taviani, Wenders… The Identification of Wishes, director T.Hamidov’s
movie, is obviously made for people who know cinema. Quotations from famous directors’
classic films (slow plot development, psychological pauses, etc.) are spread among pseudo arthouse movies.
The story – about three teenagers who, learning that a friend’s mother works as a
prostitute at night, decide to “visit her” – in presented, for the most part, naturalistically. The
people, though not convincing, are sufficiently developed to show Hamidov’s thoughts about the
necessity of moral borderlines… which the characters don’t have, and which lack marks them
25
inhuman. Yet there’s not much kick to the film, no discovery. Instead of postmodern stylization,
it as dull collection of clichés. Hamidov doesn’t seem to have prospects.
Though He is Clever and Handsome
Petersburg’s atmosphere seems to create in movie critics and cinema scientists the wish
to show directors how real films must be made – not only in theoretical articles but on the set.
Following O.Kovalov (The Gardens of the Scorpion, Island of the Dead), another Russian film
critic in St-Peterburg – Y.Pavlov – has decided to try his hand at directing.
Pavlov’s philosophical The Creation of Adam can be regarded as you please, but to my
mind it has one great advantage. The film is beautifully made. In its world are yellow sandhills,
the play of Baltic waves, the deserted streets of Petersburg’s outskirts, the fashionable costumes
of the main characters… shots that seem to belong in a picture gallery.
Unfortunately, for me, this is the only attractive aspect of the film, because the story – of
a handsome, 30-year-old homosexual who finds clarity in life and love after meeting an
effeminate guardian angel – left me indifferent. The fashionable Gay theme evoked only weak
surprise because the characters didn’t invite a sharing of emotions with them, while the slow
development of action reminded me of Wim Wenders’ late films and brought boredom. I can
watch the “slow” films of Michelangelo Antonioni for hours, charmed again and again by the
silent pauses of L’Avventura, La Notte or L’Eclisse, so my dislike of The Creation of Adam is not
due to its pace and cautionary plot, but to a serious discrepancy between its author’s perception
of film and the aesthetic preferences of this spectator.
It happens sometimes in life: you meet a man who is dressed with taste and seems to be
clever, but it’s boring to speak with him. Antipathy arises in a moment… sometimes at first
sight. The same holds true for films; you watch some with pleasure, you can’t wait for others to
end.
It was bad luck for me to see The Creation of Adam. This is not my cinema, this is the
cinema of Y.Pavlov, corresponding to his ideas of how stylish directors’ films should look.
Red Riding Hood & Bluebeard
Despite its trendy modern-Mafia story, A.Chechulin film A Wife for the Maitre d’Hotel is in fact
a free fantasy on the theme of two famous fairytales by Charles Perrot.
A young, really naïve beauty (A.Nemolyaeva), though foolishness and the effects of
alcohol, finds herself in the room of a professional maitre d’hotel – a University graduate who
knows eight languages. He spends the night with her and, untrue to stereotype, proposes to her.
That’s the point where the story of Red Riding Hood being eaten by the wolf turns into the story
of Bluebeard. Showering his wife with presents, luxurious outfits and awesome travel tours, the
intellectual maitre demands only one thing: that she not interfere with his criminal deeds. But, of
course, the temptation is too powerful, and she has secret affairs with her husband’s best friends
– a gangster and cop – whom he cold-bloodedly kills when he learns the truth.
You say in the original tales Bluebeard killed non his wives’s lovers, but the overly
curious ladies themselves? But that’s Chechulin’s fantasy, modernizing Perrot. His finale follows
suit: disappointed in her husband, our heroine returns to her mother’s house and… becomes a
prostitute.
So it’s better to go into the streets than to live with a loveless husband! If only this idea
had been presented to us as humorous parody. But Chechulin just retells Perrot’s story using the
language of Emile Zola.
The Time Has Passed
V.Bogachev’s Dark Alleys is based on the novels of Ivan Bunin, classic of Russian
literature. The best thing about the film is the duet of actors O.Bogacheva and D.Lubshin – she
with the slightly mocking eyes, he with the shyness of a tutor-student, both in their days of
transient happiness, all shown with appropriate respect for the Nobel Laureate’s work and a will
to re-create the atmosphere of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.
26
Episodes framing the dramatic story, however, turn out badly. Roughly naturalistic,
reformed with extreme theatricality, they resemble the tricks of a roving street circus. You don’t
believe these characters could be related to the Russian elite of Nikolai II’s epoch.
It’s hard for today’s filmmakers to get rid of the post-Soviet outlook and create anything
slightly resembling the images of Bunin’s heroes. Dark Alleys is another unrealized attempt to
relinquish the Russian “cinema of gloom” for the beautiful world of passionate love evoked by
classic literature.
Alexander Fedorov
Alexander Fedorov
How to Shoot the “True” Film About Russia (Ironical instruction for Western
cineastes)
As a member of the Union of Russian Cineastes, I've worked up a set of brief instructions
for Western producers, writers and directors who want to make «true film about Russian life»:
1. Say you're basing your movie on a Russian story.
2. Give the leading male positive role to an actor with a «manly» appearance.
3. To show his endless attraction to Russian nature, church and children. Have him
mouth deep psychological thoughts about «the essence of being».
4. Make the principal Bad Guy look nasty with uncommon eyebrows and a curly black
wig. His residence must have foreign posters on its flat-painted walls and
Cosmopolitan magazine on the table. He should show an eager desire to run off over
the border, visit underground clubs, make fun of Russian boldness and - the main
thing - have an affair with another's Slavic wife.
5. It's necessary for the heroine not only to show a bright Russian manner but
wardrobe to match... such as big «sarafan»(a female costume in old Russia). She can
have her weaknesses, certainly, as does everyone. Even commit adultery. None of it
is her fault, however; she is simply a victim of the Mafia.
6. Between the Bad and Good Guys of a True Film about Russia you can't omit the
«intermediate link»: one hesitating character - an alcoholic doctor, for example who is torn between Good and Evil.
7. For the creation of action tension it's okay to use: explosion of secret laboratory; a
car accident; stripteases in rock club, and location footage in Paris.
8. Photographically, a Fine Arts representation must be made through poetic contrast:
milky fog drifting over green fields and a pensive cow will definitely underline the
alienation evoked in the Russian soul by your images of the cold shine of Western
skyscrapers, luxurious shops and bottles of White horse (more suggestive of
deceitful, negative characters than Stolichnaya vodka).
9. If, seeing the end result, critics and some spectators are indignant over the primitive
drama, dialogue and performances, and the director's pretentious amateurism, they
should be rebutted by special advertisements in the mass newspapers and TVchannels.
10. If that doesn't work, than the last advice is simple as everything that's brilliant:
declare publicly (preferably on TV) that your film can be understood and appreciated
only by True Lovers of True Russian Culture.
Alexander Fedorov
* The first publications of some of these texts were:
in the American magazines Cineaste (1997, Vol. XXII, n 4, p. 62),
Audience (1994, n 179, p.20-22; 1995, n 180, p.13-17; 1995, n 181, p. 24-28; 1995, n
27
182, p. 4-7; 1995, n 183, p.15-17; 1995, n 184, p.40-42; 1995, n 185, p.14-16; 1996, n
186, p. 14-16; 1996, n 187, p.2-4; 1996, n 188, p. 21-23; 1996, n 189, p. 14-15; 1997, n
197, p. 19; 1998, n 198, p. 29; 1998, n 199, p. 19-21; 1998, n 201, p. 20);
in the Norwegian magazine Media i Skolen (1992, n 5, p.55-57; 1993, n 1, p. 55-58;
1993, n 2, p. 58-61; 1993, n 3, p. 51-55; 1993, n 4, p. 46-50; 1994, n 1, p. 36-39; 1994, n
2, p. 21-24; 49-51; 1994, n 4, p. 41-45; 1994, n 5, p. 48-50; 1994, n 6, p.50-52; 1995, n 1,
p. 55-58; 1995, n 2, p. 40-42; 1995, n 4, p. 54-60; 1996, n 1, p. 25-32; 1996, n 6, p. 2630; 1997, n 1, p. 39-41; 1995, n 2, p. 26; 1997, n 3, p. 12-13; 1997, n 4, p. 34-35; 1997, n
5-6, p. 39; 1998, n 1, p. 30-31; 1998, n 2, p. 22,33; 1998, n 3, p. 40-42; 1998, n 4, p. 39;
1998, n 5, p. 58-59; 1999, n 1, p.36-37; 1999, n 2, p. 45-47; 2000, n 2, p. 6-7, 45-47;
2000, n 4, p. 38-41; 2001, n 1, p. 36-37).
28
European Journal of Philosophical Research, 2016, Vol. (5), Is. 1
Copyright © 2016 by Academic Publishing House Researcher
Published in the Russian Federation
European Journal of Philosophical Research
Has been issued since 2014.
ISSN: 2408-9435
E-ISSN: 2413-7286
Vol. 5, Is. 1, pp. 4-12, 2016
DOI: 10.13187/ejpr.2016.5.4
www.ejournal17.com
Articles and Statements
UDC 1
Ideological and Philosophical Analysis of the Functioning of Media in Society
and Media Texts on Media Education Classes
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russia, branch of Rostov State University of Economics
Prof. Dr. (Pedagogy)
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Abstract
Ideological and Philosophical Analysis of the functioning of media in society and media
texts: analysis of the ideological, philosophical aspects of media sphere. The ideological theory
of media becomes as the theoretical basis. It is assumed that the media are able to deliberately
influence public opinion, including in the interests of a particular social class, race or nation.
Pedagogical strategy of media education is reduced to the study of political, philosophical,
social, and economic aspects of the national media, to analyze the numerous contradictions
that contain these issues from the perspective of a particular class, race, religio n or nation.
In this case, the audience should be able to define: the difference between media images and
well-known facts; the reliability of the source; the accuracy of the determination; valid and
invalid statements; the difference between the primary and secondary information, approval;
partiality of judgment; installed and uninstalled judgment; vague and ambiguous arguments; a
logical inconsistency in the chain of reasoning; the force of the argument.
Keywords: ideological and philosophical analysis, media, media texts, media education,
media literacy, media competence, students.
Introduction
Ideological analysis and Philosophical Analysis of the functioning of media in society and
media texts: analysis of the ideological, philosophical aspects of medi a sphere. Theoretical
basis there is an ideological theory of media. It is assumed that the media are able to
deliberately influence public opinion, including in the interests of a particular social class, race
or nation. Pedagogical strategy of media education is reduced to the study of political,
philosophical, social, and economic aspects of the national media, to analyze the numerous
contradictions that contain these issues from the perspective of a particular class, race, religion
or nation [Piette & Giroux, 1997, p. 102].
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European Journal of Philosophical Research, 2016, Vol. (5), Is. 1
Materials and methods
The modern Russian and Western literature about ideological and philosophical Analysis
of the functioning of media in society and media texts was the main material for this article.
Method of study of the key concepts of representation suggests that different media texts
correspond to reality, they are not a mirror image of it, and create their own version of virtual
reality. The study of this concept is closely related to such concepts as media agency, media
audience, media language, media category and media technology. In addition, each of these
aspects affect the representation of media text (including its ideological and philosophical
sense).
The task to develop creative and critical thinking of the audience is very important.
For example, practical exercises on creating media texts (drawing on the concept of agency,
category, language, technology, audience, representation), problem analysis of media content
(relying on the concept of category, language, technology), the study of problematic situations
related to production (agency et al.), distribution and perception (audience, representation),
modeling a situation or process (agency, technology, audience et al.) using a role-playing
game.
The authors of a considerable number of research criticized creators of popular culture,
who used improper methods of psychological pressure (constant repetition of facts, regardless
of the truth), distortion of facts and trends, selection of the negative features in the imag e of
political opponents, "sticking labels", "playing folksy", a reference to the authorities in order to
justify a lie, etc. But among the creators of popular culture always been an honest professionals
who are building their own stories based on humanistic values, and another creators: politically
and commercially biased.
Supporters of the ideological approach usually have scrutinize typology of media
influences (or "effects"), among which are:
- cognitive effects: short-term; intensive, an extensive;
- effect relations: creating views; vaccination / change / strengthening opinion;
- emotional effects: short reaction;
- physiological effects: temporary illusion of fight / flight; temporary sexual arousal;
- behavioral effects: imitation; activation (i.e., for example, activation of purchases
through advertising) [Potter, 2001, pp.262-263].
In this case, the subject of media literacy education is a media system and its functioning
in society, human interaction, the language of the media and its use. As goals are distinguished:
creating a culture of interaction with the media, the development of perception of different
types of information, skills of analysis and interpretation of media texts, critical thinking,
learning various forms of self-expression with the help of the media, the development of
creative abilities in the field of media.
Understanding of the term media agency (in the sense of a source of information and
media people who own, create and distribute media texts) preschoolers' may seem far removed
from the understanding of sixteen, but it is important to see the connection between them.
Everyone is aware that any texts not arise by themselves, but are – even if they do not know by
whom and for what purpose.
The theory of media education as the development of critical thinking (as, indeed, and
cultural studies) suggests that older students should seek to understand more complex issues –
such as the pressure of the state system, in varying degrees, affecting the media censorship (in
particular, age restrictions on the sale, rental and demonstration of media texts), the division of
functions in media production, media production funding sources, etc. But anyway, the key here is
to understand the difference in the sense of a media text, depending on how the Agency it was
created (or commissioned by a company, for example, Christian Dior or Sony).
Many teachers in this sense, have a good result of studies consider not simply memorizing
information by the audience, but their ability to set key questions. For example: "Why is there such
a book was published in a small edition, and this something – big?", "Why did the director A.
received in Hollywood $ 300 million to make a film, and director B. always work with a relatively
small budget?", etc.
The methodology of cultural studies paradigm of media literacy education use both
approaches: critical thinking and practical. In particular, students can more understand the key
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European Journal of Philosophical Research, 2016, Vol. (5), Is. 1
concept of media agency into the practice (for example, role game “Agency”). Good way is the role
game about "financiers of media production", "editors", "censors", etc.
As already mentioned, one of the main objectives of media literacy education in modern
conditions is the development of critical thinking of the audience in relation to the different media
texts, disseminated through the mass media. However, the full development of critical thinking of
the audience cannot be without her acquaintance with the typical objectives, methods and
techniques of manipulative media impacts, its socio-psychological mechanisms, without problem
analysis information, including ideological and philosophical.
Here is a list of anti-manipulative media educational technologies:
- identification and show of social and psychological mechanisms used by the authors of
media texts focused on manipulative effect;
- analysis of methods and techniques, which are the media text’s creators are trying to
achieve the desired effect;
- attempt to understand the logic of the author's thinking, revealing the author's conception,
the auditor's assessment of the concept of a media text;
- "sifting" of information (a reasoned selection of true and false in the materials of the press,
television, radio, etc., clarification of information, comparison with the actual facts, etc.);
- removing information’s halo: "typical", "vulgar", "credibility";
- critical analysis of the goals and interests of agency, that is a source of information;
- description of manipulative ideological influences in a particular media text: "orchestration"
("constant repetition"), "prejudiced selection", "sticking labels, creating an image of the enemy",
"guidance blush, creating a positive image," "transfer” (transfer of properties from one object to
another), "reference to the authorities”, “ simplification”, “distraction / refocusing”, lies, half-truths, etc.
Of course, such an approach is useful in carrying out activities under certain conditions.
First of all, it must be based on theoretical training audience. This can include classroom
training right in practice direct problem analysis information, but, in my opinion, the
preliminary general theoretical acquaintance with the typical audience objectives and methods
of the manipulative media exposure greatly facilitates the process of further studies.
A critical analysis of selected political information is very good for the TV -news, but not
useful for art house media text, because students must understand the difference between a
particular political interest in reality and more multi-faceted impact of the work culture. And if
the person is not prepared to perceive information in its various forms, this person cannot fully
understand and analyze of media texts, unable to resist the manipulative media effects.
One of the most pressing issues related to ideological aspects of the manipulative media
influence – violence on the screen. Undoubtedly, few people try to imitate violent action. But it
exist the "addiction" to the media violence, mindless consumption of episodes with numerous
scenes of murder, torture, etc., the indifference, the inability of a normal human reaction to the
compassion of others.
The purpose of consideration of this aspect on media literacy education lessons is critical
analysis. For example, discover the true essence of the negative character, easily killing dozens
of people, who try to show of violence as a "game", "joke", etc.
I think one of the effective game form – "Investigation", the essence of which is as
follows. The audience is invited to investigate the crimes of several characters of media texts,
containing scenes of violence. The task: to identify improper, illegal, cruel, inhumane actions of
these characters, which may, among other things supplied by the authors in the "fun" and
"playful" forms. Thus, gathering compelling "evidence", the audience builds the final charge
against the authors ("Agency") of various media texts, manipulative scenes of violence.
In this case, the audience should be able to define: 1) the difference between media
images and well-known facts; 2) the reliability of the source; 3) the accuracy of the
determination; 4) valid and invalid statements; 5) the difference between the primary and
secondary information, approval; 6) partiality of judgment; 7) installed and uninstalled
judgment; 8) vague and ambiguous arguments; 9) a logical inconsistency in the chain of
reasoning; 10) the force of the argument [Beyer, 1984, p.56].
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European Journal of Philosophical Research, 2016, Vol. (5), Is. 1
Discussion
Analysis of the ideological concept of media shows that in the 1920's – early 1980's was
two main options – the Western and Soviet. In the first case, media educators have focused on
the critical analysis of political, philosophical, social and economic aspects of media texts in
their countries. In the second case, media educators (for example, from the so -called "socialist
camp") believed to be critically analyze media texts by the capitalist West. "Socialist" media
production (especially directly promotes the official ideology) was originally considered to be
politically correct, so completely eliminated the scope of this kind of critical analysis (except in
rare cases of "manifestations of trends revisionism") [for example: Lacis, Keylina, 1928;
Uritzky, 1954].
Now the ideological theory of media largely lost its former position, but in some way
transformed to the area of national-regional, religious, socio-political approach to media and
media texts. And teachers of some states and nations strive to protect students from the
expansion of American popular culture (similar to "protectionist" media education theory).
In the countries of the "third world" (for example, Latin American, Asian, Arab) is becoming a
popular active opposition of media globalization (that is, again, Americanization). In addition,
the ideological theory of media education, no doubt, has a commo n ground with more popular
in the West media education – the development of critical thinking. For both one and the other
to ask questions about whose interests is this or that media information, and what groups it is
designed. And the audience must not only develop of "critical thinking", but also make analysis
of the mechanisms of ideological influence and values of certain information [Masterman,
1988; 1994; 1997].
D. Buckingham wrote that the views of L. Masterman largely represent the
transformation of the ideological approach but he has not the active attention for cultural
studies aspects [Buckingham, 1990, p. 7].
Some theories of media literacy education (for example, "practical" media education)
ignore of a key concept media audience. It should be noted that a genuine interest in the
concept of audience appeared in media literacy education since 1960s. Before this time many
supporters of “protectionist injection” (inoculatory approach in media education), in general,
thought that the media has a direct impact on the behavior and attitudes supposedly
homogeneous audience, and other media educators rashly believed that the audience’s
problems – these are the problems of sociology and psychology, but not a topic for training
sessions on media material.
Students’ audience, even the same age, have very differentiated interest and level of
preparedness for any activity. Here play the role of factors such as heredity, macro / micro
environment, previous experience of education and training. Therefore, students’ perception of
the same media text of the same study group can be different. In addition, my practical
experience shows that in many cases, the audience tends to conform the perception and
evaluation of media texts. Students can use different reactions from the contacts with the same
media texts alone, in the company of peers, parents, in the classroom with the teacher, etc.
That is why the method works with the key concept of audience maybe start from the lessons it
involves a discussion of such situations. The materials for students’ collective discussion –
amateur photos, videos, posters, newspapers, etc.
I suppose, the progress in this type of media literacy works will appear when the students
will gain the ability to discuss the range and diversity of audience reactions, as well as related
issues of taste, compliance, laws and codes of practice, censorship and legal issues. All this can
be investigated by means of practical and critical work. At a more advanced level, students can
study the theory on the effects of media on the audience, as well as how the audience accepts or
rejects some media texts.
Results
Ideological and philosophical analysis of media texts implies a number of creative tasks [BFI,
1990; Semali, 2000, pp.229-231; Berger, 2005; Nechay, 1989, pp.267-268; Fedorov, 2004,
pp. 43-51; Silverblatt, 2014; Potter, 2014, but I substantially supplemented and revised this cycle of
tasks]: literary analytical, role-playing, fine-simulation. Each of these tasks includes analysis of the
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European Journal of Philosophical Research, 2016, Vol. (5), Is. 1
key aspects of media literacy education [media agencies, media categories, media language,
media technologies, media representations, media audiences, etc.].
Cycle of literary and analytical creative tasks for ideological and philosophical analysis of
media texts in the student audience:
Media agencies:
- analysis of information about who owns the media and monitors in the country;
- analysis of the key titles on the front pages of various newspapers, the attempt to draw
conclusions about their political, genre orientation;
- research the situation related to the closure or prohibition of a particular source of media
(newspapers, magazine, film), a political media company for / against this or that politician.
Media / media text categories:
- analysis of similar genre of media texts of different countries in order to prove that the same
genre can be interpreted in different ways – depending on the social, political, ideological,
philosophical, national position of authors.
Media technologies:
- analysis of how the use of different media technologies may be due to ideological influence.
Media languages:
- analysis of media language (visual, audio, audio-visual) and how it can be used to enhance
the manipulative ideological influence on the audience;
Media representations:
- analysis of the volume of a media (newspapers, TV), dedicated to the political and
ideological image (photographs, drawings, etc.) and volume for verbal texts (articles, dialogs, etc.)
on the ideological, political theme. Subsequent determination of political, ideological bias of media
texts;
- writing of essay (3-4 pages) “The Ideological concept of media texts on a contemporary
theme”;
- analysis of a news program in terms of the presence / absence of transmission attempts of
manipulative ideological effects (ambiguities figure of silence, "sticking labels", "orchestration" (ie
in the form of psychological pressure constant repetition of certain facts, regardless of the truth),
"selection" (i.e., the selection of certain trends - for example, only positive or negative); "transfer"
(transfer any qualities (positive, negative) to another phenomenon (or person); "evidence" – a
reference to the authorities in order to justify an action, or that slogan, "playing folksy" (the most
simplified forms of information);
- analysis, comparison of ideological orientation of TV-news in three different channels
within the same day, identifying similarities and differences, a comparison of these plots with TV
news in the press, which appeared in print the next day;
- analysis of media text on the political theme, based on documentary evidence. The study of
regional geographic, political, philosophical, and historical materials relating to the topic and the
time period. Comparison of the studied materials with the image of political events in the media
text (the image of the country, nation, race, nationality, social system, ideology, political
administration, philosophy, justice, education, employment, etc.);
- comparison of several points of view (e.g., professional journalists, art critics) on political
developments, its philosophical significance;
- location of abstracts in order of importance to understand and describe the ideology and
philosophy of a particular media text;
- description and analysis of a particular episode of a media text on the political theme,
including ideology, philosophical concept, etc.
Media audiences:
- writing of essay (3-4 pages) “The ideological influence of books, TV and press on the
youth”.
Cycle role game creative tasks for ideological and philosophical analysis of media texts in
the classroom at the student audience:
Media agencies:
- role game on hypothetical search of sponsors for media project with those or other
ideological and / or philosophical orientation;
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European Journal of Philosophical Research, 2016, Vol. (5), Is. 1
- role game on the situation related to the closure or prohibition of a particular source of
media (newspapers, magazine, transfer, film), a political media company for / against this or that
politician;
Media / media text categories:
- role game on the decisions about the plot on the ideological theme in different media
genres;
Media technologies:
- role game about what different media technologies may be due to ideological influence.
Media languages:
- role game on the dispute of the "authors" about how the tools of media language (visual,
audio, audio-visual) can be used to enhance the manipulative ideological influence their future
work on the audience.
Media representations:
- "Interview" (role game interviews with various "characters" media text - with an emphasis
on ideological and philosophical issues);
- role game: "press conference" with authors of media text ("writer", "director", "actors",
"producer" and others.) with question about ideology an philosophy of authors’ ideas;
- role game on "international meeting of media criticism" (the analysis of a various
ideological and philosophical aspects of the media and media texts);
Media audiences:
- Advertising campaign, media text sale to potential buyers (publishers, TV-channels) in view
of its ideological and / or philosophical orientation;
In fact, the role game activities complement and enrich students’ skills acquired during the
literary analytical game workshops.
Graphic-cycle simulation creative tasks for ideological and philosophical analysis of media
texts in the classroom at the student audience:
Media agencies:
- create draw comics on the topic of search hypothetical sponsors for media project with
ideological / philosophical orientation.
- create a series of drawings on the theme of the situation related to the closure or
prohibition of a particular source of media (newspapers, magazine, transfer, film), a political media
company for / against this or that politician.
Media / media text categories:
- work with ideological stereotypes (the audience is invited to fill in the appropriate table).
Media technologies:
- create a comics on the topic of how the use of different media technologies may be due to
ideological influence.
Media languages:
- Analysis of the frame (photos, posters, advertising posters) from ideological and
philosophical point of view.
Media representations:
- read scenic line (for example: "He goes into the crowd of anti-war demonstrations, without
noticing the approaching Police ..."). Training (using sheets-frame) series of frames "the film
adaptation of this scenic line;
- create advertising, posters, collages or dioramas on the ideological, political, philosophical
theme based on texts and images clippings from old newspapers / magazines with additional drawings;
Media audiences:
- create cartoon comic based on those or other media texts on political, ideological,
philosophical theme, intended for adult audiences;
- create visual media texts on political or philosophical theme, intended for a specific
audience, foreseeing how the audience might react to such products.
The next series of media literacy education classes is problematic group discussions about
media texts in terms of their ideology and philosophy. There can be used the following tasks:
- comparison of media critics’ reviews and discussion, associated with the problems of the
median ideology and philosophy;
- preparing essays devoted to the ideological, philosophical problems of media culture;
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European Journal of Philosophical Research, 2016, Vol. (5), Is. 1
- group discussions (with the help of problem questions of the teacher) about a media texts
with an emphasis on ideological orientation and philosophical concepts;
- students’ reviews about specific media texts of different types and genres, taking into
account their ideological orientation and philosophical concepts.
The logic of these creative tasks comes from the fact that the critical analysis of media
texts begins with an introduction to the works of critics' community professionals (reviews,
theoretical articles, monographs devoted to media culture and specific media texts), in which
the audience can judge the different approaches and forms of this type of work.
The audience is looking for answers to the following problem questions: "What is the
author of the review see the advantages and disadvantages of media texts, especially his
philosophy and ideology?", "How deep reviewers penetrate the philosophical and / or
ideological intention of the author?", "Do you agree or not with certain ideological, political
reviewers’ assessments? Why?”, etc.
Then – the works on the essay on the ideology and philosophy of media sphere. And only
then - an independent discussion about media texts.
Workshops on skills of critical analysis of media texts are aimed primarily at the ideological
and philosophical aspects, the ability to apply this knowledge in new teaching situations.
The general scheme of a debate:
- introduction (the goal: to give brief information about the creators of media texts, remind
their previous work, refer to other works of these authors, if there is a need to dwell on the
ideological, political, philosophical the context of the event, in any case, without touching the
ratings the author's position, and, of course, not retelling the plot of the work);
- "reading" of media text (communicative phase);
- discussion about media text, conclusions.
The questions for ideological and philosophical analysis of the functioning of media in
society and media texts [Silverblatt, 2001, pp.42-43; Fedorov, 2004, pp.43-51; Fedorov, 2006,
pp. 175-228]:
Media agencies:
Do you know who owns this or other companies that produce, buy and sell media / media
texts? Why Are?
The agency determines the target audience for a media text?
Can the agency "create" your audience?
Media / media text categories:
On what parameters need to evaluate media messages (political, social, moral, philosophical,
artistic, etc.)?
Media representations:
Can the media artificially create pseudo-events? If yes, please give specific examples.
Is it possible to absolute objectivity views creators of media texts?
Are there visible signs of deviant behavior, sexism, conformity, anxiety, stereotyped thinking,
conflict of generations, etc.?
Media Audiences:
Why the audience takes some media representations as true and reject others as false?
Can the media to influence the development of political processes in the society? If so, how?
As (for whatever reason) the audience usually chooses / buys media texts?
As the choice of audience affects the strategy, style, and content of media texts?
What is the role of gender, social class, age and ethnic origin in the media perception of the
audience?
Conclusion
This article presented the main directions for Ideological and Philosophical Analysis of the
functioning of media in society and media texts on media education classes for student audience,
including the examples of creative problems and issues associated with this type of the analysis in
the context of media education problems, i.e. based on six key concepts of media literacy
education: agency, category, language, technology, audience, representation. The author supposes
that the Ideological and Philosophical Analysis of the functioning of media in society and media
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European Journal of Philosophical Research, 2016, Vol. (5), Is. 1
texts on media education classes can significantly develop media competence of students, including
students' critical thinking.
References:
1. Berger, A.A. (2005). Seeing is believing. Introduction to visual communication.
Moscow: Williams, 288 p.
2. Beyer, B.K. (1984). Improving Thinking Skills. Phi Delta Kappan, 1984. Vol. 65. N 8, p. 56.
3. Buckingham, D. (1990). Media Education: From Pedagogy to Practice. In: Buckingham,
D. (Ed.). Watching Media Learning. Making Sense of Media Education. London – New York –
Philadelphia: The Falmer Press, pp.3-15.
4. Buckingham, D. (2003). Media Education: Literacy, Learning and Contemporary
Culture. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 219 p.
5. Fedorov, A.V. (2004). Specificity of media pedagogical students // Pedagogy. 2004.
№ 4, pp. 43-51.
6. Fedorov, A.V. (2006). Media Education: creative tasks for students and pupils //
Innovation in Education. 2006. N 4, pp. 175-228.
7. Lacis, A., Keylina, L. (1928). Children and movies. Moscow: Teakinopechat, 88 p.
8. Masterman, L. (1984). Television Mythologies. New York: Comedia.
9. Masterman, L. (1985). Teaching the Media. London: Comedia Publishing Group, 341 p.
10. Masterman, L. (1997). A Rational for Media Education. In: Kubey, R. (Ed.) Media
Literacy in the Information Age. New Brunswick (U.S.A.) and London (UK): Transaction
Publishers, pp.15-68.
11. Masterman,
L.
(1998a).
18
Principles
of
Media
Education.
In:
http://www.screen.com/mnet/eng/med/class/support/mediacy/edec/masterman.htm
12. Masterman, L. (1998b). Media Education Revolution. In: Hart, A. (Ed.). Teaching the
Media. International Perspectives. Mahwah, New Jersey – London: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
Publishers, p.x.
13. Masterman, L. (2000). New Paradigms and Directions. Telemedium. Journal of Media
literacy. Vol. 46. N 1, p.7.
14. Potter, W.J. (2001). Media Literacy. Thousand Oaks – London: Sage Publication, 423 p.
15. Potter, W.J. (2014). Media Literacy. L.A.: Sage.
16. Silverblatt, A. (Ed.). (2014). The Praeger Handbook of Media Literacy (in 2 volumes).
Santa Barbara, California and Oxford, England: Praeger.
17. Uritzky, N.C. (1954). Cinema in extracurricular activities. Moscow, 120 p.
УДК 1
Идеологический и философский анализ функционирования медиа в обществе
и медиатекстов на медиаобразовательных занятиях
Александр Федоров
Таганрогский институт имени А.П. Чехова,
филиал Ростовского государственного университета экономики, Российская Федерация
Доктор педагогических наук, профессор
E-почта: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Аннотация. Идеологический и философский анализ – это анализ идеологических,
философских аспектов медийной сфере. Теоретической основой здесь становится
идеологическая теория медиа: предполагается, что средства массовой информации могут
сознательно влиять на общественное мнение, в том числе в интересах определенных
социальных классов, рас или нации. Педагогическая стратегия медиаобразования сводится
тут к изучению политических, философских, социальных и экономических аспектов
национальных средств массовой коммуникации, к анализу многочисленных противоречий,
которые содержат эти вопросы с точки зрения конкретного класса, расы, религии или нации.
11
European Journal of Philosophical Research, 2016, Vol. (5), Is. 1
В этом случае, аудитория должна быть в состоянии определить: различия между медийными
образами и известными фактами; надежность источника; точность определения; верные и
неверные утверждения; разницу между первичной и вторичной информацией, утверждением;
пристрастность суждения; неопределенность и неоднозначность дискуссии; логическую
несостоятельность в цепи рассуждений; силу аргумента.
Ключевые слова: идеологический и философский анализ, медиа, медиатексты,
медиаобразование, медиаграмотность, медиакомпетентность, студенты.
12
European Researcher. Series A, 2015, Vol.(101), Is. 12
Copyright © 2015 by Academic Publishing House Researcher
Published in the Russian Federation
European Researcher
Has been issued since 2010.
ISSN 2219-8229
E-ISSN 2224-0136
Vol. 101, Is. 12, pp. 775-782, 2015
DOI: 10.13187/er.2015.101.775
www.erjournal.ru
Pedagogical sciences
Педагогические науки
UDC 37
The Mass and Individual Terror in the Mirror of the Soviet and Russian Cinema
(the Feature Films of the Sound Period) and Media Literacy Education
Alexander Fedorov
Anton Chekhov Taganrog Institute, Russian Federation
branch of Rostov State University of Economics
Prof. Dr. (Pedagogy)
E-mail: mediashkola@rambler.ru
Abstract
This article gives the way for hermeneutic analysis of the topic of the mass and individual
terror in the mirror of the Soviet and Russian cinema (the feature films of the sound period). The
hermeneutical analysis suggests media text comprehension through comparison with historical,
cultural tradition and reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media images in
historical and cultural context by combining historical, hermeneutical analysis of the structural,
plot, ethical, ideological, iconographic / visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media text
characters. An analysis of this kind of media texts, in our opinion, is particularly important for
media literacy education of future historians, culture and art historians, sociologists, psychologists
and educators.
Keywords: terror, Russian cinema, films, hermeneutical analysis, Soviet, USSR, film
studies, media texts, media literacy, media education, information literacy.
Introduction
Proceeding from the research that was devoted to different aspects of the Theory and History
of Cinema-Art, as one of the branches of the Theory and History of Art, we can make a conclusion:
the analysis of the theme of terror and terrorism in the Russian cinema remains uncharted; no
existing school book, monographs or thesis contain a chapter devoted to this vital question.
This article gives the way for hermeneutic analysis of the topic of the mass and individual terror in
the mirror of the Russian cinema (the feature films of the sound period). The hermeneutical
analysis suggests media text comprehension through comparison with historical, cultural tradition
and reality; penetration of its logic; through comparison of media images in historical and cultural
context by combining historical, hermeneutical analysis of the structural, plot, ethical, ideological,
iconographic / visual, media stereotypes and analysis of media text characters. An analysis of this
kind of media texts, in our opinion, is particularly important for media literacy education of future
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European Researcher. Series A, 2015, Vol.(101), Is. 12
historians, culture and art historians, sociologists, psychologists and educators. An analysis of this
kind of media texts, in our opinion, is particularly important for media literacy education of future
historians, culture and art historians, sociologists, linguists, psychologists and educators.
Materials and methods
The main materials for this article was the area: the books, articles and films about the theme
of terror and terrorism in the Soviet and Russian cinema. I used also the method of hermeneutic
analysis of the cultural context of media texts (Eco, 1976; Silverblatt, 2001). This method connected
with the key concepts of media literacy education (media agencies, media categories, media
language, media technologies, media representations, media audiences etc.).
I have these objectives:
- to define the place and role of the theme of mass & individual terror in the Russian cinema
art of the sound period;
- to study a social, cultural, political and ideological context, main stages of the evolution of
the theme of the course in Soviet and Russian cinema, directions, aims, tasks of the development of
this theme, basic authors' concepts of Soviet and Russian feature films of the 1930's-1990's, where
to some extent the theme of mass & individual terror is touched upon;
- the analysis and the classification of the model of contents, genre modifications, stylistic
aspects of the Russian cinema art of sound period, dealing with the terror theme (the classics in the
history of Russian cinema - the works of Friedrich Ermler, Mikhail Romm, Leo Arnshtam, etc. and
films that haven't been analyzed yet - made in the 1980s-1990s as well).
Discussion
At present the Theory and History of Art, Cinema art lacks researches, monographs, devoted
to the theme of mass & individual terror in Russian cinema of the sound period (1930s-'90s).
The researches of Russian specialists in the Theory and History of Arts were until now devoted to
such traditional themes as 'historically-revolutional', 'heroic-patriotic', war, etc. In this theme
context films of 1930s-1940s were viewed, in this or that degree concerning our topic, for example,
works by I. Dolinsky, S. Ginsbourg, N. Lebedev, A. Groshev, V. Zhdan, N. Tumanova, L. Belova, etc.
The theme of terror as a separate theme was not regarded in the published works analyzing films of
the 1950s-1990s either (N. Zorkaja, L. Annensky, Y. Bogomolov, V. Demin, I. Waisfeld,
G. Kapralov, M. Turovskaja, K. Raslogov, etc.). Therefore, no Russian research claimed to have a
special analysis of the theme of mass and individual terror in the Russian cinema art.
Thus, the problem of the course is, for the first time in the Theory & History of Art, to study,
analyze and make it a system of evolution of the interpretations of the themes of terror and
terrorism in Russian cinema-art of the XXth century, taking into consideration the social &
cultural, political & ideological context, types of plot schemes and characters, basic authors'
concepts of the themes of mass & individual terror, peculiarities of the artistic style.
The chronological framework: the sound period of the Russian cinema-art /since 1931/ till the
present day.
The general social & cultural context, within the limits of which the problem is, is the
following: Mass and individual terror is one of the most dreadful crimes of the XXth century.
During its biggest part of existence, the Russian cinema-art touched upon the theme of terrorism.
In different years the interpretations of the terrorists' action were not only different, but quite
opposite too. For instance, in the early 1930s-1970s the activity of Russian Communists Special
police (V.C.K.) was interpreted positively, in the end of 1980s & 1990s V.C.K. was shown as the
organization that headed the mass terror. In the films made in the '60s (Sofia Perovskaya by Leo
Arnshtam, etc.) about individual revolutionary terror, the main characters were treated
sympathetically, while in the films of the 1990s (screen versions of the novels by Boris Savinkov,
etc.) individual terror is unequivocally turned down.
No doubt, the terrorism theme was never a leading one in Russian cinema art, despite the
fact that for some political, economic, and military reasons in the Russian society of the '90s,
terrorism began to increase threateningly. Cinema in different genres (drama, thriller, detective
story or a comedy and parody) began to turn to the problem of this course more and more often.
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Results
1. The mass and individual terror in the mirror of the Soviet and Russian cinema: the Stage
of the 1930s.
The aims: to define the place and role of the theme of mass & individual terror in the Russian
cinema art of 1930s; to study the social, cultural, political, ideological context, directions, aims and
tasks of the development of this theme, model of contents of films on the topic, their genre
modifications, authors viewpoints and stylistics.
The 1930s are one of the most complicated, contradictory and contrasting periods in the
history of the Russian film industry (Turovskaya, 1989). Directors – socialist realists had to bless
and sometimes glorify mass repression of 'public enemies’, in a word aid adoption of the ideological
myths of Stalinism into mass consciousness (Turovskaya, 1989; Urenev, 1997). The totalitarian
system realized the political & ideological importance of the theme of terror. Though it didn't
occupy the leading place in the Russian cinema, its propaganda role was rather big. With the help
of a screen, the necessity of the 'revolutionary terror' towards 'class enemies', 'alien elements', etc.
was put into the heads of millions of Russians. Such films became the apparent basis for the
adoption of Stalin's thesis saying that as socialism develops, the class struggle should grow and
become violent...
General social, cultural, political & ideological context of the 1930s:
- mass terror in the totalitarian regime towards peasants that lead to the hunger in early
1930s;
- total abolition of the private property (that was revitalized during the Russian
communist's New Economic Policy of the 1920s;
- intensive industrialization (mainly of heavy and military industries) at the cost of
enormous efforts of people);
- mass repression of millions of Russians - from the lowest to the highest strata of society;
- intensive adoption of communism with the intensive repression of the Christian
ideology;
- intensive militarization of the country, unleashing war conflicts.
The film industry that touched upon the terror theme to support the main lines of the state
policy of the Stalin's regime, was set strict propaganda tasks which served as the basis for the film
authors' conceptions:
- to prove that Bolsheviks' enemies camouflage themselves and are ready to make an act of
terrorism any minute to seize power;
- to show that terror towards the public enemies is justified and inevitable;
- to convince viewers that anyone of their family, relatives, neighbors and friends can turn
out to be a 'class enemy', who must be revealed and destroyed.
Genre modifications: on the whole the genre is that of a drama (war epic, historical). The
style of such films was determined by the strict rules of so-called 'socialistic realism': instead of the
experimental (especially in the form) film production of the '20s, the style of the ordinary, everyday
life (in fact, often embellished) emerged with its consistent plot, theatrical performance of actors...
The dominating models of film plots: terror of Bolsheviks towards the so-called 'class
enemies' and 'public enemies' and vice versa (The Great Citizen by F. Ermler, Aerograd' by A.
Dovzhenko, The Party Card by I. Pyriev, Lenin in 1918 by M. Romm, etc.). The latter film by
Romm had a mission to justify mass repression (Urenev, 1997). As far as films about
collectivization are concerned, in such films a dramatic stereotype exists: 'poor peasants at once
realize the advantages of a collective farm, middle class peasants hesitate, 'kulaks' (rich farmers)
undertake sabotage and murders with the help of White Guard officers, foreign spies, priests and
salesmen coming from the blue (Urenev, 1997).
Even children's films of Stalin's period were swarming with enemies. In the 1930s, when
Stalin destroyed peasantry, enemies were usually 'kulaks', White Guards, who helped spies &
saboteurs. The great support for enemies of the Soviet regime was clergy because at that time
thousands of Russian new martyrs were killed by the godless power.
2. The mass and individual terror in the mirror of the Soviet and Russian cinema: the Stage
of the 1940s.
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The aims: to define the place and role of the theme of mass & individual terror in the Russian
cinema art of 1940's; to study the social, cultural, political, ideological context, directions, aims and
tasks of the development of this theme, model of contents of films on the topic, their genre
modifications, authors viewpoints, stylistics, the differences from the stage of 1930's.
At the beginning of the war with the Nazis, Germany has visibly changed the social, cultural &
ideological context, against which the Russian film industry developed. Class struggle and the
struggle with religion stepped back, there was no mass repression against farmers, the leading
place was taken by the struggle with fascists (the Germany with which Stalin had previously set
friendly relationships).
General social, cultural, political & ideological context of 1940s:
- hostilities on the territory of Russia from 1941 to 1944 and the war in the Eastern Europe
& in the Far East in 1944-1945;
- mass terror of Nazis towards the Russians on the occupied territories (concentration
camps, mass shootings, etc.);
- intense development of war industry, re-equipment of many plants to serve military
purposes at the cost of peoples' efforts;
- adoption of the communism ideology to patriotic slogans;
- establishment of totalitarian regimes, that were totally dependent on the Kremlin almost
in all the countries of the Eastern Europe in the late 1940s;
- intense reconstruction of the Russian post-war economics in the late '40s;
- come-back of mass repression in the late 1940s - early 1950s (struggle with
cosmopolitanism, anti-Semitic campaign, etc.);
The film industry, dealing with the terror theme to support the main policy of the Stalin's
regime of the 1940s, was set the following propaganda tasks, which made up the basis for the
artistic conceptions of film authors:
- to show that the Nazis terrorize Russian people and want to make them slaves;
- to convince the audience that return terror is justified & necessary to win the war;
- to convince the audience that one should be on alert, because Nazi agents & saboteurs
who may be nearby; must be disclosed & destroyed;
Genre modifications: generally a drama (war, historical). The style of these films is not much
different from those of the previous decade, however there's more realism in showing war in
everyday life. The dominating models of film plots: terror of the Nazis towards the Russians
(shootings, executions, tortures, etc.), return terror of the Russians (partisan raids, spies, shootings
of the Nazis, etc.) towards the Germans (Rainbow by M. Donskoy, Zoya by L. Arnshtam, The
Young Guard by S. Gerasimov, etc.).
The playwright stereotype: Nazis destroy the peaceful, unruffled, happy life of people and
capturing a town or a village they begin mass terror towards the population, including women and
children, drive Russians away to Germany for hard labor, etc. People begin to struggle with
enemies: in the army, in partisan groups, in secret organizations. In passing spies & saboteurs,
traitors are disclosed... The only exception was the film by Sergei Eisenstein 'Ivan the Terrible' in
which the merciless and bloody repressive state mechanism was shown, 'Oprichnina' (Special tsar’s
police) terrorizing Russia by the tzar's will. (Ivan the Terrible who turned into