Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
CELF-5
Testing manuals recommended
cut scores for determining
disorder
CELF-5 Test
Linguistic Concepts
Following Directions
Word Structure
Recalling Sentences
The Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Fifth Edition (CELF-5) is an individually-administered standardized language assessment
consisting of many tests which provide scaled scores based on a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3. These are used to compute standard
scores in the following areas: core language, receptive language, expressive language, language content, language structure, and language memory.
In addition, the Pragmatics Profile is a rating scale that converts to a standard score. Below is a description of all tests and language areas assessed:
If administered core language, receptive language and expressive language tests: 80
If using core language score alone: 85
Objective of Test
Relationship to Curriculum
Relationship to Classroom Activities
Evaluates ability to interpret spoken
directions containing basic concepts.
Student has to identify the targeted objects
when given several pictured choices.
Evaluates ability to interpret spoken
directions of increasing length and
complexity while following the order of
presentation; includes familiar shapes with
various characteristics such as color, size,
location. The student identifies objects in
response to oral directions. Reflect shortterm and procedural memory.
a)following spoken directions for seatwork
and other projects
b)understanding of basic concepts
*following directions and understanding of basic
concepts for hands-on activities, lessons, projects, other
assignments
a)following directions for seatwork and
projects
b)following procedural steps for
completing classroom and homework
assignments
c)following teacher instructions for
managing classroom activities and
interactions
*comprehension, recall and ability to act upon spoken
directions to internalize scripts and rules for behavior
*required for lessons, assignments and activities
Evaluates the ability to apply word
structure rules (morphology) as well as
ability to choose and use appropriate
pronouns to refer to people, objects and
possession. The student is shown a picture
and completes an orally presented
sentence.
Evaluates ability to listen to sentences of
increasing length and complexity and
reproduce the sentences without changing
word meaning, content, word structure or
sentence structure. The student imitates
sentences verbatim presented by the
examiner.
Ability to use rules of word structure to
a)extend word meanings, such as adding
suffixes
b)derive new words from base words
c)use referential pronouns
*matching word forms to pictures
*noun/pronoun substitution
*#, time, possessive relationships
*comparing characteristics
*describing
Internalizing simple and complex
sentences to accurately recall meaning,
structure and intent
*following directions and instruction
*writing to dictation
*taking notes
*learning vocabulary and content
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Formulated Sentences
Word Classes
Sentence Comprehension
Word Definitions
Understanding Spoken
Paragraphs
Sentence Assembly
Evaluates the ability to formulate
compound and complex sentences using
given words and contextual constraints.
The student is asked to formulate a
sentence, using target words or phrases,
while using an illustration as a reference.
Requires use of working memory while
integrating semantic, syntactic and
pragmatic rules/constraints.
Evaluates the ability to understand
relationships between words based on
semantic class features, function, place or
time of occurrence. The student is asked to
choose the items that best represent the
desired relationship
Evaluates ability to interpret orallyprovided sentences which increase in
length and complexity. The student
responds to a sentence by pointing to the
correct picture stimuli.
Evaluates ability to analyze words for
meaning features, define words, and
describe meanings that are unique to the
instance presented.
Internalizing rules and integrating them
produce to form simple, compound,
complex sentences, narratives and
discourse orally or to create written text.
*early story retelling
*sentence completion, combination, transformation
*written narrative/text
*editing
Using word association to focus/extend
word meanings orally or in writing,
substituting synonyms, editing text for
meaning, elaboration, developing semantic
networks, to facilitate retrieval.
*comparing/contrasting related words with shared and
non-shared features
*classifying words by semantic class
*using antonyms and synonyms
Creating meaning and context in response
to pictures or spoken sentences and
creating stories or descriptive texts
*listening to stories or event descriptions
*matching sentences spoken or read to picture referents
Knowing and using words as concepts
with broad, generic applications
Evaluates ability to sustain attention and
focus while paragraphs are presented
orally, answer questions about the content
in the paragraphs, and utilize critical
thinking. Looks at the skills of main idea,
memory for facts/ details, recall of events
in sequence, making inferences and
predicting.
Evaluates ability to form grammatically
correct and acceptable sentences with
accurate meaning by manipulating and
transforming given words/phrases.
Listening to spoken instructional materials
and using information presented to apply
critical thinking skills in order to learn and
create new knowledge
*matching words to definitions
*explaining word meanings
*acquiring new word meanings
*developing understanding of word use in literature
*precision in editing and summarizing
Understanding
*stories
*descriptions
*instructional materials
Formulating and rephrasing descriptions,
questions, responses, conversation
*describing events and actions
*responding
*conversational use
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Semantic Relationships
Pragmatics Profile
Evaluates ability to interpret sentences that
make comparisons, identify location or
direction, specify time relationships,
include serial order, expressed in passive
voice.
Identifies verbal and nonverbal pragmatic
deficits that could be impacting social and
academic communication.
Following verbal/written directions;
understanding conventional series, days,
months; understanding order of actions
Relationships presented verbally and in text across
curriculum areas
Common, daily skills necessary to obtain,
respond to and give information
*classroom language use
*interpretation of nonverbal communication
*knowledge of social scripts
*understanding rules
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
The Listening Comprehension TestAdolescent
LCT-A Subtest
Main Idea – the student listens to a story and
identifies the main idea.
Details – the student is required to remember
details of the story in order to answer
questions about them.
Reasoning – the student answers questions
about the story that require making inferences
and reasoning.
Vocabulary and Semantics – the student is
required to define, interpret, or give synonyms
for used contained in the story.
Understanding Messages – the student listens
to a brief message and has to answer questions
about relevant information in the message.
The Listening Comprehension Test-Adolescent assesses a student's strengths and weaknesses in specific listening comprehension skill
areas related to classroom situations. It focuses on cognitive/listening processes including attention/recognition, concentration,
understanding, reasoning, problem solving, accuracy, and intent/purpose. The subtests evaluate the following skills which are essential
for classroom listening: summarizing, participating in discussions, understanding main idea and language concepts, following
directions, attending to details and listening for meaning.
Relationship to Curriculum/Classroom Activities
*Difficulty with identification of main idea of lecture, story, science principle, math problem, etc.
*Difficulty figuring out how important ideas and concepts are linked and/or related to other words/concepts they know
*Weaknesses with listening to the “whole” – inability to extract meaning from context
*Difficulties predicting
*Difficulties separating important from non-important details
*Difficulty thinking beyond perception
- making inferences/drawing conclusions
-comparing/contrasting
- making decisions
- exploring beliefs/values
- multi-step problem solving
- identifying prejudice/bias
- interpreting data
- determining fact vs. opinion
*Weaknesses with learning vocabulary indirectly
*Often do not listen carefully when read to
*Lack of vocabulary-learning strategies
- do not group words, categorize
- little knowledge of root words, prefixes, suffixes
- difficulties with structure of dictionary definitions
*Struggle with details and length
*Trouble discriminating relevant from irrelevant information
*Identifying main idea and details
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
The Listening Comprehension Test-2
Subtest
Main Idea – the student listens to a passage
and identifies the main idea. The student has
to recall background knowledge and process
the overall meaning of the passage.
Details – the student answers a question
about the details after listening to a passage.
The student must rely on grammar,
vocabulary, and the semantics of the passage
to comprehend the details.
Reasoning – the student answers questions
about orally-presented information that
require making inferences.
Vocabulary – the student gives a one-word
synonym or a descriptive definition for a
word heard in a passage.
Understanding Messages – the student listens
to a short message and answers two
questions about it.
The Listening Comprehension Test assesses listening through natural classroom situations to reveal a student's strengths and
weaknesses with language problem solving, reasoning, and comprehension of orally-presented information. The subtests require the
student to pay careful attention to what they hear, listen with a purpose, remember what they hear well enough to think about it, avoid
being impulsive when giving responses, and express answers verbally. The student must determine what part of the message requires
his/her immediate attention in order to organize and understand the input to plan an appropriate response. This requires the
integration of vocabulary, semantics, syntax and morphology, phonology, and thinking.
Relationship to Curriculum/Classroom Activities
*Difficulty with identification of main idea of lecture, story, science principle, math problem, etc.
*Difficulty figuring out how important ideas and concepts are linked and/or related to other words/concepts they know
*Weaknesses with listening to the “whole” – inability to extract meaning from context
*Difficulties predicting
*Difficulties separating important from non-important details
*Difficulty thinking beyond perception
- making inferences/drawing conclusions
-comparing/contrasting
- making decisions
- exploring beliefs/values
- multi-step problem solving
- identifying prejudice/bias
- interpreting data
- determining fact vs. opinion
*Weaknesses with learning vocabulary indirectly
*Often do not listen carefully when read to
*Lack of vocabulary-learning strategies
- do not group words, categorize
- little knowledge of root words, prefixes, suffixes
- difficulties with structure of dictionary definitions
*Struggle with details and length
*Trouble discriminating relevant from irrelevant information
*Identifying main idea and details
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
The Language Processing Test-3
The Language Processing Test-3(LPT-3) evaluates the ability to attach increasingly more meaning to information received in
order to formulate an oral response. The LPT-3 begins with simple tasks and increases the language processing demand. Each
subtest builds on the skills previously evaluated. It effectively evaluates prerequisite skills for the increased processing
demand to indicate the ability to attach meaning to language.
Subtest
Possible Educational impact
Pretest 1: Labeling – the student names pictures with a one-word response
*vocabulary acquisition
*retrieving common words in vocabulary
Pretest 2: Stating Functions – the student states a verb that describes the function of a
noun
Associations – the student names an additional item that is associates with a noun
Categorization – the student names at least three items belonging to a given category
Similarities – the student compares two items and states the similar characteristics that
place them in the same category
Differences – the student contrasts two items and states the differences between them
Multiple Meanings – the student states three definitions for each stimulus word. Each
word is presented in three different contexts
Attributes – the student spontaneously describes a specific noun. The student must
provide a number of different attribute areas without the use of prompts to indicate a
depth of processing
*vocabulary acquisition
*retrieving common verbs in vocabulary
*recalling functional situation
*discriminating primary associative word
May perform poorly on:
*reading readiness activities
*sound/symbol associations
*supplying correct answers
Student must be able to identify common characteristics for efficient storage and retrieval
May demonstrate:
*limited vocabulary
*poor word retrieval
*poor memory
Impact on ability to organize language to develop conceptual knowledge
Using language to:
*define terms
*draw conclusions
*compare/contrast in discussion
*problem solve
*make verbal explanations
*Dependent on use of synonyms and definitions
*Student reuses word as definition or generalizes one meaning to all contexts
*Language may be misinterpreted because definitions are not precise of appropriate
*Student relies on external prompts for more complex processing
*Trouble with more abstract descriptions (other than function and/or parts)
*Unable to independently describe but may be able to answer questions about an item
*Limited syntactic and semantic complexity in expressive language
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
The Word Test-3 Elementary
The Word Test-3 Elementary assesses the ability to recognize and express semantic attributes that
are critical to vocabulary growth and language competency. It assists in determining how the
student attaches meaning to words. Test items are curriculum-based including words from language
arts, social studies, math, health and science.
Subtest
Educational skills assessed:
Task A: Associations – the student chooses the one word from a choice of *ability to categorize according to class name, function, attribute, quality,
four that is not related. The student must explain the choice in relation to color, shape
the common category of the other three words.
* ability to express critical attributes of a category
* verbal reasoning
Task B: Synonyms – the student gives a one-word synonym for a given
*ability to recognize critical attributes of target words
word.
*knowledge of the concept of a synonym and ability to choose the best
synonym for a given context
Task C: Semantic Absurdities – the student identifies and repairs an
*ability to recognize overall meaning of sentences
absurd statement.
*ability to compare/contrast critical semantic features of conflicting words
*appreciation/understanding of jokes and funny stories
*ability to fill in unknown words based on context/surrounding words
Task D: Antonyms – the student gives a one-word opposite for each given *ability to focus on critical semantic feature that must be changed
word.
*acquisition of specific vocabulary words to express opposite
*understanding of how to create opposites
*word retrieval
Task E: Definitions – the student explains the meaning of a given words.
*ability to describe the critical attributes of a word
*ability to make connections between previously learned and new words
Task F: Flexible Word Use – the student gives two different meanings for * general knowledge that a word can have more than one meaning
a given word.
*quality and quantity of vocabulary
*word-finding
The Word Test – 2 Adolescent
Subtest
The Word Test-2 Adolescent assists in identifying the semantic weaknesses hindering academic, social, and vocational
success. It helps to indicate why the student struggles with words and meaning of language, fail to interpret new content
and use non-descriptive language. It uses common and unique contexts in six semantic and vocabulary skill areas that
reflect curriculum vocabulary and everyday language usage.
Possible Educational Impact
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Associations – the student chooses the one word from a choice of four that is not related.
They must explain the choice in relation to the common category of the other three
words.
Synonyms – the student gives a one-word synonym for a given word.
Semantic Absurdities – the student identifies and repairs an absurd statement.
Antonyms – the student gives a one-word opposite for each given word.
Definitions – the student defines words
Flexible Word Use – the student gives multiple meanings for words
*must be able categorize according to class name, function, attribute, quality, color, shape
*verbal reasoning skills
*expression of knowledge of semantic attributes
*incorrect responses suggest inadequate knowledge and use of semantic features and
vocabulary to label the features
*requires recognition of critical semantic attributes and thinking of words with similar
meanings
*assists with editing and revising reports and assignments, clarifying information by
paraphrasing/summarizing
*recognition of conflicting semantic features of key words in sentence
*difficulties repairing sentences accurately suggest inability to compare and contrast
words or comprehend and create the meaning of an absurd sentence
Poor performance suggests:
*inability to focus in on critical semantic feature that has to be changed
*lack of specific vocabulary words to express the opposite
*lack of understanding of how to create opposites
*word retrieval difficulties
*Important for clear and successful communication across levels of education
*Allows speaker and listener to share common semantic ground
*must have general knowledge that a word can have more than one meaning
*demonstrates quantity and quality of vocabulary and flexibility of word use
Difficulties suggest:
*lack of understanding that a word can have more than one meaning
*bound to the first meaning he thinks of for test items
*word finding difficulties
*vocabulary deficits
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
TOSS-P
Subtest
Labeling
Categories
Attributes
Functions
Definitions
The Test of Semantic Skills-Primary (TOSS-P) assesses a student’s semantic and vocabulary abilities.
Students with language and learning disorders often have difficulty when they come upon words out of
context or new words in reading passages. The TOSS-P includes a variety of receptive and expressive tasks
including categorizing, describing, and defining. It includes twenty realistic, real-life scenes based on
themes of learning and playing, shopping, around the house, working at school, eating, and health and
fitness. It incorporates vocabulary that is meaningful and relevant to young students’ experiences allowing
for use of both verbal and visual information.
Possible Educational Impact
Identifying Labels – the student points to a
Difficult for students with language delay – names seem abstract or poor
named item
memory to retain labels. Poor performance on Labeling indicative of poor
Stating Labels – the student names an item in a performance on other subtests because it is a fundamental semantic skill
that other skills build on.
picture
Identifying Categories – the student points to a
*Requires ability to recognize similarities among objects
member of a named category
*Inability to discriminate and compare essential attributes of item
Stating Categories – the student names the
category when given three members
Identifying Attributes – the student points the
*Necessary skill to understand functions and object characteristics
appropriate item when given an attribute
*Limited knowledge of words and objects
*Inability to distinguish among the features to fully comprehend the item
*Limits ability to see similarities/differences
Stating Attributes – the student describes an
item by stating one of its attributes
Identifying Functions – the student points to the
item when given its function(s)
Stating Functions – the student describes what
an item does or what we do with an item
Identifying Definitions – the student points to
an item that has been defined
*Difficulty organizing vocabulary input; limited in strategy of linking
object to function
*Limited resource of verbs; overuse of “do, make, use, give”
*Require previous skills as a foundation
*Inability to analyze essential features
*Poor observer and listener
Stating Definitions – the student defines an item
*Lack of focus on important part of message and/or insufficient vocabulary
to talk about critical features
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
TOSS-I
Subtest
Labeling
Categories
Attributes
Functions
Definitions
The Test of Semantic Skills-Intermediate (TOSS-I) assists in determining deficits in receptive and expressive
semantic skills. Students who struggle with classroom directions/instructions and working independently
may have deficits with semantic skills. The TOSS-I uses curriculum vocabulary and themes to assess
receptive and expressive skills related to labels, categories, attributes, functions, and definitions. It uses
nineteen realistic illustrations representing common, everyday themes while emphasizing vocabulary that is
meaningful to students’ experiences.
Possible Educational Impact
Identifying Labels – the student points to a
*Lack of knowledge of critical attributes
named item
*Difficulty with word-finding, word-retrieval
Stating Labels – the student names an item in a *Lack of vocabulary terms
Fundamental skill for rest of subtest skills
picture
Identifying Categories – the student points to a
*Inability to recognize similarities among word features
member of a named category
*Inability to discriminate and compare essential attributes
*Difficulty attending to the parts of common objects
Stating Categories – the student names the
category when given three members
Identifying Attributes – the student points the
*Inability to discriminate essential from nonessential attributes
appropriate item when given an attribute
*Limited knowledge of words/objects
*Inattention to detail
Stating Attributes – the student describes an
item by stating one of its attributes
Identifying Functions – the student points to the
item when given its function(s)
Stating Functions – the student describes what
an item does or what we do with an item
Identifying Definitions – the student points to
an item that has been defined
*Inability to connect an object with its function related to higher level
curriculum vocabulary
*Difficulty organizing vocabulary input from environment
*Difficulty analyzing essential features
*Poor observer and listener; gives partial definitions
*Lack of focus on important parts of message
Stating Definitions – the student defines an item
*Nonspecific language, lacking detail
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
OWLS-II
Oral and Written Language Scales-Second Edition (OWLS-II) assesses oral language skills for ages 3-21 via two
scales, Listening Comprehension and Oral Expression. The Listening Comprehension scale measures the ability to
listen to and comprehend spoken language. Items are presented verbally and pictorially with responses given by
pointing on multiple-choice options. The Oral Expression scale measures speaking ability. Items are presented
verbally and pictorially requiring verbal responses. The scales assess the following language categories:
lexical/semantics, syntax, pragmatics, and supralinguistics.
OWLS-II task analysis
Lexical items – Listening Comprehension and Oral Expression
Syntactic items – Listening Comprehension and Oral Expression
Supralinguistic – Listening Comprehension and Oral Expression
Pragmatic – Oral Expression
Possible Educational Impact
*Difficulty with vocabulary – nouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives, basic
concepts, multiple meaning words, expression, idioms, higher level
vocabulary, number concepts, antonyms, words representing direction,
adverbs,
*Difficulty with grammar – superlatives/comparatives, prepositional
phrases, subject and predicate, direct and indirect objects, compound
subjects, negation, various noun and verb tenses, sentence forms, passive
voice, verb phrase, various sentence structures, clauses,
*Difficulty with humor, inference, logic, meaning from context, figurative
language, differentiating words with multiple meanings, definition,
expanding a thought, argument
*Difficulty with appropriateness - gratitude, farewell, greeting, description
of action and feelings, regret, questioning, reason, conversation,
explanation, request
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
CASL-2
The Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language-Second Edition (CASL-2) is a test of oral language skills for
children aged 3 to 21. It provides standard scores with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15 for each of the
14 stand-alone tests. Tests can also be combined for standard scores in the broad areas of receptive language and
expressive language as well as linguistic structures (Lexical/Semantic, Syntactic, Supralinguistic) and overall
general language ability.
Test/description of task
What the test assesses
Performance indicates
Receptive Vocabulary: items are presented orally
Ability to comprehend the meaning of an
*knowledge of the target word and the concept it
with multiple choice picture options. The student
individual spoken word. Words increase in represents
responds verbally or nonverbally to indicate his/her difficulty, including basic nouns,
*ability to discriminate the distinctive features of
answer choice.
pronouns, prepositions and adjectives in
the target word and associate the characteristics with
early items. Later items include complex
the concept
nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
Antonyms: items are presented orally with no
Knowledge of words and the ability to
*specific knowledge of words and opposite
picture support. The student responds verbally with retrieve and express a single word that has meanings
the one-word answer.
the opposite meaning.
*can be an indicator of word retrieval in the absence
of context
Synonyms: the student is orally presented with a
Ability to recognize words with similar
*specific knowledge of words with similar
word and multiple words to choose from, with no
meanings when given a word and four
meanings
picture support. The response is given verbally or
choices.
*can be an indicator that a student does not have
nonverbally from the options provided.
adequate knowledge of all features of a word
Expressive Vocabulary: items are presented orally Knowledge of words and the ability to
*specific, precise word knowledge
with and without picture support. The student
retrieve and express a single word that
*can be an indicator of word retrieval even with
responds verbally with the one-word answer.
completes a given sentence.
context
Idiomatic Language: the student is presented with
Knowledge, retrieval, and expression of
*knowledge of idioms most likely related to
the stimulus item orally with no picture support.
opaque idioms. Idioms are a group of
experience and exposure to these terms
Responses are given verbally.
words that have a different meaning than
*can reflect regional or cultural impact
then the literal meanings of each word.
Opaque idioms are more frequently used
and learned similarly to basic vocabulary
words with immediate recognition.
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
CASL-2
The Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language-Second Edition (CASL-2) is a test of oral language skills for
children aged 3 to 21. It provides standard scores with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15 for each of the
14 stand-alone tests. Tests can also be combined for standard scores in the broad areas of receptive language and
expressive language as well as linguistic structures (Lexical/Semantic, Syntactic, Supralinguistic) and overall
general language ability.
Test/description of task
What the test assesses
Performance indicates
Sentence Expression: items are presented orally
Ability to orally express syntax including
*specific knowledge of syntax
with picture support. The student responds verbally grammatical morphemes, sentence
*can be an indicator that the specific structure has
with a word, phrase or sentence.
structure and word order. Items begin as
not yet been acquired
repetition, answering questions, forming
sentences during story-telling, and creating
sentences similar to a model. As the test
progresses, items focus on more complex
and compound sentence structures.
Grammatical Morphemes: orally-presented items
Knowledge, retrieval and expression of
*knowledge of morphemes and application of their
with and without picture support. The student
morphemes showing inflection and word
rules – skills required for written language
provides a verbal word or phrase in response.
function. Items begin with earlier*difficulties with analogy format can be an indicator
developing morphemes (e.g., pronouns,
of difficulties with reasoning – compare to other
prepositions, number, gender). Items later
tasks requiring reasoning such as Supralinguistic
in the test assess knowledge of form and
and Nonliteral Language to interpret area of deficit
meaning of the morphemes along with the
ability to apply the rules in the form of
analogies.
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
CASL-2
The Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language-Second Edition (CASL-2) is a test of oral language skills for
children aged 3 to 21. It provides standard scores with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15 for each of the
14 stand-alone tests. Tests can also be combined for standard scores in the broad areas of receptive language and
expressive language as well as linguistic structures (Lexical/Semantic, Syntactic, Supralinguistic) and overall
general language ability.
Test/description of task
What the test assesses
Performance indicates
Sentence Comprehension: items presented orally
Ability to recognize the meaning of
*understanding that the combination of words and
with and without pictures. The student responds
sentences with similar structures and
order of words can change the meaning of a
verbally or nonverbally from the multiple options.
words.
sentence
Early items: Four pictures with three
*skills required for understanding directions and
different sentences to measure recognition explanations in the classroom, especially as
of subtle differences in syntax that change sentences are frequently changing in structure and
the meaning even though the content,
complexity
length of sentence and vocabulary remain
the same.
Later items: Two sentence pairs with no
pictures containing the same vocabulary
but different structure.
Grammaticality Judgment: student is presented
Ability to judge the correctness of syntax
*ability to listen and identify age-appropriate syntax
items orally without picture support. Responses are and create sentences that are
errors
given verbally by adding, deleting, or changing one grammatically correct.
*can indicate weaknesses with memory retrieval
word in a sentence.
Early items: ability to correct sentences
and/or prior experience
that are not grammatically correct
Later items: ability to determine if the
sentence structure is accurate and add,
remove, or change a word to fix incorrect
sentences.
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
CASL-2
The Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language-Second Edition (CASL-2) is a test of oral language skills for
children aged 3 to 21. It provides standard scores with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15 for each of the
14 stand-alone tests. Tests can also be combined for standard scores in the broad areas of receptive language and
expressive language as well as linguistic structures (Lexical/Semantic, Syntactic, Supralinguistic) and overall
general language ability.
Test/description of task
What the test assesses
Performance indicates
Nonliteral Language: items presented orally with
Ability to comprehend nonliteral language *understanding that a message can go beyond the
no picture support. The student responds verbally
including figurative speech, indirect
literal meaning
with a word, phrase, or sentence.
requests, and sarcasm.
*use of context within the environment and/or own
experience to interpret meaning
*can indicate difficulties with vocabulary
knowledge, suspending literal meaning, or
comparing the words of the message with the
intended meaning
Meaning from Context: items present orally with
Ability to recognize word meaning by
*familiarity with other vocabulary used in a
no picture support. The student responds verbally
using the linguistic context
sentence to determine the meaning of a new word
with a word, phrase, or sentence.
*ability to make an inference using only the
information in the sentence without depending on
world knowledge
*compare to Inference test to see if the difficulty is
with world knowledge, language in general or with
inferencing/reasoning
Inference: orally presented items with and without Ability to express experience/prior
*experiential knowledge
pictures. The student responds verbally with a
knowledge that allows the student to draw *ability to apply background knowledge to infer
word, phrase, or sentence.
a conclusion when not explicitly stated
meaning
*can be indicative of understanding the language in
the classroom and what is read
*compare to Meaning from Context and
Lexical/Semantic and Syntactic indices to identify if
difficulty is related to lack of background
knowledge, ability to use context, or delayed
development of reasoning
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
CASL-2
The Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language-Second Edition (CASL-2) is a test of oral language skills for
children aged 3 to 21. It provides standard scores with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15 for each of the
14 stand-alone tests. Tests can also be combined for standard scores in the broad areas of receptive language and
expressive language as well as linguistic structures (Lexical/Semantic, Syntactic, Supralinguistic) and overall
general language ability.
Test/description of task
What the test assesses
Performance indicates
Double Meaning: items presented orally with no
Ability to understand and express two
*specific vocabulary knowledge
picture support. The student responds verbally with meanings for a word or sentence with more *recognition that words can have multiple meanings
word, phrase, or sentence.
than one explanation
or interpretations
*knowledge to express more than one meaning
*can lead to difficulties with social communication
Pragmatic Language: the student is presented items Comprehension and application of social
*knowledge of expected responses for a social
orally with and without pictures. Responses are
language rules as appropriate for a
situation
provided verbally with word, phrase, or sentence.
supplied context. Requires comprehension *use of language for various purposes (e.g.,
of the intent behind the message and
greeting, requesting)
nonverbal cues provided through the
*ability to change language based on listener or
stimulus item and pictures, when
situation
applicable.
*complying with conversational rules
*can be indicative of a student not having
experience with a situation
*can result in difficulties in natural social contexts
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Test of Narrative Language (TNL)
The Test of Narrative Language (TNL) evaluates how a student uses the components of language
while engaged in discourse. It measures a student’s ability to answer questions about stories, retell
stories, and create stories.
Test of Narrative Language (TNL)
Possible Educational Impact
Narrative Language Ability Index – combination of both subtests
*Difficulty with memory/recall, general comprehension, vocabulary,
syntax
*Could be related to cultural difference or lack of experience
Narrative Comprehension
*Difficulty with recall and understanding of orally-presented stories
*Difficulty with inferences not explicitly stated
*Reflects difficulties with knowledge of word meanings, sentence
structure, recognizing relationships between words/ideas, understanding
and remembering main idea/details of story
Oral Narration
*Difficulty with use of proper nouns, verbs, adverbs in sentence
construction
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Test of Problem Solving-3 Elementary
The Test of Problem Solving-3 Elementary (TOPS-3) assesses critical thinking based on language strategies, logic, and
experiences. It focuses on the ability to integrate semantic and linguistic knowledge with reasoning ability using
picture stimuli and verbal responses. It measures a range of discrete skills that form the foundation of language-based
thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving abilities.
Subtest
Possible Educational Impact
Making Inferences – the student provides a logical explanation about a situation by
*Difficulty with comprehension of questions about facts/details and choosing most
combining what he knows or can see with previous experiences and background
important information to express response/ explain inference
information.
* Weak reading comprehension
*Difficulty with math story problems
*Reasoning deficits
*Trouble understanding others’ perspectives or character’s motivation
Sequencing – the student is required to determine and explain logical, everyday
*Difficulty following classroom directions
sequences of events.
*Trouble identifying main idea versus details
*Weakness solving math and science problems
*Inability to figure out logical sequences to complete assignments/study for tests
Negative Questions – the student explains why something would not occur or why a
*Weak problem-solving skills
certain action should not be taken.
*May be impulsive
*Difficulty following directions
Problem Solving – the student has to recognize the problem, think of alternative
*Difficulty with reading comprehension and math story problems
solutions, evaluate the options, and state an appropriate solution, as well as how to avoid *Trouble identifying/explaining the cause of an event
specific problems.
*Trouble planning events and solving daily problems
*Could be based in a lack of experience, immaturity, lack of role model, or cognitive
deficits
Predicting – the student is required to anticipate what will happen in the future by
*Inability to predict actions of a character
drawing on past experiences.
*Trouble predicting consequence of their action
Determining Causes – the student provides a logical reason for a given aspect of the
*Difficulty sequencing stories
presented situation requiring the student to see the relationship between the action and
*Trouble comprehending and predicting outcomes in science and math processes
the outcome.
*Weakness with giving reasons for behavior; not understanding why they’re being
punished
Test of Problem Solving-2 Adolescent
Subtest
The Test of Problem Solving-2 Adolescent (TOPS-2) assesses critical thinking based on language strategies, logic, and
experiences. It uses a natural context of problem-solving situations related to adolescent experiences and measures
five different decision-making skill areas necessary for academic, problem solving, and social success. The TOPS-2
focuses on a range of cognitive processes including understanding, self-regulation, inference, intent/purpose, analysis,
problem solving, and decision-making. The subtests require the student to pay careful attention to, process, and think
about what they hear and read. They have to think about problems with a purpose in mind while resisting impulsivity
and express answers verbally.
Possible Educational Impact
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Test of Problem Solving-2 Adolescent
The Test of Problem Solving-2 Adolescent (TOPS-2) assesses critical thinking based on language strategies, logic, and
experiences. It uses a natural context of problem-solving situations related to adolescent experiences and measures
five different decision-making skill areas necessary for academic, problem solving, and social success. The TOPS-2
focuses on a range of cognitive processes including understanding, self-regulation, inference, intent/purpose, analysis,
problem solving, and decision-making. The subtests require the student to pay careful attention to, process, and think
about what they hear and read. They have to think about problems with a purpose in mind while resisting impulsivity
and express answers verbally.
Subtest
Possible Educational Impact
Making Inferences – the student provides a logical explanation about a situation by
*Difficulty with comprehension of questions about facts/details and choosing most
combining what he knows or can see with previous experiences and background
important information to express response/ explain inference
information.
* Weak reading comprehension
*Difficulty with math story problems
*Reasoning deficits
*Trouble understanding others’ perspectives or character’s motivation
Determining Solutions – the student provides a logical solution for an orally-presented
*Difficulty in sequencing activities
situation.
*Trouble comprehending and predicting outcomes of science experiments
*Difficulty understanding logical math processes
*Weaknesses in stating probable solutions for their own misbehaviors which can lead to
them being perceived as troublemakers
*May not realize the consequences of poor solutions
Problem Solving – the student has to recognize the problem, think of alternative
*Difficulty with reading comprehension and math story problems
solutions, evaluate the options, and state an appropriate solution, as well as how to avoid
*Trouble identifying/explaining the cause of an event
specific problems.
*Trouble planning events and solving daily problems
*Could be based in a lack of experience, immaturity, lack of role model, or cognitive
deficits
Interpreting Perspectives – the student must evaluate other points of view to make a
*May waver when forming opinions
conclusion
*May refuse to consider another’s point of view
*Can lead to high-risk behaviors due to peer pressure
*May exhibit socially inappropriate ways of thinking
Transferring Insights – the student compares analogous situations by using information
*Difficulty with critical thinking; sticks to old/comfortable patterns
stated in the passage.
*May not think about current events beyond what is heard; doesn’t ask for clarification
about new ideas
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
CELF-5 Metalinguistics
The Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Fifth Edition Metalinguistics (CELF-5
Metalinguistics) assists in identifying students age 9-21 who have not acquired the expected
metalinguistic competence in the areas of making inferences, construct conversational sentences,
understand ambiguous language, and understand figurative language. It includes four tests
administered to the student and one profile that is completed by the evaluator in combination with
teacher, parents, caregivers or others who can provide the information.
CELF-5 Metalinguistics test
Relationship to Curriculum and Classroom Activities
Making Inferences – identifies the student’s ability to identify and form
*ability to identify, understand, form meaning from implied information
inferences after hearing a short narrative text.
*ability to create meaning in social and academic contexts
Conversation Skills – identifies the student’s ability to initiate
*ability to participate in conversations with various partners in a variety of
conversation or respond in a pragmatically appropriate way. The student
contexts
must also create semantically and syntactically correct sentences with a
*ability to make choices in conversation based on context
given word.
*ability to describe intentions and thoughts
Multiple Meanings – identifies the student’s ability to recognize and
*ability to detect and interpret multiple word meanings and ambiguous
interpret different meanings and ambiguities at the word- and sentencecontexts
level.
Figurative Language – evaluates ability to interpret idioms in context and
match the it with a figurative expression with a similar meaning
*ability to identify and interpret non-literal language including idioms,
metaphor and similes
Metalinguistics Profile – the evaluator fills out this form after observation
or testing of the student. Others who know the student (parents, teachers)
can provide input. Used to obtain information about metalinguistic skills
in everyday contexts (academic and social) to complement strengths and
weaknesses identified on CELF-5 Metalinguistics tests.
*making inferences and predictions
*understanding and use of figurative language
*multiple meanings
*discourse skills
TOAL-4
The Test of Adolescent Language-4th Edition (TOAL-4) measures receptive and expressive
communication skills involved in spoken and written language. It is designed to be used with
students between the ages of 12-0 and 24-11. The TOAL-4 is separated into 6 subtests which can be
combined to form 3 composites. In addition to comparing an individual’s score to others of the same
age, it is also useful in determining and individual’s strengths and weaknesses across subtests and
composites.
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Subtest
Word Opposites – the student is provided with a word orally and asked to
say a word that means the opposite.
Word Derivations – the student is given a key word and two sentences
orally; one sentence has a word missing. The student has to provide the
missing word. For example: key word: laugh; “The play was very funny.
The people broke out ___.”; expected response: laughing
Spoken Analogies – the student must say the missing word to complete an
analogy given orally.
Word Similarities – the student writes a synonym for a printed stimulus
word.
Sentence Combining – the student combines two or more sentences, in
writing, to create one grammatically correct sentence.
Orthographic Usage – the student corrects misspelled words and supplies
missing punctuation.
Composite
Spoken Language Index combines Word Opposites, Word Derivations
and Spoken Analogies to represent spoken/oral language competence.
Possible Educational Impact
*Decreased knowledge of antonyms
Written Language Index combines Word Similarities, Sentence
Combining and Orthographic Usage to represent written language
competence
General Language Index combines scaled scores on all six subtests to
represent overall language competence.
*Limited experience with books/print
*Difficulty mastering necessary skills for pronouncing and writing words
*Decreased ability to attach affixes to root words and generate new words
*Decreased knowledge of analogies
*Decreased knowledge of synonyms
*Decreased syntax skills required to combine simple sentences into one
sentence expressing all ideas
*Decreased knowledge of spelling and punctuation
Possible Educational Impact
*Weak overall vocabulary
*Decreased verbal reasoning
*Difficulty expressing ideas orally
*Difficulty with all of the above
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Social Language Development Test-Elementary The Social Language Development Test-Elementary is an individually administered, norm(SLDT)
referenced test designed for use with children ages 6 to 11. The test measures pragmatic (social)
language skills and focuses on the language-based skills of social interpretation and interaction
with peers. It has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15; therefore, 85-115 is considered the
average range of functioning.
subtest
What the subtest assesses
Possible Educational Impact
Subtest A, Making Inferences
The student infers what someone in a
*Classroom curriculum and reading comprehension
picture is thinking via two tasks per item:
rely heavily on making inferences.
Task A asks the student to pretend he is the
person in the photo and make an inference
about what the person would be thinking.
This task examines the ability to detect
nonverbal and context clues in a person,
assume the perspective of another person,
infer what the person is thinking and
express that person's thought as a relevant,
direct quote.
Task B asks the student to say what
information from the photo was used to
make the inference.
Subtest B, Interpersonal Negotiations
The student pretends to be in conflict with
*Reading comprehension
a peer and is presented with three questions *Working together in small groups including such
per item:
things as establishing joint goals, times and locations
Task A: stating the problem from a mutual to do work, what the finished product will be and
perspective
how it will be presented
Task B: proposing an appropriate
*General give and take of friendships
resolution
Task C: explaining why that resolution is
mutually satisfactory
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Social Language Development Test-Elementary The Social Language Development Test-Elementary is an individually administered, norm(SLDT)
referenced test designed for use with children ages 6 to 11. The test measures pragmatic (social)
language skills and focuses on the language-based skills of social interpretation and interaction
with peers. It has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15; therefore, 85-115 is considered the
average range of functioning.
subtest
What the subtest assesses
Possible Educational Impact
Subtest C, Multiple Interpretations
The student shows flexible thinking by
*Misinterpreting interactions, story characters'
giving two different, plausible
actions and beliefs, science or math problems with
interpretations of the same photo.
more than one way to view data or solve a problem
*Understanding exceptions to rules or changes in
routine
Subtest D, Supporting Peers
The student pretends he is in a situation
with a peer. The student supports the peer
by saying something that pleases him, even
if the comment doesn't match the student's
true belief.
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Social Language Development Test-Adolescent
(SLDT)
The Social Language Development Test-Adolescent is a diagnostic test of social language skills
for adolescents aged 12;0 to 17;11. The tasks focus on taking someone else's perspective, making
correct inferences, solving problem with peers, interpreting social language, and understanding
idioms, irony, and sarcasm. The test consists of five subtests with 12 items each. The standard
scores obtained in each section have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 meaning,
standard scores between 85 and 115 are considered to be within average range for a specific
chronological age.
subtest
Making Inferences
Interpreting Social Language
What the subtest assesses:
Ability to infer what someone in a picture
is thinking. The student also states a
specific, relevant visual clue that facilitated
making the inference. This subtest
requires that the student take the
perspective of the person identified in a
picture and answer the posed question in
the first person.
The student is asked some questions about
how people communicate. The student is
asked to give an example and an
appropriate context in which the type of
communication would be used.
Possible educational impact:
*Following classroom directions
*Interpreting rules
*Interpreting peer/adult behavior and predicting
what someone will do and why
*Judging when someone is approachable, how to
join a group, when to not interact
*Delays in development of higher order social skills
such as empathy
*Concrete thinker
*Understanding of vocabulary or language to
determine overall meaning of sentences
*Using nonverbal gestures to convey meaning
*Difficulty with critical/essential features of
vocabulary
*Literal interpretation or misinterpretation of
idiomatic phrases
*Inability to use context of sentence to determine
meanings
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Social Language Development Test-Adolescent
(SLDT)
The Social Language Development Test-Adolescent is a diagnostic test of social language skills
for adolescents aged 12;0 to 17;11. The tasks focus on taking someone else's perspective, making
correct inferences, solving problem with peers, interpreting social language, and understanding
idioms, irony, and sarcasm. The test consists of five subtests with 12 items each. The standard
scores obtained in each section have a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 meaning,
standard scores between 85 and 115 are considered to be within average range for a specific
chronological age.
subtest
What the subtest assesses:
The student must solve a given problem by
stating and justifying a logical solution.
Possible educational impact:
*May take passive role; fearful of suggesting
incorrect solutions
*Difficulty understanding the problem
*May appear to be a bully, egocentric, socially
immature
*Provide illogical or irrelevant solutions
Social Interaction
The student listens to situations and
answers questions about them while
avoiding responses that are negative,
unsupportive, or passive. This task
requires the ability to take multiple
perspectives.
*Difficulty reading nonverbal cues of peers
*May appear impulsive or believe they the best/only
answer, may appear insensitive
*May indicate weaknesses with making inferences
or taking another’s perspective
*Unwillingness to forgive a mistake
Interpreting Ironic Statements
The student listens to some situations on a
CD. The narrator reads the situations and
asks what someone means at the end of
each one. For responses to be counted as
correct, the student has to understand the
intention of the speaker and then use
context to explain the irony and sarcasm.
*May be a concrete thinker
*Difficulty with figurative language
*Difficulty taking another’s perspective
Problem Solving
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
SPELT-3
The Structured Photographic Expressive Language Test-3rd Edition (SPELT-3) is a norm-referenced assessment for
children ages 4-9. It has a mean of 100 with a standard deviation of 15. It measures morphological speech structures
including prepositions, plurals, possessives, tenses as well as syntax structures of negatives, conjoined sentences,
interrogative reversals, and front embedded clauses.
Functional Communication Profile-Revised
Subtest
Sensory/Motor
Attentiveness
Receptive language
Expressive language
Pragmatic/Social language
Speech
Voice
Oral
Fluency
Non-oral communication
The Functional Communication Profile-Revised (FCP-R) is a criterion-referenced profile for
individuals ages 3-Adult with developmental and acquired delays. It provides an inventory of
communication abilities, mode of communication, and degree of independence. Students are rated
on a variety of skills based on direct observation, teacher reports, and one-on-one testing.
What it assesses
Auditory, visual, gross-motor, and fine-motor skills and behavior
Attention span, alertness, response levels, cooperation, level of awareness
Comprehension of verbal and nonverbal language, basic concepts, interest in pictures and objects,
following commands, object and picture recognition
Verbal and nonverbal communication, manner and modality of communication, quality of selfexpression, object use and interactions, cause and effect, vocabulary, grammar, and phrase length
Communicative intent, questioning skills, conversational skills, turn-taking, topic initiation,
maintenance, elaboration, appropriateness of communication
Intelligibility of sounds produced, dentition, oral-motor imitation
Loudness, vocal quality, pitch
Mouth breathing, drooling, tongue thrust
Fluency, rate of speech, rhythm, intonation
Use of sign language, use of pictures for expression, yes/no, fine-motor abilities, effectiveness of
current AAC
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
TEEM
TECEL
The Test for Examining Expressive Morphology (TEEM) evaluates expressive morpheme development in children
ages 3-7. A morpheme is the smallest possible combination of sounds that convey meaning. The TEEM uses a
sentence-completion format with pictures to assess variations of six major morphemes: present progressives,
regular and irregular plurals, possessives, regular and irregular past tenses, third-person singulars, comparatives,
and superlatives.
Scores are reported as age level approximations based on the raw score. Mean scores and standard deviations are
provided in the manual on page 17 by age range.
The Test of Early Communication and Emerging Language (TECEL) assesses the earliest communication behaviors and
emerging language abilities in infants and toddlers up to 24 months. It can also be used to assess and chart the communication
and language strengths and weaknesses for older individuals with moderate-to-severe language delays.
Test of Word
Finding-3 (TWF-3)
The Test of Word Finding-Third Edition (TWF-3) assesses word finding skills based on accuracy and speed in students aged
4;6-12;11. The test includes four naming sections: Picture Naming-Nouns; Sentence Completion Naming; Picture NamingVerbs; Picture Naming-Categories as well as a Comprehension Check. It also includes informal analyses including Delayed
Response Procedure; Secondary Characteristics Tally, Phonemic Cueing Procedure; Imitation Procedure; Substitution
Analysis. The Word Finding Index has a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15.
Standardized Assessment Task
What it assesses:
Picture Naming: Nouns
Assesses accuracy and speed of naming pictures of nouns. Targeted nouns include compound words and
words of one to four syllables in length from four different semantic categories.
Sentence Completion Naming
Assesses accuracy and speed when completing sentences read aloud by examiner. Sentences either define
the target word or are made up of words that commonly occur with words other than the target word.
Picture Naming: Verbs
Assesses accuracy and speed of naming verbs (action words) as well as how the morphological system
responds to an increase in word finding stress.
Preprimary form: naming of progressive -ing verb form only
Primary and Intermediate form: naming of progressive -ing and past tense verb forms
For progressive -ing, student is shown a picture and asked “What is (s)he doing?”. For past tense, the
student is shown a picture and prompted with “(S)he just ____.”
Picture Naming: Categories
Assesses accuracy and speed of naming pictures of objects and/or the categories in which objects belong.
Comprehension Check
Utilized to assess comprehension of the items missed on naming tasks. The results are important to identify
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Informal Assessment Task
Delayed Response Procedure
Secondary Characteristics Tally
Phonemic Cueing Procedure
Imitation Procedure
Substitution Analysis
if a naming error is related to knowledge of the target word or is a word finding error.
What it assesses:
Judges the ability to retrieve target word in less than 4 seconds
Relayed as a percentage of errors that were delayed
Makes note of any accompanying behaviors such as gestures or extra verbalizations
These behaviors can indicate that a student knows a word’s meaning or has knowledge of the word but is
struggling to retrieve it
Indicates if a student’s retrieval is assisted when provided with the initial consonant-vowel combination or
syllable of the target words
This is only utilized with the Primary and Intermediate forms
Determines if a student can imitate a two- or more syllable word when segmented into syllables.
Evaluates the content of errors
Nouns – categorizes substitution into four categories (semantic, phonemic, perceptual, no response) by
comparing it to the target word
• Semantic: represents semantic features (e.g., category label, function, member of same category)
• Phonemic: represents phonological features (e.g., similar sounds)
• Perceptual: represents visual misperception (red/tomato) or part-whole (knob/drawer)
• No Response: did not respond, gave a general/vague noun, indicated ‘I don’t know’
Verbs – analyzes up to four possible word finding error patterns depending on form
Preprimary form:
• Errors on verb stems
• Consistent omission of progressive -ing endings
• Inconsistent omission of progressive -ing endings
Primary form:
• Errors on verb stems
• Consistent omission of progressive -ing endings or regular past-tense endings
• Inconsistent omission of progressive -ing endings or regular past-tense endings
Intermediate form:
• Errors on verb stems
• Consistent omission of progressive -ing endings or regular past-tense endings
• Inconsistent omission of progressive -ing endings or regular past-tense endings
• Inaccurate scores on irregular past-tense verbs
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
PLS-5
The Preschool Language Scale-5 (PLS-5) is an interactive assessment of developmental language skills for children age birth7:11. It contains two standardized scales - Auditory Comprehension and Expressive Communication – that have a mean of 100
and a standard deviation of 15.
Scale
What it assesses
Auditory Comprehension
Infants/toddlers: important precursors to language development such as attention to speakers,
appropriate object play)
Preschool-age: comprehension of basic vocabulary, concepts, morphology, early syntax
5-7 year olds: ability to understand complex sentences, use language to make comparisons and
inferences, emergent literacy skills
Expressive Communication
Infants/toddlers: social development and social communication
Preschool-age: naming common objects, use of concepts that describe objects and express quantity,
use of specific prepositions, grammatical markers, and sentence structures
5-7 year olds: emergent literacy skills - such as phonological awareness and short story retell;
integrative language skills – such as similes, synonyms, word classification
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
CELF-P:2
Recommended cut scores for
determining disorder
Subtest
Sentence Structure
Word Structure
Expressive Vocabulary
Concepts & Following
Directions
The Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Preschool: Second Edition (CELF-P:2) is an individually-administered standardized
language assessment for children ages 3-6 years old. It consists of many subtests which provide scaled scores based on a mean of 10 and a
standard deviation of 3. These are used to compute standard scores in the following areas: core language, receptive language, expressive
language, language content, and language structure. In addition, there is a Descriptive Pragmatics Profile and Pre-Literacy Rating Scale which are
criterion-referenced checklists. Below is a description of all tests and language areas assessed:
Core language score: 85 (-1.5 SD)
Objective of Test
Evaluates ability to interpret spoken
sentences of increasing length and
complexity. Student has to point to
pictures in response to oral directions.
Relationship to Developmental Skills and
Curriculum
a) Creating meaning and context in
response to pictures
b) Identifying contexts for spoken
sentences
c) Understanding stories
Evaluates ability to apply word structure
rules (morphology) for inflections,
derivations, and comparison. Additionally
evaluates ability to select and use pronouns
to refer to people, objects and possessive
relationships. The student completes a
sentence with the targeted structures
Using word structure (morphology) rules
to
a) Extend word meanings by adding
inflectional, derivational, or
comparative/superlative suffixes
b) Derive new words from base
words
c) Use referential pronouns
Evaluates the ability to label illustrations
of people, objects and actions. The student
identifies an object, person, or activity
portrayed in a picture.
Labeling and remembering names for
people, objects, and actions to express
concise meaning
Evaluates the ability to interpret spoken
directions of increasing length and
complexity containing concepts. It
requires remembering the names,
a)
Following directions for
classroom assignments and
projects
b) Remembering assigned tasks
Relationship to Home and Classroom Activities
Home: developing conversational skills, participating
in interactive storytelling, following directions
Classroom: listening to stories and descriptions of
events, matching pictured references to information
spoken or read
Home: facilitates understanding of child’s
spoken messages and intentions by adding to
precision of language
Classroom: matching word forms to pictures;
substituting pronouns for nouns; indicating number,
time, and possessive relationships; making
comparisons of characteristics; describing pictures
and events
Home: facilitates communication in conversation,
games, play and interactive storytelling
Classroom: telling stories, giving descriptions of
events, labeling pictures with precise use of words
Home: facilitates behavior management, interactive
games and physical activities, organization of
environment
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
characteristics and order given. The
student points to pictures in response to
oral directions.
Recalling Sentences
Basic Concepts – consider for
ages 5-6 who struggled with
concepts in Concepts and
Following Directions subtest or
who have difficulty following
directions/instructions or
completing workbook
assignments
Word Classes
Recalling Sentences in Context –
consider for ages 4-6 who
performed poorly on Recalling
Sentence subtest; to see if they
perform better with contextual
cues in story.
Phonological Awareness –
consider for ages 4-6 whose
literacy skills are not emerging
as expected including those who
did not meet criterion on PreLiteracy Rating Scale, lack of
exposure, history of ear
infections/hearing loss
c)
Following teacher instructions
Classroom: internalizing scripts and rules for
behavior, success in most classroom management
tasks and activities across subject areas
Evaluates ability to listen to sentences of
increasing length and complexity and
reproduce the sentences without changing
word meaning, content, word structure or
sentence structure. The student imitates
sentences as presented.
Evaluates knowledge of concepts of size;
direction/location/position;
number/quantity; equality. The student
points to a picture that illustrates the
targeted concept.
Internalizing simple and complex
sentences to accurately recall meaning,
structure and intent
Following directions and academic instructions,
learning vocabulary, understanding subject content,
playing imitation games, role-playing
Pre-literacy and early math activities
Home: following directions, participating in games
and physical activities, locating objects and people in
the environment
Classroom: completing assignments, pre-literacy
activities, understanding relationships in stories,
participation in sports or other physical activities
Evaluates the ability to understand
relationships between words based on
semantic class features and to explain
those relationships. The student chooses
the two words that are related and
describes the relationship.
Development of categorization skills and
semantic networks
Tasks with a focus on word associations
and extending word meaning
Home: occurs in daily activities including rephrasing
or elaborating on utterances, storytelling, role-playing
Evaluates ability to repeat sentences
without changing word meaning,
inflections, derivations or comparisons, or
sentence structure. The student imitates
sentences from a story.
Internalizing simple and complex sentence
structures for recall of meaning, structure
and intent of sentences, directions, or
instructions.
Following directions and academic instructions,
learning vocabulary and related words, internalizing
story and subject content, role-playing
Evaluates knowledge of the sound
structure of language and ability to
manipulate sounds including blending,
segmentation and rhyming.
Pre-reading and early reading acquisition
including producing rhymes and
manipulating sounds
Home: word play embedded in stories, nursery
rhymes, jingles, word games; important prerequisite
phonological awareness skills
Classroom: rhyming and sound identification and
production in pre-reading and reading activities
Classroom: pairing words with share or opposite
meanings, substituting synonyms for earlier learned
words
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
Pre-Literacy Rating Scale –
consider for students whose
literacy skills are not emerging
as expected or students who are
too young for Phonological
Awareness subtest
Descriptive Pragmatics Profiles –
consider for students who does
not have emerging pragmatics
skills
Battelle-2
Subdomain
Receptive
Expressive
Identifies pre-literacy skills that influence
reading and writing development. It is
completed by adult who is familiar with
student’s emergent reading skills
Reflect milestones in normal development
of literacy skills in ages 3-6
Home: story reading, role-playing, games, drawing,
or other activities that foster pre-literacy skills
Classroom: storytelling, workbook assignments, singalong, finger plays, other activities combining
speaking or signing with symbol learning/use
Identifies nonverbal and verbal pragmatic
deficits influencing social and academic
communication in context. It is a checklist
that can be completed by SLP, teachers,
caregivers, parents.
Common, daily skills observed across ages
and genders in situations needed for
expressing intentions and obtaining,
responding to, and giving information
Curricular and non-curricular activities including
games, sports and other collaborative activities
The Battelle Developmental Inventory, 2nd Edition (BDI-2) is a standardized, individually administered assessment of
developmental skills. Test items are grouped in the following domains: Adaptive, Personal-Social, Communication, Motor,
and Cognitive. The Communication Domain (COM) measures the effectiveness of how a child receives and expresses
information/ideas verbally and nonverbally. It is further broken down into two subdomains - Receptive and Expressive – for
birth-8 year olds. Information is collected via structured test format, interviews, and observations. Each subdomain receives a
scaled score with a mean of 10 and standard deviation of 3. The Communication Domain receives a Developmental Quotient
standard score with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15.
What it assesses
Ability to discriminate, recognize, and understand sounds and words and information received
nonverbally
Understanding and use of conversational skills
Production and use of sounds, words or gestures to relay information to others
Knowledge and use of simple grammar rules to produce phrases and sentences
Use of language for social contact
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
DP-3
Scale
Communication
The Developmental Profile-3rd Edition (DP-3) is designed to assess the development and functioning of children birth-age 12.
It utilizes input from parents or caregivers as an interview or checklist to provide standard scores in 5 areas of development:
physical, adaptive behavior, social-emotional , cognitive, and communication. Standard scores have a mean of 100 with a
standard deviation of 15.
What it assesses
Receptive and expressive communication skills both verbally and nonverbally
Understanding of spoken and written language
Use of verbal and nonverbal skills to communicate
The Preschool Language Assessment Instrument, 2nd Edition (PLAI-2) is a standardized, individually administered tool to
assess discourse skills in children ages 3-5. The standardized assessment reports subtest scaled scores with a mean of 10,
standard deviation of 3 and an overall Discourse Ability Scale with a mean of 100, standard deviation of 15. It is broken down
into the following subtests: Matching, Selective Analysis, Reordering, Reasoning, Receptive, and Expressive. In addition there
are two supplemental, non-standardized, informal assessment probes for pragmatic language behaviors: Adequacy of
Response and Interfering Behaviors.
Subtest
What it assesses
Matching
Ability to name objects and point to common objects when named
Selective Analysis
Ability to respond to questions about specific object attributes
Ability to integrate several elements into a unified idea
Reordering
Ability to respond to questions requiring information beyond perceptual cues
For example, when shown two different objects, child has to describe how they are similar
Reasoning
Ability to reason about features of objects and what could happen under specific conditions
Receptive
Ability to meet language demands requiring a nonverbal response
Expressive
Ability to formulate meaningful messages to meet language demands requiring a verbal response
Adequacy of Response
Quality of performance on expressive items based on a four-category scale – fully adequate,
acceptable, ambiguous, inadequate
Interfering Behaviors
Interfering behaviors occurring when child responds
Under-responsive: does not respond to question, delays response, whispers response
Over-responsive: performs unnecessary actions, uses excessive language, responds loudly
PLAI-2
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
TELD-3
Subtest
Receptive Language
Expressive Language
REEL-3
Subtest
Receptive Language
Expressive Language
DELV
Domain
Syntax Domain
Pragmatics Domain
The Test of Early Language Development-3rd Edition (TELD-3) is an early language test assessing receptive, expressive and
overall spoken language for ages 2-7. It contains two subtests – Receptive Language and Expressive Language – and produces
quotients with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15.
What it assesses
Understanding of spoken language – semantics and syntax
Use of spoken language – semantics and syntax
The Receptive-Expressive Emergent Language Test-3rd Edition (REEL-3) is a checklist that uses observational information
(with a yes-no response) provided by parents/caregivers for children birth-36 months. It consists of two subtests – Receptive
Language and Expressive Language – and provides ability scores with a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15.
What it assesses
Responses to sounds or language as reported by parent/caregiver
Oral language production as reported by parent/caregiver
The Diagnostic Evaluation of Language Variation-Norm Referenced (DELV) is an individually-administered test to identify
speech and language disorders in children age 4;0 to 9;11. It assesses language that is common to all regardless of the variety
of English spoken by the child (e.g. Mainstream American English or African American English). It includes four domains:
Syntax, Pragmatics, Semantics, and Phonology. The DELV-Norm Referenced was developed to address cultural and linguistic
test bias. Scaled scores have a mean of 10 and standard deviation of 3. The Total Language Composite Score
(Syntax+Pragmatics+Semantics) has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Phonology Domain converts to a percentile
band.
Items
What it assesses
1-10: Wh-Question
Understanding of complex wh-questions. Student is shown a picture(s), listens to a short story, and
answers a question.
11-20: Passive
Assesses understanding of passive sentence construction. Student is shown three pictures and
points to the correct picture.
21-28: Article
Assesses knowledge of grammatical rules related to which article is used in a specific context.
Student is read a stimulus sentence and answers a question.
1-4: Communicative
Assesses understanding of what should be said in a situation based on three speech acts – reporting
Role-Taking
an event, requesting something, or prohibiting something. The student is shown 2 pictures and has
to answer a questions about what a character is saying.
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Determining Educational Impact of Language Weaknesses on Standardized Tests
5-8: Short Narrative
9-17: Question Asking
Semantics Domain
1-10: Verb Contrast
11-16: Preposition
Contrast
17-25: Quantifier
26-50: Fast Mapping
Phonology Domain
1-25: Phonology
Assesses the ability to contrast characters, link events in time and reference the mental states of
characters. The student looks at six pictures and tells a story. The student then answers questions
about the fifth and sixth pictures.
Assesses the ability to ask a question to gain specific information including who, what, where, why,
and how. The student is shown a picture with a missing item. The student has to ask the examiner a
question about what happening in the picture.
Assesses understanding of relationships between verbs. The student is shown a picture and has to
provide verbs to finish a sentence about the picture.
Assesses understanding of different types of prepositions. The student is shown a picture and
finishes two sentences about the picture using prepositions.
Assesses understanding of the meaning of “every” and what it modifies in sentences. For items 1719, the student is shown a picture and answers a question. For items 20-25, the student is shown
two pictures and points to the correct picture related to the stimulus.
Assesses the ability to extract meaning of new words from context. The student is shown three
pictures in sequence and listens to a description of the event. The student points to people and
objects from the pictures.
Assesses production of consonant clusters in simple sentences. The student imitates simple
sentences that begin with the carrier phrase “I see…”
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